C3 WAVES ii) i EQUATION OF PLANE PROGRESSIVE WAVE: ‘The equation for a simple harmonic plane progres- sive wave propagating along the positive direction of x-axis is Y d oy 1.0 y=Asin(ot—kx), y= Asink(vt—x) tx snar(*-¥) ‘The equation for a plane progressive wave propagat- ing along the negative direction of x- axis is y=Asin(ot + kx) PARTICLE VELOCITY : Vpartce = OYA? y* Ik-ill be maximum when y =0 , Vinge = AO y= Iwill be minimum when y=A, v,,, WAVE VELOCITY (¥) : Wave velocity V = dane 2 PHASE : ‘The phase change at a given point in time interval At an is |A= atl is |AO= > ‘The phase change at a given time for a change in position ax is 2n (Ax) Ab = <-(Ax) INTENSITY OF A WAVE : I 4 zatpv 1=2:"fa’pv ip iy) y a > amplitude, f — frequency v= wave velocity , P— density of the medium STATIONARY WAVES PRODUCED ON REFLECTION FROM THE FREE END : y,=Asin (wt —Iex)_y, =Assin (wt + kx) y=y+y, [y=2A Cos kx Sinval STATIONARY WAVE PRODUCED ON REFLECTION FROM FIXED END : y,= Asin (wt — ex) y,=—Asin (wt + kx) y=yty, 2A sin kx cos wt ‘TRANSVERSE WAVE ALONG STRETCHED STRING: Velocity of transverse wave along stretched string: v E (Tis tension in the sting and ri 11 is linear density or mass per unit length) mass _ Ald 2 = ACG ad= 0° * length ® ‘Where r is radius ofthe string, dis the density ofthe ‘material of the wire. ‘When the tension in the string arise due to a load of, mass M Inn nm Ifthe load in the above case is completely immersed in iguid then [T=Mg] Where d, is the density of liquid , is the density of material of the load. When econ inthe sing ate dueto asc tin ae [Yee] ue £ - |e m td Where m is mass of the string ‘When tension in the string arises due to thermal stress. (by contraction) Scanned with CamScannerCZs vi vii) % a ii) Yaad [Yaad _ [Yao T=YA@0,V= f= aaa A uniform rope of length 'L' and mass ‘m’ hangs vertically froma rigid support. A block of mass 'M' is attached to the free end of rope. A transverse pulse of wavelength is produced at the lower end of the rope, the wavelength of the pulse When it reaches the top of the rope then Vp [Mx M+ Vs M ‘A uniform rope of mass ‘m' and length *¢* hangs from a ceiting then a) The speed of transverse wave in the rope at a point which is at a distance x from the lower end is, Vex ) The time taken by a transverse wave to travel the full length of the rope is FORMATION OF A STATIONARY WAVE ON A STRETCHED STRING : Fundamental mode or first harmonic: ‘The string vibrates in fundamental mode when the string is plucked at mid point ‘The string vibrates in one loop mil 2 where n is fundamental frequency Second harmonic or first overtom a) The string vibrates in 2nd harmonic when it is plucked at 1/4. 1b) The string vibrates in 2 loops 2. ft "20a 1 If the string is plucked at length 3; then the ‘String vibrates in'P' loops and we have P** harmonic 10, i) i) ii vi) » Bee (or) (P-1)'* overtone. Pit Fonremne Pease =F, NOTE :When the string is subjected to a stretching force producing an elongation then aftafr os t Vad 2¥(aar)e 2 \Ymass of the swing xe 1 Ince VELOCITY OF SOUND : Velocity of sound in a medium of elasticity E and iE density 'p ‘is given by V Veotid > Viiquid > Vgas Incase of propagation of sound in solids (rods) E=Y iY dt Naot = 5 and Yeotid = 4/7 ‘While for liquids and gases E = the bulk modulus) NEWTON'S FORMULA : Viuia B = isothermal elasticity = Pressure(P) then V LAPLACE CORRECTION : In this case B = Adiabatic elasticity =P v= je P IN CASE OF GASES: we [LP PY fymkT vf ee v_f2FE y, RE, V(r)" “Vue M ‘Vins \3 Loudness (Refers to Intensity) Our perception of loudness is better co-related with the sound level measured in decible (4B) and Scanned with CamScannerBane) I defined 2s follows P =10108 (2): where J, ="The minimum intensity that can be heard called thresh old of hearing = 10"? W/m? 12, Organ pipes Open pipe ( Fundamental frequency (or) first harmonic n= x 2 2 Gi) Second harmonic or first overtone is n, Vy (i) Third harmonic or second overtone is = 12: Gv) mien, Closed pipe: (@) fundamental mode of vibratic v a - n or Tharmonic is 3v (third harmonic or first overtone is M> =~ Vv (i fifth harmonic or second overtones "=F (iv) mm Note: When the end correction is considered, then ithe fundamental frequency of open pipe v (142e ii) The fundamental frequency of closed pipe Pan ee A(l4e) >" a(-067) 13. RESONANCE TUBE : a) Ina resonating air column experiment, if ¢, ,£, are the first and second resonating lengths then ip i ii iy vi vii) 15. Speed of sound in air at room temperature is V=2n(¢,-0,) Where n be the frequency of the tuning fork. BEATS : If n, and n, are the frequencies of the two sound waves combined to produce beats, the combined 2 ‘The frequency with which the amplitude of combined wave has a frequency wave changes is reel Beat frequency Beat period = ‘consecutive maxima (or) minima. ‘Time interval between maxima and next minima is 1 If amplitudes of waves are not equal, By =AyHS Ay =A, ~ ay Intensity ratio: tan (ata _ (Vet Jn) (0 Wii) DOPPLER EFFECT : a) Source moving towards a stationary observer “(ah 6) Source moving away from a stationary observer v 7 “(oa} Scanned with CamScannerTZ c) Observer moving towards a stationary source (“ +N } n Vv (4) ) Source moving towards a receding observer (= Vy jh V-V, f) Observer moving towards a receding source V+Vy (utp 8) When observer is at rest, source is moving as When hr a 1h) When observer is at rest and source moves as shown in the given figure. Then V,Co8 2 [=a Ay =" n= [taal i) When source is at rest and observer moves perpendicular to the line of sight or vice-versa, there is no Doppler effect. In both cases, shown above there is no Doppler ‘effect because one is moving at right angles to the line of sight and the other is at rest. Bee j) Observer is crossing a stationary source ra = (en = (LSE) Pep. V¥+Vo Neca, V—Vy Drop in frequency heard by the observer agp, n, Drop in frequency heard by the observer voy, red an, 28 1) Af source is moving towards a wall with speed v, tnd the observer is standing behind the source as shown in the figure then ve vs » SB observer source YZ imme ot No, of beats m) Ifthe sourceis moving towards wall and observer standing between source and wall as shown in the figure then Dn = No. of beats heard = difference in frequencies = 0 Scanned with CamScannerES n) If both source and observer are moving towards 1 wall with same speed u then Scanned with CamScannerBae Reyes RAY OPTICS i) ii) ) ii) ii) w) Accroding to Maxwell, speed of light in a medium is, 4 Hof REFLECTION OF LIGHT :— Angle of incidance (i)=Angle of reflection (r). Angle of 180-21 and in vacuum C= oncing sngle Reflection from Plane Surface Ifan object moves towards (or away ftom) a plane mirror at speed y, the image will also approach (or recede) at the same speed v, and the relative velocity of image with respect to object will be 2v. ‘Apperson of height ‘h’ can see his ullimage ina mirror A of minimum length | = z A person standing at the centre of room looking towards a plane mirror hung on a wall, can see the whole height of the wall behind him ifthe length of the mirroris equal to one-third the height of the wall. ‘ftwo plane misrors inclined to each other at an angle 0, the number of images of a point object formed are determined as follows 360 a) iseven number (say m) Number of images formed n = (m—1), forall positions of objectes in betweenthe mirrors, 360 b) Gis odd integer (say m) number of images formed n = m, ifthe object is not on the bisector vy) of mirrors, n =(m—1), if the object is on the bisector of mirrors. ©) IE isa fraction (say m). ‘The number of images formed will be equal to its integer part ie., Ex: If m=4.3, the total number of images n=(43)=4 By keeping the incident ray fixed, the mirror is rotated by an angle “9 °, aboutan axisin the plane of micror, the reflected ray is rotated through an angle ‘26’. Reflection from Curved Surface i) Sign Convertion Ceneae ie Comex miear 0 o ii) Focal Length of Spherical Mirror f R 2 iti) Mirror Equation =+~=+ iii) Mirror Equation +. => iv) Lateral magnification: Scanned with CamScanneres Al! _ ht Lateral: ‘ation mM = — smapification m = = h' v m= hou Here negative magnification implies that image is inverted with respect to object, while positive ‘magnification means that image is erect with respect to object. v) Longitudian! magnification av _{vf du [uw vi) Areal magnification: areaof image area of object 2 my, vii) Newton’s Formula f = /x,x, Here object distance (x,)and image distance (x,) are measured from focus instead of the pole of the mirror viii) Motion of Object in front of Mirror Along the Principal Axis Where v, velocity of image with respect to mirror and v, isthe velocity of object with respect to mirror along the principal axis. 5. 6. Reyes ix) Motion of the object Transverse to the Principal Axis ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A MEDIUM: speed of light in vacuum(c) speed of light in a medium(v) c a 2. vacuum H medium =— = —Vaeuun, x ec Absolute refractive index of medium varies with ‘Wavelength of light or colour of light. (rjoiet > Mees 28 Nom < Ane ) REFRACTION OF LIGHT :— (a) When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium toa (b) When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal and ri, Scanned with CamScanner8 ii) iii) iy) ” vi) SNELL'S LAW — la, sin@,= n, sin, Tatar, ‘Snell's law in vector form fa(in}=o.(0]] where 1,1 & are the unit vector along” tie direction of incident ray, refracted ray and the normal into the incident medium respectively RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX - When aray of light travels from medium 1) tomediam (2), then the refractive index of medium (2) with respect to medium (1) is ie. fim = Be ee A By, Ae If a ray of light travels a distance ‘x’ in time 't’ in a medium of refractive index 1 then al he x IF and x are the distances traveled by light in wo media of absolute refractive indices m, and my respectively in a given time, then |k1,X = Ho Xo vii) Beye Mtg and fg, are the refractive indicies of glass and water respectively. OPTICAL PATH = It is defined as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in the same time in which it travels a given path length in a medium. If %'is the geometrical path length of aray in a medium of refractive index then its optical path length in vacuum is x LATERAL SHIFT : The perpendicular distance between incident and emergent rays is called Lateral shift (3). (a) the distance traveled by light ray inside the glass plate is [AB = angle of refraction in the glass plate. by the lateral shift cos c) the time taken to cover the distance AB inside the If ray of light takes t, and t, times in two media of absolute refractive indices 41, and_j1, respectively to travel she same distance then|tiity = H2t) Number of wavesina thickness’ ofa medium ofrefractive index pu is thickness t number of waves = wavelength Ay, Bit Ay, = 22 B te _ number of waves = do Where Ay isthe wavclength of light in vacuum Dif er of waves = (He ~ Pw) wh ference in number of waves = 3 tw) where ix) AB (Cy -> speed of light in the glass slab) ‘As the light ray enters from one medium to another medium, if reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other, then (i= angle of incidence) a) [w= tan], if light enters from rarer to denser medium b) [x= coti], if light enters from denser to rarer medium where [1 is the refractive index of denser medium with respect to rarer medium. Real and apparent depths-Apparent shift : Case (1) : Object in denser medium and observer in rarer medium Scanned with CamScanner* Observer Rarer medium ‘x Denser medium # Object 1) Apparent depth < Real depth Real depth!) ») Hd = Spparent depth (x) ) Apparent shi 4) Three liquids of refractive indices Hy. Hy. Hy are filled in a vessel. Their thicknesses are dy, dy & 4d, respectively. The apparent depth of an object placed at the bottom when seen from the top of the vessel will be xe Shy By He Hs otal apparent shift'S'is given by seashell Case (2) : Object in rarer medium and observer in denser medium Object \ Rarer medium Denver medium (© Observer 2) Apparent depth > Real depth Apparent depth(x) » rd =~ Real depth(t) ©) Apparent shit =s=x = = [ret =) 10. CRITICAL ANGLE AND TIR: Sano 1 SINC = py, Sin90° = 4 =< sinc = i) a. Beye rarer medium (u ) ‘The critical angle fora given pair of media varies with the colour of light and temperature = (Claea > (C)vier Field of vision of fish : - Aish at a depth 'h' from the surface of water of refractive index m can see the outer world through an inverted cone with a) Vertex angle = 2C b) Radius of the circular base of the cone formed on surface of water is given by \r=htan OPTICAL FIBRE : Im, are the refractive indices of core and lauding, the aunching angle of inctence for which light will be confined in the core is (ssn) casemate core (my) PKISM : AB , AC are refracting faces, BC is the base. angle of incidence angle of emergence +, 1, are angles of refraction inside the prism. Scanned with CamScannera) Angle of prism [A= +1, ) Angle of deviation [d A ©) Refractive index of material of prism in air is Sint, ‘Sint, i) Thei-d graph is parabola, iii) Under minimum deviation condition, f dD, b) ray passes symmetrically w.r.to the faces ofthe prism ‘or parallel to the base of the prism, Refiacive index of prism wat he surroundings iv) Normal incidence — grazing emergence : If the incident ray falls normally on the prism and ‘grazes from the second surface, then c=A ) Deviation v) Grazing incidence — grazing emergence : If the incident ray falls on the prism with grazing incidence and grazes from the second surface, then @ 0 @ n=n=C (ii) Angle of prism A= 2C (iv) De tion d = 180-2 vi) The maximum angle of incidence at first face of the prism of angle A and refractive index J1 for which the ray just undergoes total internal reflection at second face of the prism is Beye fra =Sin'[(i?=H}sin—cosa]) 7 vii) For a small angled prism (A < 10?) placed in air Dvi=M, b= Mr, b) Angle of deviation =(— 0A viii) For a small angled prism of refractive index H1, placed ina medium of refractive index 1, , then the angle of ‘deviation is given by (tH. _.) ease -4JA 13, DISPERSION? eg: For violet and re angular dispersion = |= (5y — 6p) i) The ratio between angular dispersion and mean angle ‘of deviation ofa pair of colours ‘s called the dispersive power of the medium («) for that pair of colours. @_ 6 —5n 5 [544 2 lw ii) The deviation of yellow ray is taken as mean deviation. 1B nyt iti) Deviation without dispersion = ie 040! =0 Cr) w+ als (uy Ha )A+ (xl = ah Jal and net deviation = 648! = (n~1)A+(u!~1)A! iv) Dispersion with out deviation: 348'=0 ( (u-1)A+(u!-1)Al=0 10 Scanned with CamScannerand net dispersion = 0+0! = oS +o! 3! (-8!=-) REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE : 14, i) Lens formula |t where ' is focal length, 'u' is object distance and 'v' is, image distance. i) Lens maker's forma for thin Tens, i_(m ft. 1) Flea ij Fefrective ind of material of Tens, 11, = refractive index of surrounding medium, fi) For diverging meniseus 1 1 qf tt pM R, GER, ) = AT +A3+2A, A) cose (3) ©) Since the intensity of a wave is proportional to square of the amplitude, the resultant intensity I of the wave from equation (3) may be written as 121, +h +2yhih cosé (6) where I, and I, be the intensities of the two waves. AL OPTIC, {Anus | _ Glittyiy? _ (Ay +Ay)? d) = 2 » Anin} — Gfly— yl)? (A,-Ag)* 4, Relation between path difference and phase difference: 2a =22 ¢ 7 os 5, INTERFERENCE ‘Young’s double slit experiment 2 Fig path difference at ‘P* is given by Ax=S,P-S,P=S,N =dsin0= (3) and phase difference 4 = 5 ii) Expression for intensity of interference pattern : ‘Suppose the equations for the waves reaching at point P coming from S, and S, are given by y,=Asin wt andy, =Asin (wit) resultant amplitude is, = R=2Acos? 2 2b 1=Al,cos’? or cos" jon for finding a bright fringe that S,P-S,P=ni, dsin® =nd (from equation (1) =4f2}na ) D ad” 13 Scanned with CamScannerPHYSICAL OPTICS. iv) vy) a) b) ©) ‘Where y, i the position of!" maximum from O. (or) Phase difference between the waves $ = +2nn with n=0, 1, 2, 3 —-—-~ Hence 1,,,, = 41, Dark fringes: ‘Thus the condition for finding dark fringe at a Pis that $,P-S,P=(2n-1) > - a dsin@ = (2n-1) = sin@ = 2n—1) > =] on 2. yy @)2 D 2 2 Ja ‘Where y, i the position of n™ minima from O, (or) 6=42n—1)x with n= 1, 2,3 = Hence Ij, =O Fringe width (8) »D «Fringe width, 8 = T Since BAA, Feed > Avoiters AS ARea > Avoiter IfYDSE apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index j1, then wavelength of light Incertain field of view on the screen, ifn, fringes are formed when light of wavelength A, is used and n, fringes are formed when fight of wavelength 2,is used, then = n\= constant vn\=n,r, (or) n,6,=0,8, ‘The linear position ‘y’ is related to the angular position g by, tan0=0~- Ay _B_2 D 5 and angular fringe width A@ = 14 Inamedium ofrefractive index jx, A4a v) To know maximum number of possible maxima onthe screen i Xd dsin@ =n) (or) sin = a Me As sind <1, —y ie x ‘Therefore the maximum number of complete ‘maxima on the screen will be 2[n] + 1 ons =], vil) Fringe visibility, V Lui... where Inq. =I, +1, +2VLL and I, =I, +1, —2¥i, 4Jq, _ 2yGL 20,41) (+h) vill) Missing wavelengths in front of one slit in YDSE: @ .7, Missing wavelength, = Gp By putting n=1, 2,3, ... the missing wavelengths at Pare Scanned with CamScannerix) Lateral displacement of fringes Suu 2, Lateral shift (Y) Fu —) lateral shift ‘The number of fringes shifted = Fringe width, y_ (Dt BOX (or) nA =(ye—I)t x) Whentwo diferent transperant sheets of thickness thst and refractive index pu, j., are placed in the paths of two interfering waves in YDSE, if the central bright fringe position is not shifted, then (m1) = (Ite 6. Diffraction Due to Single Slit §) Condition for minimum intensitys (n=1,2,3, ‘Where ‘a’ is the width ofthe slit, @ isthe angle of diffraction for maximum intensity ‘The intensity decreases as we go to successive maxima away from the centre, on either side. The width of central maxima is twice as that of secondary maxima, iii) For first minia asin@ =A 1 PHYSICAL OPTICS, aD sind = tand) -. y=“ a Width of central maxima w= 2y = 242 a Note: Iflens is placed close to the slit, then Hence ‘f'be the focal length of lens, then width of 2fa the central maximum w= => Fresneldistance 2, = where a=size of the slit Resolving power of microscope: Resolving limit m) = Where 4, isthe wavelength of light in vacuum and isthe refractive index of the medium between the object and the objective. 1 _2usina z, Resolving power= 5 ="T99q where #1 sina is called numerical aperture of the objective, Resolving power of telescope: 1222 a Resolving limit (Qyq) = L_ia Resolving power: 0, 122A where a is the diameter of the objective of telescope and is the wavelength of light. POLARIZATION Polarisation by Reflection: p= tanO, Thisis called Brewster's aw ‘When angle of incidence i= 0, (Polarsing angle) =90" 15 Scanned with CamScannerPHYSICAL OPTICS. Unpolarised |= Plane polarised Tight 4 For glass gen |=57.5" -1(4) For water 6 =tar if|-s° fi) MalusLaw “Trananisson ans of polarizer Trypanisson axis of Analyser uel, Bet 4 = An cos v2 ‘Theinterstyof polarized ight after passing through analyseris Ek cove ‘Where I, isthe intensity of unpotarized light. ‘The amplitude of polarized light after passing through A analyser A =“2 cos Note: In case of three polarizers P,,P, and P,:1F 6,is the angle between transmission axes of P, and P,, @, isthe angle between transmission axes ofP, and P,, Then the intensity of emerging light fromP. 1 +. cos* 0,08", 2: 16 Scanned with CamScannerBaeue) ELECTRIC CHARGES, FIELDS & POTENT es 3. a) ») ° Quantization of charge: ie. where n is an integer, Ia dieleeticis charged by induction then induced charge q! is less than inducing charge q. Induced 1 | K where K is dielectric constant. COULOMB'S INVERSE SQUARE LAW In free space, charge, | E, ane, where 4 is permittivity of free space or air and &) = 8.85x107C?/N—m?. Tn vector form, 1 QQ, 4ne, ant, f is the unit vector along the direction of force Ina medium, (1QQ, 1 2a, 4nc PP 4neK Where ¢ is the absolute permittivity of medium and K is dicletric constant or relative permit- tivity or specific inductive capacity(e, or K) Frnaseen = e K=6, == and also K Intensity of electric field : F=H = 4 (ue to point charge) 4x8, 7 Motion of a charged particle in uniform electric field : a) A charged body of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ is initially at rest in a uniform electric field of intensity E The force acting on it, F = Bq — | (| —=— |———> = | -——> TS b) The body travels in straight line path with F_£q uniform acceleration, @=—=—7 initial mm velocity, u= 0 At an instant of time Eq 6) Its fina velocity, V=#rhat=| =F |e 1 pa lfFa\a ) Displacement ¥= alt 5ar? = >| =F |r ©) Momentum, P= mv=(Eq)t £) Kinetic energy, K.E = eel x ¥ by Along the horizontal direction, there is no acceleration and hence x = ut. Along the vertical direction, acceleration, F (here gravitational force is not mm considered) 1) At any instant of time t, horizontal component of velocity , i) vertical componet of velocity 7 Scanned with CamScannerEase sra=(2, 7 », Eg Jeni = fe Et velr 7 5. Null point (or) Neutral Paint : a oN & es a ry oe at, a d N 4G -% ., ——SS % ——— 6. Different cases of equilibrium of charges: a) Freely floating charge in air FOE In equilibrium Bt QE = mg =E="8 Q mig 1b) Suspension of charge from string Torso Teosd =mg ‘ Eq STan =e and T= EQ? Omar ©) Two identical charged spheres of same mass are suspended by strings of same length from same point and Tsind = Eq 18 a b) co) Bees 1¢ F @ 4ne, x’. FoowW oT tsind foosd If the arrangement is immersed in a non conducting liquid of dielectric constant K if the distance between the bobs remains same then @ is constant, ‘TIME PERIOD OF OSCILLATION OF A CHARGED BODY ‘Simple pendulum: ‘Aciarge qis given tothe bob ofa simple pendulum and an electric field is applied in the downward direction then. Nf mgs T=2n If a charge is placed at the point of suspension and no electric field is applied then time period does not change. roan g Scanned with CamScannerSR-PHYSICS D a) b) ip i) 10. i ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED RING : oe Consider an element dx ofthe ring at point A. ‘The charge on this element is given by dq= dex charge density dq ade -1_# _ ae, (ee) DIPOLE ELECTRIC FIELD AT ANY POINT DUE oe: 1+ 3cos? 4] Field at a point on the axial line : (g = 0°) TOADIPOLE F= =P wt Aree Field ata point on the equitorial line (g = 99°) E __P = ancy Electric dipole placed in an uniformelectric field experiences torque is given by t= pEsin@ in vector form t =px EB. ‘The potential energy of dipole inn electric field is U=—pE cos @ Workdone in rotating a dipole in uniform electric field is W = PE[cos6, -cos@, ] ELECTRIC POTENTIAL : V=Wiag Electric potential due to a point charge : 4) In air or free space, 14 ane, d 4 b) Ina medium, V'= 4neK 4 q ELECTROSTATICS) ya cose ii) Potential due to a dipole’ Aer P If @=0°, Yaw ner" Te 8=90°, Veguacrat = iii) Potential difference : 4 E Vv, Ve @__s—__«#__.__ A BOC If a positive charge qy is moving from B to C itself in uniform electric field then work is done by the electric field and We (Vo-Vp) 4 =Vee % iv) Relation between electric field strength and potential difference : a) Intensity of electric field is the negative potential dv dr gradient, E b) Also, dV =—E . dr V,-V,=-[E.d 11, ELECTROSYATIC POTENTIALENERGY ') If two charges q, and q, are separated by a dis- tance d, the PLE. of the system is Vado axe, d ii) I three charges a,. a, and q; are situated at the vertices of a triangle (as shown in the figure), the PEE. of the system is 4 u dy ds co a 4% U= Uj, + Uz; + U5, 19 Scanned with CamScannerGiese ii) Two charged bodies q, and qy are separated by a distance “d,”. ‘The work to be done inorder to decrease the distance to d, is given by work done = change in PE iv) A charge Q is held fixed. Another charged body ‘of charge q and mass m is at a distance ‘d’ and left free from rest. When it goes to infinity its KE is given by 1 1 m= Qq a 2 4ne, ¥) Similarly, A charge Q is fixed and another small charge q is coming from infinity with velocity v then distance of closest approach is given by 4, 1 Qq mv = = 2 4ne, d where d_is the distance of closest approach. 20 Bees Scanned with CamScannerEiaeics) ENS GAUSS'S LAW 1. a) Relation between electric field intensity and electric flux: Electric flux crossing the area element dS ina direction along the normal o itis given by dg =E,dS =(Ecos)dS or dé = EAS Therefore, total electric flux through the surface Sisgiven by o= [Eas Gauss's Law “The total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to Z times the net charge enclosed by that surface." few=2 Charges inside and outside a closed surface. Consider a system of point charges as shown. “a In this case flux associated with charges inside the closed surface is §, = Ly 22, €o €o Flux associated due to charges outside the closed surface is Gy = 0 > Total fox = 6, +6) = (a-a) q b) Ifaclosed surface does not enclose any charge, then $e=0 te ©) Abemisphericalbody is placed ina uniformelectric, field E, The flux linked with the curved surface, if field is (i) parallel to the base (i) perpendicular to base and (iii) if charge q is placed at its centre can be calculated as follows E z E : : ; “ ® © (i) As field is parallel to base, the flux linked with base bcs =0 (ii) As field is perpendicular to base, the flux linked with base o (iii) Total flux through the Gaussian surface (sphere) = & .*, Flux through hemisphere = te =aR’E 4) Apoint charge 'q' is placed at a height “a/2" exactly above the centre of a horizontal square plate of side a. Then flux linked with the plat is 2 Scanned with CamScannerSNES 4 givenby G = z ©) A point charge 'q'is placed at the open end of a cylinder as shown in figure. Then flux linked with itis givenby ae “7 f) Ifa point charge is kept at the centre of a cube, then the total flux linked with the cube is R) Freer y-14 ney r Case (ii) : For Points Inside the Sphere 24 (r QV. But the energy drawn from the battery is QV. viii) When a dielectric slab of thickness t's introduced between the plates 25 Scanned with CamScannerix) Ifa metal slab of thickness ‘t’ is introduced be- tween the plates, then Eo a-t x) Ifa number of dielectric slabs of thickness t), to, S5.ota and dielectric constant Ky, Ko.o.Ky are inserted between the plates, each parallel to plate surface, then equivalent capacity. c because for metals K is infinity. eA °c 5. DIELECTRIC MATERIALS : i) A diclectric material is placed in an electric field F, in between the charged plates of a capacitor as shown in figure. Ee Net electric field between the plates E=E,-E, Also we know that E'= = so we know that E = = ii) The induced charge on each surface, *) ‘Where qy is the charge on each plate. Series grouping of condensers: a) Potential differences between the plates are different, Mie and V = V; + V2 + Vs 26 10, SR-PHYSICS 'b) Equivalent capacity of a combination, Parallel grouping of condensers : ) Total charge, Q= Qi + Q2 + Qs b) PD. across each condenser is same ©) Charge of each condenser is different Qi :Q2:Qs= Ci: C2:Cs 4) Equivalent capacity of the combination C=C, + Cr+ Cs IEN identical plates are arranged as shown in figure. Then (N=) capacitors will be formed and they will be in parallel grouping, Equivalent capacitance C! = (N-1) C aA Where is the eapacitance ofa capacitor = “S~ When the space between the plates of a parallel plate condenser is completely filled with two slabs of dielectric constants Ky and Kz and each slab having area 4 and thickness equal to distance of seperation d as shown in the figure. a a) Capacity of the left half oe ki St 0A b) Capacity of the right half C2 = Keg ©) Cy and Cz may be supposed to be connected in parallel then effective e0A(K,+K, capacity C=C) + Cz =>] ‘When the space between the plates of a parallel plate condenser is completely filled with two slabs of diclectrie constants Ky and K3 and each slab having areaA and thickness equal to $ as shown in the figure Scanned with CamScannerSale) Ky ea Kk, BSSSSSe9 ! eA 8) Capacity of the upper half C, oo eA b) Capacity of the lower half Cy = ace ©) Cy and Cz may be supposed to be connected in series, @) Effective capacity _ EC. q+c, Al 2K, “al Here Co is the eapacity of the condenser with air medium, 11, Effect of introducing a dielectric slab between the two plates of a parallel plate charged ca- pacitor, Quantity | Whenthe T Wien the | When the tobe | condenser laictic lab alec lad} compared {uly charged introduce |is introduced rth | ithot the | withthe inne] “battery | batery Gaae [0 @ KQ Capacity Ge KC, KG, IPD. between] vy, Me v. be ro pats E fo Tntesity of 7 the lectic & field between! % K & lin opts Energy : down |, eT xu, condenser 12, SPHERICAL CAPACITOR i) Inner shell is given a charge + Q, while outer shell is earthed. a) Potential difference between the shells is _ a a Anca Axed Q ii) 13. ab b-a ©) Inthe presence of a dielectric medium( dielectric constant K) between the shells. b C=4ne,K 2 Nepal b) Capacitance : C= Amey. If outer shell is given a charge + Q while in- ner shell is earthed a) The potential at the surface of inner shell is zero, so if Qs the charge induced on inner shell ©) Capacitance of the system, =4ne, 2 1Ane,b ba Cylindrical capacitor : 27 Scanned with CamScannerGUE ecu CURREN' SR-PHYSICS ELECTRICITY 8 28 Blectric current : a) If q charge passes through a cross-section in time ‘t’ then average current ‘i’ is given by qa t }) instantaneous current ‘i? eq ; inGi a= fia ©) Due to translatory motion of charges: 7g] fi &) Due to rotatory motion of charge: ey o-} Sr given by Drift Velocity : (V,) = i/neA ‘The drift velocity (v,) is the order of 10-“‘mvsee. E Current density (j ): Bai ‘Act Mobility (j1) = A Relation between electric current and drift velocity : i= neAV, ‘Where n = no. of free electrons per unit volume. A= Area of cross section y, e = Electronic charge. rift velocity, Relation between current density and drift Ina metallic conductor neVy Relation between current density and electric field : E Where o is conductivity. Ohm's law = Potential difference ‘V" applied across it 10. i. 12. 13. Ohmic substances: I iy n= R A ii) For two wires M, and M, at constant temperature slope of M,>slope of M, tan6, > tan, M, GPG, M, I RR, oy Vv TP Specific resistance or Resistivity (): ¢ R= v7 (p=speciffic resistance) Conductivity: tt p RA Factors effecting the resistance of a conductor of length(), cross section(A), mass (m), volume(V) and density(a) pl'd ple A oar? pe v |. Change of resistivity and resistance with temperature : ‘The temperature coefficient of resistivity (cx) is defined as the fractional change in resistivity per unit rise of temperature, Scanned with CamScannerBae) where p, = Resistivity at °C 1, = Resistivity at °C ii) Similarly, temperature coefficient of resistance a. RoR RAR ~ Rot Rib Rat, R, = Resistance at (°C R, = Resistance at 0° R, = Resistance of conductor at t,fe R,= Resistance of conductor at t,%¢ 1, +t, are in degree centrigrade. ‘Two wires are connected in series Ifthe resistance of the combination does not change with temperature, then increase in resistance of one wire is equal to decrease in resistance of other wire. Ra, Ra, 15, Resistances in series i) current ‘i’ is same through all resistances ii) total potential difference V=V,+V,+V, ii) Y, iR.VaR) iv) Ry =R,+R,+R, v) In wires each having resistance R are connected in series, equivalent or effective resistance Ry = aR 16, Resistanees in Parallel i) Potential difference “V’ is same across the ends of any wire. i) In parallel combination, current is devided inthe inverse ratio of their resistaces. 7 bate vi ® isch RCRA) iy) total current i i Do ally tyt OR, RRR ¥) _Tfnwires each having resistance R are connected iti 17, SPECIAL CASES ON resistances i) Awire of resistance ‘R’ is cut into ‘n’ equal parts and all of them are connected in parallel the effective resistance is Rn i) If n’ wires of equal resistances are given, then ii) iy) y) vi) vii) vi) ix) Revue oka ‘number of combinations they can be made to give Aifferent resistances is (2"~!) (if n> 2). IF ‘n’ wires of unequal resistances are given, then ‘number of combinations they can be made to give ifferent resistances is (2*) (if n> 2) If two wires of resistivities p,,p,, lengths /,, , and of same area of cross-section are connected in series. Pi + Bale Equivalent resistivity LL If two wires of resistivities p,,p,, area of cross sections A,, A, and of same length are connected in parallel, Equivalent resistivity P(A; + Az) DAs + pA, Ratio of maximum to minimum resistance of a block of conducting material of dimensions Ixbxh le (eb>h) py i t my <— Rk >|? Roo _ f/bh _ 2 Ran hitb We A wire of resistance ‘R’ is bent in the form of circle, effective resistance across diameter is R/4 R2 RZ A wire of resistance ‘R’ is bent in the form of circle, effictive resistance between two points which makes an angle °9" at the centre is RO(2n—@) An x B A hollow cylinder of inner radius ‘r’ and outer radius ‘R’ has specific resistance ‘ p *. If its length ot a(R — is‘ g’ then its resistance 29 Scanned with CamScannerRaev uae ecu Uoad x) 12 wires each of resistance ‘r' are connected in the form of 12 sides of a cube. Effective resistance across a). Diagonally opposite corners = 51/6, 'b) Face diagonal = 31/4 €) two adjacent comers = 71/12 18, Electric Cell : Relation among E,V and r a) When current is drawn from a cell, V=E-it. 'b) When cell is charging Then terminal p.d is V=Esir Note : A cell of emf E anc internal resistance r are connected to external resistance R then _£ Retr ©) In case of a closed circuit the power transfered to external resistance ‘R’ is : ER (R+ry ) power transferred to the load by a cell is BE ‘maximum when R=r (P),..= 3 — 4r 19. Cells in Series : ) Since all the cells are in series, net em.f= nE, HHH ee i) Asal the internal resistances are in series, so net internal resistance = nr iil) Total resistance of circuit = R + nr Netemf iv) Current I= Net resistance 30 vy) vi) vii) 20. i) iv) vy) SR-PHYSICS nk, Rear Also if two cells of different emf's are in series R, E+E, =nt+y E+E, get y+n+R TLPD. across the first cell V, =F, — ir, TPD. across the second cell V, = F, Tfone cell is in reverse connection then €,>E) = g E Egimten = EE, te 2 Tagine =F, tT % E,-E, " Rath First cell is discharging then V, = F, — ir, Second cell is charging then V, ‘Wrongly connected cells in series : N cells each of emf ‘E’ are to be connected in series. If ‘n’ cells of them are wrongly connected, then net emf = (N~ 2n)E and net internal resistance = Nr CELLS IN PARALLEL: ye rye an 1 e Since all the cells are in parallel, the net e.m-f equals tome due to a single cell, Net emf=E similarly all resistances are in parallel, so © [Net internal resistance = Total resistance of circuit = R+ If two cells of different emf are connected in Scanned with CamScannerBae) a, » i) i) parallel then TTR eR + MIXED GROUPING : Current m ‘Thus for maximum current through external resistance, cells should be connected in mixed ‘grouping such that external resistance is equal to net internal resistance i.e mR = nrand mn, _ ne. 2r 2R Power transferfed to the load will be maximum when external resistance is equal to internal resistance. (mR = nr) ], 22, Wheatstone’s Bridge : 8 d i) Bridge is balanced when galvanometer current is zero. P_R condition for balance is ="s (o*) PS = QR. evisu 23. Metre Bridge : a) b ©) E kK ——y " = c a eal In balanced bridge, resistance in the left gap __¢ resistance in the right gap 100-C Where /= balancing length from left end. Potentiometer ; iR Potential gradient= 7 emf of the cell in secondary circuit, E, elk = (ip)! and lel Where FE =emf of the cell in primary circuit R = Resistance of the potentiometer wire R, = Series resistance in primary circuit x, = Internal resistance of primary cell L =Total length of potentiometer wire 1 Balancing length If ‘p” is the specific resistance of the wire, A is the area of cross section of the potentiometer wire, then potential gradient is respresented by a“ i where ‘i’ is the current in the primary circuit. Without changing the cells in primary and secondary circuit, the balancing length is directly proportional to total length of the potentiometer wire No series resistance ip pipary and cell in primary is ideal) = /@L > a4 Scanned with CamScannerGUE cuca Bal 4) ff, and J, are the balancing lengths of two cells of emf's E, and E, used in the secondary circuit then Blk Eh €) Sum and difference method : Let J, and /, are the balancing lengths corresponding to two cells which are connected in secondary circuit first support each other and then oppose each other. Then E+E, E,_bth E,-F, 1," E, 1h ) 1, isthe balancing length of the cell in the secondary circuit. If a known resistance ‘R’ is connected across the cell then the balancing length becomes “L,. Then internal resistance of the cell in the secondary circuit is [icles yen 25. JOULE’S HEATING EFFECT : R i eV — vo heat produced in the resistor and is denotes by H. Vit Gin joules) PR Vt_ Vit —— == =— (in calories) JOR J 26. ELECTRICAL POWER : Power consumed by the resistor due to Joule heat- v R ing effect. P=Vi=i’ 32 SR-PHYSICS Scanned with CamScannerii) Bae) Pas MAGNETISM Coulomb’s inverse square law Hy MyM, a) |F= 72 JF [when the poles are in ait or vacuum . Where 1, is the permeability of free space A (SI system) b) In any other medium Ft Where /1 is the absolute permeability of the medium between the poles. H=Hg Ht, H,, is relative permeability of the medium Resultant force in different eases : ‘Two magnetic poles of same strength (m) are placed attwo vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 'a' the force on a similar magnetic pole on third corner is Ho me ven by |F! = 3-22 _— ana ‘Two unlike magnetic poles of same strength (m) are placed at two vertices of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’. If a north pole of same strength is placed at the thirdvertex, it experiences a force of magnitude which is given by Four like poles each of pole strength ‘mare kept at the four comes of a square of side ‘a’. The net mag- netic force on the pole at any one corner is given by wom 5d | V2+— fan 2 Magnetic moment (M) : is measured as the product of magnetic length and [M=2exm| In case of bar magnet, Magnetic length = 5/6 x geometric length. Magnet divided into parts: ‘When a bar magnet is cut into ‘n’ equal parts parallel toits axis a) Pole strength of each part b) Length of each part = (21) pole strength m! = mn 2 ii) ii) i) ii) ©) Magnetic moment of each part [M'=M/ni ‘When a bar magnet is cut into ‘n’ equal parts normal tots axis a) Pole strength of each part m! = m b) Length of each part (24)! = 21/n ©) Magnetic moment of each part [M'=M/ni ‘When a bar magnet is cut into ‘xy’ equal parts x parts parallel to its axis and y parts normal to the axis. a) Pole strength of each part m' = " ') Length of each part 20)! = 26/y IM" = M7xy| ©) Magnetic moment of each part Resultant magnetic moment: ‘When two magnets of magnetic moments M, and M, are kept at an angle *@” with like poles touching each other, then the resultant magnetic moment M'= JM? =M2+2M.M, Cod ‘When two magnets of magnetic moments M, and M, are kept at an angle “9” with unlike poles touching each other, then the resultant magnetic moment IM; +M3-2M,M, Cos0 Bending of magnets: When a thin bar magnet of magnetic moment ‘M’ ‘and length *2.(” is bent at its mid point with an angle “9” between the two parts (a) its effective length M @ becomes 2¢sin[ (its new magnetic IM’ = Msin(6/2) ‘moment When a Magnetised wire of length ‘27 and mag- netic moment ‘M’ is bent in to an arc of a circle, that makes an angle ‘g” at the centre of the circle Its magnetic moment decreases and becomes Le ea where 9 is in radian Force between two co-axial magnetic dipoles 33 Scanned with CamScanner8. ii) ii 10. i ii) Cees M, M; ~i< ‘The force between two parallel magnets Mi SM z 2M, luction or induction field strength(B) B at a distance ‘d’ in air due to a pole of strength ‘m’ is|B= Formulae of magnetic induction in diffrent cases: Three identical magnetic poles each of strength ‘m’ placed at the three vertices of an equilateral triangle. The resultant magnetic induction at the centre is equal to zer0 ‘The magnetic induction at the centre of the line join- ing the two poles of a horse shoe magnet of pole strength ‘m’ and separated by a distance ‘is [p= 3.™ ie aP| directed from N to S pole When a pole of pole strength m is placed in a mag- netic field of induction #.the force F F = mB experienced by it lis given by Magnetic Flux : [6 = B.A =BAcoso| ‘Magnetic induction due to a bar magnet: A) Field on axial ine. B at a point ‘pon the axial line of bar magnet at a Gistance from the centre of the magnet is =a Ma ia, aay 42 (v-ry Hy 2M | e (ol 8. > In case of short bar magnet (++I < < @)}B,= 3° Direction of § is from S to N along the axial line. 34 SR-PHYSICS ie. along SN B) Field on equatorial line. i) Bata point ‘p' on the equatorial line of a bar magnet at a distance ‘d' from centre of the magnet is a ay ii) In case of short magnet |g, fal) BE ii) Direction of § is parallel to the axis and is directed from N to pole ic NS. NOTE: Magnetic induction at a point ‘p' and whose position vector from the mid point of the magnet makes an angle Q with magnetic axis is given by = 12. Couple acting on a bar magnet in a uniform mag- netic field : d ‘Vectorially [6 = Nix i) Two magnets of magnetic moments M, and M, are Joined in the form of a crass and this arrangement is pivoted so that it is free to rotate ina horizontal plane under the influence of earth’s magnetic field. If @ is the angle made by the magnetic meridian with M, then 13. Potential energy of bar magnet : The PE. of a bar magnet of magnetic moment jy placed in a uniform magnetic field is given by U=-M.B —- U=—MBcos0 Scanned with CamScannerBae 14. Work done by external agent in deflecting a mag [= MB(cos0, ~cos0,) 15, Neutral points or Null points : }) If two poles of pole strengths m, and m, (m,—] is the moment of inertia of the bar magnet about the axis of os- met 12 cillation and for thin bar magnet = m= mass of the magnet length of the magnet b = breadth of the magnet b, = horizontal component of earth's ‘magnetic field M= Magnetic moment of the magnet. ii) If magnet is cut into ‘n’ equal parts, parallel to length then time period of each part remains same T? = T ii) TF magnet is cut into 'n' equal parts perpendicula to Tength then time period of each part is iv) Two magnets of magnetic moments My and My (if) >Mz) are placed one over the other. If T, is time period when like poles touch each other and T) is the time period when unlike poles touch each other, 35 Scanned with CamScanner18. A) ° D) 19. 20, Pees then Properties of magnetic materials: Intensity of Magnetising field or magnetising force (H) B= 7,1] in vacuum B= HH = pont,H in any medium Intensity of magnetisation (1) : It is the magnetic moment per unit volume or polestrength per unit area Mmm p= = BE 5 — area of eos section Magnetic susceptibility (7) : The ratio of magnitude of intensity of magnetisation (Dina material to that of magnetising field(H) is called magnetic susceptibility of that mate- rial x).[¢= 1H) Relation between }t and 7: e=ttg Curie's Law: peta’ a a Where C = curie constant, 'T' absolute temperature. Curie - weiss law: - Cc “OT Here T, - Curie temperature 36 SR-PHYSICS Scanned with CamScannerMOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM i» Py i) Biot-savart's law : dB = Ho idésin8 an va dx? ano In vector form, ZB ‘The magnetic induction due to entire conductor “QR’is given by boi f dlsind Brag) e ‘Ampere's law : (cireuital law) the net current enclosed by the closed path with reference to figure ity duction at a point due to a straight conductor of infinite length carrying current i, at perpendicular distance is given by B= Ifthe point P is along the length of the conductor , at that point B= 0 i P —_+_—_ « Ifthe point P'is at one end of infinitely long straight conductor and lies at a perpendicular distance the magnetic induction at P is given by vy vw) vii) asa neu we. ‘ar If the point ‘P' is at perpendicular distance 'r' at ‘one end of conductor of finite length l, the magnetic induction at P is given by Holt 4nr JP 4 Magnetic induction due to a straight conductor of finite length at a perpendicular distance '' is (or) 8-12 (cos0+0020) ‘An inifinte long conductor carries current ‘i If the pole is moved round conductor ‘n' times, work done is W= 1, mné Solid cylinder a) The magnetic field induction inside the current carrying very long soild cylinder at a distance 'r from the axis is given by, conductor ie., Boe r (r R) 37 Scanned with CamScannerRSaOcaeuLsLa vii) Hollow cylinder a) If current is flowing through a hollow cylinder, magnetic induction at any point inside itis zero 'b) ‘The magnetic field at distance’ from the axis, outside the current carrying very long hollow Hoi linder is B ying nr ix) Magnetic induction at the centre of current carrying wire bent in the form of a square of side i seal —.— X) Magnetic induction at the centroid of current carrying wire bent in the form of equilateral triangle of side ‘a is xi) Magnetic induction at the centre of current carrying wire bent in the form of hexagon of sicle ‘a’ is given by aa8(4) (2 ‘Two straight and infinite long parallel wires separated by a distance 'r carry currents i, and i, in the same direction as shown. The resultant magnetic field at P and Q is 38 SR-PHYSICS = 44 Po a[6 5) xii) Two straight and infinite long parallel wires separated by a distance 'r’ carry currents i, and i, in opposite direction as shown. The resultant ‘magnetic field at P and Qis a tal 4. Null points due to two current carrying parallel wires. Magnetic induction due to circular coil earrying current ) The magnetic field at a point on the axis of coil is, ‘The magnetic moment of the circular coil is given byM=niA. Scanned with CamScannerBales ii) ‘The magnetic field at the centre of the coil is pa atl or i) B= a,(1 ey" 'y) If the wire is bent in the form of an arc subtending an angle {IJ at the centre, magnetic induetion at contre is Hoi B= 6 tar °) Here g is in radians vi) If two circular coils are connected in series, then the ratio of magnetic induction at their centres is Be By vi) If the two coils are made up of same wire and ‘connected in parallel,Then the ratio of the magnetic a (n¥ induction at their centres is 2(2) ‘The fieldis independent of number of turns vii. If two circular loops having same radii (1) and same number of turns are arranged coaxially with a large separation d (d>>1) between their centres have currents i, and i, in the opposite direciton, then null point oceurs on the axis at a closer point to the coil carrying small current. x ——i— ‘At null point B, asa cna "+! sign is used when null point is formed in between the coils. ‘sign is used when null point is formed outside the coils. Due to revolving charge Ifa charge’'is moving ina circular orbit of radius ‘with uniform speed ‘v’ making 'f rotations pet second, with time period I’ and angular velocity w infa-9- 29-94 a) curent i= fq = b= = 8 'b) Equivalent magnetic moment =i (w)=h war mg _ var oe) =f (= c) Magnetic induction at the centre is Hoi _ Ho Mo @ _HoVG — Hoa Ba Hol. Ho Gg) Hed — MoV _ Hood 2r 3) rT 4xr? 4nr ‘Tangent Galvanometer : current measured by Tangent galvanometer is (=) Tand=KTand r= Radius of coil, K = reduction factor n= number of turns of coil Force acting on a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field : F=q(vxB) If this force acts right angles to and ). Itacts as centripetal force and the path of particle will be circular. 39 Scanned with CamScannerGESaOa esc ‘Then the radius of the circular path is given by mo, P me By (from Bay =") pa ‘momentum ‘where K is kinetic energy ofthe particle ii) If charged particle is accelerated through a Potential difference of V volts before it enters into the magnetic field normally then 2mqV 4B 2nr Vv) The time period of rotation is, T= —— 2am QB i Bq Angular frequency of rotation is ® = [> vi) When the particle enters the magnetic field at angle ‘o' with B, (such that 9 20°, @ 290°, 9 #180"), then the path followed by the particle will be helical Radius of circular path of the helix is given by nvsind vill) Time period of rotation is T = 22 gB 40 in) 10. i) iy) SR-PHYSICS Distance travelled by the particle along magnetic field in one complete rotation or Pitch of helix is given by P =(veos q) T 2amveosd P Force on a current carrying conductor kept in ‘magnetic field : Foi), Force between two parallel current carrying. long straight conductors : Force per unit length on each wire is given by Fa be Tan r A straight and very long wire carries current i, and rectangular loop of wire carrying current i is placed nearby it. The force on the loop is 1 Hoiig![1 1 nym 4 a la b ol > Avery long horizontal wire carries a current i, is rigidly fixed. Another wire is placed directly above and parallel to it carries a current i,. ris the perpendicular distance of separation between the wires and currents are in opposite directions for the second wire remains stationary, the condition is Hobie nt Three long parallel conductors carry currents as shown im € F=mg> =mg > a) Resultant force per unit Scanned with CamScannerBae) © 4 4 Jength on the wire 'C" ates Ho trio _ fais. 2nL a b b) If the resultant force on the wire ‘C’ is zero, tne condition is ie bh 4 ints _ nis Lin is, a b a ob 12, Torque acting on a current loop kept uniform magnetic field : ‘Torque acting on the coil is t = Bin A sin Here A = area of coil carrying current i ‘n= number of turns of the coil B = Magnetic induction of the field. a= Angle made by the plane of the coil with @ = Angle made by the normal to the plane of the coil with 5 13. Moving coil Galvanometer : }) If '9' is the deflection for passage of current ‘i, then CO = BiAN >i (aan)? BAN. c wae #=(55) ere =| Fa, figure of merit.It is independent of B,,. Where 'C’ is couple per unit twist. i) a) Current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer per unit current flowing through Galvanometer constant or b) Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer Per unit voltage applied to it. o.8 ., 0 BAN ig > VG asa ces ‘Where G is resistance of galvanometer. 14, AMMETER : Equivalent resistance of Ammete 15, VOLTMETER : ptr gl] o —_—v— volt meter i) Equivalent resistance of voltmeter = G+R. ii) Resistance to be connected in series to galvanometer to convert into voltmeter of range Vv =-G 0- V volt is iil) To increase the range by n times, AAGER)_ |B @ 6 Hence resistance to be connected in series to galvanometer is R = G(n-1) newrange V, old rangeV, a4 Scanned with CamScannerCHES ey) Bees ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION 1 2 ii) i) i) Magnetic flux ‘The magnetic flux through a surface (of area A) placed in a uniform magnetic field B is defined as @=B.A=BA cosd Where @ is the angle between jj and Faraday's laws: ‘The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux Mathematically, Calculation of induced EMF: As 6 =BAN cos 0, The change in flux can be caused by changing B (or) A(or) N (or) @ Average induced emf when only ‘B' is changed is ssiven by e=-AN cos 2-8) (b=t) Where B,& B, ate the magnetic fields at instants t, &, respectively . If the plane of the coil perpendicular to magnetic field, 9 = 0? (8, -B,) n= -AN. the (et) Instantaneous emf is given by Average induced emf when only ‘A’ is changed is given by e=-BNeosole—A) (u-4) Where A, & A, are the areas of the coils at the instants , & t, respectively. Instantaneous emf given by e=-BNeoso 94 dt ‘Average induced emf when only 'Q" is changed is given by Ban (£0882 — c080,) (tt) a2 vy) i) iit) Where @, &0, are the angles made by 4 with Instantaneous emf is given by d(cos0) at If the coil is rotated with constant angular velocily ‘@' then e=-BAN d(coset) dt 2 €=BAN@ sin @t e=-BAN = BAN @ sin gt If @)t=90", the planes parallel to magnetic field and then induced emf is maximum. Then ¢, = BANG. =e, sinat| Current induced in a coil is given by MOTIONAL EMF When a rod of length * is moved with a velocity ‘v’ perpendicular to its length in a uniform magnetic field B which is perpendicular to both its length as well as, its velocity, then emf induced across its ends is given by [e= Bev Ifthe rod is moved making angle then e= Blvsind with its length, In vector form = B(x) If ends A and B are connected by an external resistance R, then current in the rod is given by Bly R Now, the force acting on the rod is given by F=Bil = o( )c- R Scanned with CamScanner¥) The power applied by external agent in moving the rod with constant velocity is given by P R vi) Ifarod of length ¢ is rotated with a constant angular velocity *@o" about an axis passing through its end(O) and perpendicular to its length and if a uniform magnetic field is present perpendicular to it, then Lae, emf across its ends is given by [e=3BCu vii)_ In the above case if the rod is rotated about an axis passing through its centre (O) and perpendicular to its, Jength then emf across its ends is zero emf across OA is, emf across OB is Net em across AB is zero end ‘A’ is -ve with respect t0 "O° end 'B' is -ve with respect to O° 5. Selfinduction : ) If Visthecurrent flowing through the coil and "6" is magnetic Oux linked with the coil, then § © i => o=Li, «b= 2 Here Lis called coefficient of self induction of the col or self inductance ofthe coil i) dt dt For a long solenoid, where core consists of a magnetic material of relative permeability 4. [C= saten®AC] Here A is area of cross section of solenoid, ¢ is the Jength and n is the number of turns per unit length iv) Energy in a current carrying coil is stored in the form ‘of magnetic field, and it is given by | U-ZU? } where i is the current in the coil yl @ v) Induced power P= ext a) vi) iy) 1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ‘Magnetic energy stored per unit volume iyi? Hence ¥s=> Mutual Induction If Sp’ is current flowing in the primary coil, "i" is magnetic flux linked with secondary coil, then 65 © ip = 4, = Mip, oh p Here 'M' is called coefficient of mutual induction or smutual inductance Thuduced emf in secondary coil is =de__, fai, a (i (9 Me Taira Consider two solenoids | and 2 with number of turns per unit length n, and n,, with coil 1 inside coil 2 co - axially placed, Then mutual inductance between the coils is given by [M= p,n,n,nr?¢| Where r, is radius of cross sections of inner coil and © is the length of inner coil, Ifa magnetic material of relative permeability 1, fills, the space of inside solenoid, then [M= pr pton,nzaty RELATION BETWEENL,,L, ANDM M=KJLL, ‘Where K-coefficient of coupling (K <1) For tight coupling (or) ifthe coils are closely wound, then K=1. Mam = Vl INDUCTORS INSERIES 1, = 1, +L, tid INDUCTORSINPARALLEL 7 >= 7 +7 43 Scanned with CamScannerAC CIRCUITS i) ii) ii) iy) vy wi) vii) viii) Alternating Current (ac) and alternating voltage i=i,sin ot Where i = instantaneous current ‘maximum (or) peak current e=e, sin ot ‘Where ¢ = instantaneous emf ‘maximum (or) peak emf 2, average value i. = iy = 0.637 i, similarly e, 0.637 ¢, rms value of current is given by io fe =0.707, Similarly rms value of voltage is Form factor — 420s. — Eas Tong Fang ‘Analogous value for resistance for an ideal inductor is L@. It is called Inductive reactance (X,) Analogous value for resistance for a capacitor is 1/ c@. It is called capacitive reactance (X,) The total resistance offered by the circuit due to capacitor and inductor is called reactance. And it is equal to X, ~ X.. The total Resistance a circuit offers is called Impedence (Z). And itis equal to (x, -x,) +R” A.C THROUGHA RESISTOR B, sinot E_- 2(sinot) = J, sino RR i Eo (ii) Peak value of current, Ip => (iv) emf and current will bein phase (Ag = 0°) 44 3. i) ii) i) iv) ii) ii iv) Bas A.c voltage applied to Inductor: ‘The instantaneous alternating current is given by i=|, sin(at-9) TOTO e=e,sinot ‘The peak or maximum current is given by ‘The impedence is given by Z=L@ ‘The phase difference between emf and current is x - Noltage leads eurrent by > ‘A.c voltage applied to Capacitor: ‘The instantaneous alternating current is given by i, sinfot +4) ‘The peak or maximum current is given by The impedence is given by 1c | i co © ce = egsin wt The phase difference between emf and current is ¢ z 2 x Current leads voltage by 5 Scanned with CamScannerBeery 5 A.cvoltageapplied across L-R series combination : i) The instantaneous alternating current is given by L R pes e=e,sinat ii) The peak or maximum current is given by 4 sin (at-4) &o io Zz ‘The impedence is given by Z = JR? +L? @* iv) The phase difference between emf and current is + Lo given by $ = tan” —F- 4 is positive Voltage leads current by g 6. A.cvoltage applied across R-C series combination i) The instantaneous alternating current is given by =i sin(ut+9) uv ii) The peak or maximum current is given by in = "2 iil) The impedence is given by 2 = iv) The phase difference between emf and current is ‘given by 6= tar'( ae ik) $ iis negative Current leads voltage by ¢ 7. A.c voltage applied across L-C-R series ‘combination oy i) The instantaneous alternating 1rrent is given by iy in (uted) ii) The peak or maximum current is given by & Zz ii) e=e, sinut iv) The phase difference between emf and current is 1 casesi ILO > Es @ ispositiveVliage leads current by @ Circuit is predominantly Inductive 1 casei If SE > Lo; 4 is mative Current leads voltage by Circuit is predominantly capacitive case-iti If Lo =—; ¢ is zero . Voltage and current are inphas®. This condition is ce 1 1 at resonance © = Fe I= ES ‘This frequency is called resonant Frequency At resonant frequency, the current amplitude (i, ) ‘ . &o is maxinnum fio = $2 ve Me mb 1 ave or Me = 20h op VW) Qa factor = yO YR OE Ce =0-tfactor = 4 [E c 45 Scanned with CamScannerxs 8 % POWER INac CIRCUITS : P=Elcos@, where E and I are rms, values of voltage and current Power factor:The quantity cos¢ is called power factor. Average power (True power) : Fog = End ms OSB Apparent. or__ virtual power SE peal es = ep = E rls = 5 ‘Transformer: a) emf induced in secondary with N, turns is, db oN, “Gp and emf induced in primary with Ny d) If N,>N, voltage is stepped up, then the transformer is called step - up transormer. e) IN, V, and T,<1,, 8) Insstep - down transformer, V, < V,and I, > I,. output power hy Eificiency = Fut power output power Percentage of efficiency = “Input power ™ 100 46 Bae Scanned with CamScannerDUAL NATURE OF ATTER AND RADIATIO 1 i) i) itl) iy) (FORMULA: QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT: Aphoton isa packet of energy, given by E = hy where h= 6.62x10*Js Charge of photonis zero, soit can not be deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Rest mass of a photon is zero. It is not a material particle, itis a bundle of energy. E_Ww_h CC! A photon possesses momentum given by h_hw_E Effective mass of a photon is ™ = c oC INTENSITY Intensity(1) of radiation at a distance ‘r’ from a monochromatic source of power P'is, 1 = 7 Pe If ‘N’ photons are emitted in time ‘t” by a monochromatic source of power ‘P'then Nhy _ NhC ' xe Photo Electric Effect Work Function (W) : The minimum energy required to remove a free electron from the metal is called Work Function P= weno, 8 i ‘Maxinum KE. of the electron emitted : It is equal tothe product of stopping potential (V,)and electron charge (.Thatis.K,,,=€V, Einstein’s photoelectric equation: a) hyv= W+KE,,, 1 hy =h =mV2, b) hv vot am ‘mae © hv=hy, +eV, a= Energy of the incident photon |W = work function of the metal Energy of Photon in eV = 12400 (i AngstromUnitsy"” °Y y) iil) iv) » vi) wil) ix) Eee) ‘Work function in e 12400 ine: 2g (in AngstromUnits) DeBroglie hypothesis h h i == deBroglie wavelength * = >= 5, > ‘Where momentum p=mv ; m=mass, v= velocity deBroglic wavelength = Tink Vv where kinetic energy, K=> => p=VimK m Ifa particle having charge q starting from rest is accelerated through potential difference V then gain inkineticenergy, 12.27% a2 [On Forelectron 4=—F- Vv fe 0286 « ary W 4 = 0:202 For dueteron = >= eae 201 For a particle k= 0.286 For proton * for neutron * = where E = kinetic energy in electron volts n* orbit consists of n complete de-Broglie wavelengths rq =nAy, where n is the principle quantum number, where r, is the radius of n orbit and 2, is the wavelength of electron in n" orbit HEISEN-BERG UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE h AxAp a7 Scanned with CamScannereae) 1 ip Motion ofa charged particle in uniform electric field. ‘When acharged particle travels parallelto a uniform, electric field, starting from rest then a) Force on the charge, F=qE b) Acceleration ofthe charge, =" ©) Velocity gained, after travelling through a distance, aged _ [2qV va Tal gg Where Viste accelerating potential. When a charged particle enters a uniform electric field (along + y-axis) at right angles witha velocity v (along x-axis) then a) Charged particle travels ina parabolic path with a vertical displacement 1(gE) 2 1(qgE\) yas|F |e = y=] ").5 where isthe 2m 24m) length of deflecting plates. ae. m’ and tana E where v= 4 y =v m y, velocity after vertical displacement y, jE ve he where », = PH, ‘Motion ofa charged particle in uniform magnetic field. ‘When acharged particle enters uniformmagnetic field at right angles, it travels ina circular path. my QB a) Radius of the circle, b) Momentum p = Bar 48 Bee ‘OMS 3. d 5 i) Bei? o)kineticenergy, KE=—— 2m 2am d) Time period 7 Te Determination of e/m of electron JJ Thomson’s method : 1 Thomson applied crossed electric and magnetic fields and also perpendicular to cathode ray beam. v=E/B a Im ~ 2B Relation between relativistic mass and rest mass fe m, = rest mass of electron, clativistic mass of electron and. v= Velocity of electron; c = Velocity of light Determination of the charge of an electron : MILLIKAN’S OIL DROP EXPERIMENT ‘When the oil drop falls under gravity, it experiences three forces a) Weight F, = me 4nP'pe (downwards) ) Buoyant force Fy Staves (upwards) ©) Viscous force F, = 6xnrv (always in opposite direction to the motion of the drop) where m - mass of oil drop 1 - radius of oil drop density of oil o -density of ait, v - velocity of oil drop 1 - Coefficient of Viscosity of air Scanned with CamScannerBer) i) 6. Rutherford’s -particle Scattering 7. ‘When the oil drop is at rest in a uniform electric field, then Eq = mg (neglecting buoyancy); med ante. Vv Experiment: (@ Electrostatic potentialenergy ofthe ot- particle, when atadistance rp from the centre of the nucleus, is given by Gi) Number of cz -particles scattered at an angleg is given by where Q Total number of c particles striking the foil 1n—> number of atoms per unit volume of the foil N y (2e)(Ze) 4ne Qntz’ et Brea)’ me E >qat my © —pdistance of screen from the foil ts thickness of the foil 2— Atomic mumber of the foil atoms 0 —rangle of scettering E->kinetic energy of or particles Nat, where 9 is the velocity of cy particles falling on the fil. Gi) Impact Parameter : Bohr’s model of Hydrogen like atoms : Nav; Ne 1 Na ge oNa E Eales) (ii) Time period of electron in the orbit: (o) Rnergy ofthe electron inthe orbit: =-13. oe eV,n=1,2,3 PE: KE: TE =-2:1:-1 (v) Emission of radiation: wave number ‘The numerical value of R is 1.09710" mr (vi) Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen atom: ‘ant 1 dn e,x hm 2 @ Rading of Boe 's orbit : (% wa where n tp (ii) Velocity of the Electron in the orbit: rol e ir 137, 2 mis 12,3, 49 Scanned with CamScannerRU Gee ee SR-PHYSICS CLEL 1, The total number of protons (7) and neutrons (N) inside the nucleus is called mass number (A); A= Z+N 2, Ifa particle of charge q, mass mis projected towards a mucleus of charge Q with velocity v from infinity, then the distance of closest approach 1 qQ_ilin we = mv’ sivenby Ges dD 3. The radius R of nucleus of mass number Ais given by ReAl R=RAM" R, = 14 x10" m=1.Afermi (Ifermi=10"%m) 4, The volume 'V" of nucleus is directly proportional to mass number (V oc A) 5. The surface area of nucleus Sc A?! 6. Density of the nucleus is independent of mass number (d & A") 7. Ifastationary nucleus splits in to two lighter nuclei m,y,=™,¥, Ratio of velocities of the two nuclei Mom Ar J ve om AL AR, Ratio of kinetic energy of the two nuclei mec AccR?) 8. Atomic Mass Unit : (amu) 1 ') Atomic mass unit (amu) = 75% mass of one stom of Fe Tama = 1.660565 x 10°?” kg ii) Energy equivalent of | amu = 931.5 MeV 9, Mass defect and binding energy : i) The mass of a nucleus is always less than the mass of constituent nucleons in their free state. This difference is called mass defect (A m) ii) IfZ and A respectively represent atomic number and mass number of a nucleus, the binding energy of the nucleus is given by 50 iy) vy) w 10. a. 12, 13. BE = [ZM,+ (A-Z)M_M] 931.5 MeV Where M, = Mass of proton, M,=Mass of neutron and M = Mass of nucleus Binding energy of a nucleus is given by (BE) =(A mjc Joules (where ‘Am’ is in kg) BE = (Am) 931.5 MeV (where ‘Am’ is in amu) ‘Average binding energy or binding energy per nucleon binding fenction = 2 ‘or binding fraction = ‘Mass defect per micleon is called packing fraction Am A A If PF is positive, nucleus is unstable If PF is negative, nucleus is stable Whenever binding energy of products is more than the binding energy of reactants then energy is released. Energy released is given by B-Exjoieus ~ B-E cts Alpha Radiation : ‘The general form of «: - decay can be written as 2P—> 34+ ZHe Beta Radiation : PF= The general form of i - decay can be written as$P > 2+ fe. Gamma Radiation : ‘The emission of 7 - rays from the nucleus does not alter either atomic number Zor mass number A. ‘The radioactive decay law :- N=N,e* Where N, is the initial number of atoms. © Ota a4 Time. This shows that the number of atoms of radioactive element decreases exponentially with time. Scanned with CamScannerSaelees ii) ii) iy) v 14, 15. ‘The number of disintegrations per second is called the activity of a radio active sample. }: Avagadro number Half life(t,,): 0.693 n= After n half lives (i.e. t = nt,,.) N (ly N, (2 Mean life(t) : = tet a 1 + 44 bp In parallel decay 2=24 +A, +ouhy hence tid 1 TT 7, Where Tis the equivalent A fs half-life and T,, T, individual decay. Discovery of Neutron : $Be+$He> SC PCs hn NUCLEAR FISSION US + gntene> gBa"4,,Kr™43,0'4Q The energy released is around 200MeV, About 0.1% ‘of mass of reactants is converted into energy. -T,, are the half-lives in ___Number of neutrons in present generation ~~ Number of neutrons in previous generation. If K<1 then the reaction is said to be under-critical IfK=Ithen the reaction is said tobe critical and energy will be produced at a steady rate. If K>Ithen the reaction is said to be super-critical i.e. explosive.(uncontrolled chain reaction) 16. NUCLEAR REACTOR : Power Reactor : These are used for generation of electric power. 17. 18. i) i) Rea Gee a) The power out put of a nuclear reactor is given by Penk n= number of fissions taking place in time t E = Energy released per fission b) If "x" grams of a nuclear fuel of mass number "A! undergo fission in a time of "sec, If'E'is energy released per fission then the power out- put of the nuclear reactor is given by nE_(x 1N- Avagadro number Nuclear fusion : The fusion of hydrogen takes place by a) Carbon-Nitrogen eycle 4H ,He'+ 2,,° +energy (26.7 MeV) b) Proton - Proton cycle. 4H _, He! + 2, 6? +energy (26:7 MeV) ¢) In fission of *7y, the energy released per nucleon is about 0.85 MeV and in the fusion of four protons, the energy per nucleon is about 6 MeV. PAIR ANNIBILLATION. When particle and antiparticle annibillate then energy is released which is called pair annihillation, (electron - positron anihillation releases two Y photons each of energy 0.51 MeV. see? > 2y Whena Y - ray photon of energy 1.02 MeV. interacts with matter .,¢° . ,¢° pair will be produced, which is referred to as pair production, Y> yettie™ 54 Scanned with CamScannerBene EMI ce JNDUCTOR 1 ii) ii 2 fe) fie fst) cn, cm, Conductors : ) The conduction band and valence band overlap one over the other, Ex: metals. 1b) For conductors, forbidden energy gap is 0 eV. o) E, < 1) ©) Relation between 01,8 B= 11, Ampl a) Theamplifier which is used to rise the voltage level is called as voltage amplifier. Voltage gain output ANce _ Ale Re ANge Alp b) ‘The amplifier which is used to rise the power level is called as power amplifier. Nee _ 92 PL Moe TR, ©) In C-B amplifier, the phase difference between the input and output signals is zero @) In C-E amplifier, the phase difference between the input and output signals is 2. 12, ORGATE: ‘The Boolean expression is Y=A+B Power gain (Ae)=B Ay =Bx A Yona a eH iz = V0 54 Input [Output] A [3B [Ty o fo fo ofa fa rfada truth table 13. ANDGATE: ‘The Boolean expression is Y=A.B (¥ equals A and B) a y B a R 43 Lt Input [Output] A B ¥ o fo fo =e — ofa fo ryada circuit symbol truth table 14, NOT GATE : ‘The Boolean expression is Vee= 5V R Y A ‘Trasistor NOT gate Scanned with CamScannerEa ALY oft so—f>o_e Y 1} 0 circuit symbol truth table 15 NOR GATE, ‘The Boolean expression is y — Ay B =D ‘two input NOR gate Input [ Output B_fy=Aal 0 fo B 0 A 0 1]1]o truth table 16, NAND GATE The Boolean expression is y = AB A B two input NAND gate Tepat_[ Ou A_[ BIW=R. o fol t A y ft pola Be oft} a rfilo circuit symbol truth table PED 17. THE BASIC RELATIONS FOR OR GATE: IAs. WALA 18, THE BASIC RELATIONS FOR AND GATE : 1) A0-0ii)A.1=A i) A. MAA =0 19. DE-MORGAN’S THEOREMS : i) A¥B= ii) A+ B=AB=AB WAB=A+B=A+B 55 Scanned with CamScannerCOMMUNIC. TION SYSTEMS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM : A communication system consists of three essential pafts. a) transmitter ) medium or channel ©) receiver ste fo Sales {=| ic 2. BAND WIDTH OF SIGNALS: In general a signal is the composition of number of frequencies. Hence the signal has a frequency range called band width ‘Analog signals Continuous variation] Frequency Band width Voice message 300 Hzto telephonic communication 3100Hz, 2800Hz Music 20Hzt0 20 kHz 20 kHz. Video Signals 4.2 MHz TV Signals 6MHz Digital Signals ‘extends to GHz Step wise harmonies Variation contribute Jess to signal wave PROPAGATION OF EM WAVES the horizon, D, = ‘The three modes of propagation are the horizon, D, = J2Rhy a) Ground wave propagation Where b, = height of transmitting antenna R= b) Sky wave propagation and Radius of the earth ©) Space wave propagation b) The distance between receiving antenna and the 3. ANTENNA : horizon, D,= J2Rh, ‘The linear size of the antenna must be the order of Where hy height of receiving antenna the wavelength and for effective transmission its i ) The maximum distance between the transmitting 4 length mast be antenna and receiving antenna Dj, 4, ‘Two antennas : 4) The maximum distance Dyy Dy, = V2Rh, + J2Rh, Where R is the radius of earth. 1, +Dy ir a 5. Single antenna : 4) The distance between transmitting antenna and 4) The radius “d" of the area covered by a single transmitting tower of height h is given by d [OR A. Where R, is the radius ofthe Earth 56 Scanned with CamScannerpane COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS >) Ifthe Poputation density around the tower is given, the number of persons covered by the tower is = (Area covered by the tower) x Population den- sity No. of persons covered = z¢qj? x Population den- sity 6, MODULATION : ‘) The effective power radiated by the transmitter is proportional to (1/ 2)” , where lis length of antenna ii) Modulation i of three types 2) Amplitude modulation ») Frequency modulation ) Phase modulation iii) Message signal can be written as Y_(t)=Agsin(O,t+0q,) iv) Cartier signal can be written as Ye(Q)=Acsin(o.t+9,) iv) 0,0, =2n(f,~ f,)= Lower side band frequency (LSB) 0,40, =2n(f,+ f,)=Upper side band frequency (USB) v) Here y= A,,/ A, is the modulation index; (or) modulating factor. vi) Depth of modulation = Sexi00- 4x100 vil) Depth of modulation interms of A, and A,,, sx Ania Baw tne whereA,.=A+A,andA,,,=A-A, viii) The Band width of AM wave. 57 Scanned with CamScannerELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES os 3. Displacement current in space between two plates ofa capacitor where electric field is changing with dg, dv ime as Ty = & 282 =e, x time as I, = £9 dt fo! d dt oat where ¢, isthe electric flux, E iselectric intensity, V is potential differnce, C, is capcity of capacitor. Amper’s-Maxwell’s Law :- oi. ti) Energy density of EM waves: Inany small volume ‘dV’, the energy of electric field €,E°dV and energy of the magnetic field in volume ‘dV" Thus total energy of EM wave is total EM wave energy ity P= Intensity “Surface areaxtime Le ey Interms ofelectric fields ! => #FoC LA Interms of magnetic field ! = > 7—C Hy Either eq (1) or (2) may be used to find intensity of EM waves 58 7. Theintensity of EM radiation froman isotropic point sourceata distance r is != 7 where Pis power 4ar* ofsource 8. Momentum and Radiation Pressure ‘When EM waves are incident on a surface and the {otal energy transferred to the surface ina time tis U ten magnitude of momentum transferred to surface u I (otal absorption), radiation pressure = is p= c When radiation incident on a surface is entirely reflected back along its original path, magnitude of momentum delivered to the surface is p 2 where 21 is velocity of light, radiation pressured = Scanned with CamScanner