EONS) ORC Ra tie kt) y Road Drainage Design Volume 3 Hydraulic Considerations In Bridge Design esis) ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIAFOREWORD Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM), through the cooperation and support of various road authorities and engineering institutions in Malaysia, publishes a series of official documents on STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, GUIDELINES, MANUAL and TECHNICAL NOTES which are related to road engineering. The aim of such publication is to achieve quality and consistency in road and highway construction, operation and maintenance. The cooperating bodies are:~ Public Works Department Malaysia (PWD) Malaysian Highway Authority (MHA) Department of Irrigation & Drainage (DID) The Institution of Engineers Malaysia (TEM) The Institution of Highways & Transportation ([HT Malaysian Branch) The production of such documents is carried through several stages. At the Forum on Technology and Road Management organized by PWD/REAM in November 1997, Technical Committee 6 — Drainage was formed with the intention to review Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 15/97 ~ INTERMEDIATE GUIDE TO DRAINAGE DESIGN OF ROADS. Members of the committee were drawn from various government departments and agencies, and from the private sector including privatized road operators, engineering consultants and drainage products manufacturers and contactors. Technical Committee 6 was divided into three sub-committees to review Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 15/97 and subsequently produced ‘GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DRAINAGE DESIGN’ consisting of the following volumes: Volume 1 - Hydrological Analysis Volume 2 — Hydraulic Design of Culverts Volume 3 — Hydraulic Considerations in Bridge Design Volume 4 ~ Surface Drainage Volume 5 ~ Subsoil Drainage ‘The drafts of all documents were presented at workshops during the Fourth and Fifth ‘Malaysian Road Conferences held in 2000 and 2002 respectively. ‘The comments and suggestions received from the workshop participants were reviewed and incorporated in the finalized documents. ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA. 46-A, Jalan Bola Tampar 13/14, Section 13, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Tel: 603-5513 6521 Fax: 55136523 e-mail: ream@po.jaring. myTABLE OF CONTENTS 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION 3.2.1 Site Selection 3.2.2 Reconnaissance Survey 3.2.3 Data Collection ...... 3.3. SURVEY DATA........ 3.3.1. Survey of Bridge Site and Beyond 3.3.2 Hydraulic Survey .......... 3.4 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN DISCHARGE AND WATER PROFILE .. 3.4.1 Design Recurrence Interval . 3.4.2 Design Discharge . 3.4.3 Water Profile ... 3.5 BRIDGE WATERWAY ..... 3.6 SCOUR AT BRIDGE CROSSING 3.6.1 Scour... 3.6.2 Countermeasures 3.7. FORCES ON BRIDGE PIERS 3-17 3.8 DESIGN OF BRIDGE TO ALLOW FOR FUTURE RIVER IMPROVEMENT WORK .............. 3-17 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Extent of Survey for Bridge Site Figure 3.2 Scour at a Bridge Site Figure 3.3A Typical Wire Enclosed Riprap Figure 3.3B Typical Interlocking Concrete Block an Figure 3.3C Typical Articulated Grout Filled Mat Design .. Figure 3.3D ‘Typical Cement/Grout Filled Bags at Abutment . Figure 3.3E ‘Typical Cement/Grout Filled Bags at Pier .. Figure 3.4 Freeboard and Embedding Depth for Footing .LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Recommended Average Recurrence Interval for Design Discharge...3-7 LIST OF REFERENCES 3-20 APPENDIX 1 Reprint of Appendix D — Hydraulic Design of Bridges, Urban Drainage Design Standards And Procedures For Peninsular Malaysia No. 1 (1975).VOLUME 3 - HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS IN BRIDGE DESIGN 3A. 32. 3.2.1 INTRODUCTION The design of a bridge over a waterway requires a comprehensive engineering approach that not only includes route location, traffic flow forecast and structural and foundation requirements, but also the assessment of the characteristics of the river flowing beneath. For this, it is necessary to collect data, and to understand the factors that govern stream runoff and water surface levels, sediment discharge and deposition, scour and channel stability and hydrodynamic forces acting on the bridge. Predictions about likely event under particular site conditions have to be made. This volume does not describe in detail all the factors that require to be considered in bridge designs, but merely identifies the hydraulic aspects that characterise a river and provides directions to relevant literature, which give in- depth details on these aspects. For hydraulic design of bridges, the designer could refer to Appendix 1 which is extracted from Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran publication — Planning and Design Procedure No. 1: Urban Drainage Design Standards and Procedures for Peninsular Malaysia (1975). The designer is encouraged to refer to the other relevant literature listed in the References. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION Site Selection Ideally the cost of alternative river crossing locations should be considered when making the preliminary selection of a route. However, in built-up areas the site for a bridge and the approach roads are usually fixed and dictated by the town layout plan. In rural areas, the bridge crossing is restricted to certain reaches of the river owing to constraints imposed by existing landuse, road alignment and the river meanders. The selection of sites has to be made within these reaches and should avoid costly river works and land acquisitions. 313.2.2 Bridge site selection normally commences with a desk-top study of available topographic maps which detail the geomorphologic features of the surrounding land, landuse, river pattern, meanders, sand deposits and sometimes, bank levels. On these topographic maps several potential bridge sites may be identified. ‘The choice of a crossing site will be governed primarily by the main channel width and the proportion of overbank flow to total flow. Logically, the first consideration should be given to those sites that have the narrowest main channels and the smallest proportion of flood plain flow. ‘On wide flood plains where rivers tend to meander, first consideration should be given to crossing sites where the channel could be controlled with minimal river training works. Occasionally rock outcrop or inerodible bank material may be located to reduce the requirement of river training works. Other possible sites are at crossover modal points in the river meander pattern where the channel is wider and shallower and at bends where the channel is normally narrower and deeper particularly at the outside of the bend. The ‘optimum location should be decided by considering the channel geometry, bank stability, river training work and type of bridge construction, The desktop study should also include a literature search and examination of records or reports on river improvement works completed or yet to be implemented by Jabatan Saliran dan Pengairan (JPS) and other government agencies. Reconnaissance Survey Bridge sites desktop study will include reconnaissance survey with the objective to gain a general appreciation of the river behaviour by examining available records and by carrying out field inspections. Information on the following should be collected: (a) _ river channel regime to determine whether the river has a wide flood plain, or whether it is incised with little or no flood plain, (b) _ river channel stability to determine whether the river is stable or unstable, (c) river channel flow pattern, if it is sinuous, determine whether the channel migration is active, 323.23 @ ©) oO ) «h) @ @ range of water levels, particularly high-water levels and their frequency of occurrence, historical flood events could be indicated by riverine users or local inhabitants, range of discharges, particularly for floods and their frequency, width of waterway, width of flood plain, meander length and width, type and grading of river bed materials, type of material composing the river banks, location of any natural outcrops of inerodible rock which may restrict channel movement, and extent of any regional floods in the locality. Some of the above information may be obtained from topographic maps, aerial photographs, JPS hydrological records, previous river basin or drainage study reports and existing and proposed future river improvement works. ‘The preliminary study of the bridge sites should include an estimation of the river flood flows by current acceptable hydrological procedures, if stream flow records at the selected sites are not available. Data Collection Other information could be obtained by field inspection such as: (@) ©) ©) @ ©) © (@) ) type and grading of river bed material, existence of shoals and their composition, the material forming the river bank, vegetation on the bank, steepness of banks and evidence of bank erosion, erosion pockets in the bank, existence of inerodible rock, debris marks on shrubs, trees or banks which may indicate the water level of recent floods, 3-333. 33.1 @ watermarks on walls, jetties and piers and buildings which indicate recent high water levels and @ constriction to water flow. ‘When the assessment of the survey information has been completed, acceptable site for a bridge crossing from the fluvial aspect may be chosen. ‘The detailed field surveys of the site will then follow. SURVEY DATA Survey of Bridge Site and Beyond After the selection of suitable sites for the bridge crossing have been made, hydrographic and hydraulic surveys have to be carried out to obtain the data required to determine the width of the bridge opening, the depth of scour and hydrodynamic forces on piers and the upstream backwater. For large and deep rivers the hydrographic survey should be carried out by using recording echo sounder systems. The topographic features of the river and flood plain on both banks should also be surveyed by normal topographic survey procedures, to the extent required for hydraulic analysis, ‘The survey of the alignment and contour of the river and flood plains should extend not less than 30 channel widths upstream (300m minimum) and 20 channel widths downstream (200 m minimum) of the proposed crossing, see Figure 3.1. The width of the survey corridor should not be less than 50m on either side of the riverbanks. Where required, the survey shall be extended beyond the bridge site to upstream high flood risk areas to obtain data for analysis of backwater and assessment of its effects. Survey should also include downstream water flow constriction areas where they may affect the hydraulics of the bridge Spot levels within the survey corridor shall be taken at not more than 10 m interval and shall include the bank levels and the invert levels of the river at the bottom of the banks, centre and deepest points. ‘The survey should also include taking of panoramic photographs of the bridge site and its immediate upstream and downstream reaches. 34To EXTEND SURVEY UP TO HIGH FLOOD RISK AREA IF REQUIRED 8Y APPROPRIATE AUTHORITIES, 7 5 38 3 Is a8 meee ca (] j A | 3] Pia as 2 = ee gis es VER MAN CHANNEL [-—rver Tearace TT, SxTEND, sumer DOWNSTREAM, To [AREAS WHERE. THERE ARE CONSTRICTIONS TO WATER FLOW, WHERE NECESSARY p31 ono FIGURE 3.1 : EXTENT OF SURVEY FOR BRIDGE SITE 3-53.3.2 34. 3.4.1 ‘The hydrographic and topographic surveys should be plotted on the same plan to facilitate extraction of cross-sectional data for hydraulic analysis and all levels should be reduced to a common datum. For scour analysis samples of the riverbed material should be taken for particle size analysis at the crossing and upstream locations. Hydraulic Survey For large rivers the discharge passing through the proposed bridge site should be measured at a number of different stages of flow. Each discharge measurement should be related to the date of survey, time and water level and be reduced to a standard datum. A gauging station should be established near the site of the proposed crossing as soon as possible. Velocities of flow in both magnitude and direction (in tidal sites) should be ‘measured across the river channel, preferably, during high flows and could be part of the discharge measurement programme. ‘The designer should check with JPS stream flow records whether the river in the vicinity of the proposed bridge site has been gauged, Any information available should be incorporated in the hydrological study, ESTIMATION OF DESIGN DISCHARGE AND WATER PROFILE Design Recurrence Interval Stream flows for the 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years average recurrence intervals (ARI) should be determined. The ARI of the design discharge should be in accordance to Table 3.1. Nevertheless, factors such as possible loss of life and economic damages due to any failure, have to be set against the higher capital cost of a bridge designed for a longer ARI must be considered. 3-6342 Table 3.1: Recommended Average Recurrence Interval for Design Discharge Average Recurrence Interval in Years Type of Structure U2/R2 U3- U4 US - U6) and lower R3-R4 RS-R6 Bridge 50 100 100** 258 50# 100* Note:*The above average recurrence intervals can be used by the designer if any of the following conditions applies: a) the structure is located in a flood plain b) the structure requires a high embankment ©) the soil condition is poor making high embankment construction uneconomical Under the above conditions, the structure must be designed as a submersible structure. Special consideration, however, must be given against accumulation of debris or impact by floating logs etc, ** For major bridges, the probability of the design flood being exceeded should not be more than 5% in the design life Design Discharge Design discharge at the proposed bridge site can be determined in accordance with the various flood flow estimation hydrological procedures published by JPS. Where stream flow records are available for a particular station in the river or located near to the proposed crossing, then the more accurate method of streamflow frequency analysis should be adopted. In the estimation of the design discharge, an assessment of the extent of current and future landuse development in the catchment has to be made and corrective measures must to be included in the estimated discharge if future landuse changes are going to be significant. It would be useful to indicate on bridge drawings the estimated discharge and water levels of the river for various recurrence intervals. This information can be used as a guide in the planning and design of temporary works at the bridge site. 3-73.43 Water Profile ‘Where water level records are available at the crossing site, a frequency analysis should be carried out, otherwise, the water level corresponding to the design discharge can be calculated by a suitable flow equation, such as Manning formula, Where river stage discharge charts are available, water levels for various flows may be read off the charts. For wide rivers, it is usually uneconomical to construct a bridge with a single span. More often multiple piers will be provided within the flood flow channel and earth embankments will encroach into the flood plain, These will constrict the flow and cause upstream water levels to rise above the original free flow level. The amount by which the water level rises above the free flow level, may be calculated by the method described in the sub-section on Computation of Backwater in Appendix 1. Should there be numerous river cross-sections and design flood flow scenarios then the manual calculation method cited in the foregoing will become time consuming. Many affordable water profile analysis software are now available to the designer to perform the task, such as: © HEC 2- Water Surface Profiles © WSPRO (HY-7) ~ Bridge Waterway Analysis Model HEC-RAS : River Analysis System ‘The above are obtainable from Hydrological Engineering Center, US Army Corps of Engineers and are very versatile and capable of handling: eccentric location of main channel within the flood plain skewed orientation of bridge crossing various pier shapes and spacing discharge through partially submerged bridges discharge over submerged road embankments and scour at pier and abutment. ecco oo} 3-835 36 3.6.1 BRIDGE WATERWAY ‘The bridge waterway area to be provided should be sufficient to ensure the design flood can safely pass through without undue afflux or excessive increase in upstream flood levels, and at a velocity, which will not increase scour to such an extent, as to endanger the stability of the bridge structure. Sufficient clearance of bridge deck above flood levels should be provided to allow the largest floating debris to pass through without clogging up the waterway. The minimam amount of freeboard is 1.0m above the design high water level. Where the river is navigable by watercrafts attention should be given to the headroom clearance required by the controlling authorities. When it is necessary to restrict the width of the waterway to such an extent that the scour would be severe, protection against damage should be made by providing deep foundations and adopting appropriate scour counter-measures, Where there is existing drainage or irrigation dikes along the banks of the river, the soffit of the bridge deck and beams should be placed a minimum of 0.5m s. The freeboard between the high water level and the top of the dike is usually 0.5m to 1.5m depending on the design discharge of the river, however this needs to be checked with the appropriate river authorities, mainly JPS. above the top of these di SCOUR AT BRIDGE CROSSING Scour Scour can be very insidious whereby soil around a bridge foundation is removed and re-deposited elsewhere during a flood. The most common form of flood damage to bridges arises from the scouring of abutments and piers, which can undermine the structure, resulting in collapse of spans and possible loss of life. Four different types of scour must be considered, as follows: a) General Scour General scour is the depth to which the riverbed at the bridge site is scoured below the natural bed level. This normally occurs due to the constriction of flood flows through the bridge opening between abutments or embankments (see Figure 3.2). 3-93LIS 390INa V lv YNODS : Z¢ aunbi4 JOIN HONOYHL NOIWOSS XB on ano ‘wn09S i Woot TT GEwT mag by’ wo cd Gere acl oaund3s i wn09s 40 11030 | fel | Fiano ee aS Fas l aa Fisous onnow WORD ‘So zee oe ee | | ie TWNIDIO Bald OL 3NG ee a wee @ INaAINEV O30 300K6 W IN3WLNEY 3-103.6.2 b) ©) 4) Local Scour Local scour is the lowering of the riverbed immediately adjacent to bridge piers or abutments (see Figure 3.2). Natural Scour Natural scour occurs in alluvial or tidal channels and is associated with variation bridge flow conditions, channel shifting or river bed migration at the Progress Scour Progressive scour which is progressive river bed lowering or river profile degradation due to geological or man made processes - e.g. damming, reservoir regulation, gravel mining, etc. The first three categories above can be estimated with reasonable accuracy but the fourth is extremely difficult to predict. Countermeasures Upon assessment of the potential scour problem, countermeasures to control scour need to be provided. The countermeasures could include the following: ° soil cement for sloping abutment, wire enclosed riprap for sloping abutment (see Figure 3.3A), interlocking conerete block system for abutment (see Figure 3.3B), articulated grout filled mat for abutment and river bed (see Figure 3.3C) and. ‘cement/grout filled bags for pier and abutment (see Figures 3.3D and 3.38). For design guidance and selection of countermeasures the designer should refer to: ° FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 23 - Bridge Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures. 3-11dVUdIN G3SOION3 3YIM WOIdAL + vere e4nbi4 S9CINe HONOYHI NOILOSS SNOIGVD 3YIM C3109 DAd FsO¥d ANNOYD TWNIORO FULXB1039_N3AOM-NON- SSauLvn wl SS3ULLYN NIA ef C Noiavo av o1 annowe SMU Wit 8 INaWLNey 030 Joawe v IN3NNeY 3-12W31SAS 49078 Q3ll 318V0 QNY 49018 3L3YONOD ONIMDOTYZINI TWOIdAL ? 8e°S JYNOI4 CEH ‘J1UKK31039_N3AOM=NON- ie YOHONY aNNOUS “ Te vounaoan ae a yo co ae 30078. 313%0N09 SNDOOTRINE 313SISA LVN g3Til4 LNOYD QSLVINOILYV TWOIdAL og'¢ .esnbi4 (03033N 1 NOHONY NOWSNG! JMQUG. yupoe / ony S1¥Avox3 V-V NOILD3SS NOUD2IONd_ swe U3voNod GIMWOS OWEVs 31540409 oanuda=aRes 3401S 30 301 a3HSIN FIGS~36.0W6 IN13RINID. 3001N8| 3-14ROAD _ EMBANKMENT i ‘SECTION THROUGH ABUTMENT ‘NOTE (1) 00 NOT EXCAVATE BELOW BOTTOM OF FOOTING TO ACCOMMODATE CONCRETE BAGS (@) THE AREA DENOTES PORTION OF ‘STREAM BOTTOM TO BE EXCAVATED TO ACCOMODATE CONCRETE BAGS 3-30.00 FIGURE 3.3D TYPICAL CEMENT/GROUT FILLED BAGS AT ABUTMENT 3-15uald LV SOVE GITN4 LNOYO/LNSWIO WOIdAL age + 3yNdI4 Ova 21349NO9 1vGONODOY (OL G3IVAVOX3 38 O1 WOLIOE WWRIS 40 NOULOd S3LONIO YaNY ZZ 3H ro Waid HONOSAL NOWOSS 35¥8 Fane Sova 31349N09 r BUVGONODOV OL IN3WIGIS “SLVAVOX iE 23 sore ssxov0o-) i] | ee a ONGLX3 37UX31039 N3AOM-NON “T3A37 U3uVA (uauwaes (u3ivaug GBR BSR ae tS Seu 030 JoGINa 3-1637 33 © Sub-section 29.2 - Erosion and Scour Protection, Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia. FORCES ON BRIDGE PIERS Piers in the flow path are subject to the following forces. 0 hydrodynamic forces floating debris forces © water-craft collision impact forces ° Accumulation and clogging of debris upstream of the bridge can cause a major build-up of horizontal destabilising forces owing to the damming effect. To design the structure to resist this effect may not be economical and may be cheaper to provide a larger freeboard. Where the river is navigable, piers within the waterline should be designed against possible collision by watercraft. DESIGN OF BRIDGE TO ALLOW FOR FUTURE RIVER IMPROVEMENT WORK To allow for future river deepening work, (see Figure 3.4), the embedding depths for bridge footings and pilecaps shall be as follows: Item Location of Pier Embedding Depth i) Low water channel and the part of high water channel within 20m from the top of the slope of low water channel, For footing — more than 2m below the river bed of low water channel For pilecap — 1.2m below bed of Jow water channel ii) High water channel beyond 20m. from the top of the slope of low water channel For footing — more than 1m below the river bed of high water channel For pilecap — Im below river bed of high water channel ‘The top of foundations in the low water channel should also be below the level of the estimated total scour depth when the total scour depth is below the designed invert level of the future river deepening work. 317‘On major road where slow-moving maintenance equipment are not permitted to ‘operate on the roads and where space is available, 5 to 8 m wide berms, with 3.5m headroom, near the river channel should be provided to facilitate movement of river maintenance machinery, as shown on Figure 3.4, The river channel at the bridge should be shaped to accommodate the future river channel improvement works and temporary riverbed erosion scour counter-measures should be provided to reduce degradation of upstream river profiles. 3-18% ONILOOS YOF Hld3d ONIGGAEWS GNV CYvOsssy4 ye eunbly a al EC a ol [==] ‘ONO0IORE NY By WY poses HA. evaiore & [LX area bat 55 ee un “he oe we Be oil | Go Ll y_INaMUNG} aa to Lig KOSH WW ows TEVINAY 41 'RODLORDH US's “Jom wg sg8b0v Stanan SONMGLWWN SADE TGNNVAO USIVM HOI “NNVAD SIV MOT 8 IN3MINEV “ENNVHO SSLVM HOI 3-19LIST OF REFERENCES LOCAL PUBLICATIONS fabatan Pengai 1, Hydrological Procedure No. 4 - Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in Peninsular Malaysia (1987) 2. Hydrological Procedure No. 10 ~ Stage Discharge Curves (1976) 3. Hydrological Procedure No. 11 ~ Design Flood Hydrograph Estimation for Rural Catchments in Peninsular Malaysia 4. Hydrological Procedure No. 19 ~ The Determination of Suspended Sediment Discharge 5. Hydrological Procedure No. 5 ~ Rational Method of Flood Estimation for Rural Catchments 6. Hydrological Procedure No. 1 ~ Estimation of the Design Rainstorm in Peninsular Malaysia (1982) 7. Hydrological Procedure No. 16 - Flood Estimation for Urban Areas in Peninsular Malaysia 8 Planning and Design Procedure No. 1 - Urban Drainage Design Standards and Procedures for Peninsular Malaysia 9. Garispaduan Untuk Memproses Permohonan dan Menetapkan Syarat-Syarat Bagi Jambatan dan Lintasan 10. Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia batan Kerja KR) 11. Draft Intermediate Guide to Drainage Design of Roads ~ Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 15/97 12. Terms of Reference for Survey Works and Digital Ground Modelling. 3-20US PUBLICATIONS Hydraulic Design Series No. 2 - Highway Hydrology (Sept 1996) FHWA-SA-96-067 Hydraulic Engineering Circular No, 22 = Urban Drainage Design Manual (Nov. 1996) FHWA-SA-96-078 (US DOT FHA) Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14 - Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and Channels (Sept. 1983) (US DOT FHA) Hydraulic Design Series No. 5 - Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts (Sept. 1985) FHWA-IP-85-15 (US DOT FHA) 3-21D1, GENERAL This Appendix presents some bridge design criteria, describes the genefal flow conditions encountered in bridge design, the computation of backwater and some design examples. For a more complete presentation, the reader is referred to the excellent publication by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Hydraulic Design Series No. 1, “Hydraulics of Bridge Water- ways”. D1.1 Design Criteria Bridge openings should be designed to have as little effect on the flow characteristics as is possible, consistent with good bridge design and economics. In regard to supercritical flow with a lined channel, the bridge should not affect the flow at all. That is, there should be no Projections into the design waterway. D1.2 Design Approach The method of planning for bridge openings must include water surface profile and hydraulic Gradient analyses of the channel for the major storm runoff. Once this hydraulic gradient is established without the bridge, the maximum reasonable effect on the channel flow by the bridge should be determined. Generally in urban cases this should not exceed a backwater effect of more than 6 to 12 inches. Velocities through the bridge and downstream of the bridge must receive consideration in choosing the bridge opening. Velocities exceeding those permissible will require special protection of the bottom and banks. For supercritical flow, the clear bridge opening should permit the flow to pass under unimpeded ‘and unchanged in cross section. 01.3 Bridge Opening Freeboard ‘The distance between the design flow water surface and the bottom of the bridge deck will vary from case to case, However, the debris which may be expected must receive full consi- deration in setting the freeboard. Freeboard may vary from several feet to minus several feet. ‘There are no general hard and fast rules. Each case must be studied separately. Bridges which are securely anchored to foundations and designed to withstand the dynamic forces of the flowing water, might in some cases be designed without freeboard. In certain unusual cases, the designer upstream from bridges to reduce downstream peaks during the storms creating flow greater than the initial design runoff. This is sometimes done when downstream areas are highly developed, and the upstream areas have adjacent open space and park areas next to the channel. In these ‘cases, there normally would be no freeboard allowed between the design water surface and the bridge deck bottom. 97D2, FLOW CONDITIONS 2.1 General ‘The general flow fines in plan and cross-section for a normal bridge crossing are shown in Figures D-1, D-2 and D-3. There are three types of flow which may be encountered in bridge waterway design. These are labeled types | through II! on Figure D-4. The long dash lines shown on each profile represent normal water surface, or the stage the design flow would assume prior to placing a constriction in the channel, The solid lines represent the configuration of the water surface, on centerline of channel in each case, after the bridge is in place. The short dash lines represent critical depth, oF critical stage in the main channel (y,, and. y4,) and critical depth within the constriction, Yo» for the design discharge in each case. Since normal depth is shown essentially the same in the four profiles, the discharge, boundary roughness and slope of channel must all increase in passing from type I to type IIA, to type IIB, to type II! flow. 2.2 Type | Flow Referring to Figure D-4A, it can be observed that normal water surface is everywhere above critical depth., This has been labeled type | or subcritical flow, the type usually encountered in . practice. All design information in this Appendix is limited to type | (subcritical flow). The backwater expression for type } flow is obtained by applying the conservation of energy principle between sections 1 and 4. 02,3 Type II Flow There are at least two variations of type II flow which will be described here under types HA and UB. (a) Type IIA Flow For type 11A flow, Figure D-4B, normal water surface in the unconstricted channel again remains above critical depth throughout but the water surface passes through critical depth in the constriction. Once critical depth is penetrated, the water surface upstream from the con- striction, and thus the backwater, becomes independent of conditions downstream (even though the water surface returns to normal stage at section 4). Thus the backwater expression for type | flow is not valid for type I! flow. (6) Type HB Flow ‘The water surface for type 11B flow, Figure D-4C starts out above both normal water surface and critical depth upstream, passes through critical depth in the constriction, next dips below critical depth downstream from the constriction and then returns to normal. The return to normal depth can be rather abrupt as in Figure D-4C, taking place in the form of a poor hydraulic jump, since normal water surface in the stream is above critical depth. 9802-4 Type II Flow In type Itt flow, Figure D-4D, the normal water surface is everywhere below critical depth and ‘the flow throughout is supercritical. This is an unusual case requiring @ steep gradient but such conditions do exist, particularly in mountainous regions. Theoretically backwater should not ‘cour for this type, since the flow throughout is supercritical. It is more than likely that an undulation of the water surface will occur in the vicinity of the constriction, however, as icated on Figure D-4D. 99UWS. ALUNG BANK uct. fj Met a SECTION © FLOW<— & PLAN AT BRIDGE Figure D-2.-Normal crossing: Wingwall abutments. 101See ee Beene SECTION @ PLAN AT BRIDGE Figure D-3.-Normal crossing: Spillthrough abutments 102B-TYPE ITA FLOW {PASSES THROUGH CRITICAL) D=TYPE I FLOW (SUPERCRITICAL) Figure D-4.-Types of flow encountered. 103D3, DEFINITION OF TERMS AND SYMBOLS 103.1 Definition of Terms Specific information is given below with respect to the concept of several of the terms and expressions frequently used throughout this Appendix. (a) Normal Stage Normal stage is the normal water surface elevation of a stream at a bridge site, for @ particular discharge, prior to constricting the stream (see Figures 0-2A, D-3A}. The profile of the water surface is essentially parallel to the bed of the stream. (6) Abnormal Stage Where a bridge site is located upstream from, but relatively close to, the confluence of two streams, high water in one stream can produce a backwater effect extending for some distance up the other stream. This can cause the stage at a bridge site to be abnormal, meaning higher than would exist for the tributary alone. An abnormal stage may also be caused by a dam, another bridge, or some other constriction downstream. The water surface with abnormal stage is not parallel to the bed. fe) Normal Crossing A normal crossing is one with alignment at approximately 90° to the general direction of flow during high water as shown in Figure 0-1. (4) Eccentric Crossing ‘An eccentric crossing is one where the main channel and the bridge are not in the middle of the flood plain, (Figure D-8). (ce) Skewed Crossing A skewed crossing is one that is other than 90° to the general direction of flow during flood stage, (Figure D-9). () Width of Constriction, 6 No difficulty will be experienced in interpreting this dimension for abutments with vertical faces since b is simply the horizontal distance between abutment faces. In the more usual case involving spillthrough abutments, where the cross section of the constriction is irregular, it is suggested that the irregular cross section be converted to 2 regular trapezoid of equivalent area, as shown in Figure O-3C. Then the length of bridge opening can be interpreted as: Anz b= y 104(@) Conveyance Conveyance is a measure of the ability of a channel to transport flow. In streams of irregular ross section, it is necessary to divide the water area into smaller but more or less regular sub- sections, assigning an appropriate roughness coefficient to each and computing the discharge for each subsection separately. According to the Manning formula for open channel flow, the discharge in a subsection of @ channel is: q- +8 artsg, V2 1 By rearranging: a 1.49 os a ar?! k where k is the conveyance of the subsection. Conveyance can, therefore, be expressed either in terms of flow factors or strictly geometric factors. In bridge waterway computations, con- veyance is used as a means of approximating the distribution of flow in the natural river channel upstream from a bridge. The method will be demonstrated in the design examples in section D9. Total conveyance K, is the summation of the individual conveyances comprising section 1. (4) Bridge Opening Ratio ‘The bridge opening ratio, M, defines the degree of stream constriction involved, expressed as the ratio of the flow which can pass unimpeded through the bridge constriction to the total fiow of the river. Referring to Figure D-1, ee eee con or, 14,000 ‘The irregular cross section common in natural streams and the variation in boundary roughness within any cross section result in a variation in velocity across a river as indicated by the ‘ream tubes in Figure D-1. The bridge opening ratio, M, is most easily explained in terms of discharges, but it is usually determined from conveyance relations. Since conveyance is Proportional to discharge, assuming all subsections to have the same slope, M can be expressed also as: te -* (0-2) Ka + kp + ke K, (i) Kinetic Energy Coefficient ‘As the velocity distribution in a river varies from @ maximum at the deeper-portion of the channel to essentially zero along the banks, the average velocity head, computed as 40/A,)? /2g for the stream at section 1, does not give a true measure of the kinetic energy of the flow. 105‘A weighted average value of the kinetic energy is obtained by multiplying the average velocity head, above, by a kinetic energy coefficient, =, defined as: Zlqv*) -— (0-34) ‘ "ev, Where v= average velocity in a subsection. 4 = discharge in same subsection. Q = total discharge in river. V, = average velocity in river at section 1 or Q/A, fl ‘The method of computation will be further illustrated in the design examples given in Section 9. A second coefficient, «, is required to correct the velocity head for nonuniform velocity distribution under the bridge, _ Ela?) av,? (0-3b) where v, q and Q are defined as above but apply here to the constricted cross section and V2 = average velocity in constriction = Q/A, The value of =, can be computed and =; can be estimated from Figure D-5. ae T CLT T i°* a | 30 + £ 30 26 26 Ceoe e 22 + S a | 8 | 18 4 ! oy wt LTT | Lig 0 QF 02 03 o4 05 06 07 08 09 10 Figure D-5.—Aid for estimating «, 10603.2 Definition of Symbols Most of the symbols used in this Appendix are recorded here for reference. Symbols not found here are defined where first mentioned. = Area of flow including backwater at section 1(Figs. 0-28 and D-3B) (sq. ft.). = Area of flow below normal water surface at section 1 (Figs. D-2B and D-3B} (sq. ft). 1n below normal water surface at section 2(F igs. D-2C Gross area of flow in constri and D-3C) (sq. ft.). = Area of flow at section 4 at which normal water surface is reestablished (Fig. D-2A) (sq. ft.). = Projected area of piers normal to flow (between normal water surface and streambed) (sq. ft.) = Area of flow in a subsection of approach channel (sq. ft.) = Width of constriction (Figs. D-2C, D-3C, and sec. D3.1 (f) } (ft) = Width of constriction of a skew crossing measured along centreline of roadway (Fig. 0-9) (ft). = Backwater coefficient for flow type II. = Freeflow coefficient for flow over roadway embankment. = Submergence factor for flow over roadway. = Eccentricity = (1 Q./Q,) where Q,. = Acceleration of gravity = 32.2 (ft./sec.*). = Total énergy loss between sections 1 and 4 (Figs. 0-2A and 0-3A) (ft.). = hy—SoLi4 = Energy loss caused by constriction (Figs. 0-2A and D-3A) (ft.). = Total backwater or rise above normal stage at section 1 (Figs. D-2A and D-3A) (ft.). = Backwater computed from base curve (Fig. D-6) (ft.) 7 = Vertical distance from water surface on downstream side of embankment to normal water surface at section 3(Figs. D-2A and D-3A) (ft.). = hy" +h3*+SoLi.3 = Difference in water surface elevation across roadway embank- ment (Figs. D-2A and D-3A) (ft.). = Ap/Aqg = Ratio of area obstructed by piers to gross area of bridge waterway below normal water surface at section 2 (Fig. D-7). 107Kp OK, Ke ae ke Ks Line bis Lina i Vr Va Vina Backwater coefficient from base curve (Fig. 0-6). Incremental backwater coefficient for piers (Fig. D-7) Incremental backwater coefficient for eccentricity (Fig. 0-8). Incremental backwater coefficient for skew (Fig. D-10). Ky + OK, +AK, + AK, = Total backwater coefficient for subcritical flow. Conveyance Conveyance of portion of channel within projected length of bridge at section 1 (Figs. D-2B and D-3B and sec. 03.1 (g)). ‘subsection of approach channel. = Conveyance of that portion of the natural flood plain obstructed by the roadway embankments (subscripts refer to left and right side, facing downstream) (Figs. 0-28 and 0-38 and sec. 03.1 (g) ). Total conveyance at section 1 (sec. 03.1 (g) ). Distance from point of maximum back water to reestablishment of normal water surface downstream, measured along centerline of stream (Figs. D-2A and D-3A) (ft.). Distance from point of maximum backwater to water surface on downstream side of roadway embankment (Figs. D-2A and D-3A) (ft.). Distance from point of maximum backwater to upstream face of bridge deck (Figs. 0-2A and D-3A) (ft) Distance from point of maximum backwater to water surface on upstream side of roadway embankment, measured parallel to centerline of stream (Fig. D-13) (ft.) Overall width of roadway or bridge (ft.) Bridge opening ratio (sec. D3.1 (h) ). Manning roughness coefficient (Table D-1). Wetted perimeter of a subsection of a channel (ft.) Flow in portion of channel within projected length of bridge at section 1(Fig. D-1) (c.f.s.). Flow over that portion of the natural flood plain obstructed by the roadway em- bankments (Fig. D-1) (c.f.s.). Q, +O, +, = Total discharge (c.t.s.). a/p = Hydraulic radius of a subsection of flood plain or main channel (ft.) Slope of channel bottom or normal water surface. Q/A, = Average velocity at section 1 (ft./sec.). Q/Ag = Average velocity at section 4 (ft./sec.) Q/Arg = Average velocity in constriction for flow at normal stage (Ft./sec.). Critical velocity in constriction (ft./sec.}. 108= vn va Qs (0-5) Q, Reference to the sketch in Figure 0-8 will aid in clarifying the terminology. For instance, if Q,/Q, = 0.08, the eccentricity e = (1 — 0.05) or 0.95 and the curve for e = 0.95 in Figure D-8 would be used for obtaining AK,. The largest influence on the backwater coefficient due to eccentricity will occur when a bridge is located adjacent to a bluff where a flood plain exists ‘on only one side and the eccentricity is 1.0, The overall backwater coefficient for an extremely ‘eccentric crossing with wingwall or spillthrough abutments and piers will be: K* = Ky (Fig. D6) + AK, (Fig. D-7) + AKe (Fig. 0-8). 04.6 Effect of Skew The method of computation for skewed crossings differs from that of normal crossings in the following respects: The bridge opening ratio, M, is computed on the projected length of bridge rather than on the length along the centreline. The length is obtained by projecting the bridge opening upstream parallel to the general direction of flood flow as illustrated in Figure D-9. The general direction of flow means the direction of flood flow as it existed previous to the placement of embankments in the stream. The length of the constricted opening is b, cos 6, and the area Arg is based on this length. The velocity 2 v head, ra to be substituted in expression (D-4) (sec. 04.1) is based on the projected area A,g- Figure D-10 shows the incremental backwater coefficient, OK,, for the effect of skew, for wingwall and spillthrough type abutments. The incremental coefficient varies with the opening ratio, M, the angle of skew of the bridge ¢, with the general direction of flood flow, and the alignment of the abutment faces, as indicated by the sketches in Figure D-10. Note that the incremental backwater coefficient, AK,, can be negative as well ax positive. The negative values result from the method of computation and do not necessarily indicate that the backwater wil! be reduced by employing a skewed crossing. These incremental values are to be added algebraically to K, obtained from the base curve. The total backwater coefficient for a skewed crossing with abutment faces aligned with the flow and piers would be: K* = Ky (Fig. 0-6) + AK, (Fig. 0-7) + AK, (Fig. D-10A). The procedure is illustrated in Example 2, Section D9. 114e (GE) where Ge < Qs oF e s(t G2) where aa La Figure D-9.-Skewed crossings. 116(A) Zoo . a (8) opt Figure D-10.~Incremental backwater coefficient for shew. 7-08 1 MeO7} | _meoe. . MOS NOTE :CURVES APPLICABLE FOR ‘CASES WHERE FACES OF WWOR ST] ABUTMENTS. ARE ORIENTED PARALLEL WITH FLOW. rt 30 ANGLE OF SKEW ¢ (DEGREES) Figure D-11.-Ratio of projected to normal length of bridge, for equivalent backwater (skewed crossings). 1805. DIFFERENCE IN WATER LEVEL ACROSS APPROACH EMBANKMENTS 05.1 Significance ‘The difference in water surface elevation between the upstream and downstream side of bridge approach embankments, Ah, has been interpreted erroneously as the backwater produced by a bridge. This is not the backwater as the sketch on Figure D-12 will attest. The water surface at section 3, measured along the downstream side of the embankment, is lower than normal stage by the amount h3*. There is an occasional exception to this, however, when flow is obstructed from returning to the flood plain by dense vegetation or high water from a downstream tributary produces ponding and an abnormal stage at the bridge site. The difference in level across embankments, Ah, is always larger than the backwater, hy *, by the sum hg * +S,L)..3, where Sp is the natural slope of the stream (Fig. D-12). The method of determining La, which is the distance from section 1 to section 3, needs specific explanation but this will be deferred until Sec. D6. The differential level is significant in the determination of backwater at bridges in the field since Ah is the most reliable head measurement that can be made. Fortunately, the backwater and Ah bear a definite relationship to each other for any particular structure. Thus, if one is known the other can be determined. 7 Meee eee eee tee eel = W.S. ALONG ® aan BANK r a = - Sree area | ie 90° WW(FOR BRIDGES UNDER ~] “e|+ 200" IN LENGTH) 2 JaLL ST AND 45° ww. 7 ABUTMENTS = > ttt t é “45° WINGWALL. N oa CUTTS oz 90° WINGWALL ee | ° On 02 03 O4 os 06 Or 08 os w M Figure D-12.—Differential water level ratio base curves. DS.2 Base Curves A base curve for determining downstream levels was constructed entirely from model data which was found especially consistent when presented by the parameters shown, No satisfactory way has been found to experimentally isolate the backwater from Ah when making field measure- ‘ments, so in this case the mode! curves must suffice. The differential level ratio, hy*/(hy* + ha *) is plotted with respect to the opening ratio, M, on Figure 0-12. 119The numerator, hy", represents the backwater at a bridge, exclusive of pier effect, and hs * is the difference in level between normal stage and the water surface on the downstream side of the embankment at section 3. The ordinate of Figure D-12 will be referred to as the differential level ratio to which the symbol D., has been assigned. ‘The water surface depicted at section 3 represents the average level along the downstream side of the embankment from H to | and N to O in Figure D-1. For crossings involving wide flood plains and long embankments, the distances H to I and N to O each have been arbitrarily limited to not more than two bridge lengths. The solid curve on Figure D-12 is to be used for 45° and 60° wingwall abutments and all spillthrough abutments regardless of bridge length. The upper curve, denoted by the broken line, is for bridges with lengths up to 200 feet having 90° vertical wall and other abutment shapes which severely constrict the flow. Assuming the backwater, h,*, has already been computed for a normal crossing, without piers, ‘eccentricity or skew, the water surface on the downstream side of the embankment is obtained by entering the curve on Figure 0-12 with the contraction ratio, M, and reading off the differential level ratio byt at + hy 7 1 mrt (5 (06) The elevation on the downstream side of the embankment is simply normal stage at section 3, less ha* (Fig. D-12), except for the special case where the entire water surface profile is shifted upward by ponding from downstream or restricted flood plains. De = 06.3 Effect of Piers The procedure for determining ha” piers is exactly as explained in section 05.2 without piers. 05.4 Effect of Eccentricity In the case of severely eccentric crossings, the difference in tevel across the embankment ‘considered here applies only to the side of the river having the greater flood plain discharge. In plotting thé experimental differential level ratios with respect to M for eccentric crossings, without piers, it was found that the points fell directly on the base curve (Fig. D-12). The individual values of hy" and hg" for eccentric conditions are different than for symmetrical crossings, but the ratio of one to the other, for any given value of M, remains unchanged. ‘Thus, Figure D-12 can also be considered applicable to eccentric crossings if used correctly. To obtain hs® for an eccentric crossing, with or without piers, enter the proper curve in Figure D- 12 with the value of M and read Dj, as before. In this case: 120or hat = thy + Oh) (t - i on os 5.5 Drop in Water Surface across Embankment (Normal Crossing) Having computed h3* as described in the preceding paragraphs and knowing the total backwater hy* (computed according to the procedure in D4), the difference in water surface elevation. across the embankment (Fig. 0-12) is: Bh = bgt + hy? + Solis (08) where hy* is total backwater, including the effect of piers and eccentricity, and SyL1~s is the format fall in streambed from section 1 to section 3. 5.6 Water Surface on’ Downstream Side of Embankment (Skewed Crossing). The differential level across roadway embankments for skewed crossings is naturally different for opposite sides of the river, the amount depending on the configuration of the stream, bends in the vicinity of the crossing, the degree of skew, etc. These factors can be so variable that a generalized model study can shed little light on the subject. Individual values of hy* and hs* for skewed crossings again differ from those for symmetrical crossings, but the differential level ratio across the embankments at either end of the bridge can be considered the same as for normal crossings for any given value of M. The value of M is, of ‘course, based on the projected: length of bridge as explained in section D4.6. Thus, it is again possible to use Figure D-12 for skewed crossings. The differential level ratio, Dp, with or without piers, is obtained by entering the chart with the proper opening ratio, M. Then: 1 hg* = (hy + Ah") (—- -) (0-9) De 121D6. CONFIGURATION OF BACKWATER 6.1 Distance to Point of Maximum Backwater In backwater computations, it will be found necessary in some cases to locate the point or points of maximum backwater with respect to the bridge. The maximum backwater in line with the midpoint of the bridge Gccurs at point A (Fig. 0-13), this point being a distance, L*, from e waterline on the upstream side of the embankment. Where flood plains are inundated and ‘embankments constrict the flow, the elevation of the water surface throughout the areas ABCD ‘and AEFG will be essentially the same as at point A, where the backwater measurement wes made on the models. This characteristic has been verified from field measurements made by the U.S. Geological Survey on bridges where the flood plains on each side of the main channel ‘were no wider than twice the bridge length and hydraulic roughness was relatively low. For crossings with exceptionally wide, rough flood plains, this essentially level ponding may not ‘occur. o Become? pun {a (c) —- © tt |_| oe ul 7 Figure D-13.—Distance to maximum backwater. 122Flow gradients may exist along the upstream side of the embankments due to borrow pits, ditches and cleared areas along the right-of way. These flow gradients along embankments are likely to be more pronounced on the falling than on the rising stage of a flood. A correlation is needed between the water level along the upstream side of embankments and point A since itis difficult to obtain water surface elevations at point A in the field during floods, For the purpose of design and field verification, it has been assumed that the average water surface elevation along the upstream side of embankments, for as much as two bridge lengths adjacent to each abutment (F to G and D to C), is the same as at point A (Fig. 0-138). 6.2 Normal Crossings Figure D-13 has been prepared for determining distance to point of maximum backwater, measured normal to centreline of bridge. Referring to Figure D-13, the normal depth of flow under a bridge is defined here as ¥ = Ang /b, where Arg is the cross sectional area under the bridge, referred to normal water surface, and b is the width of waterway. A trial solution is required for determining the differential level across embankments, Ah, but from the result of the backwater computation it is possible to make a fair estimate of Ah. To obtain distance to maximum backwater for a normal channel con- striction, enter Figure D-13A with appropriate value of Ah/¥ and ¥ and obtain the corresponding value of L*/b. Solving for L*, which is the distance from point of maximum backwater (point A) to the water surface on the upstream side of embankment (Fig. 0-138), and adding to this the additional distance to section 3, which is known, gives the distance L;.3. Then the com- puted difference in level across embankments is Ah = byt + hy? + Solia Should the computed value of Ah differ materially from the one chosen, the above procedure is repeated until assumed and computed values agree. Generally speaking, the larger the backwater at a given bridge the further will point A move upstream. Of course, the value of L* also increases with length of bridge. 06.3 Eccentric Crossings Eccentric crossings with extreme asymmetry perform much like one half of a normal symmetrical crossing with a marked contraction of the jet on one side and very little contraction ‘on the other. For cases where the value of e (sec. D4.6) is greater than 0.70, enter the abscissa ‘on Figure D-13A with Ab/y and ¥ and read off the corresponding value of L*/b as usual. Next multiply this value of L*/b by a correction factor, w, which is obtained from Figure D-13C. For ‘example, suppose Ah/¥ = 0.20, ¥ = 10 and e = 0.88, the corrected value would be L*/b = 0.84 x 1.60. Distance to maximum backwater is then L* = 1.34b with eccentrici 6.4 Skewed Crossings In the case of skewed crossings, the water surface elevations along opposite banks of a stream are usually different than at point A; one may be higher and the other lower depending on the angle of skew, the configuration of the approach channel, and other factors. To obtain the approximate distance to maximum backwater L* for skewed crossings (Fig. D-9), the same Procedure is recommended as for normal crossings except the ordinate of Figure D-13 is read as L"/b,, where b, is the full length of skewed bridge (Fig. 0-9). See Example 2, Section D9. 123D7. SUPERSTRUCTURE PARTIALLY INUNDATED 7.1 Generali Cases arise in which it is desirable to compute the backwater upstream from a bridge or the discharge under a bridge when flow is in contact with the girders. Once flow contacts the upstream girder of a bridge, orifice flow is established so the discharge then varies as the square root of the effective head. The result is a rather rapid increase in discharge for a moderate rise in upstream stage. The greater discharge, of course, increases the likelihood of scour under the bridge. Inundation of the bridge deck is a condition the designer seldom contemplates in design but it occurs frequently on older bridges. ‘Two cases are studied; the first where only the upstream girder is in the water as indicated by the sketch on Figure D-14 and the second, where the bridge constriction is flowing full, alt girders in the flow, as shown in Figure D-16. 7.2 Upstream Girder in Flow (Case |) The most logical and simple method of approach to determine the backwater effect with the upstream girder of a bridge in the flow is to assume the system acts like a sluice gate. Using a common expression for sluice gate flow Seta a cabz [25 (% Teed ) Y (0-10) 2 29 where, Q = total discharge—c..s. Cy = Coefficient of discharge by = net width of waterway (excluding piers) — ft. Z__ = vertical distance — bottom of upstream girder to mean river bed under bridge = ft, and Y, = vertical distance—upstream water surface to mean river bed at bridge—ft. For case |, the coefficient of discharge Cy, is plotted with respect to the parameter Yy/Z on Figure D-14. The upper curve applies to the coefficient of discharge where only the upstream Girder is in contact with the flow. By substituting values in expression (D-10), it is possible to solve for either the water surface upstream or the discharge under the bridge, depending on the quantities known. It appears that the coefficient curve (Fig. D-14) approaches zero as Yy/Z becomes unity. This is not the case since the limiting value of Y,/Z for which expression (0-10) applies is not much less than 1.1. There is a transition zone somewhere between Yy/Z = 1.0 and 1.1 where free surface flow changes to orifice flow or vice versa. The type of flow within this range is unpredictable. For Y,/Z = 1.0, the flow is dependent on the natural slope of the stream, while this factor is of little concern after orifice flow is established or YlZ > 1.1. 1242 £ au WS. ALONG EMBANKMENT. Yu, Ys" a oo 03 a2 to & a B a a 5 ® o Figure D-14 - Discharge coefficients for upstream girder in flow (case 1) 125Figure D-IS ~ Discharge coefficient for all girders in flow (case II)in computing a general river backwater curve across the bridge shown on Figure D-14, it is necessary to know water surface elevation downstream as well as upstream from the bridge. The approximate depth of flow, yz, can be obtained from Figure D-14 by entering the top scale with the proper value of Y,/Z and reading down to the upper curve, then over horizontally to the lower curve, and finally down to the lower scale as shown by the arrows. The lower scale gives the ratio of Yy/yg. The method is illustrated in example 3 of Section D9. 17.3 All Girders in Contact with Flow (Case I!) Where the entire area under the bridge is occupied by the flow, the computation is handled in a different manner. To compute the water surface upstream from the bridge, the water surface ‘on the downstream side and the discharge must be known. Or if the discharge is desired, the drop in water surface across the roadway embankment, Ah, and the net area under the bridge is required. The experimental points on Figure 0-15, which are for both wingwall and spill through abutments, show the coefficient of discharge to be essentially constant et 0.80 for the range of conditions tested, The equation recommended for the average two to four lane concrete girder bridge for case II is Q = 0.80 by 2(2gAn)"? (D-11) where the symbols are defined as in expression (D-10). Here the net width of waterway (ex: cluding width of piers) is used again. It is preferable to measure Ah across embankments rather than at the bridge proper. The partially inundated bridge compares favourably with that of a ‘submerged box culvert but on a larger scale. Submergence, of course, can increase the likelihood of scour under a bridge. Again for working up general backwater curves for a river, it is desirable to know the drop in water level across existing bridges as well as the actual water surface elevation either upstream or downstream from the bridge. Once Ah is computed from expression (D-11), the depth of flow upstream, Y,, can be obtained from chart B, Figure D:15, where ¥ is depth from normal stage to mean river bed at bridge in feet. The procedure will be further explained by example 4 of Section D9, D7.4 Safety of Bridge A rather common source of bridge failure results from the superstructure being virtually pushed or lifted off the abutments and piers by the combination of buoyancy and dynamic forces. Inundation reduces the effective weight of a concrete bridge to about 0.6 of its weight in air. Should air be trapped under the deck between girders, the effective weight can be further reduced to a dangerous limit so that only moderate horizontal forces are required to jar or slide bridge spans off their pedestals. The horizontal forces consist of unbalanced hydrostatic pressure, or ponding, acting on the upstream face of the bridge (aggravated by the collection of trash), plus energy inherent in the moving mass of water plus impact forces produced by large floating objects striking @ bridge. The impact from large floating objects can be lethal if the bridge is already under stress and the girders are not anchored to the piers. 1277.5 Flow Over Roadway {In cases where bridge clearance is such that girders become inundated during floods, there is @ good possibility that flow also occurs over portions of the approach roadway. Should it be desired to determine the discharge flowing over the roadway, Figure D-16 can be used. To determine the discharge flowing over a roadway, first enter curve B (Figure D-16) with H/l and obtain the free flow coefficient of discharge C;. Should the value of H/! be less than 0.15, is suggested that C; be read from curve A of the same Figure. 1f submergence is present (eg,, if D/H is larger than 0.7) enter curve C with the proper vaiue of submergence in percent and read off the submergence factor C,/C;. The resulting discharge is obtained by substituting values in the expression: Q= CGyLH3? +» CYC, (0-12) where L represents the length of inundated roadway, H is the total head upstream measured above the crown of the roadway end C; and Cs are coefficients of discharge for free flow and with submergence, respectively. Where the depth of flow varies along the roadway, it is advisable to divide the inundated portion into reaches and compute the discharge over each reach separately. The process, of course, can be reversed to aid in determining backwater for ‘a combination of bridge and roadway. 128PERCENT SUBMERGENCE 07M x 100 jm meme il an i _ A OVERALL OF CHLM EGC los os com orca? Figure D-I6 - Discharge coefficients for flow over roadway embankments 129 SUOMERGENCE FACTOR Gy/CyD8. BRIDGE DESIGN PROCEDURE 08.1 Site Study Outline The following outline is presented to aid in organizing and collecting the necessary field data for a bridge site investigation: 1. Location map to show proposed highway alignment and reach of river to be studied. 2. Vicinity map showing flood flow patterns, cross sections of stream, location of proposed bridge and relief openings, and alignment of piers. (i) Map showing 1- or 2-foot contours, stream meanders, vegetation and manmade improvements. In some cases, cross sections perpendicular to flood flow are acceptable in lieu of the map in (i); at least three cross sections are desirable: one on the centreline of the proposed bridge, one upstream and one downstream from the proposed bridge at from 100 to 500 foot intervals. 3 A full description of existing bridges both upstream and downstream from proposed ‘crossing (including relief and overflow structures). (i) Type of bridge, including span lengths and pier orientation. Cross section beneath structure, noting stream clearance to superstructure and skew or direction of current during floods. (iii) All available flood history—high water marks with dates of occurrence, nature of flooding, damages and source of information. fiv) Photographs of existing bridges, past floods, main channels and flood plains and information as to nature, streambed and stability of banks. 4. Factors affecting water stage at bridge site. (i) High water from other streams. Reservoirs—existing or proposed and approximate date of construction. (iii) Flood control projects. (iv) Tide. (wv) Other controls. 13008.2 Stage Discharge It is important that the normal stage of a river for the design flood be determined as accurately 3 possible at the bridge site. This may be accomplished in several ways, but where possible it is best to establish it from a stage-discharge rating curve based on stream-gauging records collected in the vicinity of the bridge site. Where stage-discharge records are lacking for the stream in question, the usual procedure is to locate high water marks of floods by consulting people who live in the vicinity of the proposed bridge site. Flood information supplied by local residents is often inaécurate, but may be considered reliable if confirmed by other residents. It is then necessary to find a means of relating stage to discharge. This can be done by the slope-area method, a simplified variation of which will be found illustrated in Example 1 Section DQ. Extreme care must be exercised both in the collection of field data and in the manner in which it is processed if glaring discrepancies are to be avoided in the final result. In many cases. where records are lacking, it is advisable to arrange for the installation and maintenance of a temporary stream gauge at or near the bridge site several years in advance of construction. Even @ single reliable point at an intermediate stage can be of inestimable value in the preparation of a stage-discharge curve. 08.3 Channel Roughness ‘A matter of prime importance in bridge backwater or slope-area computations is the ability to wvaluate properly the roughness of the main channel and of the flood plains; both are subject to ‘extreme variations in vegetal growth and depth of flow. As a guide, values of the Manning roughness coefficient, n, as commonly encountered in practice, are tabulated for various conditions of channel and flood plain in Table D-1. Since the practicing engineer in this country is famitiar with the Manning roughness coefficient, the Manning equation has been chosen for use here. In interpreting roughness coefficients from Table D-1, it should be kept in mind that the value of n for a small depth of flow, especially on a flood plain covered with grass, weeds, and brush, can be considerably larger than that for greater flow depths over the same terrain. On the other hand,-as the stage rises in a stream with an aliuvial bed, sand waves develop which can increase the value of n. It is, therefore, suggested that the notes accompanying Table D-1 be carefully considered along with the tabulation. BITable D-1.—Manning’s Roughness Coefficient for Natural Stream Channels’. Manning's A. Minor Stream (surface width at flood stage < 100 ft.):? A range 1, Fairly regular section: a. Some grass and weeds, little or no brush... su 0.030-0.035 b. Dense growth of weeds, depth of flow materially greater than weed height : ca 7 wu 0.035-0.05 2. Irregular section, with pools, slight channel meander; channels (a) and (b) above, increase all values about... oe a 0.01-0.02 3. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush along banks submerged at high stage: Bottom of gravel, cobbles, and few bouiders Bs 0.04-0.05 b. Bottom of cobbles with large bounders as 0.05~-0.07 B. Flood plains (adjacent to natural streams): 1. Pasture, no brush: a Short grass 0.030-0.035 b. High grass. ; : : 0.035-0.05 2. Cultivated areas: 0.035-0.045 3. Heavy weeds, scattered brush s 0.05-0.07 4 Light brush and trees:? ” “ 1 oo 0.06—-0.08 5. Medium to dense vegetation:? .... - 0.10-0.16 6. Cleared land with tree stumps, 100-160 per acre: a No sprouts. 7 e 0.04-0.05 b. With heavy growth of sprouts : 0.06-0.08 7. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little undergrowth: 0.10-0.12 ©. Major stream (surface width at flood stage > 100 feet): Roughness coefficient is usually less than for minor streams of similar description ‘on account of less effective resistance offered by irregular banks or vegetation on banks. Values of n may be somewhat reduced. Follow general recommendations’ if possible. The value of n for larger streams of mostly regular section, with no boulders or brush, may be in the : : w= 0.028-0.33 range create in value of inereated. A eat ‘witn channel of alignment other than staight, loss of heed by resistance forces wil may be made t0 slow for the additional los of energy, 2 The tentative values of n cited are prinewpalty derived from mesiuremnents made on fairly short but straight reaches of natural ‘reams. Where slepes calculated fom flood elevations slong a corsigersble fongth of channel, involving meanders and bends. ire to be used in velocity calculations by the Manning formula, the value of a must be increased 19 provide for the additions! iets ot eneray coused by bends. All values in the table must be 90 increased. The increase may bein the range of pachaps 3 0 1S percent. St oetficients for vegetation in lest wil be larger than for bare branches, ‘banks where submergence of branches increases with depth of flow, a wi ance of foliage on trees and bruth under Hood stage will materially inereae the value of 0. Therefore, roughness im channel or on banks, ard for brush 09 132DB.4 Bridge Backwater Procedure The following is a brief step-by-step outline for determining the backwater produced by @ bridge constriction: 1 2 2 10. nw 12. 13, 14, 15. 16. 7. Determine the magnitude and frequency of the discharge for which the bridge is to be designed. Determine the stage of the stream at the bridge site for the design discharge. Plot a representative cross section of stream for design discharge at section 1, if not already done under step 2. If stream channel is essentially straight and cross section substantially uniform in the vicinity of the bridge, the natural cross section of the stream at the bridge site may be used for this purpose. Subdivide the cross section plotted in step 3 according to marked changes in depth of flow and changes in roughness. Assign values of Manning roughness coefficient, n, to each subsection (Table 0-1). Experience and careful judgment are necessary in selecting ‘these values. Compute conveyance and then discharge in each subsection (method is demonstrated in examples). Using cumulative conveyance and discharge at Section 1, compute slope of stream, So. ‘Should the computed slope vary more than 25 percent from the actual slope, reassign values of the roughness factor, n, and repeat conveyance computations. Determine value of kinetic energy coefficient, «; (method is illustrated in Example 1, Section D9.). Plot natural cross section under proposed bridge based on normal water surface for design discharge, and compute gross water area (including area occupied by piers). ‘Compute bridge opening ratio, M (Section D3.1(h), observing modified procedure for skewed crossings, (Section 04.6), Obtain value of Ky from base curve in Figure D-6 for symmetrical normal crossings. 'f piers are involved, compute vaiue'of J (Sec. D4.4) and obtain incremental coefficient, Kp, from Figure D-7 (note method outlined for skewed crossings, Sec. D.4.4 (b) ). is severe, compute value ‘of e (Sec. D4.5) and obtain incremental coefficient, AK, from Figure D-8. If a skewed crossing is involved, observe proper procedure in previous steps, then obtain incremental coefficient, AK,, for proper abutment type from Figure D-10. Determine total backwater coefficient, K*, by adding incremental coefficients to base curve coefficient, Ky. Estimate =2 from Figure D-6, then make allowance for any unusual topographic, vegetative or approach condition which may lead to further asymmetrical velocity distribution in the bridge constriction, Compute backwater by expression (D-4), section 04.1. Determine distance upstream to maximum backwater from Figure 0-13 and convert backwater to water surface elevation at section 1 if computations are based on normal ‘stage at bridge. 133D9, ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES 09.1 General A better understanding of the procedures for computing bridge backwater can be gained from ‘the illustrative examples in this section. The examples deal with the following phases of design: 1. Example 1 comprises a simple normal crossing; the steps closely follow the outline of design procedure listed in section DB.4. 2. Example 2 should help clarify the procedure recommended for skewed crossings. 3. Example 3 demonstrates how discharge or differential water level across bridge embank- ments can be determined when the upstream girder is in the flow. 4. Example 4 is same as'example 3 with the structure partially inundated. 09,2 Example 1; Normal Crossing (a) Given The channel crossing shown in Figure D-17 with the following information: Cross section of river at bridge site showing areas, wetted perimeters, and values of Manning, n; normal water surface for design = El. 28.0 ft. at bridge; average slope of river in vicinity of bridge S, = 2.6 ft./ mi, or 0.00049 ft./ft.; cross section under bridge showing area below normal water surface and width of roadway = 40 ft. The stream is essentially straight, the cross section relatively constant in the vicinity of the bridge, and the crossing is normal to the general direction of flow. () = ToFind Ta. Conveyance at section 1. 1b. Discharge of stream at El. 28.0 ft. Jc. Velocity head correction coefficient, =. 1d. Bridge opening ratio, M. te. Backwater produced by the bridgs 1f. Water surface elevation on upstream side of roadway embankment. 1g. Water surface elevation on downstream side of roadway embankment. 134oer Soo eLevarion-Feer ab g 366 6 ‘OSTANCE-FEET Figure D-17 - Example 1: Plan and cross section of normal crossing (9 Computation Computation (1a). Under the conditions stated, it is permissible to assume that the cross sectional area of the stream at section 1 is the same as that at the bridge. The approach section is then divided into subsections at abrupt changes in depth or channel roughness as shown in Figure D-17, The conveyance of each subsection is computed as shown in columns 1 through 8 of Table D-2 (see also Sec. 3.1(g) ). The summation of the individual values in column 8 represents the overall conveyance of the stream at section 1 or K; = 879,489. Note that the water interface between subsections is not included in the wetted perimeter. Table D-2 is set up in short form to better demonstrate the method. The actual computation would involve many subsections corresponding to breaks in grade or changes in channel roughness. Computation (1b). Since the slope of the stream is known (2.6 ft./mi.) and the cross sectional area is essentially constant throughout the.reach under consideration, it is permissible to solve for the discharge by what is known as the slope-area method or: Q= K,S,"? = 879,489 (0.00049)"? = 19,500 c.t.s. 135Computation (Ic). To compute the kinetic energy coefficient (Sec. 03.1(i) ), it is first necessary to complete columns 9, 10, and 11 of Table D-2; then, using expression (D-3a) (Sec. D3.1(i) }: 374,895 Qv2,1 —_19,500(19,500/5,664) = 162 where Eqv? is the summation of column 11, and. Vay represents the average velocity for normal stage at section 1 Computation (1d). The sum of the individual discharges in column 9 must equal 19,500 c.f-s. The factor M, as stated in section D3.1(h), is the ratio of that portion of the discharge ap- proaching the bridge in width b, to the total discharge of the river; using expression (D-1) (Sec. D3.1(h} ). y= Oe 2 12.040 Lg gy Q 19,500 re D-5 with «, = 1.62 and M = 0.62, the value of «2 is estimated as 1.40. Table D-2.-Example 1: Sample computations. s-0.089 Companion Campus (ie a wien Eg pve mw te Bane geal 7 anon 4 & a 2) (3) “) (3) (6) m (8) @) (10) ay Qa.-.--f 0-200 0.045 35.0 627.4 200.2 3.1 2 142 449 963.3 1.87 2.478 1200-240 070 21.2 285.2 40.1 7.112 3.608 22,359 495.7 1% 1.508 Sea ome att ee Ml goa ar mam ten tama fee Gs wszane igo sen Simp anaes some? ba ame fas oo sare ‘er sie coe “wae “oro fm ham a.acse to Br aoe Si gio tse foe nase dot ter forme Oe Monet ato sass Sa amine ies ha dae Aenio.7 wt oi 9=102000 cts, Beha Aad Greets Computation (Ie). Entering Figure 0-6 with M = 0.62, the base curve coefficient is Ky = 0.72 for bridge waterway of 205 ft. As the bridge is supported by five solid piers, the incremental coefficient (AK, } for this effect will be determined as described in section D4.4. Referring to Figure D-17 and Table D-2, the gross water area under the bridge for normal stage, Ang, is 2,834 sq. ft. and the area obstructed by the piers, Ap, is 180 sq, ft.; so: An 2,534 y= 180_ = 0071 136Entering Figure D-7A with J = 0.071 for solid piers, the reading from ordinate is AK = 0.13. This value is for M = 1.0. Now enter Figure D-7B and obtain the correction factor a, for M = 0.62 which is 0.84. The incremental backwater coefficient for the five piers, AK, = AKo = 0.13 x 0.84= 0,11, ‘The overall backwater coefficient: K* = Ky + AK, = 0.72 40.11 = 0.83, a _ 19.500 Va #2 = = 7.70 fps. 7 ke 2,534 Salad 2 Vv —@ = 092 ft 2 Using expression (D-4a) (Sec. D4.1), the approximate backwater will be. Se = 0.83 x 1.40 x 0.92 = 1.07 ft. (0-42) o ‘Substituting values in the second half of expression (D-4) for difference in kinetic energy ‘between sections 4 and 1 (Sec. D4.1) where Any = 5664 sq. ft. = Ay, Ay = 6984 sq, ft, and Aro = 2534 50, ft, ey o es)’ Me (0-40) Aa Ai, 2g 1.62 ve [6 ai? - Gai ] ose 142» 042 x 082-008 2) 6.384 Then total backwater produced by the bridge is hy* = 1.07 + 0.06 = 1.13 ft. (D-4) Computation (If). The statemant was made (in Sec. D6.1) that the water surface on the upstream side of the roadway embankment will be essentially the same as that at section 1. ‘Thus, to determine the backwater elevation it is first necessary to locate the position of section 1, which is accomplished with the aid of Figure 0:13. From preceding computations: b = 205 ft. y= Ae 2 2534 tos tt. 205 b 197It is necessary to assume the total drop across the embankments for a first trial (Ah is assumed a5 1,9 ft). Entering Figure D-13 with and ¥ = 12.36, =. ov > and L* = 0.78 x 205 = 160 ft. The drop in channel gradient between sections 1 and centreline of roadway is then SoL1_@ = 0.00049 (160 + 30) = 0.093 ft. The water surface elevation at section 1 and along the upstream side of the roadway embankment will be: El. 28.0+S,L:_@ +h", = 28.0 + 0.09 + 1.13 = El. 29.2 ft. Computation (1g). The first step in determining the water surface elevation at section 3 isto ‘compute the backwater for the bridge in question without piers, as explained in Section D5. V4 = nate sor 1.40 x 0.92 = 0.93 ft. Entering Figure D-12 with M = 0.62, the differential level ratio for the bridge (without piers) is: so (0-6) The placing of piers in a waterway results in no change in the value of hs provided other conditions remain the same (Sec. D5.3), s0 h's (with piers) also equals 0.67 ft. The water ‘surface elevation on the downstream side of the roadway embankment will be essentially El, 28.0 ~ 0.67 = 27.33 ft. ‘The drop in water surface across the embankment is then ‘Ah = 29.22 — 27.33 = 1.89 ft. ‘Since Ah was assumed as 1.90 ft., the computed water surface elevations above are satisfactory. ‘Should the computed value of Ah be materially different from that assumed, another trial will be necessary. 1389.3 Example 2: Skewed Crossing (a) Given A skewed bridge, Figure D-18 on the site chosen in example 1, rather than a normal crossing. From example 1: Q= 19,500 c.f.s. for N.W.S. = 28.0, b= 205, S, = 0.00049, =, = 1.62, M = 0.62, Ag = 5,664 sq. ft, Ay = 6,384 sq. ft. and / = 40 ft i ee. Qs 19,500cfs NWS. 280 Ap2220 SOFT Figure D-18.—Example 2: Plan for shewed crossing 139() To Find Find 2a. Length of skewed bridge required to produce essentially 1.1 feet of backwater as occurred in example 1. 2b. The backwater for bridge length chosen. 2c. The approximate water level at point A on section 1. (©) Computation Computation (2a). The design discharge and normal stage at bridge site are known. The same procedure demonstrated in example 1 is followed, with exceptions as noted. First, the general direction of flow in the river at the bridge site for the design flood, without constriction, is determined. Next, the position and extent of roadway embankments and the type of abutment are superimposed on the stream as illustrated in Figure D:9. The angle of skew is measured, which is 40° in this case: then the bridge opening is projected upstream, normal to the direction of flow, to section 1. Entering Figure D-11, with @ = 40° and M = 0.62. mcr. 0.926, b,Cos¢ = 0.935 x 205 = 192 ft, 192 b= = 250 ft. (approx.). 0.766 Computation (26). The actual backwater produced by the skewed bridge, 250 feet long, will be computed as a check on the above determination as well as to demonstrate the method of procedure. Conveyance and area are both plotted with respect to distance across flood plain at section 1 on Figure D-19. The information needed to construct the chart came directly from ‘Table D-2 which was prepared in connection with the solution of example 1. ‘The first step is to locate the position of the skewed bridge on Figure D-19 and lay off the projected length, b, Cos¢, as shown. Then M is computed as follows: From Figure D-6, the backwater coefficient, K, = 0.77. Note that an extra pier has been added and all are parallel to the direction of flow. The area obstructed by piers, Ap, is now 220 sq. ft. The projected area under the bridge referenced to normal water surface, from Figure D-19 is 140