2 5. Leibniz's Calculator. Like Pascal, Gottfried ce ae a seventeenth-century scientist who recognized the value 0! label machines that could do mathematical calculations and save abor too. He was one of the greatest scientific geniuses of his time, At the age of 26 he taught himself mathematics and then proceeded ‘to invent calculus. Leibniz completed his calculator in 1694. It utilized the same techniques for addition and subtraction ag Pascal's device but could also perform multiplication and divi- sion, as well as extract square roots. However, as was the case with Pascal's device, Leibniz's m— chine was somewhat ahead of its time. Society, for the most part, -— not yet ready. for calculating devices designed to save labor, working models constructed in 1694 and 1704 were never duplicated. 6. Babbage's Analytical Engine. Charles Babbage, a nineteenth Century Englishman, is frequent]: ly considered the father of the modern iter. Alt i i i Ee i ‘though he did not actually build an operational Mentselt, his ideas became the basis for modern computa~ ‘Scanned by TapScannerFig. Se 253s The Sh ae e Bee] 2 TT Ls & ‘Scanned by TapScanner2B In 1822, Babbage began work on a device cali, ine, which was designed to automate a Posie the Ditterence calculating the roots of polynomials. The michine wad tor Principle that, for certain formas, the differ <1 % the certain values is constant. This type of Procedure was used , guently for producing astronomical tables, which were ee Jarly useful for the British Navy for navigational Despite his foresight and his keen ideas, Babbage tae Perseverance to complete the project. Instead, he at the Difference Engine to work on a more powerful device, the Analytical Engine, which was similar in concept to twentieth. » century digital computers. The Analytical Engine was designed to use two types of cards - one, called operation cards, to indicate Fig. 3-6. Holleritn' © Punch-card Machine ieee Hs ‘Scanned by TapScanner24 the specific functions to be ferformed, and the other, cal variable cards, to specify the actual data. This idea of enter: a program, or set of instructions, on cards, followed by data cards, is one method used by modern computers for implementing the stored-program concept. This machine, never realized owing to un- available resources to fund the project and the limited techno- logy of the time. It would have contained many features of present-day computers, including punched-card input, storage unit, arithmetic unit, printing unit, and control by a sequential program. It is interesting to note that Lady Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace (daughter of the poet Lord Byron), worked with Babbage. She wrote a demonstration program for the Analytical Engine. prompting many to refer to her as the first programmer. : Babbage was a mathematician with a considerable interest in tion inspired by the industrialization that characterized his _ e began by applying science to technology in a new and way. Yet he never accomplished his goal and his machine — built. Babbage described in detail what might have j world's first working general-purpose programmable computer. again the technology of the time lagged behind the concep- It would not catch up until half a century after his death. 7. Hollerith's Punched-Card Machine. In the 1880s, Herman Hollerith, a statistician with the US Bureau of the Census, completed a set of machines to help process the results of the er, Hollerith had the advan’ of machine, the data to be pee cards were passed between metal pins ury-filled cups. Whenever a metal pin t passed through the card and made ‘the pin touched the mercury, it apd thus activated a counting S 4 ‘Scanned by TapScannerFARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING WARK T ‘THE ENTAC Scanned by TapScanner26 4-1. RARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING aii the early machines, except for Babbage's analytical en- gine, were essentially single-purpose devices. ‘These eae fesigned to perform a specific task or set of tasks. et Jor Gesv@rtion of the first modern-age machines was its CAPA), Pee perform automatically a long sequence of varied arithmetica: and logical operations. f a working Vorld War II greatly accelerated the development © general-purpose cenit ard many historians say that ae isa particularly fertile period for ‘technological invention, eS of the electronic digital computer clearly supports po: of view. i itomatic Beginning in 1937, Howard Aiken set out to build an aul calculating machine that would combine established technology with the punched cards of Hollerith. The completed device was known as the Mark I digital computer. The first electronic digital computer to be put into full operation was built as @ secret wartime project between 1939 and 4946 at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering. This machine, which used vacuum tubes, was called the "ENIAC" computer. Following the war, work. began on the "EDVAC," a computer which worked on the stored- program concept. Since the 1940s several generations of computers have conti- nously evolved. From first generation to fourth, the trend has been to produce more powerful, ess expensive, smaller, and more reliable computers. 4-2. MARK I : Howard Aiken began work on the Mark I at Harvard University with the assistance of graduate students and engineers from IBM. The project, which was completed in 1944, was known as the Mark I digital computer. The official name of the Mark I was Automatic Sequence cone Calculator. It was approximately 50 feet long ee’ 2 consisted of © parts Severn) banded ieee ey ou The Mark I could perform the ft basic thmetic opera’ and could locate information’ stored a aug ee sy Hasse) numbers up to 23 digits long, and could three digi numbers in 1 second. Internal skiiveptees prs Sees ee ‘Scanned by TapScannerF 7 r dy with electromagnetic relays and the arit! pice ~ It was not an electronic eee cone cal one since it was powered by an electrt Tather and relays. It was also the firgt ,,¢ mtr digital computer. The Mark I is now automatic University- on display at elec’ used 43. ‘THE ENIAC puring World War II, the U.S. government activel; numerous projects that might assist in solving ‘its atve 2 Largely as a result of these wartime needs, Bae at funded a group of young engineers working at the Moore sol of Electrical Engineering of the University of Pennsylva- ‘who proposed the first electronic digital computer to solve problems. the direction of Presper Eckert Jr., and John Mauchly, oped during the period 1943 to 1946. It was the cale vacuum-tube computer. The name ENIAC is an 1 Integrator And Calculator. It vacuum tubes and required the manual desired results. It could: perform ing instructions were not ‘through externally loca- y of 1946, the ENIAC took only two em that would previously cist. The ENIAC'S ation Oy ee er than the best Scanned by TapScanner28 hmetic. The MARK I and the ENIAC i lations. Von both used decimal arithmetic in all their calcu: Neumann showed that binary arithmetic would make for much simpler computer circuitry. Second, the EDVAC would have stored-program capability. He also proposed wiring a permanent set of instruc- tions within the computer and placing these operations under a central control. He further proposed that the instruction codes governing the operations be stored in the same way that the data were stored - as binary numbers. Thus, the EDVAC would have no need for special instruction wiring. Instead, it would process instructions by the same mechanism and as quickly as it processed data. The EDVAC was not the first stored-program machine to go into operation. That honor went to an English-made computer, the EDSAC — (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), in 1949 at Cam- bridge University. Its designer had attended a course of lectures ) on automatic computers at the Moore School, then returned to ) England to build a machine that had a more accurate memory, with smaller capacity, than the EDVAC. EDVAC would employ binary aritl 4-5. OOMPUTER GENERATIONS Fourth-generation computers represent the state of the art today and the fifth generation is on the way. The term "genera- tion" in this context refers to major developments in electronic © data processing. In the computer industry, the word "generation" is used as a term of general characterization rather than absolute distinction. These generations are: i 2 1. First Generation Computers : 2. Second Generation Computers a te . 3. Third Generation Computers 4. Fourth Generation Computers ~ 2 f © 4-6. FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS (1951-1959) With the beginning of the Korean War in 1950, the demand for many different kinds of computation increased greatly. The appearance of the first commercial computer, the UNIVAC, in 1951, marked the beginning of computers belonging to the f: generation. The major innovations then were the use of vacuu tubes in place of relays as a means of storing data Tay oe the use of the stored-program concept. The addition of memory made Scanned by TapScannerthe punched carg The wire board language for py | fithough the vacuum tube was the device that made computers FS tnateny Rie "torel posse: ties any of its early predeces- FE comtene ee SSM taultow Panne of all, it was not a long-live P Fequined git a¥ersge tine’ betwesn cat failures was 12 hours. It Peete SDSS SOA lio tes oe electricity per day to provide Tee heat Reeded to get electrons moving in all of its tubes. Vacuum tubes @ large amount of heat ‘that computers centene pau COnditioning and Special insulation of the tubes to protect the other machine components. Also, the vacuum tube made it necessary to construct enormous and bulky machines, No educational Programs precisely met the juirements of the technology when the first peer eomptsrgietha available. were Pioneering in the use of a new tool not designed their particular needs. Computer installations with a new breed of worke he necessity of Preparing programs in a tedious machine Were the programmers, the computer operators, and the system analysts. Inspite of these obstacles, the computer was soeaito be a fast, accurate, and untiring tool which man badly System and the calculators virtually obsolete. was replaced by computer programs written in a new rocessing, 4-7. SEOOND GENERATION COMPUTERS (1959-1964) Solid-state components (transistors and diodes) and magnetic core ttorage formed the basis for the second generation of computers. The new transistor p generation obsolete. more reliable, and mich greater in qrpacity. Built-in error detecting devices wore Tosecond was becoming the er's access to data and in ng, different languages began to replace “on aes were starting to build super— ‘Scanned by TapScanner30 ; the U.S. govern- computers for scientific research financed by ment. 4-8, ‘THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS (1965-1970) Integrated solid-state circuitry, ime pee suorece devices, and new input/output devices were the mos rest ant advances in this generation. The new circuitry increased the speed of the computer by a factor of about 10,000 over the first generation computers. Arithmetic and logical Coaieniabeies now being performed in microseconds or even nanoseconds. re = related developments that followed. Because of the faster speed o: operation, more than one program could be run through the computer at the same time. The smaller size Se Ee ee power and sto! capacity of computers. signifi . - tion was the eects terminal to permit geographically dispersed users to communicate with a central computer. Unlike the batch processing computer that handled one application at a time, the third generation computer handled many programs and responded to inquiries without delay. The on-line, real-time computer mode became a routine environment with most large’ computers. IBM ushered in the third generation of computing hardware when it announced its System/360 family of computers in the mid-sixties. There began a trend toward standardization and the TBM 360 was intended to standardize a number of computer characteristics, including instruction codes, units of information and arithmetic modes. Machines continued the trend toward miniaturization of circuit components. Further improvements in speed, cost, and storage capacity were realized. © 49. FOURTH GENERATION (1970-Present) - The major innovations were in the development of microelec- tronics and in the development of different areas in computer _ technology such as: multiprocessing, multiprogranming, miniaturi- zation, time-sharing, operating speed, and virtual ‘storage. S of microprocessors, the fourth generation includes large uters that are much faster, much less expensive, and of much ter data processing capacity than equivalent-sized third ration computers. Also, inexpensive minicomputers and e ee oe pee advanced input/output fourth-genera: computers are tical , audio response terminals, and graphic display cerittals ‘Scanned by TapScanner31 DATA PROCESSING 5-1. g-2e 5-5. 5-4. 5-5. 5-6. ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING HARDWARE SOFTWARE PEOPLEWARE ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Speed Accuracy Automatic Operation Decision Making Capability Compact Stoxage Discipline it Imposses THE STORED-PROGRAM CONCEPT Lesson § _ by ‘Scanned by TapScannerScanned by TapScanner33 , The intermediary between users of EDP systems and hardware is systems software and programs written by the users to obtain solutions to their problems are called application software. Often _ the systems software is referred to in brief as software. 5 4 Natural languages like English, used for human communication, _ are not fit for programming EDP systems because of their ambiquity and lack of precision. On the other hand, progranming in a machine language would be exceedingly tedious and would limit the ‘applicability of the programs, since they are not easily trans— ferable to different computers in such form. Users of EDP systems, therefore, program in programming. lang- ges which combine precision of expression with a certain loseness to natural languages on the one hand and the problem to € solved on the other. Programs written in such languages are gely independent of the characteristics of a. particular iter; they are usually easily portable from one machine to ther. A means of translation is required. Programs known as anslators convert source programs into object programs, d in the machine language of the particular computer. Software also includes utility programs (for example, sorting ines) that have been written by systems programmers, rather than users, and are stored in the memory of the computer system. her, in order to assign the needed resources to a program and to mediate between the demands made by various users in a shared stem, a special program is required. This program, which 1 the system resources, including the user's programs, is called supervisor, executive, or operating system. ‘The operating system, along with the language translators, s for data management and communication, and utilities ms, constitute the essential software of an electronic data ing system. An EDP system also contain "Firmware," or rocode instructions, developed by the computer manufacturer to permit tailoring of the system to meet particular data processing equirements. The term “peopleware" represents the personnel involved in ems analysis, programming, computer operations, system main— mg Systems analysis and design are the jobs of development is the specialty of the 7 ‘Scanned by TapScanner34 Progranmer. stems development is carried out by a computer operators, Ad data preparation staff, and output preparation clerks. Output preparation involves collating, bursting, ang binding the reports before they are delivered to the user, Commonly, analysts do some programming in addition to analysis, Correspondingly, progranmers do some systems work in addition to Progranming. Such an arrangement distributes the total work load among the existing staff. It also helps programmers prepare for Greater involvement in systems analysis in the future. ‘5-5. ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING Electronic data processing systems are built to boost produc- ‘tivity and to improve the quality of work. They achieve these _ goals in several ways: + Speed. Since a computer is an electronic device, it operates at te speed of electric flow which is measured in billionths and lonths of a second. It is faster than any other machine d to do similar work. A medium-size computer, for example, erform 500,000 additions in a second; that is, one every Jionths of a second. The speed of operation of a computer 2 roseconds or even in nanoseconds (a id is one billionth of a second). At such speeds, a "can solve in less than a minute problems that would take ten hours on a punched-card data processing system. S operate on data at such phenomenal speeds that they results which ne simply not be feasible otherwise. e, computers can used to provide management with figures on all aspects of its business. With this gers can make more meaningful decisions. g Processing by computers is accompanied by ni The electronic circuitry of computers is ‘machines are progranmed correctly and when the accuracy of the output is system can operate with as much ‘Scanned by TapScanner33 ‘The intermediary between users of EDP systems and hardware is _ systems software and programs written by the users to obtain solutions to their problems are called application software. Often the systems software is referred to in brief as software. ig Natural languages like English, used for human communication, "are not fit for programming EDP systems because of their ambiquity and lack of precision. On the other hand, progranming in a machine language would be exceedingly tedious and would limit the applicability of the programs, since they are not easily trans- _ ferable to different computers in such form. Users of EDP systems, therefore, program in programming. lang- uages which combine precision of expression with a certain closeness to natural languages on the one hand and the problem to be ‘solved on the other. Programs written in such languages are ‘largely independent of the characteristics of a particular computer; they are usually easily portable from one machine to another. A means of translation is required. Programs known as ‘translators convert source programs into object programs, ed in the machine language of the particular computer. Software also includes utility programs (for example, sorting outines) that have been written by systems programmers, rather than users, and are stored in the memory of the computer system. Further, in order to assign the needed resources to a program and to mediate between the demands made by various users in a shared system, a special program is required. This program, which manages all the system resources, including the user's programs, is called a supervisor, executive, or operating system. The operating system, along with the language translators, ams for data management and communication, and utilities ams, constitute the essential software of an electronic data srocessing system. An EDP system also contain "Firmware," or microcode instructions, developed by the computer manufacturer to permit tailoring of the system to meet particular data processing _ The term "peopleware" represents the personnel involved in ems analysis, programming, computer operations, system main- nee, and the like. Systems analysis and design are the jobs of e systems analyst. development is the specialty of the ‘Scanned by TapScanner34 Programmer. Systems development is carried out by a computer operators, thput data preparation staff, and output preparation clerks. Output preparation involves collating, bursting, and binding the reports before they are delivered to the user. Commonly, analysts do some programming in addition to analysis. Correspondingly, programmers do some systems work in addition to Programming. Such an arrangement distributes the total work load among the existing staff. It also helps programmers prepare for greater involvement in systems analysis in the future. 5-5. ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING Electronic data processing systems are built to boost produc- tivity and to improve the quality of work. They achieve these goals in several ways: Speed. Since a computer is an electronic device, it operates at Speed of electric flow which is measured in billionths and ionths of a second. It is faster than any other machine gned to do similar work. A medium-size computer, for example, ‘form 500,000 additions in a second; icroseconds even is one billionth of a second). At such speeds, can solve in less than a minute problems that would take ten hours on a punched-card data processing system. Phenomenal speeds that they ‘imply not be feasible otherwise. be used to provide management with nute figures on all aspects of its business. With this managers can make more meaningful decisions. High speed processing by computers is accompanied by y The electronic circuitry of computers is the machines are programmed correctly and when the accuracy of the output is pees system can operate with as much e electronic system. (Can, be considered as 100% accurate. Checking cir- uit directly into the computer, so that computer are undetected are extremely rare. Because of their 2 Computer systems are capable of processing of data more ‘cheaply than if manual methods are ‘Scanned by TapScannerFig. 5-1. Acc Breve cacatee nic Digitel Compute is a idered 100% Accurate 2. Oap Bea Fig. 5-2. See Ba te are ed rok Gass ct of a Digital joseconds ‘Scanned by TapScanner36 3. Avtomatic Operation. n electronic computer can carry out a Sequence of many data processing operations without human intervention. The various operations are executed automatically by way of a stored computer program. 4. Decision Capability. A computer can perform certain decision instractions automatically. Here a decision consists of two steps: a) Determining whether a certain statement is true or false. b) Based on the result, choosing one or the other course of action out of alternatives included in the computer program. Decision making is often called branching since it causes _ branching out to different places in the computer program. Besides branching, a computer can also be instructed to repeat a list of instructions again and again; this is known as looping. = 5. Compact - Electronic data processing systems have tae “ability to store large amounts of data in a compact and easily etrievable form. Because various computer media can store millions of charac- of Gata in a condensed form, there is a tremendous savings in Storage area required to maintain the vital records necessary ae business environment. an : _ 6. Discipline it Imposses. To solve a problem with a computer you | must, first, understand the problem, and, second, program the computer to give you the right answer(s). Understanding a problem | is one thing, but understanding it to the depth of detail and | insight required to program the computer is a completely difZerent ‘matter. 5-6. THE STORED-PROGRAM CONCEPT /~ Before a computer can actually read data, process it, and produce information, it must read a set of instructions called @ Which actually indicates what processing is required. Programs, like data, are stored in the computer. This arrangement is referred to as the stored-program concept. ‘For example, the computer may have the operation of multi- | plication built into its circuits in much the same way that thé ability to add is built into a simple desk-top adding machine. Th ‘Scanned by TapScanner37 computer must be directed to multiply by some means, just as the adding machine is directed to add by pressing a certain key. There must also be a way to tell the computer where in its internal storage unit it can find the numbers to multiply. Further, the relatively ‘simple operation of multiplication implies other activities that must precede and follow it. In the same manner, any calculating operation involves a number of steps that must be spelled out to the computer: reading, locating numbers in storage, performing the actual calculation, placing the result in storage, and writing out that result at the appropriate time. A calculation procedure, therefore, is composed of a sequence of individual steps that leads to a desired result. The steps are coded as instructions and read into the computer as part of a stored program to direct processing. It is the stored program that makes tne computer "autcmatic." Once the program is loaded and processing is initiated, the stored-prograi instructions are executea, one after another. ito further human intervention is required. Fig. 5-3. Electronic data processing using a small business computer with interactive proces- sing capabilities. Scanned by TapScanner\ 38 ‘A computer can solve a seemingly infinite persia ae jens. To solve a particular problem, one De ae (epee t program designed to solve that type of problem Pee iaeaieeniean|| storage unit of the computer. Any of the common 11 aie Sin be used to do this, because instructions, like Sta Fei expressed in nachine-readable form. After the data ee egal te problem has also been read into storage, operati ; performed on the data to solve the problem. of instructions to direct the The task of writing a series ae The person who — ‘operations of a computer is called programming - writes the instructions is called a progranmer. It is possible for more titan one program to be stored in the computer at any given time. The only requirement is that sufficient storage locations are available for both the prograins ; and necessary data. This is termed multiprogramming. Since only one instruction can be executed at a time, simul- taneous execution of instructions from different programs is not possible. However, the computer can execute instructions from one i Beperatny ea pee tions from another program, then instructions | fl rst program in, and . roces.2i called concurrent Bnocees es Pct eee eae ee Sead ‘Scanned by TapScanner] p art II: Lesson Nos. 6 Thru 10 INTRODUCTION TO ‘COMPUTER CONCEPTS ‘Scanned by TapScannerCOMPUTER SYSTEMS THE COMPUTER CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE 1. General-puxpose Computers 2. Speciat-purpose Computers CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA HANDLED 1. ‘Anafog Computers 2. Digital Computers 3. Hybaid Computers ‘Scanned by TapScanner40 6-1. THE COMPUTER As the name implies the word "computer" comes from the tem to compute, meaning to calculate. It is one word which is used frequently these days, and it is common knowledge that the widespread use of computers is having a tremendous effect on all aspects of human life, both from an individual and a social point of view. Once the exclusive realm of scientists and large businesses, computers are now coming into the household and making ‘themselves known on a personal basis. However, there are still 4 great many people to whom the word "computer" carries the implication of strange, unnecessary, and expensive machines. With good reason, the computer is often compared with the human brain. Like the brain that devised it, a computer can take in data and process it. It can store the data either in raw form or in the form of processing results, and can deliver the raw or processed data to the outside world on demand. But there is a very important distinction between the human brain and a computer: the human brain can think and make decisions | for itself, while the computer can only perform its feats when it has been instructed, or programmed, to do so. And the instructions _ it receives must be prepared by humans, using the organization and problem solving abilities of the human brain. E The computer's storage capacity, or memory, does not yet equal that of the human brain, but computer capacity is rapidly _ increasing. In the future, it will undoubtedly exceed that of the 4 1 Sat So, just what are these devices call computers? In general | &@ Computer is an electronic system designed to manipulate data. | They are machines for storing, Moving, adding and subtracting, and ee : All computers have four basic functions in ai] computers, from the largest general’ pursee mare freee toe * ses i _ Smallest personal computer. oor mete “a Since computers are, after all. onl: hi initiative and cannot do any useful’ york Aneta re, properly prepared. This is done by providing them | of instructicns called a program. i i : its operational tions. Again, a computer will perform only wna : w y wnat it it does not have the ability to evaluate information aay cae ‘Scanned by TapScannerad OTE Fig. 6-1.: Introducing the Computer = 09) A Ss a A * iy, ayo ONY : 72|Lo,Po)i{eeleo ' is 2 A In ch 3 - * ‘2 ' A S O| 41 ‘Scanned by TapScanner42 : i i if a computer does do appropriate action on its own. In fact, i . something other than instructed, it means that one or more of its Components is defective. This characteristic of computers means that human beings must prepare detailed instructions outlining the ©xact operations which are to be performed; the computer then carries out these instructions at high speed and with great accuracy. In the few years since it was developed, the computer has Profoundly affected society. We often hear of new ways in which the computer has changed ways of doing things. It helps to predict our ‘electigns, guide our austronauts in space, control our traffic, forecast the weather, compute our bank statements, and oes hundreds of other tasks ‘that were unheard of a generation ago. Computers are not all alike. Just like people, they differ in puters can pepeatance, and capability. Also, like people, can perform different tasks, but all computers have ‘some activities in common. : iy ee ee : tong the various: categories of computer BS ao Sean, Commuters May be classified Huey Use, and also sonata Of Processing