Contents % Z Ss Quadratic expressions and Chapter 7: Angre properties of a circle equations Chapter Angles subtended by an arc or a chord ... 38 Factorizing quadratic expressions... 1 Angies subtended by equal ares or Perfect squares 2 chords at the circumference .. 38 Completion of squares 3 Angles in a semicircle 40 Derivation of the quadratic formula... 6 Cyd uauusaasiae a Forming quadratic equations ate ter 8: Transformations Chapter 2: Irrational numbers af Geometric transformations cr Rational and irrational numbers. Sr lesa leer eoeaumuatinaas e Simplifying surds . : 9 i _ Enlargement. 47 Order of surds i 10 sasaast Like and unlike curds 8 suse 10 Chapter 9: Exponential and logarithmic ‘Multiplication involving surds functions Rationalizing denominators Porat ss Chapter 3: Chord properties of a circle The laws of indices 53 tee 14 The logarithmic notation 58 Angles subtended by an arc or chord... 14 os taser 2 7 Properties of chords a... 15 mplifying logarithmic expressions ...... 59 Solving logarithmic equations .. 60 Chapter 4: Algebraic fractions Chapter 10: Change of subject of Simplifying algebraic fractions wenn 20 boca Substitution... a Factorization. 2 a Formulae. i weve 62 Changing the subject of a formula enn. 62 Chapter 5: Sets eee Chapter 11: Trigonemtey The universal se.. a6 oe fara et The complement of a set. 127g The tangont of an anBle won 64 ‘The union of 88 sani 27 J The sine of an angle 4 ‘The number of clements in a set .......... 27), The cosine of am angle... ot Intersection Of $€18 vajesseaeeererenneeee 28 é Complementary angles . Vern diagrams ...ssee seve 29 Qe, sines and cosines... 65 ‘Trigonometric ratios for some angles Angles of elevation and depression ..... Bearings Chapter 6: Mapping and functions Mapping... ‘Types of correspondences Funetions... Domain and range Chapter 12: Similarities Properties of similar figuies Areas of similar figures Graphical representation of functions.Chapter 13: Coordinate geometry ‘The gradient of a straight line... ‘The equation of a straight line ‘The general equation of a straight line... 87 ‘The x-intercept of a line ‘The graph of a straight line . ‘The gradients of parallel lines .. ‘The gradients of perpendicular lines Chapter 14: Variations Direct variation Inverse variation. Joint variation .... Partial variation Chapter 15: Inequalities Inequalities on a number line Solving linear inequalities. 101 102 ‘Compound inequalities... Graphs of linear inequalities ... Inequalities with two variables ... Graphical solutions of simultaneous inequalities Interpretation of regions ..... Chapter 16: Graphs of quadratic ‘equations Drawing graphs of quadratic equations Graphical solutions of quadratic EQUELIONS -neseeseteretnnnen Graphical solutions of simultaneous equations... snnens Chapter 17: Statistics Grouped and ungrouped data... Histograms Frequency polygons -. 103, 104 = 105 106 107 121 122 124 in103 104 105 ous 106 .. 107 ‘ions... us Chapter i Quadratic expressions and equations Factorizing quadratic expressions In Form 2, all the quadratic expressions we factorized except those with a difference of squares, had 1 as the coefficient of the quadratic term such as in, 34-344 2, 2 — 6x ~7 and so on. Consider the expression 257 + 10x + 12. By i , 2is common in all the three terms. Factorizing 2 gives 2(x2 + 5x + 6). The expression x* + 5x + 6 can be factorized further into (x + 2)(x + 3), Therefore, the expression 2x" + 10x + 12 has three factors. ‘That is, 2x? + 10x + 6 = 2(x + 2)(x +3). Ic is important to inspect all the terms of quadratic expressions in order to identify and factorize the common factors. Example 1.4 Factorize: (a) 3x*—21x +36 (b) 8e°-32 Solutions (a) By inspection, Bx 21x + 36 = 362-7 + 12) = B(x A)(x-3), (b) By inspection, Bx ~ 32 = B(x? - 4) (P27) = 86+ 2)(~ 2). Exercise 1.1: Factorize: | 4e- 12048 2, 2xt + 162+ 30 | B.Se-27e +24 4, SP 5y—30 | $. 2+ 2-60 6, 312 36-84 7. 2x82 8. 4522 592 | 9. 12m? ~ 27 10, 6 — 600" in, & 2B e_2 wu ¢-8 2. S-E . 5 20%? p 13, 3 OE 14, Consider the expression 2x? + 7x + 6, In this case, there is no common factor among the three terms and the coefficient of x*is not 1. In onder to factorize 2x? + 7x + 6, proceed as follows: Step 1: Multiply the coefficient of x? by the ‘constant term, In this case, 26 = 12, ‘Step 2: Obtain two factors of the above product (12) whose sum is the coefficient of x In this case, the coefficient of x is 7. ‘The factors are 3 and 4 since 4 + ‘Step 3: Rewrite the coefficient of x as the sum. of the factors obtained in Step 2. In this case, 7x = 4x + 3x. Step 4: Pair up the four terms and then tactorine “Chat is, 4 Oe dy $6 2x? + Bx)4(4e + 03 Fx(Qet 342 Wey Example 1. Factorize: i () Bé- 844d ey ae tl (©) 2x + 7x15 Sotutions aH (@) 3-844 ~. 3X4 = 12, The factors of 12 whose sum is -8 are ~6 and ~2. Therefore, Bx? Bx +4 = 3x + (6 +-2)x 44 3x? 6x— 2044 3x(—2) - 26-2) (@-2Gx-2). Altways ensure thatthe expression in the two pairs of brackets are identical to be able to factorize the expression. (b) 5x°~13x-6 5% (6) =~30.The factors of -30 whose sum is -13 are -15 and 2. Therefore, 5a 132-6 = 5x? + C15 + 2)2—-§ 5x2 ~ 15x + 22-6 Sx(x~3) + 20-3) (@-3)Gr+ 2), corm 1(©) 2x9 + 7x- 15 2x(-15) = -30. The factors of -30, whose sum is 7, are~3 and 10.Therefore, 2x2 + Tx - 15 = 2x? + (-3 + 10)x- 15, = 2x2 = 3x+ 10x15 = x(2x -3) + 5Qx-3) = (2x— 3) + 5). Example 1.3 Factorize 4x? + 6x — 18. Solution 4x? + 6x - 18 4X (-18) = -72. The factors of -72 whose sum _ is 6 are 12 and -6. ‘Thus, 4x2 + 6x ~ 18 = 4x7 + 12x~ 6x — 18 = ax(e + 3) - 6(¢+ 3) = (+ 3)4x- 6) ‘The factor (4x ~ 6) must further be factorized to 2(2x~ 3). Therefore, 4x2 + 6x - 18 = 2(x + 3)(2x—3). Alternatively, by inspection, 2 is @ common factor in 4x? + 6x ~ 18. Therefore, 4x2 + 6x — 18 = 2(2x7 + 3x9). But, 2x2 + 3x-9 = 2x? + 6x 3x-9 5 2x(x +3) 3x +3) + 3)(2x-3). ‘Therefore, 4x2 + 6xc— 18 = 2(x + 3)(2v-3). Alkoays ensure that all the factors are completely factorized. Exercise 1.2 1, Factorize: @ 3e+4v41 © 6a-a-2 (©) 21x? + 2x-8 (@) 2x? 21x+ 10 (h) 8x*~ 10-3 (b) 2x? + x-3, (@) 3x 112-20 ©) 202-230 + 6| | @ 9x -8x- 2. Factorize completely: (a), 12x?- 24x +9 (b) 12x? + 2x-2 (© 4x2 + 22x 424 (@) 6x*- 32-30 @ 6x8 +5x-1 Perfect squares E ‘Numbers such as 1, 4 and 9 can be written % as P, 2? and 3? respectively. Such numbers a written in the latter form are called perfect @ ‘squares, Remember: « @ + 2ab+ B= (at Dard = (at by @—2ab + B = (a—bYla-b)= (a—By. So ‘The expressions above are called perfeet @ square identities. Similarly, we can write 2+ 2x-+ 1 as (x + 1)% x= dx + 40s (2) 9x? + Ox + Las (Gx-+ 1). Therefore, x¢ + 2x + 137-4044 and 9x? + 6x + 1 are examples of perfect squares. Nc 25, Factorize each of the following expressions qu and express them in the form (x + a) 4 @ #-86416 @) 245245 ise oe Solutions (@) 2-844 16= © (e) e+ Gxt Ex sstieeti 1 ‘Example 1.5 Factorize and express cach of the following expressions in the form (x + a)*. (@) 212x436 b) P+ det Solutions (a) x? — 1x + 36 = 9? ~ 6x - Gx + 36 2. 4 Qed Qe te (x +2) + 2 + 2) (b) P+ 4+a be written ach numbers alled perfeet = at by. 2 (a- by. lled perfect Las (e+ 1) + ort Las Iyxt-4etd es of perfect g expressions tay. 14 stro 4» the following tact 6x + 36 6(x- 6) -6) x44 2+ 2) Example 1.6 Factorize and express each of the following quadratic expressions in the form (ax + 8)* (@) 42+ 20e+25 9 () OF + 12e44 (© get dee ‘Solutions (a) 4x? + 20x + 25 4X25 = 100. The factors of 100 whose sum is 20 are 10 and 10. Therefore, 42 + 20x + 25 = dx? + LOx + 10x + 25 = 2x(2x + 5) + 5(2x+5) = (2x + 5)Qx +5) = (Qe +5) Note: : 25, the constant term in 4x2 + 20% + 25, is the square of 5, the constant term in (2x + 5). 4, the cosfficient of x? in 4x° + 20x + 25, is the square of 2, the coefficient of x in (2x + 5). (b) Ot + 12844 By inspection, 93° + 12x+4= Gx +2) since 3 and 2 are the square roots of 9 and 4 respectively. 4s © get det Byinspection, 3px + 3x41 Exercise 1.3 1, Express each of the following quadratic expressions in the form (+ a), (@) ¥-2e+1 (b) x -10x+ 25 © toxt9 @ eeeet © e+3e+5 O # @ @- fat G @ m-dm+ 36 a 2 @ Ee, @ wrranta Q e- hat 2, Express each of the following quadratic expressions in the form (ax + B)*. (@) 42+ 12249 (b) Ox + 6x +1 (© 162-841 (@) 42-204 } wy 2.4 (©) 25:8 + 30x +9 () pxt- 5x4 ig Completion of squares ‘What must be added to x’ + 10x in order t make it a perfect square? Remember that: (x +2)?= x2 + 4x +4 (+3) = 46x49 (e- 6)? =x? - 12x + 36 Note that in each of the quadratic perfec square above, the constant term is the squar xa): of half ofthe coefficient of =: Thus, (2 6)" = 36, Therefore, in the expression x* + 10x, th coefficient of x is 10. Half of 10 is 5 and th square of 5 is 25. Hence, 25 must be adde: to x? + 10x in order to make it a perfec square, Thus, x¢ + 10x + 25 = (x +5)%. Example 1.7 ‘What must be added to each of the followin expressions to make them perfect squares? 2 (@) 2-18 (b) S+3x (©) + Gx Solutions (a) In x?— 18x, the coefficient of x is -18. 2 We must add (1x18) = C9 = 8 to make x* — 18x a perfect square Therefore, x ~ 18x + 81 is a perfec square. (0) In x + 3x, the coefficient of x is 3. W 2 fst 9 must add {1 mies ® make i stadd (13.3) = (2)' = f tomakei a perfect square. Therefore, 2 +3x+ 4 is a perfect square. © 2 Inx? + 3.x, the coefficient of x is 5.W. aPC fmm must add (2) = (4 a perfect square. Therefore, x? + 2x4 } is a perfect square.What must be added to each ofthe folowing expressions to make them perfect squares? (@) 47-12% (b) 9x? + 5x © 944 @ -42x4+9 Solutions (@) In 43* - 12x, we must first factorize the (b) © factor 4. Thus, 44 — 12v= 4(4? ~ 3x). We then complete the square of the ‘expression within the brackets. In x? —3x, the coefficient of xis -3. Half of -3 is —? Thus, and the square of 4(e? 3048) = ae 120+9= (24-3), We must add 9 to 442 ~ 125 to make ita pesfeer square, is 2 In 9x7 + 5x, we must first factorize the factor 9. Thus, 9x° + 5x = 92°43), Ina? + 5. the coefficient of xis 3. Within the brackers we add (13) 25 Thos ost xt ZB) moe tsee ae) Therefore, we must ada 2540 9+ 52 to make it a perfect square. nt 25 ( 5 9 + 5x4 5248 ‘The missing term is the term in x, Let the term to be added be ax. Thus, 9x8 + ax + 4 = Gx + n)?, where nis a constant. That is, 927 + ax + 4 = 9x! +. 6nx + rf Comparing the corresponding terms, the constant terms give 1? = 4 sm dD The terms in x give a = 6n “either @ = 6X2 ora = 6x-2 Wora=-12 ‘The missing term is either 12 or -12x. @ Exercise 1.4 ‘What must be added to each of the following expressions in order to make them perfect squares? The missing term is the coefficient of x2 Let the coefficient of x* be a. ‘Thus, ax? —42x+ 9 = (ne +m)? where nand m are constants. This means that, ax? ~ 422+ 9 = nix + Qumx + me, Comparing the corresponding terms gives 2nm = -42 and m? = 9, From mi = 9, m= 43. When m=3, 6 = 42 When m = ‘Therefore, n = +7. Comparing the coefficients of x, ‘Thus, the missing term ig 49.2, + 49x* ~ 42x + 9 is a perfect square, Le x? + 8x 2. 2 - 2x | | Bama 4 +50 | spt ‘ 7. 4x2 + 16x 8. 9, 36a’ + 60a 10. ll, x7 +49 12. 13, 24x +16 4 fis. fared 16. ~ 602 +25 [ecoriete _| Completing the square to solve equations Perfect squares are useful in solving quadratic equations. For example, when x’ = 25, taking the square root of each side we get: 25 ‘The two solutions are —5 and 5. Au quadratic equations must have two solutions.cof 2 where vs that, terms sare. slowing perfect quations quadratic 25, taking, rave two Example 1.9 Solve for x 2 @) HBP AD ©) @r- 1? = 10 5 Solutions i (@) (+3) =49 If we take the square root of each side (8) wwe get, x+3=+ 49 x4 3247. Bither, x + 3 =7, therefore x=4 ~1, therefore x =-10. ®) @e-1? 210 2-1 =4v10 = £3,162 (0 3.d.p). Either, 2x ~ 1 = 3.162, therefore 2x = 4.162 x =2.081 162, therefore ©) orx43 Remember that every positive number has two square roots, a positive one and a negative one, However, there are other quadratic equations that cannot be solved using the method shown above, because the quadratic expression is neither in the form (x + a)? nor (ax + BY. For example, consider ax +3=0, In order to complete the square, we need only x2 — 8x. Therefore, we subtract 3 from each side of the equation and then complete the square. “Thus, 8x = -3. Then, (}x-8) = 16 We complete the square by adding 16 to each side, Thus, 2 - 8x + 16= -3 + 16 @-4y = 13, g-452N3 =+3.606 (to3d.p.). Bither x - 4 = -3,606, meaning x or— 4 = 3.606, meaning + = 7.606. Example 1.10 Solve each of the following equations by completing the square. Solutions xé+5x-2=0 (b) 2x-7x-4=0 a+ 5x-220 32 + 5x = 2 (Add 2 to each side) 2.872 (103 dp.) Bither, x + 2.5 =-2.872, therefore 72, or x + 2.5 = 2.872, therefore x = 0.372. 2x2 —Tx-4 When solving quadratic equations by completing the square, always divide both sides by the coefficient of x, Thus, 7 x—2= 0 Wivide both sides by 2) which means x = 2 1 orx- 7 which means x Pele[Exercise 1.5 1, Solve cach of the following equations, siving your answers correct to 4 sf. | @ @-19=16 ©) @+7=81 © +929 @) Gxe-1)'=25 | © @e+D'=7 Gx-4?=30 @ (e-af=2 @ Geafas | 2. Solve each ofthe following equetions by | completing the square. (a) P+ 6x24 | © #-5x-1 | © 2t-B-7=0 3+ 10e+8=0 | @ 32+ 9x-2=0(b) 3x? 5x = @ 42+ 8-3 = 0G) 28- 6x +3=0 @ 3x* + 12e-5=3() 2-6-5 =0 (aay loy=5 (58 +x-1=0 | (b)x8~3x=8 @a2+x-13=0 | Derivation of the quadratic formula ‘The general quadratic equation is in the form axt + bx + ¢ = 0, We can use the method of completing the square to establish a formula for solving the equation. * Consider the equation ax + by + ¢= 0. 0 (Divide both sides by a) et bea & xt be = % (Subtract £ from each side) weber E (Complete the square by adding (} x 8 to both sides.) (Find the square root of each side) bg stee abies fom “2a 2a each side) ‘Therefore, x = “2+ v6* 4a 2a ‘This is called the quadratic formula. It gives the values of x for any values of a, b and «, provided 8° ~ dac is not negative. The expression 6* ~ dac is called the discriminant. The value ofthe discriminant helps to determine the number of solutions ofa quadratic equation, as the following cases show. (@) When 6° ~ 4ac > 0, the quadratic equation has two different solutions, (b) When 6? ~ 4ac = 0, the quadratic equation has two equal solutions. (© When b* — aac < 0, the quadratic equation has no solution. In this case, you will be required to find the square root of a negative number, which is not possible. Your calculator will show ‘ERROR’. At this level, you will hardly meet a case such as this, but should you encounter it, check your work thoroughly for any wrong working or wrong substitution, ‘Using the quadratic formula to solve quadratic equations Example 1.11 ba Use the formula x = 44 to solve 2a the following equations: @ o+ort4 (b) 292-750 © 2¢+7x~5=0 Solutions @) Ina? + 6x4 a=1,b=6, Substituting for a, band cin a lesuwencam|es 2 om mula. It fa,band led the riminant solutions ‘ing cases aadratic tions. aadratic a aadratic his case, ve square ch is not ill show ill hardly ould you roughly = wrong to solve to solve Forming quadratic equations Often there are situations that require the use ‘of quadratic equations to find solutions to given situations. “The hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is 13 em, Find the other two sides if their lengths differ by 7 em. Solution ‘Therefore, x = —2* x Aen, Let the shorter side be x cm. The other side is x +7 cm. Using the Pythagoras’ theorem, 94 ves Get Tt = 1 a + Lax + 49 +e 2x? + 142-120 x4 Tx-60=0 (5) + 12)=0 x-5=0oret+12=0 x 12. Length is always positive, therefore, x= 5 cm. ‘The other side is 5 + 7 = 12 cm. The sides of the criangle are 5 cm, 12 cm and 13 cm. Ramee “The sum of two numbers is 10 and the sum of their squares is 80. Use this information to form a quadratic equation and solve it. © In2e+7x- Therefore, x Solution Let one of the numbers be x. The other number is 10-. ‘Which means, ? + (10 - x)? = 80 ‘Therefore, x° + 100 ~ 20x + x7 = 80 2x2 — 20x + 20 = 0 x'— 10x +10 =0 4.1085 of 0.6085. a=1,6=-0, c= 10. Guseelé | Trretore, ~10) + {es0F— 20x00 ‘Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations. | i @+3xt1=0 9 2 t-dx+2=0) -2y-7=0 4 2 43x-9=0 Oak + 6x 1=0 6. 3-2-3 =0 Sxi+8x-2=0 8 47-5 Ox? + 1841 =0‘Use the information given to form an equation in each case. 1. Two consecutive odd numbers are such that their product is 35. Find the numbers. 2. Two consecutive integers are such that the sum of their squares is 145. Find the numbers. 3. A rectangle is such that its length is 5 cm longer than its width. Ifits area is 84 cm, find the dimensions of the rectangle, 4. Nabwire isn years old. Her mother’s age is (n?—4) years and her father is 6 years older than her mother. If the combined age of all the three is 76 years, form an ‘equation in n form and solve it. How old is the father? 5. The lengths of the two shorter sides of a right-angled triangle differ by 3 cm. If} 6. a 8. the area of the triangle is 104 om, find the length of the shortest side. A ball is thrown down vertically. The distance, s metres, it has fallen through after t seconds is given by the formula s = 91+ 42. Find how long it takes to cover 120 m downwards. Mbewe is three times as old as his! daughter Chifundo, Five years ago, the] =: product of their ages was 400. Find their Present ages, A rectangular lawn measures 14 m by 8 m, Itis surrounded by a path of uniform width, If the area of the path is 48 m?, find its width. A right-angled triangle is such that the ‘two shorter sides are (2x + 1) cm and (Sx—3) cm. If the area of the triangle is 42 cm®, find the lengths of the two sides. 7 Find the coordinates of two points on the curve y= 2x? + x—10 when »= 5. cad cr YA y¥, find y. The ough mula s| >eover as his 0, the their nby8 aiform 48 mY, rat the m and gle is > sides. nts on 225. Chapter 2 Irrational numbers Rational and irrational numbers Rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed in the form }, where @ and 6 are both integers and 6 is not zero, For example 3, 3, 5450-43, 0.6 and so on are rational numbers. Each of these numbers can be 32 expressed as a fraction ie. 2, 2, 4, 43, 2 Numbers that cannot be expressed in form are called irrational numbers. Examples ofirrational numbers are x, /2, 3,5 and soon. When irrational numbers are expressed as decimals, the decimal continues without end and without recurring in a pattern. For example, v2 = 1.4142135... and = 3.141592... The roots of rational numbers that give irrational numbers are called surds. The presence of a root sign does not necessarily ‘mean that the number is a surd. Thus, 25,364 and %32 are not surds because 25 = 5,364 = 4 and {32 Simplifying surds In order to simplify a surd, the number under the root sign should be expressed as a produet of two factors, such that one factors a perfect root. Example 2.1 ‘Simplify: @M2 © 2 © %50 (a) 3 Solutions (@) 42 =yl4x3) = 4x3 = 203 (b) \32 =lhex2) © %250= 3125x2) = 4125 x Conversely, surds such asa’ anda can be expressed as roots of single compound numbers of the form ¥a"6 and %6"a. Thus, 35 = 3? x V5 =Vox5 = 45. Example 2.2 Express the following as roots of a single compound nuinber. (a) 43 (b) 5\7 (© 2%5 Solutions @ 4\3 =v# x V3 =16x3 = 48. (b) SVT =v? xV7 =V/25x7 = 17S (©) 235 =429 x¥5 = Ys x5 = Yexs = ¥40 Exercise 2.1 : 1. State which of the following numbers are rational and which ones are irrational numbers. @s 2 © 168 @ ©: ©% @ i @ vo @ 3m @) 0.3 ) %25 Wy 40.008 2. Which of the following numbers are surds? Which ones are not surds? 2 @) %% ) v6 = @ 500 @ V2 (© 243 vO.0064 2 ny fT @ i000. ) a5 0 Va 3. Simplify each of the followirig numbers, (@ vis @ V700 © VI5 (@ vi28) @ %4000 28 ) ¥64 — (h) V20000 4405 4. Express each of the following numbers as roots of a single number. (@) 27 (b) 305 (0) 4v13 (a) 33 (©) 76 (©) 223 (w) 62 (520 |Order of surds The order of a surd is the index of its root. ‘Thus, V3 is of the 2" order, 22 is of the 3 order and Wa is of the n order. Surds of different orders can be compared by expressing them as surds of the same order. This is obtained by expressing the given orders in their lowest common multiple. Arrange v5.47 and 12 in ascending order. Solution. ‘The orders are 2, 3 and 6 respectively. The LCM of 2, 3 and 6 is 6. ‘The ascending order is 12, 27, V5 Like and unlike surds A surd such as av/b has two factors, t rational factor a and the irrational factor vb Surds are alike if they have the same irrational factor, otherwise they are unlike. For example, V3, 2V/3,-343,43 are like surds because they all have the same irrational factor v3. But 5/2 and 5V3 are unlike surds because V2 and V3 are different. Show that (27, Vi and {3} are ike suds. Solution ‘Simplify cach of the surds. V27 =V9x3 =3V3. AB = Vax = 203. aa Bo ad 10 “Therefore, ¥27,,/12 and 8 are like surds ‘because they all have v3 as the irrational factor. When we simplify expressions involving surds, we add or subtract the coefficients of the irrational factors. Thus, avb + cvb =(atarvb Example 2.5 ‘Simplify the following expressions. (@) vI8 +2v2 +42 (b) Vi2 +4128 ~ 98 +37 - v36 © 28 + 2250 Solutions (a) VIB +22 + \2 =vOx2+2V2 +2 J2 4242 + 2 42. (&) Vi2 +128 —.98 +27 - v36 = 2\3 +8.2 -7V2 +33 -6 =5\3 +.2-6 © Yee + 2250 = ¥64 x i243 Example 2.6 In triangle ABC, AB = 5 cm, BC = 10 cm and ZBAC = 90°. Find the length of AC Leave your answer in surd form, Solution Sem Figure 2.1 ‘Using the Pythagoras’ theorem, "re like surds tional factor. s involving coefficients 1b +evb 8 36 baz +2 22 + 42 \36_ 33-6 = 10cm gth of AC. Exercise 2.2 1. Simplify each of the following expressions. (a) 6v2 + V2 (b) 5v5 -2V5 + V5 (© V80 +45 - 25 (@) 137 ~Y63 - y28 @ Vas sais - @) V27 ~A2 +275 @ \50 +332 - V8 (h) vi7 +v68 - v20 @ Yi +5%192 @ %2 +3%ed + B02 2. In each of thie following triangles, find the missing length, leaving your answer in surd form. @ am im &) i3.cm 9cm| © bem bem Multiplication involving surds Surds are multiplied in the same way as algebraic terms. The rational factors and irrational factors can be multiplied separately. For example, 5/3 X43 = (5%4)V3 x \3 20%3 ei Remember that, V3 x 3 =3? x 3? va x ~ or ¥3 x 3 (8) (3) =3). ‘Thus, the product of two like surds of order 2.is always rational. + How many like surds of order 3 are required to give a rational product? The product of two unlike surds is always irrational. For example, 42 x75 = (4x7) V2 x5 = 2810 os Example 2.7" ‘Simplify: (@) VIB x 32 (© (+3) (4+v3) (b) 48 x 452 Solutions (@) Vi8 x 32 = 3 v2 xav2 = (3x4) 2 x V2 = 12x2 = 24. (b) 48 x 432 = V6 x V3 x Vi44 x V5 4V3.x12V3 = (4X12) vB x V3 483 144. © (2+43)(4+.3) zt = 2(4+9/3) +43 (4403) 284243 +403 + (V3 =84+6\3 +3 =11 +63. Always remember to simplify the surds first before mudsiphying. a ood ivExercise 2. | 3x4 y3, 2. V6 x Vid | 3. axe 4, 5V3 X73 |S 3x87 6. WB xyio aH | 1. 3RX 3H 8 V2x(6-V3) 9. AB x52 10. 50 x 138 1. GBP aa, iT x (023 + Vii) 13. 712 *3V3 14, (544) (V5-42) (18. 742" 16, x7 8d | m.Ay 17. 63-1" 4g, (5 +4) 19. V5xVa 20. (47+ 5) (47-3) 3 Z = a1. (4%2) 22. (Va +6) (Va ~ vb) 23. (8V3 - 34/2) (v3 — 3) eee Rationalizing denominators ‘We have seen tliat when a surd of order two is multiplied by itself, a rational product is 5. This is obtained. For example, +5 x called rationalizing the surd, When a fraction has a surd in the denominator, we normally rationalize the denominator by multiplying the numerator and the denominator by a surd thar will make the denominator rational. This process is called rationalization of the denominator. 1s ae For example,’ 3 ‘This method works in the same way as equivalent fractions, ae Itis important to note that “2 = 1,"That is, L we have multiplied (5 by 1 Example 2.8 Rationalize the denominator in: 2 5 Oy © 55 Solutions 2 wz 2 _ 2 re =a Consider the produce (s5 + W3\5 ~1). In Form 2, we learnt about the product of (@ + d)(a ~ 6) which gives a difference of squares. Thus, (a + 6)(a ~ 8) = a — 6 ‘Therefore, expanding(y5 +»’3) (5-3) should give(v5)° — (3) Also, (v7 -4) (V7+4) =(v7P? _ 42 7-16 (63 +62) (5\3 ~6.2) =(6y3)- (6a) = 25x3 ~36x2 = 75-72 =3. Such surds, whose products are rational, are called pairs of conjugate surds. In order to rationalize surds with denominators of more than one term, we multiply the denominators by their conjugates, Example 2,9 Rationalize the denominator of each of the following numbers. ae 7 On OFF ads3). ct of 2 of ve 3) a Solutions @ sane (itesaKviesa) Geateea) (iP sa5) (P43? T42/9143 © yee 9 anit BBB ™ aida 1513493 10 ip (18/5 +042) 16 (03 +\2)- We only rationalize the denominator. Exercise 2.4 Simplify by rationalizing the denominators. + a5 1. Simplify: , (a) ¥864 (&) vi20. (©) 50 +32 —/8 @638-F © 2s+ © ear = mand5 =p, rationalize the denominators and express your results in terms of n, m and p. For 1s a 0 @ a ORChord properties of a circle Parts of a circle Figure 3.1 illustrates various parts of a circle. A circle is a line which curves and joins up with itself such that any point on the line is at equal distance from a fixed point. siento elgrd (CD) a / ( 9 ) A 2. iB iomster (AB) centre (O) ‘minor are(PRO) So maior major segment + 8 major arc(PSQ) Figure 3.1: Pars of a circle Circumference is the length of the curved line forming the circle. An are is part of the circumference. A chord is any straight line joining two points on the circumference. A diameter is any chord passing through the centre of the circle. A segmentis any region enclosed by a chord and an are. A sector is the area enclosed by two radii and an are, A semicircle is enclosed by an arc and the diameter, Angles subtended by an arc or a chord In Figure 3.2(i), the minor are, ABC, subtends ZADC at the circumference of the circle. In other words, ZABC is opposite ADC. However, in Figure 3,2(i), the same minor arc, ABC, subtends ZAOC at the centre of the circle, Ao \ 4 B Pe Bf 28 Ip ¢ “a c @ @ Figure 2.2 Ifpoints A and C are joined by a straight line in Figure 3.2(i), chord AC or are ABC. subtends ZADC ar the circumference while in Figure 3.2(ii), chord AC or are ABC subtends ZAOC at the centre. Angles subtended by an arc or a chord in the same segment at the circumference Draw a circle using a suitable radius as shown in Figure 3.3, Take a minor arc, ABC, and points D, E and F on the circumference. Join A and C to points D, E and F as shown in the figure. Measure angles AFC, AEC and ADC accurately. Figure 3.3 Youwillnote that ZAFC= ZAEC = ZADC. Angles subtended by the same arc or chord at the circumference in the same segment are equal.ord Bc, the vsite ame the line BC hile BC Properties of chords Achord is a straight line joining any two points on the circumference of a circle. Perpendicular bisector of a chord Activity: Drawing a perpendicular bisector of a chord 1. Draw a circle of any radius. 2. Draw any chord, AB, not passing through the centre of the circle. 3. Construct a perpendicular bisector of the chord, AB, as shown in Figure 3.4 below. Figure 3.4 4. Measure AN and BN. ‘¢ What do you notice? The perpendicular bisector of the chord passes through the centve of the circle. In Figure 3.5, OM is perpendicular to AB at N, Show that OM bisects AB at N. Figure 3.5 From the figure, OA = OB (radit of the circle). OM is perpendicular to AB at N. Therefore, in the right-angled triangle OAN, AN? = OA? ~ ON? (Pythagoras’ theorem) =P-ON% In the right-angled triangle OBN, NB? = OB? — ON? (Pythagoras” theorem) =P-ON* ‘This means AN? = NB®, which implies thet AN = NB. Therefore, OM bisects AB at N. “This property can be used to find the lengths of chords. #Which of the following statements is true? (@ The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of the circle. (b) A perpendicular line to a chord drawn from the centre of the circle bisects the chord. (© Aline that bisects a chord passes through the centre of a circle. (Example 3.1 Figure 3.6 is a circle with the centre O, and a radius of 5 cm. The chord AB is 8 cm. Figure 3.6 Find the length of the perpendicular line ON. Solution Since ON is perpendicular to AB, then AN= NB (perpendicular bisector from the centre). Considering the right-angled triangle ONB, NB=4em, ON? = OB? - NBF (Pythagoras’ theorem) 15Lengths of ares Figure 3.7 is a circle with the centre O, and radius r cm. The minor arc AB subtends an. angle 0° at the centre of the circle. Figure 3.7 ‘The length of the minor arc AB is given by ° rmula <2 x2nr, the formula 575 x2nr. Example 3.2 Find the length of an are that subtends an angle of 72° at the centre of a circle of radius 3.5 cm.Take n= 22, Solution Are length = 2. x2nr 2 = 12 wax 2x35 440m. Example 3,3. ‘The length ofa chord of a circle is 6 cm. The cizcle has a radius of 5 cm. Find: (@) the angle the chord subtends at the centre, (b) the length of the arc that subtends the angle in (a). Solutions Figure 3.8 represents the circle, ( \ = iv Figure 3.8 7 (@ (b) Arc length AB = Using the property of perpendicular bisectors of chords, the angle at the centre, that is, ZAOB can be found. From the figure, sind=} = 0.6 (AN bisects ZAOB and AB) = 36.9° * LAOB = 36.9°X2 = 73.8", Exercise 3.1 1. A perpendicular line from the centre O ofa circle bisects a chord at a point, N. If the length of the chord is 14 cm and the radius of the circle is 15 em, find the perpendicular distance from O to N. ‘The radius of a circle with the centre O is 10 cm. The perpendicular distance from O to a point P on a chord of the circle is 6 cm. Find the length of the chord. ‘The figure below is a circle of centre O, and radius x a 2 Find the radius of the circle if AB and ON = 6 em. ‘The figure below is a circle with centre O. ‘The perpendicular distance from O to the chord XY is 15 cm. The length of the minorareXY = 22cm and ZXOY = 36°. 16cm Find: {@) the radius of the circie. () the length of chord XY.ocular ar the AN mire O int, N mand ind the ON. aire O stance of the of the ure O, 16cm »rothe of the = 36, 5. A circle has two parallel chords on either side of the centre. The chords are cach 10 cm long. If the radius of the circle is 8 cm, find the perpendicular distance | ‘between the two chords. “The figure below is a circle of centre O and a radius of 15 cm. The two chords, AB and XY, are parallel to each other. (ne) IfOM= XN = 9 cm, find: @ AB, (ob) MN. A chord, 18 cm long, is drawn in a circle of radius 15 cm. Find the distance of the chord from the centre of the circle. In each of the following circles, O is the centre, Calculate the length of the minor arc in each circle. ~ @ Accircle has a radius of 21 cm. Calculate the length of an are that subtends an angle of 210° at the centre of the circle. 10. A circle has a radius of 14 cm. Calculate: (@) the length of an arc that subtends an angle of 60° in the circle. : | (b) the engthof the chord that subtends an angle of 60° at the centre, % Equal chords Activity: Determining the properties of equal chords 1. Draw a circle of any radius. 2. Draw two equal chords AB and XY, as shown in Figure 3.9, where AB = XY. inn ss a 3. Draw perpendicular lines from the centre of the circle, O, to cut the chords at N and M respectively. 4. Measure OM and ON. 5. Measure ZXOY and ZAOB. ‘What do you notice? + OM=ON + ZA4OB= £XOY In any given circle: + equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle. equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle. Chords that intersect internally Activity: Determining the properties of chords that intersect internally 1. Draw circle with two chords intersecting | inside the le shown in Figure 3.10 | | “ie PQ and RS intersect at X.2. Measure PX, XQ, RX and XS. 3. Multiply the length of QX by the length of PX and the length of SX by the length of RX. You should notice that, approximately, OXXPX = SXxRX, ‘This relationship can be proved as follows: Consider APXS and AQXR in Figure 3.10. ZPSX= LKR (angles subtendod by equal arcs) ZSXP = LOXR (wertically opposite angles) ZXRQ= ZSPX (angles subtended by equalarcs). ‘Therefore, APXS is similar to AQXR. This implies that, QX:SX = RX:PX or VE = BE Figure 3.12 3. Measure PD, CP, PA and PB, 4. Multiply PD by CP and PA by PB. You should notice that, approximately, PDXCP = PAXPB This relationship can be proved as shown in Figure 3.13. P Figoe 3.33 Figure 3.11 g Given that PX = 3 cm, XQ = 2 cm and MX = 6 om, find XN. Solution NX%XM = XQXXP NXX6 = 2x3 NX = & 6 =1om. Chords that intersect externally Activity: Determining the properties of chords that intersect externally 1. Draw circle with centre O. 2. Draw two chords AB and CD, such that they intersect externally at a point P as shown in Figure 3.12. Consider APCB and AADP. ZBAD=ZBCD (angler subtended by the same are) ZCBA=ZADC (ansis subiened by the same are) ‘This implies that ZADP = 2 CBP. ZAPD is common to both triangles, Thus, & = BP. which means AP ~ DP CPXDP = BPXAP, Figure 3.14cely, an) cr Solution ‘From the figure, ‘TRxTS =TVXUT 7x3 = 6 + a)Xa 21=a'+5a ‘Then we solve the quadratic equation, @+5a-21= 5 25064 2 109 p24 (o2dp) a=-1.72 ot 2.72 UT =2.72em (02 dy Exercise 3.2 1. Ineach of the following figures, find the value of (to 1 dp). Allthe measurements are in centimetres. (@) A z K WL, ir ; : Nut > ) 2. Ss 6. ‘The chord of a circle is 6 cm from the centre of the circle. Find the length of the chord if the radius of the circle is 10 on. PQand RS are parallel chords of a circle of radius 5 cm. If PQ = 6 cm and RS = 8 cm, find the distance between the chords. Give two possible solutions. In the figure below, find the value of x. P ‘The measurements are in metres. ‘Two chords,AB= 13 mand CD =17 cn, intersect in a gircle. Ifthe two chords meet at X and CX'= 14 cm, find AX. In the figure below, O is the centre of the circle of radius 3 em.Chapter 4 Algebraic fractions Simplifying algebraic fractions We simplify algebraic expressions with fractions by adding or subtracting in the same way as we do with numbers. We find the LCM of the denominators and express all the fractions in the expression with the common denominator, Example 4.1 Simplify: @ i+ © © Solutions (@) The LOM of 2 and 3 is 6. ‘The LCM of a, 2a and 3a is 64, @ = 15@42)-102%-n-ex+1) 30 = 15430- 200 +10~6x-6 Sorin = ctes34 a) = Botte * 0 Example 4.2 Express as a single fraction: @ar 2 \ E430 x45m & / 54x (© x~7- 342 Solutions @ at @) © L 3. 3 h 10. uw 12. 13. 14. 1s. 19. 20,(b) The LCM of m and m is mn. t3n _ xt5m _—mGx+3n)— n(x +5) ee 3yn* pe Sr, Exercise 4.1 Simplify: 1 Ft aly el 3 2x 3 7 +1 asd ae eee 6. LA i. 2 ae ty-3 4 2 om 10 15 12. 14. 15. 19%. 20. As with other fractions, multiplication of algebraic expressions involves multiplying the rnumerators as well as the denominators. Thus, 2.22% og” be Whenever there are common factors to both the numerator and the denominator, cancelling by those factors is carried out so that the resulting fraction isin its lowest terms. Example 4.3 : Bab 48m” Gay? | 35a" Simplify: (a) 28 x82 (by) xT imply: @ hon oar ©) Serb * 330" Solutions ab, 48mm? _ 3x axbxABXmIeH XN XM ©) Sm oat = dxmxnrOxe Kart i ant bt 2508? © See 308 © exneyx FRIEND xb = Saxarhx33xxxyKYHySubstitution The process of replacing symbols in an algebraic expression by numerical values is called substitution. When the substitution has been done, the process of finding the value of an expression is called evaluation, Example 4.4 Wa=2,6=5 and c= 3, evaluate: @atbte ©) 2b-¢ OBE — tae Hn Solutions @atbte 2+5+(-3) 2 mt (b) 25 -. 2x5-(3) 1043 = 13, Notice the use of brackess in working out this example. We are subtracting ¢, whose value is ~3. The brackets are used to indicate clearly that we are subtracting a negative value, the result of which is a positive value. ©) es © +E @4a+ S26 = 4x24 X09 9x (3 we 8-246 2 4 " 3 14-32 = 102 = 105 Exercise 4.3 1, Ifa=3, ol and c= 4, evaluate: + @atbey (b) 8-6 Watbte Date ©a-f & ac~b-~a) 2. Ifx=2,y=-3, = and z=5, evaluate: (@) x-2y )e- 2-30 | Owety-2) @)@-y~s 3. Wa= Loh, find a when 5= 27 and j= 18, 4. Given that » = a(ab? + 6), find v if: @ a=5,6= 5 ande=-2 @) a=2,6=0ande=7. © @=6,6=1ande=0. | $+ Given that @ = Mir find Gwhen: | @ M=50, m= 22 andr=8. | (&) M= 156, m= 108 and r= 50, Factorization The process of removing the brackets in an algebraic expression is called expansion. Thus, a(x +y) = ax + ay. The opposite process ‘of expansion is called factorization. That is, in factorization, we insert brackets. Brackets usually group terms that have something in common. Consider the expression, 2m + 2n. Both m and n are multiplied by 2. We say that 2 is a common factor in both terms and can take “a position outside the brackets enclosing the expression m +n, ie. 2(m + n). When the common number, 2, ig written outside the brackets, the original terms are each divided by 2. Thus, 2m + 2n =2(% 7) =2 (m+n). Factorization involves identification of comidn numbers, symbols or factors.Fe ate:| an on, is, ots, ya ke he he he ad of Example 4.5, Te Ads? — axe 8. a? by Factorize: 3Bn-1Sm+3 Vid fa 3d (a) Be +12 (b) a -4ab pitas oe fat 2,8 a 50+ a5? +5 fee @ 3°* a 12. 2 +3) + diet 3) (©) a(x + 1)-2@ + 1) 13. (x1) —m@&—-1) Solutions 14, 62x + 1) + 139@2x #1) (@ 3 is common in both terms, Therefore, 3 3x4 12= 30+ 4) 1S. Zx(a + ¥)-2a +d) () ais common in both terms. ‘There are algebraic expressions that may at 4ab = ala 46) first sight appear notto have a common factor. When these terms are carefully examined, a (© In this case, 5a - 15a*= 5a(1 ~3a) common factor can be identified. Remember that: «(21 =5a(1 -3a). First group the terms so that each group has a common factor. Alternatively, Thus, am + an + xm +n = (am + an) + (atin + x0) = alin + n) + xm +n) 5a-15a? = 5(a—3a°) = 5a(1 ~3a). = (m+ n)(a +) (@ 2 is common in both terms. Alternatively, Becca am an-+ 3m -+ 3 = (am + 2m) + (an + 20) bee b= Herb). shat ae = (mtn) (@#9). © (+1) is common. eee So, a(x #1)-2e+1)=@+D@-2. Example 4.7, Alternatively, Factorize: Letx+ 1m @ wet ze-wd-ad (b) pq + gs—p-s Therefore, a(x + 1) 261) (© 2- 3x4 Ape - 12p = am—2m (@ xy—x + mx - my n(a—2) te1)(a-2), Solutions (2) ewe + se wd - 2d (we + 22) ~ (ed + sd) (w+ 2)e-(wta)d ws) (e-a). Exercise 4.4 Factorize 1.24 2n 2. mer — nr 3.4x + 109 4. Bab + 6b () pg+s—p-s = (ata) -@+8) 5. 5p-309p 6. 30+ 66-4800 | i= a(p+s)-@ts) = @+5 @-1). ®) (@) xy-2 + mx— my = Gye) + (mx — my) = x(y-a) + m(x—y) = x(y—x) -m(y -2) = (@-m(y —x). Note: ~ (xy) =x ty =y—x, Remember you should obtain the original terms when you multiply the factors. Exercise 4,5 Pactorize: Le ab+ bet 3a43¢ 2 Ptetyty 3. am bm + ant bn 4 sett rt 3s Sn Bm zn * axtxedatd 5. yPaytayar 5. ax 3x~ba23b | > “Tere sce Heieaae | | 4, 32268 tone | 1. am bm + an— bn | 1h senda | 8. pa + ug — sp — tow i pr Ape + ar~2gs [one 8. capes 2pr= qr Bas 10, 4ax + 6ay—4be— 6by ar Factorization becomes very useful when 3px —13p simplifying algebraic fractions, 10. mete gt mq = ng — mp + m9 Example 4.8 Simpliy (=) 22 @y sbteetd—ag | Further exercise simplify: (8) SS “ad | A, Simplify: (2) 8(e + 5y) - 32 + ») | @ 2 (b) x-3@y-2) 5-« | 2. Express as single fractions: | Solutions =3 gy BAS 243 axt3a _ alz+3) @) Fa6 3013)ed) 1 Sm — Smy me — ny &) = 4, m= 3, n=-2ands=4, find: (@) mi+s—n (b) Im(s—-n) +m 5, Melisa ate + of her birthday cake and gave 2 of the remainder to her friends. The rest was kept for her two sisters who were absent. Hfthe two sisters shared their piece ‘equally, what fraction of the cake did each sister eat? 6.A farmer had y goats. She bought 5 more goats, How saany goats does she have now? 7, Makokha had (7-13) shirts, and during his birthday, two more shirts were bought for him as a present. How many shirts does he have now? | 8, Kalori is n years old now. How old was | he 15 years ago? 9. Hfmisan odd number, what are the next | ‘wo odd numbers greater than mi? | 10. Ina mixed school there are 360 pupils. ‘There are twice as many girls as boys. If) there are n boys, how many gitls are in the school? 11. A hotel charges K500 on the first day and K300 for each extra day. How much does one pay for staying at the hotel for x days? ‘A car hire company hites out its cars at K1 500 for the first x km and K600 for every extra kilometre. Kibwana hired a car from the company and travelled @ total of w ke. How much did he pay? ‘Wakesho was given K700 as pocket money. She bought a bottle of juice at Kk and two packets of biscuits each costing Ke. How much money was she left with? In a class of p students, 3 students are | absent during a History lesson. If those who are present are to sit in groups of| five, how many such groups will there | be? Kameno drove at an average speed of (e=2) km/h and covered (x? - 2x +» 2) km, Find the time she took driving.Chapter 5 Sets A set is a collection of objects which is defined by either listing all the objects or giving a rule that allows a decision to be made whether or not an object belongs to that set. For example, all the teachers in secondary schools is a set. All the negative numbers form a set, The village heads in a traditional authority form a set. The objects in a set are called elements or members of the-set The elements of a set are enclosed in curly brackets {}. For example, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} shows that A is a set whose elements are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. This can also be written as A = {natural numbers that are less than 10}. When the elements have common characteristics, a set-builder notation is used to shorten the statement. For example, M = {xx <0,x © N}. This is read as: Mis a set of the values of x such that xis less than zero, where x is an integer. Sometimes ‘|’ is used instead of “’, and the elements of set M are listed as M= {x| x<0,x © N}. The symbol, €, is used to show that an element is a member of a set. The universal set A universal set is a set of all elements under consideration, The symbol for a universal set ispor $. From the universal set, several other sets called subsets can be built. A subset is a set that contains part of or all the members of another set. The symbol © is used to indicate that a set is subset of another set, For example, if K is a subset of L, then this is indicated as K CL. A proper subset is a set that docs not contain all the members of the other set and it is not empty. The symbol, ©, is used to show that a set is empty. Example 5.1 Write down the possible universal sets fom which cach of the following sets have been. drawn. (@) M= {R Songwe, R. North Rukuru, R. Shire, R. Ruo} (b) N= {chambo, utaka, mlamba}. Solutions (@) Mcontains a list of names of rivers found in Malawi. Therefore, = {Rivers in Malawi). (©) N contains local names of types of fish. Therefore, €= {fish} Example 5:2 : Given that w= (x: x < 20, x © N}, list the elements of each of the following sets. (@) A= (x:xis prime} () B= {x: xis a multiple of 5} Solutions (@) A= {1, 2,3, 5,7, 11, 13, 17, 19}. (b) B= {5, 10, 15}. | Exercise 5.1 1. Given that = {x: x is a domestic animal}, write a set with three members oft (@ birds (b) four-legged animals. 2. List ail the members of each of the following sets. (@) B= {x| xisa factor of 16} (b) A= {table of measurements} (©) C= {quadrilaterals} Ify= {x: x is factor of 40}, list down the members of each of the following sets. (@) A= {x xis.a multiple of 4} (b) B= {x| xis a prime number} (© C= fx<10}Write each of the following sets using the | The union of sets set-builder notation, ‘The union of two or more sets is their ; @ {multiples of2 less than 20} | combination into a single set containing all | @) Y= {Toyota vehicles} | he members ofthe original sets. Any member (© Z= {positive integers beoween 9 and | hats found in more than one of the oviginal 19, not including 9 and 19} sets is only shown once in the union. The (@) W= {mountains in Africa} symbol, U, is used to show the union of sets 5. Describe each of the following sets. TEA, Band C are sets, thea AUBUC is the (a) M= {xr lex < 12, © N} set of elements that are either in A or in B or (b) N= {1, 459; 25s ++ 100) inCorinall. © R= txl <0, x EN} 6. Name the possible universal set for each | Bxample 5.5, of the following sers. IFA = (7, 10, 13, 16} and B= {1, 4,7, 10), {@) P= {cooker, radio, DVD player} } list the elements of AUB. (b) Q= (1,2; 3,455} (©) R= {man, gil} fess. | @ D= banana, orange, mango} | AUB= (14,7, 10, 13, 16} (©) T= {Big Bullets, Silver Strikers, | Speak Bcample 5.6 derers}_ dip = {ac x isa boy in Form 3} and G , ‘The complement of a set {a: xis a gicl in Form 3}, find BUG. ‘The complement of a sets the collection of Soi elements which are not in the set under He Consideration, but are in the universal set. IF Xcisa set, then its complement is denoted by i Sea ieee einererofelemeats which 7he Number of elements in a set are not in X. IEA = (5,2, x59) Ths there are five elements in A written as n(A) = 5. This is read as, the Example 5.3 number of elements inset A is 5. L={abadefahandA={eeg}-find A’. 7 i BUG = x: xis a pupil in Form 3}.~ isaiee Exercise 5.2 A= (a bas} 4. Ibis given that = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14 Note: 15, 16, 17, 18}, A= {prime numbers}, ‘A’ contains elements in jiwhich aze not in A. B = {odd numbers} and C = {even | Jeis not any letter of the alphabet which make numbers} up A’ Temust be elements in & and notin A. @) List: fe Example 5.4 @ the elements of A. Tris given that p= {x:0 Fieure 6.12, Graphs of common functions Some common functions have graphs of given characteristics, ? (a) Linear functions for example, y = x + a, where ais a constant. (© Exponential functions for example, a*, Figure 6.15 @ A trigonometric function such as sin x. y 1% he Fiowe 6.16 Example 6.5 ‘Which of the following graphs represents Figure 6.13 ona (b) Quadratic functions for example, y=e—2x-hory=h-2x—s%, wherek is a constant. y o* 4 : Figure 6.14 exciae(by @ mo» Solutions For a function, each value of x in the domain must give just one and only one value of f@).fyhas more than one value for the same value of x, then the graph does not represent a function. (a) Itis not a graph of a function because y has two values for each value of x. (b) Itis not 2 graph of a function because the fanction has more than one corresponding value of y for one value of x. (©) Itisa graph of a function except for x= 0. 2. (@) [tis a graph of a function, y | Exercise 6.3 Which of the following are graphs of functions? 1 mn” —————> f 2. oh ” 3.PY Lo BBS \ \Chapter 7 Angle properties of a circle Angles subtended by an arc or a chord In Figure 7.1(i), the minor are, ABC, subtends ZADC at the circumference of the circle. In other words, ZABC is opposite ZADC. However, in Figure 7. 1 (ii), the same minor arc, ABC, subtends ZAOC at the centre of the circle, > ao ? @ @ Figure 7.1 Tfpoints A and C are joined by a straight line in Figure 7.1(i), chord AC or arc ABC subtends ZADC at the circumference while in Figure 7.1(ii), chord AC or arc ABC subtends ZAOC at the centre. Angles subtended by an arc or a chord in the same segment at the circumference Draw a circle using suitable radius as shown. in Figure 7.2. Take a minor arc, ABC, and points D, E and F on the circumference. Join A and C to points D, E and F as shown on the figure. Measure angles AFC, AEC and ADC accurately. 5 Figure 7.2 B Youwill note that ZAFC = ZAEC = ZADC. Angles subtended by the same are or chord at the circumference in the same segment are equal. 38 Angles subtended by equal arcs or chords at the circumference ‘Draw a circle using a suitable radius as shown in Figure 7.3, Draw two equal chords AB and ‘XY. Let chords AB and XY subtend angles ACB and XZY at the circumference. Figure 7.3 Measure angles ACB and XZY. Obtain more values of angles ACB and XZY by varying the positions of points C and Z. You will find that, ZACB = ZX7ZY. Equal chords or ares subtend equal angles at the circumference. Example 7.1 In Figure 7.4, O is the centre of the circle. Figure 7.4 (@ Name the angle subtended at the centre by: (i) are BAD (ii) minor are BC iii) chord DC. (>) Name the angle(s) subtended at the circumference by: (i) minor atc AD (ii) chord BC (iii) minor are CD,ior own and sles ace. more urying v will aqual rele. centre re BC at the \D Gi) Solutions @ @ ZDOB Gi) ZCOB ii) ZCOD () @ ZACD and ZABD (i) ZBAC and ZBDC i) ZCBD Exercise 7.1 J. In the figure below, state the angle 2 3. subtended by arc ADC at the centre of the circle. A ‘ é (@) Inthe figure below, state nwo angles subtended by each of the following arcs at the circumference: @ PT @i) TS (ii) SR Gm) RQ. x KG \ Lo (b) Whar can you say about each pair of angles you have stated in question. 2a) above? In the figure below, ZECD = 25°, ZEAF = 30° and ZCED R Find: (@ ZCAD (b) ZCDE © ZDCF (@) ZDFE, 4. In the figure below, arc UVW = are WRXY, chord WX = chord XY and ZUYW = 40°. v > Ww Find: @ ZWUY () ZWUX (©) ZxWY @ Zyxw. Angles subtended by the same are or chord at the circumference and at the centre of a circle Figure 7.5 shows a circle with centre O, and points A, B, C, D on the circumference. ‘When line DO is produced, it meets line AC at point E. Figure 7.5 ‘The minor are ABC subtends ZADC at the circumference and ZAOG at the centre of the circle. Suppose ZADO = x, then ZDAO = x, since the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. OA = OD = OC, radii of the circle, Suppose ZCDO = x, then ZDCO = x,. Thus, ZAOE = x, + x, = 2x, (sum of opposite interior angles = exterior angle). Similarly, ZCOE +x, = 2x,But: ZAOC = ZAOE + ZCOE = 2x, + 2x, ZADG = ZADO + ZCDO Bx tx ‘Therefore, ZAOC = 2 ZADC. Hence, the angle subtended by the same are or chord at the centre is twice the angle subtended by the same are or chord at the circumference. Example 7.2 Find the angles marked in letters in the following figures, given that O is the centre of the circle; © Figure 7.6 Solutions (@) ZACB= =35, (b) Reflex ZPOR = 2% ZPQR 7 x100° 100° ‘Therefore, obtuse POR (svi of angles at a point) ‘Therefore, b= 160", 40 (©) Acute ZEOF = 360° - 280° = 80° (sum of angles axa point) But, ZEOF is the angle subtended by the minor arc EF at the centre and EHF at the circumference. Thus, 2.ZEHF = ZEOF, Therefore, ZEHF = } x80° = 40°. But, ZEGF is also subtended by the ‘minor arc EF atthe cigcumference in the same segment, Therefore, ZEGF = 40° c= 40" Angles in a semicircle In Figure 7.7, AOC is the diameter of a circle of centre O. Consider arc ABC, The angle subtended by arc ABC at the centre is 180° since AOC is a straight line, But ZADC is also subtended by arc ABC at the circumference. Boo Figure 7.7 2. ZADC = 180°. Therefore, ZADC = 90°, Similarly, ZAEC = ZADC = 90°, (angles subtended by the same are at the circumference) Any angle subtended by the diameter at the circumference is a right angle. Example Find the value of the angles marked in letters in Figure 7.8, given that O is the centre of the circle and AB = AD.aw a at he Figure 7.8 Solutions (@) ZABD = ZACD (angles subtended by the same chord, AD, at the circumference) ZABD = 35°, Therefore, ¢ = 35°. (&) ZABC = 90° (angles subtended by the diameter at the circumference) ‘Thus, ZCBD + 35° = 90° ZCBD = 90° - 35° Therefore, d = 55°. (© ZBAC+ ZBCA=90° 35° +f = 90° 90° — 3: 55°. Exercise 7.2 1. Find the values of the angles marked in letters, given that O is the centre of each circle. (a) ¢ I Q | ®) a © Find the values of the angles marked in letters, given that AB is the diameter and O the centre. @ a A 2 1B b)3. In the figure below, AB = AC and ZABC = 50°. If BD is the diameter, calculate: @ ZCBD (b) ZAXD ©) ZBAC (d@) ZCDA. Cyclic quadrilaterals Acyclic quadrilateral is a four-sided figure around which a circle can be drawn to pass through all its vertices. Draw a circle using a suitable radius and on its circumference mark four points as shown. in Figure 7.9. Join the four points to form quadrilateral PORS. /s Measure the angles of this quadrilateral. ZPSR+ ZPQR =180° and ZSPQ + ZSRQ = 180° Figure 7.9 Angles subtended by a chord at the circumference in opposite segments are supplementary. Figure 7.10 shows a cyclic quadrilateral PQRS with radii PO and OR. Are PQR subtends ZPSR at the circumference and ZPOR at the centre. Arc PSR subtends ZPQR at the circumference and ZPOR at the centre. Figure 7.10 We know x+y But,y = 2sand x Therefore, 2g + 25 = 2(q +5) = 360° gts = 180°, The sum of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180°. 160° (sum of angles at a:point). 4. 360° If RQ is produced to point N as shown in figure 7.10, then ZPQN + ¢ = 180° (sum of angles in a straight line) But, s + g = 180° (opposize angles in evelic quadrilateral). Therefore, ZPQN = s. Thus, the interior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the exterior opposite angle Example 7.4 PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral and O is the centre of the circle. ZQOS = 150°. 7 Figure 7.11 Find: (@) ZQPS (b) ZORS. Solutions (a) Reflex ZQOS = 360° 150° = 210°fie ie ” xe ‘Therefore, ZQPS = 5 210° = 105°. 180° — 105° Figure 7.12 Solutions (@) ZVXW = ZYUV Ginterior angle of a eyelic quadrilateral is equal to opposite exterior angle). ‘Therefore, a = 30°. &) ZxVW= ZXYU ‘Therefore, b = 95°. (© atb+c= 180° (sum of angles ina rriangle) 30° + 95° +.6= 180° ‘Therefore, c= 180° 125° 55°. Exercise 7.3 1. Find the values of the angles marked in letters in each of the following circles, where O is the centre of the circle, (a) © d) ©3. 4. | | | { 44 In the figure below, AC is the diameter of the circle. Find the values of angles i,j and &. XY and Z are three points on a minor are of a circle with centre C, such that ZXCZ = 100°. Lines XY and CZ are produced (extended) to intersect at pointW. Calculate ZZYW. A, Band C are three points on a minor are of a circle with centre O, such that, ZAOB = 110° and AC bisects ZOAB. Calculat (@) ZACB. (&) ZOBG. (©) ZBOG. | | Further exercise 1. (@) In the figure shown below, state the zy 3. are that subtends: @ AEC and ZADG (i) ZABB, ZADB and ZACB. (b) State three angles at circumference subtended by: @ minor are CD (i) minor arc AE (ii) minor are ED. Find the values of the angles marked in the In the figure below, O is the centre of the circle and ZOQP = 42°, R AS Find ZPRQ. Y (the ed in 4. In the figure below, O is the centre of the circle and UY Neo ee v Find: @ 4VXW () ZXWU (©) ZUYX (@) ZWUX ©) ZWVX. In the figure below, AG is the diameter of the circle, 3 / ad a jx Find: @ ZCBD &) ZABD © ZBCD. 4 i) From the figure above, find: @ AWRY () ZWoY (© Zwyx, In the figure below; O is the centre of| the circle. 2 Find the values of all the angles marked | From the figure above, find the years | of the following angi Find the value of the following angles: @ ZBOC — () ZocD © ZOBF —(@) ZBDE. 10. In the figure below, find angles a, b and c. / in letters. 45Find: (@) ZMQP (6) ZMNP () 4QPM.| 13. In the figure below, O is the centre of the circle, ZACB = 48° and ZCBD = 33°. 8, nay eee ) i. P Q A : rom the figure above, find: (a) ZPQS (b) ZPSR (c) ZQRS. > 2 B 42. In the figure shown below, O is the centre of the circle, ZMOQ = 64° and ZOMP = 16°. Find: (@ ZADC (b) ZAEB. ABCD isa cyclic quadrilateral, with AB as the diameter, ZCAB = 34° and AD = DC. Calculate the angles of the quadrilateral. 46PM. fthe 33°, AB tap the Chapter 8 Transformations Geometric transformations A geometric transformation is an operation that changes the position and appearance ofa geomerric figure. Examples of transformations are translation, reflection, enlargement, rotation, shear and stretch. ‘The object obtained after @ transformation is called an image. The transformations which change the position ofa figure without changing its shape and size are called isometries. An example of an isometric transformation is a reflection, Translations A wanslation is a transformation such that the points in the object can be joined to corresponding points in the image by a set of straight lines which are all equal in length and parallel, A translation is described by the direction | and magnitude of movement (vector). Under a translation, all the points of the object move through the same distance and in the same direction. In order to obtain the image of a point under a translation, we add the vector of the translation to the position vector of the point. “Bxample 8.1 ‘Triangle ABC is such that AC-4, 3), BC, 1) and C(-2, 5). Find the coordinates of its image after translation whose vector is (9 Solution ‘Therefore, the coordinates of the image are A,(2, 5), BCS, 3) and C,(4, 7). Figure 8.1 ‘This can be illustrated on the Cartesian plane as shown in Figure 8.1. Exercise 8,1 The figure below shows the images of kite A under different translations. State the vector that translates A onto: 1 Ay Ge AB A, Enlargement An enlargement is a transformation which increases or decreases the size of an object ina given ratio. Under an enlargement: (a) the object lines and their images are parallel.(b) the lengths of the lines of the objects and their images are in the same ratio. (©) the angles remain the same. Under an enlargement, the object and its image are similar. Positive scale factor Figure 8.2 shows triangle ABC and its image A,B,C, under an enlargement transformation. B Figure 8.2 Lines AA, BB, and CC, mect at 0. The point, (O, where these lines meet is called the centre of enlargement. Note: AOAB and AOA, B, are similar What other tiangles are similar? 4 What can you say about the ratios 24 , 08, OG) OB? oc ‘The ratio O*: is called the seale factor of the enlargement. It tells us by how much we have enlarged AABC to get A,B,C, Itis also called the linear seale factor because it is the ratio of the lengths of the line segments. ‘¢ What other ratios would give the same scale factor? ‘The scale factor of an enlargement is always positive whenever the object and its image are ‘on the same side of the centre of enlargement. Figure 8.3 shows AXYZ enlarged to AX,¥,Z,. “Measure OY and OY, Whats the value of O°? ©%, = 2. This means, OY, = Ou = 2. This means, OY, = 20¥. Figure 8.3 AX,Y,Z, is the image of AXYZ under an enlargement of a scale factor 2 with the centre of enlargement, O. Note: AX,¥,Z,, can also be regarded as the object and AXYZ as the image wnder an enlargement with the same centre of enlargement, O. In this case, what would be the scale factor? Note: + When the seale factor is greater than 1, then the object is smaller than the image and it lies between the image and the centre of enlargement. + When the scale factor is postive and less than 1, then the image is smaller than the object ‘and it ies between the object and the centre of enlargement, + The scale factor ts a ratio and has no units. (Biample 8.2 ‘Using point C as the centre of enlargement, enlarge the figures in Figure 8.4 with a scale factor of 2. @m en ® PF ww -\ 8 | | \> °c P e Figure 84 Solutions (a) The image of each vertex will be twice as far away from the centre as the object is. ‘The distance CM, is twice the distancecan atre bject ‘nent cale nthe 1 lies nent. than sbject tre of nits. rents scale iceas xis. tance CM. Drawalline from C to Mand extend itto M,,a distance 2CM. Repeat for N, and P, to get Figure 8.5. M, P, Figure 8.5 CM,N,P, is the image of CMNP under an enlargement of a scale factor 2 with the centre of enlargement at C. (b) Measure line CQ. Extend line CQ toa point Q, such that 2CQ = CQ,. Repeat the same with points P and N to get Figure 8.6. Figure 8.6 Negative scale factor Consider Figure 8.7 in which triangle ABC is taken as the object and AA,B,C, as its image under an enlargement about centre O. Figwe 8.7 ‘The object AABC and the image A,B,C, are on the opposite sides of the centre of enlargement, O. Suppose OC = 4 cmand OC, = 2.cm. Marking ine C,OC on a number line with O at zero and C at 4 units from O, then C, is -2 units. See Figure 8.8. c |} : * 8 & image distance from = object distance from O° 1 -}oc. Therefore the scale factor is ~>. Locating the centre of enlargement In order to locate the centre of enlargement when given an object and its image, join at least two points on the object to their corresponding points on the image with straight lines. The two straight lines intersect at the centre of enlargement. (Brample 8:3 Find the centre of enlargement of the squares in Figure 8.9. rr D i Figure 2.9 ‘Solution ‘We join at least two points on the object, for example, C and D to their corresponding points on the image, that is C, and D, as in Figure 8.10. B A Figure 8.10Show that the other lines joining A and B to their images also pass through the centre O. ‘Sometimes, an enlargement whose scale factor is n and the centre of enlargement, O, can be written as (0, n). Where, O is the centre of enlargement and n is the scale factor. “Example 8.4 Triangle ABC is such that A@, 1), BC, 1) and C(3, 4) are its vertices, Find the coordinates ofits image after an enlargement ‘with centre (0, 0) and scale factor: (a) 2 (b) -2. Solution (a) When the triangle is enlarged about (0, 0) with a scale factor of 2, the coordinates of the image are A,(4, 2), B,(8, 2) and C,(6, 8). (b) When the triangle is enlarged about (0, 0) with a scale factor of ~2, the coordinates of the image are A,(-4,~2), B,(-8, -2) and C,(-6,-8). Figure 8.11 Under an enlargement, an object and its image are similar but not congruent. mos 50 Exercise 8.2 1, Copy each of the following figures. Using point O as the centre of enlargement, enlarge it with a scale factor of 2. @ a | © (@) 2. Repeat question 1 using a scale factor of -2.EE |3. Copy each of the following figures and | @ make an enlargement at the stated point | using the scale factor given. i | @ 3) sing vent, ) ©) P14] 1} E x F © | # c AT D | @ [M, 4] i} @ Radius In each of the following pairs of figures, the figure in broken lines is the image. actor Using the centre of enlargement, O, state the scale factor. o |5. Trace the following figures and in each | case locate the centre of enlargement. @ (by © | | 6 The figure below shows the images of triangle R under an enlargement. Find the centre of enlargement and the | scale factor for each image. The pentagon shown below undergoes an enlargement of scale factor 3 with centre (3, 2). Draw its image. vk 4ae emma HC of | av che pes ith, Chapter 9 Exponential and logarithmic functions Power and base An expression like 3X33 x3 can be written as 3°, This is read as three raised to the power of four. The power is also called an index (plural indices) and the number 3 is the base. Note: An index is the number of times the base is maultiplied by itself Expressions can be written in index notation as follows 2x2x 5x5= 5 axaxaxaxaxa =o. 2 The laws of indices When numbers with the same bases are multiplied or divided, their indices are ‘operated according to certain rules. Multiplication (axa)x(axaxa) axaXxaxaxa =a Also, a?xat = (axaxa)x (axaxaxa) xaxaxaxaxaXa Note: An index of a product is the sum of the given indices. Thus, axa’ axa! In general, For example, 4% 4? = 4° =", Division sug) = aeKbae we exaxe Aino, a'egt = Dooeennonere Note: The index of a quotient is the index of the dicisor subtracted from the index of the dividend. In general, a+<' For example, 3°+3: Powers Consider the number (a)*. ‘We know that: (a) (a)? a, PxOxOxa? 130008 op gt x It is important to remember that the letter a has been used in the above examples to represent any number. The three basic laws of indices are: (@) anxa" =a". () ats asa © @y =a" 0) @ oor Example 9.1 Simplify, giving the results in index form, @ PXIxP (&) AePxP © @ ‘Solutions @ PxIxT = por =7. () Aerxe = ee », © @» pee 2 Exercise 9.1 Simplify, giving the results in index form. 1. 3'x3 2. 49x4? 3B. 2x22? | 4. axa 5. atxaxat 6, yoxa°xy* 7, S58. 2424 9, 343 }10. 7% 7! 11. @*x2%)+24 12. 26x (225), [13. G9? 14. (PF 15, 3)?16, (5) 17. "> 18. (7 19. (4)° 20. 6)" 21. uien?xy 22, 2°x2'x2 23, (e)§ 24. GF 25. (at) xa? Zero index Consider an expression, a+0?. nega tht We know that ava? = #3 a @. ‘Therefore, a? = 1. In general, any number or expression with a power (ot index) zero is equal to 1. =1 and aa? For example, 3° = 1 148° = 1 (axby=1 Example 92, Simplify (@) (53)? (b) (4a Solutions @ Gx &) Gaby? Positive indices Consider a product of numbers with an index. For example, (ai) (a= abxab axdxaxb axaxdxb axe ab " 2 Similarly, () " x Simplify (a) (2a) (b) (y?)*_ (©) 2a*x3a, Solutions (a) (2a)? = 2%a° = 8a, mec 54 (© 2a*x3a" ‘Example 9.4 240x509 Simplify ——~ -. a 8a? Solution Srabase3 ling coat eal by) cancellation 160" = Bax 5. sant Simplify, giving the results in index form. 1. 2a°x5a* 2. ax3a" 3. Omen xm? 4, tax12@x6a* 5. 3atx2bx5ax4b? 6. 6pexSqxqixp 7. TP x3etxae! 8 4a +20° Ay gy3 toy 997 9. 18a"+6a° . a’ 10. 15x 65 nS 13. 2y")> 14. G2" 15. (G95 16. (ad? 17. (3)* 18. @pq? 19. (4? 20. 59° ‘Negative indices So far, we have dealt with positive indices, We also have negative indices. For example, using the division rule a+a° = a We know that a°+a° = 280° Thus, In general, a* = Note: The laces of indices apply to both positive and negative indices.es. Ie, ive Example 9.5 ‘Simplify: @ 29x22 (b) 32x35 () otra? @ da? ©) (> Solutions (@) 2°x2? () 3?x3% © ata? =att @ ava? =a? =a =a © @ =a =at Example 9.6" Express the following with positive indices @ (b) a* © ( @ 20% ~~ © Ga)? © Solutions @> (b) a+ e on Nore: In (@),~5 is the index for a only cohile in (),-2 is the index for both 3 and a, Exercise 9.3 | 1. Simplify, Jeaving your answers in index. form. (a) 74x72 (b) 38x34 ©) @xat @D arxat (@) 2742! @) 55 @ attra’ (h) aba? | 2. Express the following as positive indices: (@) 2* (b)2%a* © 3a* @ © EPO EY @ wr). Fractional indices ‘The laws of indices also apply to fractions. We have seen that a*Xa" = a", td Also consider a? x a? From the above law, we get eee at"? a? xa? 1 ‘We have multiplied a? by itself to obtain a 1 or a? has been squared to get a. hats) Remember that the square of 4 is 16. Hence, 4 is the square root of 16, written as V6: ba a In general, Vax Va = a. 1 ‘The number Va is also written as a?. Berar eae Similarly, a x a3 x a3 = a3. 33 1 Thus, (3) This means that a? is the cube root of a and is also written as Va. 4 In general, the n* root of a is written as a” or Va. From the laws of indices we have, @y= @yr= am, ‘You should be able to show that (a")" = (@")". 1" Therefore, (3)‘Example 9.7 Simplify: 1 1 8) (@) 36?) 643 (@) 5! (3) Solutions 1 (@) 36? =6 b) 643 = i © 1253 =5 + 8) | st @ laf =]-7 3 Pod o OF @) 8%) 325 ©) Kea Solutions 5 =) @ 83 =\83) = Alternatively, 2 aed 83 = (s?)? = 643 = a a (e) 3255 (+24) =2'=8. The alternative method may be undesirable in this example as it involves a very large number for instance, 32 = 32 768, which you have to find its fifth roor. © (2)? = (Pane (3)"= (7 -(up} = (f= 2 a4 @ yxy?) 5? x 207 16 (© 8a? +120, Solutions 2 @ x? xy = y6, 2 () 5? x 20 1 (© 8a? +124? Example 9.10 Solve for xift (a) 3*= 243 @) art= s 3 © 24 =27. Solutions (a) First express 243 in index notation with base 3. That is, 243 = 3° Thus, 3° = 3%, Since the bases are the same, their indices are equal. Therefore, x = 5.