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Toward a New Horizon in Information Science: Domain-Analysis Birger Hiorland and Hanne Albrechtsen Royal School of Librarianship, 6 Birketinget, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark. E-mail: bh@ab.dk and biskhal@inet.uni-c.ck This article is a programm new approach to information science (IS): domait sis. This approach states that the most fruitful horizon for IS is to study the knowledge-domains as thought or discourse communities, which are parts of society's division of labor, The article is also a review article, providing a mul- tidisciplinary description of research, iluminating this the- ‘retical view. The first section presents contemporary re- ‘search in IS, sharing the fundamental viewpoint that IS. ‘should be seen as a social rather than as a purely mental how would these different approaches then imply ghfferent demands to the information system? & 418. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE—July 1995 5‘The growth, organization, and publication trends of the sciences are of direct interest to any theory of infor mation seeking and representation. So are problems of interdisciplinarity and the problems of interdisciplinary borrowing cf. Klein, (990) and the overlapping between different disciplines. The question of different patterns between hard and soft disciplines has been raised in IS. However. is this fruitful classification? Could better ty- pologies of knowledge domains and disciplines be con- structed? In the sociology of science Whitley (1984) has proposed a classilication of the sciences. based upon de- ‘ree of consensus in a field, and the relative freedom of the individual researcher to choose problems: the strate- gic and technical uncertainty in different disciplines and the mutual dependence between disciplines. Such research seems to be very relevant for IS theory and prac tice about information seeking. as well as for classifica tion research, ‘One line of research should occupy itself with the use of language in different domains, What kind of culture exists concerning the form of titles. the pattern of citations, elc,? What are the consequences for the informational value of titles. subject terminology. descriptors, and citations in IR? What important transdisciplinary tendencies and concepts exist in the disciplines? If you made a description of the most important the- retical developments in the self-understanding ofa discipline in say a 10-year period (such as a development from Al approach to discourse communities). could you then point out some important consequences that such changes would imply regarding information secking and conganizing? Different classifications could be analyzed from their implicit theoretical views. e.. the view of hu- ‘mans, view of language, etc. Ideally. IS should produce domain-specific handbooks and journals in all major domains of such a qual- ity, relevance and visibility that the researchers, students and users in the domains would find these handbooks of high importance and would depend on Research and Development in IS. We do have a tradition for publish- ing “guide to information sources infield x” and in some ficlds like law and medicine domain-specific IS journals. But such a program should be strengthened and combined with courses on information secking, knowledge organization, and utilization for the end-users or teach- cersin the discipline, Ifsuch a course in itself has too little to offer, it could be combined with elements of information technology, theory of knowledge. and scientific methodology. If information specialists do not feel they have enough domain-specific knowledge, they should try to acquire this and at the same time cooperate with subject specialists. It is far more important for everybody that the field grows than recruiting people with one specific educational background as IS professionals. We are aware that this program will be difficult and will require much hard work and thinking, But what is the alternative? The recent development in IS demands a renewed focus on the basic problems. [tis very important, however, to state that the approach domain-analysis has a continuum of problems from very simple problems that are easy to explore empirically to very complex theoretical problems, Every time you use information as the variable, (.. every time you look at the problems of, IR or knowledge organization from some kind of hy- pothesis about the knowledge domain as an important factor. you are contributing to this approach. Acknowledgments, We would like to thank two anonymous referees for valuable comments, which have improved this paper. Notes "This formulation was inspired by four formulations in a session entitled "Debating Different Approaches to Studying the Organization of Information: at the ASIS S6th annual meeting October 27, 1995. The formulations were: Ling Hovey Jeng, UCLA: The object paradigm: the path to understanding how information should be organized is to analyze the nature of common information objects themselves. Donald Case. UCLA: The cognitive paradigm: the best ‘way’ 10 approach the organization of information is 10 study how people think and to mimic those regularities of thought. Nicholas Belkin, Rutgers University: The behavioral paradigm: the best method forstudying how information Should be organized is 10 observe how people interact with potential sources, Brenda Dervin. Ohio State University: The communica: tion paradigm: The best way to understand information is to study information seeking and use communica- tively, examining how people construct questions and create answers to these questions. (Cited from the conference program, page 22) > Mann’s (1993) book is called Library Research Models. It does not, however, deal with the paradigms or theories of library and/or is as such (e.g.. bibliometric or cognitive approaches). Library research is understood as the part of a research process in any discipline such as history. psychology or chemistry that uses libraries as tools. His book could be seen as a discussion about different ways to teach information seeking to researchers, ‘One of Mann’s models is “the specific subject or discipline model.” Mann (1993, p. 9) says: “Graduate courses on how to do library research are almost always, taught along disciplinary lines: anthropology learn the indexes, databases, and bibliographies appropriate to anthropology: prospective MBAs learn the sources specific QUANAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE-—July 1985 419 |to business and economics: psychologists learn the ones appropriate to their subject; and so on The advantage of any conceptual mode! that catezo- rizes sources by subject or discipline is that of depth, ‘As good as it is, however—and it is indeed necessary for advanced research—the subject/discipline model has major disadvantages in addition to its obvious strengths, The first difficulty is that st must be taught from a specific fist of sources appropriate to the discipline. The problem here is that even students who become masters of that list (of subject-specific reference tools) are left helpless in ther subjects not covered by it, In other words, they hhave not learned how to use the library as a whole ip. 14}: “Second, in concentrating on a particular list of sources within a discipline, it blinds researchers to the existence of cross-disciplinary coverage of the same subject from the perspective of a wide range of sources in other fields, And third. the dependence of this model on lists of particular references leaves researchers ata loss as those lists inevitably become outdated, Unlike lists of particular sources, principles of search~ ing endure: but the subject/discipline conceptual model is singularly deficient in principles and rules. It leaves people with no “fall-back” procedures to employ when the specific sources they know about fail them It is our view (the domain-analytie viewpoint), that it is necessary 10 teach both discipline-specific and interdisciplinary reference tools, retrieval methods (c.g. citation indexing), and so on. No student, researcher. or user can learn all potentially relevant sources. The ultimate crite- rion to judge the relevance of reference sources is their relevance from a subject point of view. In disciplines with few or inadequate databases and reference sources, the interdisciplinary sources have a much greater importance than in disciplines with appropriate disciplinary The “Social Sciences Citation Index® has greater importance in anthropology compared to sociology be- cause anthropology has not a database such as Sociolog~ ica! Abstracts. OF course the Social Sciences Citation In- dex® is extremely important also 10 sociologists. Moreover, studies of the interdisciplinary connections between sociology and psychology are of such great importance that Psychological Abstracts tends to be used even more than Sociological Abstracts by sociologists. (This may be related to current tendencies of MI in American Sociology.) This is an important thing to iknow, but this knowledge presupposes the domain-ana- Ivtie viewpoint; The degree of disciplinarity or interdisciplinarity is different in different domains. It’s our opinion that Mann’s discussion of different models is indeed important and useful. However. when you are doing library and information science research, ‘You have to use some theories and approaches as a guide, ‘The domain-analytic viewpoint is necessary to evaluate the contributions, strengths, and weaknesses of all ‘models. But itis also very difficult and demanding > Ulrich Neisser is a professor at Emory University in Atlanta and a member of the American National Acad- ‘emy of Sciences. His shift from a cognitive, information processing paradigm in psychology to an interpersonal and “self”-psychology has come as a big surprise The quotations from Gigerenzer and Hug (1992. pp. 128, 129. 167, 168, & 169) are brought with kind permission trom the publisher, Elsevier Science B.V.. Amster~ dam, ©The quotation from Sarvimaki (1988) is brought with kind permission from the author. ® The trend toward discourse communities should not however be mistaken as research in languages for special purposes, The Danish linguist Carol Henriksen (1990) states: In.a previous paper (Henriksen, 1989) Ihave questioned the validity and usefulness of the Danish concept of fagsprog as distinguished from almensprog. the former referred to in the literature in English most frequently a5 Language for Special Purposes (LSP), the latter as Lan- guage for General Purposes(LGP). In this paper [argued Against making such a distinction and against the type (of linguistic analysis which relies solely on structuralist ‘methods and limits its investigation to the formal ele ‘ments ofa text. be they terminological, syntactic or com- positional, arguing instead in favor of an approach which Views language as communication in a socio-cultural context, as a dynamic activity taking place between real people in time and space, an activity involving more than the text itself. spoken or written. and including phenom- ena tike the psychological make-up of the sender. the prior knowledge of the receiver, the sender's intentions, ‘pre-tstablished social and textual conventions. etc Every time you use language it for a special purpose. segardless of whether you ate telling your children to Bo ‘rush their teeth or discussing the advantages and disad: vantages of phosphoric acid as an electrolyte with an ‘lectto-chemical engineer . . .° (Henriksen, 1990. p. 28), ‘We can see that Henriksen does not recognize the existence of a special kind of LSP (which would be a kind of, domain-specific language) though this is a rather com- prehensive research area internationally. Her main argu- ‘ment is that all languages are always uged for special purposes. We will interpret her attitude aga kind of realism: The language system should not pigmarily be understood as something self-dependent aft isolated, but asa tool for human interaction in the ‘and psychological world, It is the w rather lack of understanding) of th ‘causes most—but not all—problems in} by the users, not a kind of linguistic at does however recognize the importanc ject knowledge for (scientific) communi Watters and Shepherd (1994, p. 45 a definition of a user-centered paradis user-centered paradigm, we refer to ini tion access 420. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SGIENCE—July 1995 idriven not by the structure ofthe database in the system, but rather by views ofthe databases needed to satisfy an information need as perceived bythe user. Thus. the user Gefines dynamically the type. amount, and structure of the data required to satisiy an information need. This implies not just the user definition of the view, but the user selection ofthe model in which the view i framed.” * Resnick et al. (1991) present themselves as “an emerging revolution in cognitive theory” and the book is announced with the words; “Do humans do thei think ing alone” Is thought confined within the boundaries of each individval mind? Today. psychologists are pioneer= ing a new alternative 10 this classic view. claiming that ur thinking is shaped by others in a process known as socially shared cognition * Roth behavionsm and cognitivism are in our view too positivstic/rationalistic and limited for the reasons discussed earlier. The users are seen as abstract mecha- isolated from the sociocultural sphere. not as adaptive mechanisms closely integrated in specific niches. Winograd and Flores (1986/1987) follow the bi- ologist Maturana and talk about consensual domains and autopoesis. about the coupling ofthe organism to its ecological surroundings. Also language is seen as such a consensual domain, Language is nor a collection of mechanisms in a language user or a semantic coupling between linguistic behavior and those nonlinguistic stimuli which an organism is meeting. Language is asxs- tem for developing cooperation in a domain of interac- tions hetween individuals. ‘© Obviously, the concept of objectivity is difficult. In the theory of knowledge there isa debate between social constructivism and scientific realism among others about the objectivity of scientific knowledge, However, even if you subscribe to some theory of scientific knowl- fedge not being objective, but a reflection of human knowledge interests. you are sil facing the problem. that the users of information systems may have their own subjective perception that is not inline with the contemporary scientific perception. The question is: When you are designing information systems. who are going to be the cognitive authorities, and what principles would fuarantee the most qualified and unbiased content and representation ofthe information. ® 4 concrete analysis of a knowledge domain. con- dhuited by one of the present authors under such a per- spétive. has resulted in a proposal for a faceted classifi- mn scheme for software which can serve different kekledge interests in computing (Albrechtsen, 1992) ° One of the anonymous referees asked for a more cofferete research agonda. “I value theoretical work, such asfhis paper. to the extent that theoretical work feads dithetly to experimentation. . . . Tellus precisely what yo mean by a ‘discourse community” so that I can lo- cafe one of them in the ‘real’ world and measure it. 1 chgllenge the authors to add to their paper an example of othe empirical research where they clearly identify the Independent variable, the Dependent variable. the Mod- crating variable, the Control variable and any Interven ing variables...” ‘Well, we do hope that the formulation of the domain- analytic approach will stimulate further research First. we hope that researchers will consider which approach in IS they feel most satisfied with. If they Feel more satisfied with another approach, we hope they will argue for it and write articles about it. For us, it has been difficult not only to formulate the domain-approach. but to find high qualified papers arguing for any coherent approach against which to present our own view Second. we hope that this paper will help establish an international and interdisciplinary network of rescarch- ers who want to use this approach as a platform for further studies in IS. The researchers in such a network should—as a collective body—apply many different ‘methods ranging from further theoretical analysis and philosophical studies over historical and interpretative studies to survey methods and experimental studies, Itis not our job alone to give the final definition of a concept such as discourse community. IS must relate to definitions made in other sciences. e.g. linguistics. With- ‘out doubt, some researchers use this concept in one way and make empirical studies from that definition. Other scientists then criticize the concept for having unfruitful consequences and propose a new definition. ete, In this ‘way research is a process which does not only build on given definitions, prepositions, and theories. but also tries to strengthen the foundation on which it is building (This is the holistic principle advanced by the American philosopher William V. O. Quine, According to his the- ry. science is like a ship ima storm, which is being re~ paired during the sailing: You cannot take the ship on land and start from bottom.) We have suggested some ideas to try to formulate a program that can measure the informational value of Jifferent subject access points (dependent variable) such as titles, abstracts, descriptors, references. etc. using knowledge domains as the independent variable. Mod- erating variable could perhaps be the professionalism of the author/originator (e-g.. from junior to senior re~ searchers) or the theoretical approach applied. It seems clear however that such experimental work must be attended by qualitative research. e.g. tracking. how specific theories, concepts etc. from one domain are penetrating other domains. Qualitative and quantitative studies, conceptual analysis, historical studies, and experimental work can hopefully inspire and supplement ‘each other. An example can been given. If you are inter- ested in the effectiveness of citation searching, you must have some theory about the act of citing: How do authors select those specific references, they have in their papers? Both statistical information about citation patterns in and across different domains and qualitative studies of citations are of interest. Modern norms of citing behavior can be studied in 4 SOUR OF THE AVEACAN SOCIETY FOR IORWATON SCIENCE uy 885.4218 a their historical development. The Swedish researcher Mustelin (1988) shows how researchers before {S00 were extremely lenient with their references. and often used text from other sources without indicating this. From the latter part of the {6th century. authors of scientific works tried to give their documents a greater evidential weight. This was partly achieved in the notes and references which authors added to their descriptions to make them look more reliable, This was first done by philologists and text publishers, who argued for warrent and references, Later followed historians and others. The applica- tion of references in scientific documents is an expres- sion of what in the study of history is known as an important part of methodology: “criticism of the sources" / istorical criticism.” Ofcourse, on the most elementary level the principles of source criticism have today spread to all human, social, and natural sciences. This weakens the differences between different domains. But still important differences between attitudes and behavior toward the use and citation of sources can exist in different domains and de- termine the effectiveness of references as subject access points. We hope that this example can illustrate the importance of the interplay between qualitative methods and theories developed by scholarly insight on the one hand, and more traditional statistical and experimental re search in IR on the other. References ‘Aah... Lone, Hl, & Andersen, H. (987) Cidiking onganisering ‘publicorings praksis | danske sarmlundvidenskaber (Developmen. ‘organization and publication behavior inthe socialsciences in Den- mark}, Kobenhaemn: Hanceshajskolen. Center for Uddannelses- foeskning, Ackerman, J. M. (1990), Reading, writing, and knowing: The role of “dissplinary knowledge comprenension and composing Technica Rep. No 40}. Berkey: Center forthe Sud of Writing atthe Univer sy of Califora, Bethel and Carnegie Mellon Universit Albrechisen, H. 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