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CLASSIC TUTORIALS
K 68 FIRST FLOOR WEST PATEL NAGAR NEW DELHI 08
MEG FIRST YEAR SHORT NOTES

BRITISH POETRY MEG 01
EXAM QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1. Name the three major sources of Chaucer's Vocabulary. How does each
source contribute to his Poetry?
Chaucer was a pioneer in many respects should be readily granted. "With him is born our
real poetry," says Matthew Arnojd. He has been acclaimed as the first realist, the first
humorist, the first narrative artist the first great character-painter, and the first great
metrical artist in English literature. Further, he has been credited not only with the
"fatherhood" of English poetry but has also been hailed as the father of English drama
before the drama was bom, and the father of English novel before the novel was born.
And, what is more, his importance is not due to precedence alone, but due to excellence.
He is not only the first English poet, but a great poet in his own right. Justly has he been
called "the fountain-source of the vast stream of English literature."
Contribution to Language:
Well does Lowell say that "Chaucer found his English a dialect and left it a language."
Borrowing Saintsbury's words about the transformation which Dryden effected in English
poetry, we may justly say that Chaucer found the English language brick and left it marble.
When Chaucer started his literary career, the English speech, and still less, the English of
writing was confusingly fluid and unsettled. The English language was divided into a
number of dialects which were employed in different parts of the country. The four of
them vastly more prominent than the others were:
(i) The Southern
(ii) The Midland
(iii) The Northern or Northumbrian
(iv) The Kentish
Out of these four, the Midland or the East Midland dialect, which was spoken in London
and its surrounding area, was the simplest in grammar and syntax. Moreover, it was the
one patronised by the aristocratic and literary circles of the country. Gower used this
dialect for his poem Confessio Amantis and Wyclif for his translation of the Bible. But this
dialect was not the vehicle of all literary work. Other dialects had their votaries too.
Langland in his Piers Plowman, to quote an instance, used a mixture of the Southern and
Midland dialects. Chaucer employed in his work the East midland dialect, and by casting
the enormous weight of his genius balance decided once for all which dialect was going to
be the standard literary language of the whole of the country for all times to come. None
BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

(ENG) , M.COM , MA ECONOMICS, B.ED , B.COM… 9811897243
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after him thought of using any dialect other than the East Midland for any literary work
of consequence. It is certain that if Chaucer had adopted some other dialect the emergence
of the standard language of literature would have been considerably delayed. All the great
writers of England succeeding Chaucer are, in the words of John Speirs, "masters of the
language of which Chaucer is, before them, the great master."
Not only was Chaucer's selection of one dialect out of the four a happy one, but so was his
selection of one of the three languages which were reigning supreme in England at that
time-Latin, French, and English. In fact. Latin and French were more fashionable than
the poor "vernacular" English. Latin was considered "the universal language" and was
patronised at the expense of English by the Church as well as the learned. Before Wyclif
translated it into the "vulgar tongue", the Bible was read in its Latin version called the
Vulgate. French was the language of the court and was used for keeping the accounts of
the royal household till as late as 1365. Perplexed by the variety of languages offering
themselves for use, Chaucer's friend and contemporary Gower could not decide which one
of them to adopt. He wrote his Mirour del'Omme in French, Vox Clamantis in Latin, and
Confessio Amantis in English, perhaps because he was not quite sure which of the three
languages was going to survive. But Chaucer had few doubts abputthe issue. He chose
English which was a despised language, and asjthe legendary king did to the beggar maid,
raised her from the dust, draped her in royal robes, and conducted her coronation. That
queen is ruling even now.
Contribution to Versification:
Chaucer's contribution to English versification is no less striking than to the English
language. Again, it is an instance of a happy choice. He sounded the death-knell of the old
Saxon alliterative measure and firmly established the modern one. Even in the fourteenth
century the old alliterative measure had been employed by such a considerable poet as
Langland for his Piers khe Plowman, and the writer of Sir Gawayne and the Grene
Knight. Let us give the important features of the old measure which Chaucer so
categorically disowned:
(i) There is no regularity in the number of syllables in each line. One line may have as few as
six syllables and another as many as fourteen.
(ii) The use of alliteration as the chief ornamental device and as the lone structural principle.
All the alliterative syllables are stressed.
(iii) The absence 01 end-rimes; and
(iv) Frequent repetition to express vehemence and intensity of emotion.
Chaucer had no patience with the "rum, ram, ruf' of the alliterative measure. So does he
maintain in the Parson's Tale:
But trusteth wel, I am a southern man,
I cannot geste-rum, ram, ruf,-by lettere,
Ne, God wot, rym holde I but litel bettere.
For that old-fashioned measure he substituted the regular line with end-rime, which he
borrowed from France. The new measure has the following characteristics:
(i) All lines have the same number of syllables,

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(ii) End-rime,
(iii) Absence of alliteration and frequent repetition.
After Chaucer, no important poet ever thought of reverting to the old measure. Thus,
Chaucer may be designated "the father of modern English versification." Chaucer employs
three principal metres in his works. In The Canterbury Tales he mostly uses lines of ten
syllables each (with generally five accents); and the lines run into couplets; that is, each
couple of lines has its end-syllables rhyming with each other. For example:
His eyes twinkled in his heed aright
As doon the sterres in the frosty night.
Not only this, Chaucer seems to be the first Englishman who realised and brought out the
latent music of his language. "To read Chaucer's verse," observes a critic, "is like listening
to a clear stream, in a meadow full of sunshine, rippling over its bed of pebbles." The
following is the tribute of a worthy successor of his:
The morning star of song, who made
His music heard below,
Don Chaucer, the first -warbler, whose sweet breath
Preluded those melodious bursts thatfiU",
The spacious times of great Elizabeth
With sounds that echo still
He made English a pliant and vigorous medium of poetic utterance. His astonishingly
easy mastery of the language is indeed remarkable. With one step the writings of Chaucer
carry us into a new era in which the language appears endowed with ease, dignity, and
copiousness of expression and clothed in the hues of the imagination.
The Content of Poetry:
Chaucer was a pioneer not only in the linguistic and prosodic fields, but was one in the
strictly poetic field also. Not only the form of poetry, but its content, too, is highly indebted
to him. Not only did he give English poetry a new dress, but a new body and a new soul.
His major contribution towards the content of poetry is in his advocacy of and strict
adherence to realism. His Canterbury Tales embodies a new effort in the history of
literature, as it strictly deals with real men, manners, and life. In the beginning of his
literary career Chaucer followed his contemporaries and immediate predecessors, and
wrote allegorical and dream poetry which in its content was as remote from life as a dream
is from reality. But at the age of about fifty he realised that literature should deal first-
hand with life and not look at it through the spectacles of books or the hazy hues of dreams
and cumbersome allegory. He realised, to adopt Pope's famous couplet (with a little
change) :
Know then thyself: presume not dreams to scan,
The proper study of mankind is man.
And the product of this realisation was The Canterbury Tales. This poem, as it were, holds
a mirror to the life of Chaucer's age and shows its manners and morals completely, "not
in fragments." Chaucer replaces effectively the shadowy delineations of the old romantic
and allegorical school with the vivid and pulsating pictures of contemporary life.

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2. What individualizes the portraits of the characters in the ‘Prologue’ to The

Canterbury Tales?
The remark, "Here is God's plenty", has become as famous as the work to which John
Dryden applied it. The statement referred to The Canterbury Tales as a whole, but it
holds valid even if considered for The General Prologue alone. It is obvious that the
observation made by Dryden, refers to the variety and abundance of characters in The
Canterbury Tales. It was Chaucer's tolerant and humanitarian outlook which enabled
him to present such a variety of human beings in single work, and in such a benevolent
light.
What is more, the variety exists not merely in the different classes and professions to
which the pilgrims belong, but in their diverse mental attitudes, nature and behaviour,
Dress, personal whims and idiosyncrasies.
Motley spectacle presented in "The Prologue"

The Prologue has rightly been called a 'portrait-gallery'. The pilgrims who collect at the
Tabard to set out on their journey to Canterbury, belong to a variety of classes and
professions. Each has his or her special pose and attitude, dress and behaviour. Each is
vivid and lifelike. The characters represent both types and individuals. At the same time,
they possess qualities, which, as Blake aptly said, compose all ages and nations. Chaucer
is the first English poet to present such a lovely procession of men and women, who are
differentiated from one another by the subtlest touches of characterization. The
characters come alive on the pages of The Prologue. They are vital and realistic. They also
show Chaucer's delight in the motley spectacles of life. "Long before Balzac", says Lowes,
"Chaucer conceived and exhibited the Human Comedy".
Cross-section of the fourteenth century English society
The Prologue is often referred to as a social chronicle, and Chaucer as a social historian.
Though The Prologue is much more than a mere social chronicle, there is truth in the
remark that it gives a cross-section of English society in the fourteenth century. Through
the clever device of a pilgrimage, Chaucer has been able to assemble the representatives
of the widest possible section of the society of his day. Only the aristocracy and the lowest
rungs of society are left out—both classes would have been out of place on such a
pilgrimage. The thirty pilgrims, then, come from practically all classes and professions
which were existent in the Middle Ages.
The Knight heads the procession of pilgrims. He has the highest social position among
Chaucer's pilgrims. He belongs to the Chivalric code. He is accompanied by his son,
who is also his Squire, and by his Yeoman, as was customary for the knights of the
medieval times. The Knight has distinguished himself in battle, both in heathen and
Christian lands. His son, too, has shown his prowess in wars. He represents the devotee
of courtly love. The Yeoman is a forester and a loyal servant to the Knight and the Squire.

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After the chivalric order, comes the ecclesiastical order, i.e., the representatives of the
regular clergy. We have a Prioress, a Monk, and a Friar. Each presents the various
degrees of corruption and degeneracy which was prevalent in the religious orders of the
day. The Prioress' mind seems to be divided between the demands of the religious and the
attractions of the secular aspects of life. The motto on her brooch, 'Love Conquers All',
clearly indicates the confusion. The Monk hunts and enjoys sumptuous food, contrary to
his vows of seclusion and abstinence. The Friar is typical of the order as found in
Chaucer's time. He makes money by misusing his authority.
After the ecclesiastical characters representing the regular clergy, we have a procession of
middle class representatives. Among them are the representatives of trade, the
learned professions, a sailor, and other occupations. The Miller typifies his class of the
day in his ability to cheat and make money. The Municipal is clever enough to outwit
his learned masters. The Reeve cheats both his lord and the tenants.
The rising interest and stability in trade is represented by the Merchant, whose main
desire is to keep the seas free of piracy. The Shipman represents England's widening
power over the seas. He is typical of the sea captains of the day in his ruthlessness and
lack of conscience. There is a Franklin who is hospitable and well off. The learned
professions are represented by The Doctor of Physic and The Lawyer and the
Oxford Clerk. Typical of his age and, perhaps, typical of some doctors through all ages,
Chaucer's physician is not too worried by making money out of an epidemic. He likes gold,
we are told. The Lawyer, too, is adept at entailing property for his own benefit. The rising
middle class is represented by the five prosperous guildsmen whose wives are ambitious
of great status and respectability.
If the corruptness of the clergy is once again evident in the lecherous Summoner and
the Cheating Pardoner, we have the good Christian spirit exemplified in the Parson
and his brother the ploughman. But the Summoner and The Pardoner exemplify the
corruption and degeneracy of morals in Chaucer's time. The Summoner teaches the
people the exact opposite of what he is supposed to tell them. He is quite ready to ignore
the sins of people if they are willing to bribe him. The Pardoner sells false relics and bogus
pardons. Both are partners of an equal temper.
Perhaps the most vibrant personality in The Prologue, is the Wife of Bath. While she is
more individualised than typical, she also represents the rising middle class. She is a first-
rate weaver of cloth, and a very rich woman. A much married woman, she indicates the
existing social conditions in which rich single women were never left single for long.
Typical, universal and individual traits of the characters
The pilgrims represent different classes and professions of the time. They, thus, also
embody the traits which are considered typical of then: particular position in society and
their profession. Incidentally, Chaucer's pilgrims represent the ‘best’ in each profession.
It is noted that many of these typical traits are presented in such a manner that they also
become the individual traits. Thus the Doctor's greed for making money at the time of an
epidemic, is at once typical of the medieval doctor and also seems to be an individual trait
of the particular doctor.
Particulars of dress, moral qualities, behaviour, special features, idiosyncrasies, etc., serve
to individualise the pilgrims. The Squire's pleasantly embroidered dress and his constant
singing, give an individual touch. The Knight's fustian doublet indicates his sober nature

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while contrasting him with its hair like the bristles of a sow's ears. We 'see' the thinness
of the Reeve and the Franklin's beard, which is white as a daisy. The Wife of Bath is a
vibrant personality who wears scarlet stocking and huge kerchiefs. She laughs and jokes
and exhibits exuberant energy. The fearsome ugliness of the Summoner comes out clearly
in his red face full of pimples. He gets drunk and is fond of garlic and leek. The Pardoner,
has thin hair and shining eyes like hare's. His voice is thin as a goat's. The Monk wears
rich clothes, which at once typifies the fourteenth century monks while individualising
him. The Prioress has exquisite table manners.
The details are not only typical of each pilgrim's class. They often belong to basic human
nature. We may not find such a Miller now, but the traits embodied in the Miller could
easily be found in some other person. The vibrant sexuality and boisterous sense of fun of
the Wife of Bath can be found in some human beings in all ages and nations. This is true
of most of the traits shown by Chaucer in his pilgrims. He has given in each one certain
basic features which are common to human beings through the ages. And he has dealt
with all possible facets of the human personality in his pilgrims. Hence the term 'here is
God's plenty', is specially suitable for The Prologue to The Canterbury Tales. We do not
merely see the good and the bad. We do not only come across pure white and black. We
see a mixture of the good and the bad, and all shades of grey as well. We see the world and
life as it is, not as it ought to be. We find good, bad and average men and women on this
earth. We come across dishonesty, ruthlessness, sentimentality, gaiety, chivalry,
kindness, greed and numerous other such qualities in the human beings all around us.
We see the essence of most of these qualities in the pilgrims of The Prologue.
Chaucer's tolerant vision and joy in God's creation
What is very important to note about the presentation of 'God's plenty' in The Prologue,
is that Chaucer takes it to be precisely God's plenty. He shows the full realisation that God
has created all kinds of human beings, and there is no cause for man to disapprove or
criticise violently. Though his presentation is not immoral, for we can easily detect that
Chaucer's own moral standards were not low, he does not criticise violently or bitterly the
frailties of human nature. He accepted the imperfections in human beings, and presented
them in all their variety without castigating their vices or frowning upon their follies.
Chaucer's poetry has a spirit of joy and wonder. He was an amused and tolerant spectator
of God's plenty. He took keen joy in the created world. He never lost the wonder or
curiosity he felt about the diversity of human nature. Life to him was a vast field of
delights, and this is very much evident in The Prologue. Chaucer was, indeed, a man of
the most comprehensive nature, who could encompass such a large variety of human
nature in single work.
3. Discuss Chaucer’s handling of the fable in ‘The Nun’s Priest’s Tale’.
In Geoffrey Chaucer's The Nun's Priest's Tale, human characters contrast with the
animal characters. Called a beast fable, the animals in the tale take on human
characteristics. Although all of the characters - the widow, Chaunticleer, Pertelote,
and the fox - are all relatively human, they are far different from each other. What
is especially interesting is the way Chaunticleer and Pertelote interact with each

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other. The two characters, though they are poultry, illustrate the comical and
typical relationship of a long-married couple. Combined, all of the differences of
the characters make for interesting representations and interactions.
The widow is a model of her estate. The description of her habits contrasts the
simplicity of the human character with her barnyard animals' pretentiousness. Her
simple life includes humble activities (tending her animals) and plain food. Her
avoidance of excess food and drink contrasts with the dietary excess of which
Pertelote will accuse Chaunticleer later.
Similarly, the widow's humility contrasts with Chaunticleer's haughtiness. Roosters

announce the arrival of morning. Chaucer inflates his rooster by attributing to him
specific knowledge of the astrological forces governing the rotation of the planets.
After considering these factors, he crows.
Chaunticleer is superior in other ways to his unassuming owner. Not only is he a

well-informed rooster, but he is a handsome one. Described in terms of the bright
colors medieval people associated with royalty, his appearance was regal: red,
black, blue, white, and gold. Besides being intelligent and handsome, he is
successful in love. He leads a comfortable life with a harem of seven hens, his
primary spouse being the most colorful among them, the "fair damsel Pertelote". In
medieval romance, the best knight gets the most beautiful woman. When Chaucer
employs the romance term "damsel" to describe Pertelote, he enhances
Chaunticleer's status, too. If Pertelote is a courtly lady, "courteous"Ã‚Â¦discreet,
and debonair", Chaunticleer is a courtly lover, serenading her in courtly fashion
with a popular love song.
Regal though they are, Chaunticleer and Pertelote interact like a typical long-
married couple. One morning, Chaunticleer, lordly "among his wives"Ã‚Â¦in the
hall," nonetheless is in a bad mood, "groaning in his throat". His wife, hearing him,
responds in good-wife fashion: "Dear heart, / What ails you, to groan in this
manner?". He tells her that he has had a bad dream and tells her about it so that she
may interpret it. However, as wives will, she flattens him. She mocks Chaunticleer,
fearing a dream is unmanly. Women want brave men, not cowards.
In beast fables such as The Nun's Priest's Tale, animal characters take on human
characteristics. Chaunticleer, a rooster, and Pertelote, a hen who is one of
Chaunticleer's seven wives, behave much like a long-married couple. Their
behaviors and characteristics strongly contrast those of their keeper, the widow.
Chaucer uses pride as Chaunticleer's tragic flaw to give a moral lesson: pride

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threatens lords, not just roosters. Though they are merely barnyard birds,
Chaunticleer and Pertelote serve as a vehicle to teach a lesson in The Nun's Priest's
Tale.
4. Comment on the use of Speech, dialogue reflection and narration in NPT.
Ans. On the primary level the nun’s priest’s tale is a brilliant and complex exposure of vanity self
esteem and self indulgence through the mock heroic treatment of a beast fable on the secondary level. The
Nun’s priest joins the discussions of the pilgrims on poverty (man of law, wife of bath), Women’s advice
(merchant, rhetoric and marriage. He is also presenting in the contrast between the widow and chanticleer
a veiled comment on his position vis-à-vis the prioress Finally on the level of involuntary revelation be
falls into the pedantry that he is ridiculing and uncovers for a moment in his confusion the feelings of a
misogynist dependent on a Woman. In this moment there is revealed a second conflict the conflict
between the octist building with the materials of his act a world where his feelings achieve symbolic and
universal expression and the man expressing his feelings directly”.
NPT is a dramatic Tale. The action here is more verbal than non verbal. The debate on dreams of the play
of wit between the hero (chanticleer) and the villain (Colfox) the reflections of the priest the dramatic
storey teller are all verbal action speeches dialogue and reflection are more important in this tale than
action of the other type the tale is thus remarkable for psychic and mental action it is whole literary or
linguistic than bright appear on that surface the speech of the fox addressed to the cock is highly
rhetorical and full of dramatic issue . The priest is using the tale as an exemplum. His storey is a
contemplative and didactic sermon. His reflection on the theological problem of free will and
predetermination relates. This tale to the knights tale and to Troilus and reside. And in all the three
“Chaucer’s balance in his just comprehension of tragedy and his gentle sense of humour” may be seen.
Poetry and philosophy are united dramatically. In this respect Chaucer is second only to Shakespeare
among great English poets. The priest reflection on Women is curiously class objective Chaucer’s
narrative act combines description reflection and narration in an aesthetic complex. The narrative has all
the qualities that a good narrative requires (a) the pace and movement of the storey (b) suspense and
crises (c) transmission from the serious to the gay tone and back (d) drama (e) action (f) contemplating or
reflecting on the action (g) artistic control of the material of experience. Description is poetic and places
eg. The description of chanticleer voice and appearance it is not always so poetic. It is matter of fact in
tone more frequently the use of poetic devices like the simile and rhetorical devices like exclamations
may be noticed for particular consideration. In the use of similes Chaucer is the supreme English poet.
The most important aspect of Chaucer’s style is that the tale is a verse narrative. The music of the heroic
couplets of NPT should be appreciated. The verse of Chaucer’s poem is radically different from the
traditional alliterative influence of Chaucer verse of his age. The influence of Chaucer on the letter
English poets is immeasurable because they found the syllabic verse pattern introduced by him more
congenial than the old alliterative verse.
5. Compare and contrast "The Epithalamion" and "The Prothalamion".

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Ans. Spencer's Epithalamion and Prothalamion both highlight the theme of

marriage. However, the Epithalamion celebrates Spencer's own marriage to
Elizabeth Boyle, while the Prothalamion is a nuptial song celebrating the
respective marriages of Elizabeth and Katherine Somerset (the daughters of
the Earl of Worcester) to Henry Gilford and William Peter. The Epithalamion
celebrates the groom and bride's preparations on the day of their marriage.
Both the Epithalamion and Prothalamion highlight the importance of nymphs to

the wedding preparations. In the Epithalamion, the nymphs cover the bride's path
to the bridal bower with flowers. They protect the sanctity of the woods and the
lakes so that the bride will have a perfect wedding day. Likewise, in the
Prothalamion, the nymphs gather a profusion of flowers in order to braid Katherine
and Elizabeth's bridal crowns. Spencer makes full use of pagan images of fertility
in both poems.
However, Spencer also celebrates the marriage act in very Christian terms in both
works. In the Prothalamion, he wishes Katherine and Elizabeth pleasure in the
marriage act and "fruitfull issue" from the consummation of their marriages. The
Epithalamion goes still further by describing the bride's physical attractions, and
the 10th stanza's paean to the bride's beauty is evocative of the sensual passages
from the Song of Solomon.
Her goodly eyes lyke Saphyres shining bright,
Her forehead yvory white,
Her cheekes lyke apples which the sun hath rudded,
Her lips lyke cherryes charming men to byte,
Her brest like to a bowle of creame uncrudded,
Her paps lyke lyllies budded,
Her snowie necke lyke to a marble towre,
And all her body like a pallace fayre,
In the Epithalamion's 11th stanza, Spencer praises his bride's internal beauty: her
"sweet love,""constant chastity," "Unspotted fayth and comely womenhed," and
"mild modesty." Here, he highlights the Christian definition of unvarnished, inner

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beauty. On the other hand, the Prothalamion chooses to highlight the mingling of
the sacred and the secular in marriage. Spencer contrasts the fairness and whiteness
of the twin swans with the muddied waters of the river. The swans represent
Katherine and Elizabeth's virginal purity; even the "gentle streame" seems
impossibly corrupt and commonplace against this backdrop of feminine perfection.
Interestingly, the Prothalamion chooses not to focus on male (or female)

sexual desire, but the Epithalamion hones in on the bridegroom's desire for
his bride in Stanza 16. In this stanza, the groom very obviously yearns for the
"long weary day" to end so that he can consummate his marriage to his bride.
He wants to see her spread out on the bed covered in "odourd sheetes" of
"lillies and in violets." In Stanzas 22 and 23, he asks the goddesses Juno,
Hebe, and Hymen to bless him and his bride with children:
That we may raise a large posterity,
Which from the earth, which they may long possess, With lasting happiness,
As can be seen, both poems celebrate the theme of marriage; the Epithalamion
highlights the personal nature of a marital union, while the Prothalamion also
chooses to address the social significance of a marriage union among the nobility
6. Discuss "Mac Flecknoe" as a mock-heroic poem.
Ans. A mock-heroic poem is a poem in which trivial and insignificant things are
mockingly treated in a heroic or exalted manner. It is a ludicrous imitation of the
heroic, applying formal style and dignified language to a trivial theme. Pope's The
Rape of the Lock is the masterpiece example of a mock-heroic poem, but Dryden
was his forerunner in more than one sense. Dryden's Mac Flecknoe is the first great
mock-heroic poem in English. This personal satire, has all the characteristics of a
comic, mock-heroic fantasy, the pompous crowning, by Flecknoe, a prince among
poetasters, of an heir worthy of himself, which will supply Pope with more than
one trait of his Dunciad James.
Mac Flecknoe is Dryden's mock-heroic fantasy in choosing to satirize Shadwell by

representing him as the successor to Flecknoe on the throne of Dullness. Shadwell

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is raised to an unsought dignity that he cannot sustain. It is a make-believe dignity,

of course, the throne is the throne of dullness. But so subtly does Dryden go to
work in the heroic idiom that the words constantly give us a confused impression
of grandeur, and it is only after a moment's reflection that we realize that what
seemed to be praise is in fact denigration of the deadliest kind. The effect on the
reader is one of a delighted, but slightly blurred, realization that Shadwell is being
quietly taken to pieces. Dryden works here by a comic transformation of values.
Flecknoe's opening speech rests upon a sort of ironical, 'Evil, be thou my good'
The destructive potential of mock-heroic has never been better illustrated than in
Mac Flecknoe. Its obliteration of Richard Flecknoe himself is perhaps gratuitous,
given the self- obliteration of the un-talented, but Mac Flecknoe has effectively
substituted its eponymous hero for the historical Thomas Shadwell so firmly that
the latter's genuine achievements stand for virtually nothing. How this is done is a
perfect example of how a mock-heroic can work. What is involved is exploitation
of the heroic manner itself, seen brilliantly exemplified in the opening lines:
All humane things are subject to decay, And, when Fate summons, Monarchs must
obey: This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young tom, and had govern'd long.
The only detail here, which might indicate the mock-heroic is the setting of
Flecknoe's name beside that of Augustus. Suspicions about the poet's attitude grow
when Flecknoe's kingdom is defined as one of `Verse and Prose', but the telling
undercutting of his realm is held back until the sixth line:
Through all the Realms of Non-sense, absolute. Complete and undisputed power-
over a realm of nonsense.
From this beginning Dryden goes on to define Shadwell with merciless precision,
calling upon the language of epic and cleverly transforming it into the anti-world
of mock-heroic:
As Mac Flecknoe proceeds, its effects are more coarsely achieved, and its ending
(a brilliantly contrived parody of Ascension, which is also a mockery of Shadwell's
own plays) does not have the resonance of the ending of the final book of The
Dunciad, but Dryden has made a Mac Flecknoe which is a tribute to dullness. In
the poem Flecknoe is finally dropped through the trapdoor to the 'hell' beneath.
In its original impulse Mac Flecknoe may be considered as a satire. Dryden also
described it as Varronian satire, a category for which its primary qualification
seems to be that it is based on a story of the poet's own invention. But the most

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helpful classification of the poem, as well as the most familiar, is that of the mock-
heroic. Faced with the task of making Shadwell ridiculous, Dryden chose as his
method the ironical politeness of the mock-epic.
The style of many passages in Mac Flecknoe is identical with the polished heroic
idiom of Absalom and Achitophel. The joke that makes "a poem exquisitely
satirical" consists in using this style, which was soon to prove a perfect medium for
a poem about the King and weighty matters of State, to describe Shadwell and his
insignificant affairs. Nor is Shadwell so insignificant before Dryden gets to work:
it is the elevated style that makes him so. A small man is not in himself a
ridiculous object: he becomes ridiculous when he is dressed up in a suit of armor
designed for a hero. The difference between the important matters that the style is
continually suggesting and the question of Flecknoe's successor is so marked that a
shock of laughter follows.
These lines might form the opening of a panegyric funeral elegy on a royal
personage; but the direction of the prosecution, which follows indicates the mock-
heroic intention beyond all doubt. Right from the start, too, we have "the numbers
of heroic poesy", which emphasize by their harmonious dignity the ludicrousness
of the matter. The skillful manner in which Dryden mingles direct and oblique
attack is particularly clear in Flecknoe's speeches, which are introduced and
terminated with the due heightening of style and make up more than half of the
poem.
One of the characteristics of the heroic idiom which Dryden adapts to his own
purpose is the dignified description of time and place. The great event is ushered in
by a formal passage:
The mock-heroic imagery of Mac Flecknoe is no less brilliant. The joyful business
of comparing small men to giants and making pygmies of them in the process
begins in the third line of the poem, where we hear that Flecknoe,
like Augustus, young Was call'd to Empire and had govem'd long
The unfortunate Shadwell is compared in turn to Arion, to "young Ascanius

Rome's other hope and Pillar of the State," to Hannibal, and to "Romulus by
Tyber's Brook." The tendency to blasphemy which is never far away in Dryden,
whether in satire or panegyric, becomes very marked in the account of the signs
and omens which foreshadowed Shadwell's coming. Flecknoe's speech parodies
John the Baptist's:

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Heywood and Shirley were but Types of thee, Thou last great Prophet of
Tautology: Even I, a dunce of more renown than they, Was sent before but to
prepare the way: And coarsely clad in Norwich Drugget came To teach the
Nations in thy greater name.
It is not only in mock-heroic imagery that Mac Flecknoe excels. Brilliant examples
of imagery may also be found, notably in the latter irony of Flecknoe's second
speech, which makes relatively little use of irony and is written in a style closer to
that of direct satire than most other parts of the poem:
Mac Flecknoe is full of mock splendor, an outrageous blending together of various

shades of Christian and pagan coloring. Dryden's mocking epic became a literary
landmark for its fusion of inharmonious Christian elements with utmost brilliance.
The father-son relationship of Flecknoe and "Sh" is itself a good example.
Throughout the poem, Dryden carefully develops the ludicrous parallel between
Flecknoe's preceding his son as a dull poet and St. John, the Baptist, preceding
Christ. The poem ends with inverted indexing to John the Baptist who is said to
have risen to heaven having finished his moral assignments. Flecknoe, the
precursor, falls through a trap door. Mac Flecknoe is full of such examples of overt
parody.
7. An epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot Popes self dramatization in the poem?

Self justification and a defence:- Pope’s professed purpose in writing An epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot as he
states in the advertisement to the poem was to supply to his readers true and accurate information about
his own person his morals and his family. He felt it necessary to do so because some of his literary
enemies had been maligning him for various reasons because they were Tealors of success as a poet.
However, the immediate provocation in writing this poem was a publication of a poem entitled verses
addressed to the imitator of Horace by Lord Harvey. Therefore the Epistle can be called an apologia a self
justification and a defence. Therefore it is quite understandable that pope should project a flattering image
of himself showing himself to be a faultless man, a pardgon of virtues praising himself and his friends and
justifying his attacks on opponents considering it as his duty as a poet to satirize bad poets as well as
nobles who are hostile to him. He also asserts that his poem will offered only those who are vicious and
ungenerous. Acting on the advice of his fried Dr. Arbuthnot he has refrained from naming his enemies so
that they should not become a laughing stock of the people.
Autobiographical part one of the three divisions of the poem:-
Broadly the poem can be divided into three poets attack on bad poets in general and patrons attack on his
enemies and autobiographical. In most of the lines we see lines are devoted to the praise of Dr. Arbuthnot.
A born poet encouraged by parents to write poetry:- He tells the readers that he was a born poet. He chose
to be a poet and writing of poetry was his consolation in his life which he calls a long disease. He
published what he wrote because eminent writers and critics praised his work and wanted him to publish.

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And he also states that when critics attacked him he did not hit back and kept his peace. In lines 125-27 he
dramatizes himself why did he write? For what sin of his own or that of his parents he began to write
poetry? And he also calls writing an idle trade.
Lover of solitude serenity peace and poetry:- In lines 261-304 he states that he always desired for solitude
and serenity as a poet and wished to lead a simple like in the company of his friends or of his favourite
books. He was not interested in politics people refused to believe that he had no other interest in life
except writing then he clarifies that as a satirist he did not harm the innocent or honest persons. The
targets of his lash were those who disturbed the peace of their neighbors who lie libel are vain, swear
falsely or criticize badly. In these lines pope asserts that his concern was with the moral in life as well as
in his poetry.
A defence of his Satire on moral basis:- In lines 360-405 pope explains to Arbuthnot he reasons for
satirizing his enemies. Arbuthnot asks pope why he continues to write satire “ to insult the poor and
affront the great” pope states in his defence that satire does not discriminate between the poor and the
great. He then informs his friend that for ten years he has been standard and abused and names of bitter
enemies. Some of them have even insulted his father a truly virtuous and blameless person pope expresses
the wish to lead a simple and virtuous life like that of his father and die like him peacefully.
He idealizes himself as a man and a poet:-In the last 14 lines pope wishes that this friend Arbuthnot
should enforce domestic happiness curing the sufferings and pains of the sick and afflicted. An analysis of
the autobiographical passages shows that pope has attempted to present himself not as what he is but what
he wished others to believe about him. He idealizes himself as a man and as a poet. He tells us in this
poem that he served his sick mother with great love and care but his mother has died two years before the
publication of this poem. Also he had some good friends and he valued their friendship and tried to retain
them as his friends. It is also true that he was a born poet and began to publish quite early in his life and
attained fame poetry to sublimate his sufferings his anger and frustration. Besides that all that pope states
in his autobiographical passage is incorrect exaggerated and is due to his desire to dramatize himself. He
tells us as if he did not like writings poetry but the fact is that he enjoyed writing it worked hard on his
poems revising and extending them. His claim that he did not seek the friendship of the great of his age is
also incorrect. He sought them and cultivated them. He wrote because of his personal animosity and not
on moral grounds. The worst about Pope’s behaviors his diatribe against bad poets these poor creatures
had not doubt false notions about their talent and attempted to make a living by their pens. Such poets and
writers are more to be pitied than satirized and ridiculed. He devotes a great deal of space in his poem to
such poets who pester him and torment him at all times and at all places.
8. Comment on Samuel Jhonson’s opinion about “Dryden’s compositions are

the effects of a vigorous genius operating upon large materials.”
Ans. The occasional poet is circumscribed by the narrowness of his subject.

Whatever can happen to man has happened so often, that little remains for fancy or
invention. We have been all born; we have most of us been married; and so many
have died before us, that our deaths can supply but few materials for a poet. In the

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fate of princes the public has an interest; and what happens to them of good or evil,
the poets have always considered as business for the Muse. But after so many
inauguratory gratulations, nuptial hymns, and funeral dirges, he must be highly
favoured by nature, or by fortune who says anything not said before. Even war and
conquest, however splendid, suggests no new images; the triumphal chariot of a
victorious monarch can be decked only with those ornaments that have graced his
predecessors.
Not only matter but time is wanting. The poem must not be delayed till the
occasion is forgotten. The lucky moments of animated imagination cannot be
attended; elegances and illustrations cannot be multiplied by gradual accumulation:
the composition must be dispatched while conversation is yet busy and admiration
fresh; and haste is to be made, lest some other event should lay hold upon
mankind.
Occasional compositions may however secure to a writer the praise both of

learning and facility, for they cannot be the effect of long study, and must be
furnished immediately from the treasures of the mind.
The death of Cromwell was the first public event which called forth Dryden's
poetical powers. His heroic stanzas have beauties and defects; the thoughts are
vigorous, and though not always proper, show a mind replete with ideas; the
numbers are smooth, and the diction if not altogether correct, is elegant and easy.
Davenant was perhaps at this time his favourite author, though 'Gondibert' never
appears to have been popular; and from Davenant he learned to please his ear with
the stanza of four lines alternately rhymed.
Dryden very early formed his versification: there are in this early production no
traces of Donne's or Jonson's ruggedness; but he did not so soon free his mind from
the ambition of forced conceits. In his verses on the Restoration, he says of the
King's exile: —
He, tossed by fate,

Could taste no sweets of youth's desired age,
But found his life too true a pilgrimage.
9. Discuss " Kubla Khan" as an allegorical poem.

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In 1816, Coleridge began “Kubla Khan” with an introduction that explained why others should
not destroy the poem in their criticism, but enjoy it for itself. He begins his preface by claiming
that another title might be “A Vision in a Dream. A Fragment,”but that the poem itself seems
complete. This is akin to a young artist claiming thathis art is not yet perfected, and then parting
the proverbial curtain to reveal apainting of such skill that the ancient masters might have
envied. This may be done to defend the poem, which has relatively of what typifies Romantic
poetry, against the attacks of critics in Coleridge’s own day, as it does not seem to be true about
the poem itself. By attributing the images of “Kubla Khan” to a dream (identified later as a
drug-induced reverie), Coleridge allows people to dream a bit themselves as they read the
poem, something forgotten in the Neo-Classical period, but seeing something of are birth with
the Romantics. Imagination is the key to “Kubla Khan,” and is the sourcefrom which it stems.
The work Purchas his Pilgrimage is in part to blame (or praise) for Coleridge’s dream,
according to the introduction, because the plot of the poem resides within it, and was his last
thought before falling into sleep. As Benjamin Franklin once claimed to do, Coleridge goes on
to quote himself with much gravity. His carefully cited poem tells how, though his
concentration was broken, the great dream he had known would come to light again. He makes
excuse as to why his poem has not yet reflected the true image of his dream, and lets readers
make do with what fragments he can attach to the fleeting reminders that remain.“In Xanadu
did Kubla Khan a stately pleasure-dome decree,” the poem begins. The cadence of the words is
unmistakable, and the words seem to have a power of their own. Where is this place, this
Xanadu, readers ask themselves, and what of Kubla Khan? A stute readers might recognize
Kubla from Chinese history, the warlord who began the Mongol dynasty. Those who do not
look too deeply, see instead the wonder of fantastic times and places, enjoying more and
thinking somewhat less. A stately pleasure-dome, these readers postulate, is not such a bad idea
at all, perhaps I shallmake one for myself. The power of Kubla Khan (as indeed of
“Kubla Khan”) is implied rather than stated.Coleridge does not describe a stately throne
or golden crown, but simply that Kublahas the power to create by will alone. This is much like
Coleridge’s own power in the creation of “Kubla Khan” and of all poets to their works. A
pleasure-dome is made because Kubla wishes it to be so. Through his mind’s eye and his vast
imagination, Kubla has envisioned a great dome girdling miles of beautiful nature. By will and
imagination, Kubla subdues nature and makes it an object of his own. This wouldn’t have won
Kubla any points with Coleridge’s friend Wordsworth, and perhaps it is that very voice of
Coleridge’s Romantic ances tor that later prophesies war.

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There are two blemishes on Kubla’s power, outside forces that run deep and
confound even the great builder. The first mystical blight on Kubla’s world is a chasm running
through the hills and forests. It is a magical place that seems to breathe, and eruptsinto violent
spasms, coughing up vast chunks of earth. This chasm disturbs the riverupon which Kubla has
constructed his great walls and towers, and thus disturbs Kubla himself. It seems as though this
chasm might be the result of an earthquake, a primal natural force, that changes forever the
Alpheus’ course. The river runs a similar course, through wood and dale to deep dank
caverns, but its tumult, which was oncewithin Kubla’s realm, is now heard from far. The
shadow of Kubla’s dome, which oncegirdled the whole of a beautiful stretch of nature, fed by
the river, now falls midway upon the waves it once encircled. If the chasm did alter the course
of the river (it israther difficult to say for certain from the poem itself), then this could symbolize
the power of nature to overcome the ingenuity of man. Like the theme of Jurassic Park, this
implies that man’s imagination might be better spent on more innocent pursuits, and that
perhaps nature has a wisdom of her own that humanity ought to let lie. The chasm, whether or
not it affects directly the river, does have a negative effect on Kubla, for it is during the eruption
of the chasm that he hears of an impending war. The second dark force in Kubla’s life is
the prophecy of doom. Sounded by ancestral voices crying out to Kubla, war is
prophesied, but is not seen in the poem. Instead, the poem changes to the first person, praising
the idea of the pleasure-dome and wishing to build the dome in air. This seems to be Coleridge
lamenting the loss of his vision, and claiming that if it were to be had again that he could do
great things with it. This opium-induced dream never does return, or if it does it was never put
to paper, for as Coleridge says more than fifteen years after the work’s composition,“the to-
morrow in yet to come.”If imagination is the basis for the poem, power is the theme. Kubla, for
all his might and majesty, faces the fact that he is not a god. Coleridge, on realizing that his
dream has faded with time, and that he may never reach the truest form of it by description and
poetry, realizes that he too is not a god. Like in the “Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” Coleridge
creates a situation and a world that are entirely his own. The power of creation, “Kubla Khan”
warns, is the danger of overextending one’s boundaries. Kubla became mad with power, and
nature struck him down, while Coleridge felt the ultimate muse brush past him, leaving him
with fragments of what might have been. This life we have, this beauty that we have
around us, Coleridge seems to say, is enough. It needs not to be captured, nor does it need
to be fully explored to understand its nature. It is by overreaching the power that God grants to
men that each will find his downfall. The poem “Kubla Khan” is about poetry, and art in
general. It is about power and ruler ship. It is about living to fulfillment, and not
beingdissatisfied when we come near our mark but fall just short.
10. Critically analysis the poem SAILING TO BYZANTIUM

Critics have discussed in detail the possible literary sources of this poem Harold Bloom believes that the
vision of this poem as well its repudiation of nature is more Shelleyan than Blakean. John Untracked

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remarks:- “Sailing to Byzantium prepares the way for a whole group of comments on the passionate old
man as symbol for the tyranny of time”. B Rajan remarks that the poem itself embodies Blokes
proposition that eternity is in love with the production of time Stauge Moore has remarked that the poem
is unjustified in asserting that he would be out of nature” The golden bird of Byzantium seems to have
been derived from Gibbon. The poem like many odes of Keats deals with the theme of art life and death
Yeats have express his preference for the world of art over life. Yeats was attracted to Byzantium because
it was mathematically convenient to him. This is because the high point of Byzantine art came almost
dead centre in the 2000 years circle which defined the beginning and end of modern times. Another
reason was that the brilliant integrated art of Byzantium had great appeal for him because in early.
Byzantium religious aesthetic and practical life were one. The artist was almost impersonal almost
without the conscious nor of individual design. The subject makes represented the vision of whole people
Yeats in this poem wishes to said to such a world.
In this poem there are two main divisions which divide the poem precisely in half. The first two Stanzas
present art as in animate and the second two as animate. Accordingly in the first half of the poem the
image are stated as passive objects. They are twice called monuments. They are merely objects of
contemplation. They may be neglected or studied, visited or not visited on the other hand in the second
two Stanzas. They are treated as gods one can pray to these gods for life or death. They are capable for
motion from sphere to sphere as instructors of the soul they are like stages possessed of wisdom. In the
two major divisions there are further divisions. The first Stanza presents a rejection of passion. The
second Stanza is an acceptance of intellection. Third Stanza presents a rejection of the corruptible
embodiment as art has a soul. The fourth Stanza is an acceptance of the incorruptible. Negative and
affirmative thus alternate passion gives place to intellection and corruption to permanence.
The second Stanza shows that old age is no solution. To be old is to be in a state of misery. An aged man
is but a paltry thing a tattered coat upon to stick the old age alone is worse than youth. But of the old age
is accompanied by development of the soul then even step in the decay of the body.” Every fatter in its
mortal dress is a cause to further increase of joy. This is possible only if the soul can rejoice in
“monuments of its own significance”. The old must seek Byzantium by breaking utterly with the country
of the young. Passion must be rejected for freedom of the soul. The sensual music of the first Stanza must
yield to soul’s music. This souls is to be studied in the singing school of men’s greatest achievements in
religion and thought and especially art. The third Stanza shows that there are old men in Byzantium too.
They are the sages standing in “Gods holy fire” to whom the speaker appeals. The final Stanza tells that at
last ‘out of nature’ the old man can renounce all physical incarnation. He can become the imperishable
thing itself the golden bird, a beautiful work of act. He will be thus beyond decay and so unlike the dying
generations of real bird of the first Stanza.
In a vision Yeats tells us that in early Byzantium may be never before or since to recorded history
religious aesthetic and practical life were one. Architecture and artificers though not perhaps poets spoke
to the multitude and the few alike it was to such a world that Yeats wanted to soil in this poem. A world
in which the artist almost impersonal manages to reflect the vision of a whole people. This world had a
nature so integrated as to produce an art which could have the impact of a single image. The world he
leaves transfixed by the sensual music of its signing birds is represented by encaging multitudinous
bodies fish-fish fowl those “dying generation” of the world. Birds sing songs to the body, songs which

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abstract all people from. He contemplation of monuments of nagging intellect which alone can justify an
old man’s existence and which cannot be produced in modern chaotic time.
11. Attempt a critical appreciation of "The Blessed Damozel".
Ans. There are four versions of “The Blessed Damozel,” which was written in
1847, when Dante Gabriel Rossetti was eighteen years old. The first version was
published in The Germ in 1850, the second in The Oxford and Cambridge
Magazine in 1856, the third in 1870 in Rossetti’s collection Poems, the fourth in
Poems, 1881. The changes appearing in the second and third versions are generally
regarded as improvements.
Many years after the poem was written, Rossetti is said to have attributed it to his
admiration of Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven” (1845). Rossetti is reported to have
said that Poe had done the most that was possible to do with the grief of a lover on
earth longing for a lover in heaven and that he (Rossetti) was determined to reverse
the conditions in “The Blessed Damozel.”
Both a poet and a painter, in 1848 Rossetti, along with Holman Hunt and John
Everett Millais, established the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. The term “Pre-
Raphaelite” was first used to describe a group of German artists who early in the
nineteenth century formed a brotherhood in Rome to restore Christian art to the
medieval purity of the great Italian masters preceding Raphael. The German group
was short-lived, and the term was later used to designate the English school
founded by Rossetti and his followers. In general, the English Pre-Raphaelites
reacted against the neoclassic tendencies and low standards of the art of their day.
Both their painting and their literature are characterized by an interest in the
medieval and the supernatural, simplicity of style, love of sensuous beauty,
exactness of detail, and much symbolism.
Not only is “The Blessed Damozel” Rossetti’s best-known work, but it also
epitomizes the Pre-Raphaelite school. He used the medieval form of damsel,
“damozel”—a young, unmarried woman of noble birth—in the title to emphasize
the medieval setting and visionary aspects of the poem. He was commissioned in
1871 to do a painting of the poem and by 1879 had given it a predella showing an
earthly lover (wearing a cloak and a sword) lying under a tree in the forest looking
up at his beloved. The poem is presented as his reverie. He dreams that she leans
out from the golden bar of heaven. Although she has been in heaven ten years, to
her it scarcely seems a day. In the forest, the lover imagines that the autumn leaves

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are her hair falling on his face. Around her, lovers, met again in heaven, speak
among themselves, and souls ascending to God go by “like thin flames.”
Her gaze pierces the abyss between heaven and earth, and she speaks. (Her lover
imagines that he hears her voice in the birds’ song.) She wishes that he would
come to her, for when he does they will lie together in paradise and she herself will
teach him the songs of heaven. She will ask Jesus that they be allowed to live and
love as they once did on earth—but for eternity. She sees a flight of angels pass by
and lays her head on the golden barrier of heaven and weeps. The lover asserts that
he has heard the tears.
12. 'What the Thunder said' in The Wasteland is not only its best part but
justifies the whole poem.' Do you agree with this view? Give reasons for your
answer.
The final section of The Waste Land is dramatic in both its imagery and its events.
The first half of the section builds to an apocalyptic climax, as suffering people
become “hooded hordes swarming” and the “unreal” cities of Jerusalem, Athens,
Alexandria, Vienna, and London are destroyed, rebuilt, and destroyed again. A
decaying chapel is described, which suggests the chapel in the legend of the Holy
Grail. Atop the chapel, a cock crows, and the rains come, relieving the drought and
bringing life back to the land. Curiously, no heroic figure has appeared to claim the
Grail; the renewal has come seemingly at random, gratuitously.
The scene then shifts to the Ganges, half a world away from Europe, where
thunder rumbles. Eliot draws on the traditional interpretation of “what the thunder
says,” as taken from the Upanishads (Hindu fables). According to these fables, the
thunder “gives,” “sympathizes,” and “controls” through its “speech”; Eliot
launches into a meditation on each of these aspects of the thunder’s power. The
meditations seem to bring about some sort of reconciliation, as a Fisher King-type
figure is shown sitting on the shore preparing to put his lands in order, a sign of his
imminent death or at least abdication. The poem ends with a series of disparate
fragments from a children’s song, from Dante, and from Elizabethan drama,
leading up to a final chant of “Shantih shantih shantih”—the traditional ending to
an Upanishad. Eliot, in his notes to the poem, translates this chant as “the peace
which passeth understanding,” the expression of ultimate resignation.
Finally Eliot turns to the Fisher King himself, still on the shore fishing. The
possibility of regeneration for the “arid plain” of society has been long ago
discarded. Instead, the king will do his best to put in order what remains of his

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kingdom, and he will then surrender, although he still fails to understand the true
significance of the coming void. The burst of allusions at the end can be read as
either a final attempt at coherence or as a final dissolution into a world of
fragments and rubbish. The king offers some consolation: “These fragments I have
shored against my ruins,” he says, suggesting that it will be possible to continue on
despite the failed redemption. It will still be possible for him, and for Eliot, to “fit
you,” to create art in the face of madness. It is important that the last words of the
poem are in a non-Western language: Although the meaning of the words
themselves communicates resignation, they invoke an alternative set of paradigms
to those of the Western world; they offer a glimpse into a culture and a value
system new to us—and, thus, offer some hope for an alternative to our own dead
world.
13. Discuss briefly Shelley of a romantic?

Romanticism emerged as the romantic movement or criticism in the last quarter of 18th century in
Germany as criticism of prevailing neo classical models which emphasized. The mechanical and
impersonal style of literature. Rationalism is regarded by them as greatest value and poetry for them is
only a craft Dr. Johmoon wrote “the business of the poet is to examine not the individual but the specious.
He must neglect the minute discrimination.
The peculiar quality of Romanticism lies in this that in apparently detaching us from the real world. It
restores us to reality at a higher point. Intense emotion coupled with an intense display of imagery such is
the frame of mind which supports and feels the new literature. Intense emotions of love beauty and
patriotism are generally accompanied with an intense display of images. But when a poet medicates upon
an object or an idea his intellect provides him with philosophy or a sublime strain of poetry rather than the
glimmer of images.
Shelley’s skylark is a product of quivering imagination. The bird has been compared with a cloud of fire.
On un bodied joy a star of heaven. The arrow of that silver sphere a poet hidden in the light of thought a
high born maiden and with these images go intense emotions.
Shelley a romantic poet:-
Politically and socially the romantics in England supported republicanism liberty and equality of
individuals. Shelley 1792, 1827 was a radical and un orthodox in his views and writings. His works
contain metaphysics and radicalism clothed in beautiful lyrics and human passion and melancholy. In his
essay a defense of poetry he writes that poetry is an expression of imagination and a poem is the very
image of life expressed in its external truth. He considers imagination and reason as two classes of mental
action. Reason is a synthesis and incorporates those forms which are common to universal nature and
existence itself. Reason is the enumeration of qualities already known. The romantic writer decried down
the importance attached to reason by the neo classics or Augustans. Reason is not regarded by the
romantic poets as an infallible guide.

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Imagination:-
The romantics criticize the rationalistic aesthetic of eighteenth century as mechanical regarding poetry as
craftsmanship of a poet is to follow definite rules like making a clock or an engine. Blake rejected this
emphasizes on reason and praised imagination. He considers imagination as Geo operating in the human
mind. Wordsworth also stresses “the imagination also shapes and creates a sublime consciousness of the
soul in her own mighty and almost divine powers. Imagination is a mysterious creative faculty. In a man
and natural moving them towards perfection and unity and so it transcends reason cofesidge calls the
bridge that links sensation and thought as “the shaping spirit of imagination Shelley writes Renson is to
imagination as the body to the spirit, as the shadow to a substance. Imagination is mind acting upon those
thoughts so as to colour them with its own light and developing from them other ideas. Imagination
studies not differences but similitudes in things.
Inspiration:-
In Romantic criticism inspiration is a pivotal concept it is Apollo the God of poetry in Greek mythology
‘the holy spirit’ in Christianity and collective unconsciousness in modern psychology. Shelley considers
poetry as the result of in voluntary inspiration. He writes when composition begins inspiration is already
on the decline.
Forms of poetry:-
The romantic poets believe that forms of act and poetry centers on individualism emotions and inner or
self expression of the poet so form of poetry to a large extent depend on the mode of expression of a poet.
The Greek considered the gods as supreme man is only a puppet in the hands of gods and so the outer
world and fate played a great part and so they considered drama special by tragedies as the highest form
of art with romantics mans inner self his soul or spirit is the source of poetry so they write lyrics songs
expressing their innate emotions feelings or ideas. For that reason even in lyrics, the poets follow
individual forms in their poetry. Wordsworth Keats Coleridge or Shelley express their ideas or emotions
in different forms. Shelley writes that language colour form and religion civil habits of action are all
instruments and materials of poetry.
An observation of the mode of the recurrence of harmony in the language of a poetical mind together with
relation to music, produced meter of certain system of traditional forms of harmony and language Shelley
discarded even the distinction between a poet and prose. Writers as a Vulgar error. He considers
distinction between a poet and a philosopher as meaningless. He regards Plato as poet.
Imagination inspiration individualism liberty equality of men and women rationalism and republicanism.
Shelley was extremely dissatisfied with the political and social environment in England. He was disgusted
with the violence and reaction all-round.
14. Critical comment on The triumph of life as an Incomplete poem in triplets.

The triumph of life is Shelley’s last incomplete poem. He met his untimely death while writing this poem.
So the long poem of 545 lines comes to an abrupt end with “Then What is life” than it remains a

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fragmentary poem yet regarded by critics as Shelley’s masterpiece. T.S. Eliot calls it Shelley’s finest
work. Carles Baker says “The triumph of life is filled with solemn music and charged with deep
melancholy. It is more nearly mature in the inward control and majestically dignified in its quiet outward
demeanour.
A romantic and humanitarian poet who believed in liberty and love:-
Shelley is a poet with metaphysical vision a radical unorthodox person and a great lover of true liberty
who hated tyrants and religious practices as shackles of humanity. He is a romantic and humanitarian poet
who believed in liberty and love. He gives a new concept of a poet and poetry in his essay. A defense of
poetry written in 1821 before his last poem A Triumph of life. So in his poem he holds a different view of
a poet or poetry the poem thus describes Shelley’s sorrow and despair considering the triumph of life over
the hidden innate divine vision of a perfect world of freedom, equality and love as its basic principles.
Shelley begins the poem. Unfolding his philosophy of man but his death cut short his vision.
Poetry as “an expression of imagination:-
Shelley consider poetry as an expression of imagination” A poem is the very image of life expressed in its
eternal truth. And poets who imagine and express this indestructible order are not only the authors of the
language and of music of the dance and architecture and statuary and painting they are the institutions of
laws and the founders of the civil society the inventors of acts of life and the teachers who see in flashes
“the beautiful and the true that partial agencies of the invisible world called religion” poets are the
unacknowledged legislators of the world. Thus poets are virtuous persons having the spark or invisible
divine vision within them but moving towards perfection. They have creative faculty and with their ideas
have advanced human civilization. In whole human progress from primitive time to modern age poets or
thinkers sages and ruler have changed the world. The spirit within them and in the native have moved the
world and are still moving it towards innate perfection the intellectual beauty, of the love liberty and
equality.
The title of the poem suggests its theme:
In the triumph of life Shelley is said the title of the poem suggests its theme. The triumph of worthy life
making the spark of vision within man or a poet impelling him towards perfection getting weaker and
distorted. Shelley was deeply dissatisfied with his life or life around and considered it as an impediment
in the process of attaining perfection. In A?C. Bradley’s words, “He is haunted by the fancy that if he
could only get at the one the external idea in complete aloofness from the many from life with all its
change, decay struggle sorrow and evil. He would have reached the true object of poetry” so he writes.
Life like a dove of many colour glass
Stains the white radiance of Eternity.
Human civilization has advanced through the imagination and creative efforts of poets. In the triumph of
life Shelley is sad that though a poet has a vision within him. The human civilization has advanced
through the imagination and creative efforts of poets thinkers rulers artists etc. yet the progress towards
perfection has been blended by the charms or power of the cold blinding glare of the triumphant life.

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In the third part of the poem the triumph of life Rousseau describes great men and women, who had the
divine spark within them but in their worldly pursuits or love of nature could not find time to look their
innate into their innate self for the true guidance of the creative imagination and fell prey to the cold glare
of the life and became a part of the captive multitudes. Shelley calls them poets whose imagination and
wisdom advanced human civilization in the progress of human from primitive time they could have
escaped slavery to life and remain free lie Socrates and Christ of they have looked into that soul and
followed the true spirit. These men and women moving aimlessly with the sad vast procession chained by
the cold light of the life are Plato. Aristotle, Alexander the great Dante, Napoleon a product of the great
French revolution and later on trampling liberty as a tyrant. The fourth section of the poem is highly
allegorical. Rousseau notice pope Gregory VII and other Popes Who have given Christian doctrine such
as orthodox shape that it distorts the original simple principle bringing a shadow between man and God.
Roseau like a true poet had the divine spark within him. But he was corrupted by the nature. In the firth
section of the poem Harold Bloom observes There is small region to doubt that Shelley at the end saw
himself as having shared in Rousseau fate Shelley believed that in a true poet the power of imagination
could redeem life but life always triumphs for luminaries like Rousseau all great men and women in the
poem. The triumph of life are poets who had the divine spark within theme. They could regenerate life in
the world but like Rousseau and Shelley like himself fell victim to the nature and charms of worldly life
and are corrupted and deformed. In lines 472-75 Shelley describes that Dante was led through the lowest
depths of hell and paradise with his beloved Beatrice.
Life could deform and corrupt everything but love Rousseau could not nurture properly the divine spirits
dictates within him and is subdued by the life. The poem is full of despair and Shelley’s disenchantment
of life. Whom he took as a lasting and loneliness. To conclude the great poem is a fragment so it cannot
be printed out precisely how Shelley had completed it. Find for that reason it remains full of sorrow but a
wonderful romantic poem of literature.
15. Write down the Critical appreciation of Hyperion?

Ans. Keats Hyperion is a fragment but very significant it deals with the story of the dethronement of
titans by the Olympians Keats wanted to raise the poem to the epic grandeur of Milton’s paradise lost. But
it does not come anywhere near Milton’s poem. It has only the elevated style but two fundamental
characteristics of an epic great action and great characters are lacking.
Theme of the struggle between old order and new.
Keats interwove into is fiber his entire philosophy of life and will be loved and remembered for the depth
of its though and feelings the message Keats conveys is that older order must yield place to new and the
struggle between the Titans and the Olympians assumes an allegorical significance in the light of the
struggle between the haves and have not’s during French revolution. Oceanus tells the fallen titans that
they must accept the supremacy of the new order.
Theme of beauty as creative force:
Oceanus tells the theme of beauty as creative force explaining to the fallen gods that their fall was
inevitable because they had started lacking in the creative force of the universe while the new generation
of gods is above us in their beauty and must reign in right thereof, tis the eternal law that first in beauty

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should be first in might. Personal element in the poem:- The third book of Hyperion touches upon Keats
personal life. Apollo is no other than Keats himself. Keeping Milton before him as his model, Keats gave
it the intensity and restraint of an epic, the discipline and structural coherence, firmness and integrity the
connotative intensity and richness of imagery. He has been able to elevate the style to a large degree
though it cannot match Milton’s maturity and perfection. His blank verse is fine but is deficient in
Milton’s imagery and dramatic passion and movement.
Hyperion as an epic
An epic is a narrative poem organic in structure dealing with great actions and great characters in a
dignified style commensurate with the loftiness of the theme. In an epic there is an attempt to idealize its
chief characters with the embellishment of its subject and action by means of episodes and implications.
In view of the definition of epic we may say that it lacks great action and great characters though its
theme is lofty and style elevated. Milton’s epic paradise lost was a model before him and every ambitious
poet thought of a long narrative poem so that he is remembered by the posterity as a great poet. Alexander
and Pope Dryden also made attempt and successfully wrote long poem though moderate in length. Keats
could not complete even three books and thus failed to write full fledged epic with twelve books as
normally it is presumed to be the length of along narrative.
Life of action:
As we analyze this poem we find it deficient in action. Milton’s paradise lost is vibrating with action.
When we find Satan and his allies the fallen angles clamoring for action and show their uncompromising
spirit with their struggle against the supreme authority they are prepared to go to all extent to avenge their
defeat . Here in this poem the fallen angels including Saturn their chief leader is in a mood of submission
and there is no sign of revolt or challenge to the opposition. There is complete dismay ad spirit of
submission and surrender in their camp though momentarily they awake at the instance of Escalades and
supported by Hyperion the God of sun. Hyperion appears at this critical juncture who is already shaken
and feels disheartened to see fallen angels as passive as ever. If we compare the two scenes Milton’s
treatment of angels is full of action and enthusiasm as they declare and take a vow that it is better to rule
in hell than to serve in heaven. They are virtually superior in strength and action and are not prepared to
accept the superiority and supremacy of God. Keats fallen gods do not give the impression that they
would adopt an aggressive altitude and would fight to the finish as it happens in Milton’s paradise lost.
Characters do not rise to great height:
Similarly we notice that character too do not rise to great height as they remain submissive and inactive
throughout thus Hyperion not only lacks great action. It lacks great characters too, because it is only by
virtue of the action that character establishes his supremacy. Keats character being super human-big in
size and stature but do not retain greatness by virtue of great action, rather they take no action and it is a
big lacuna in this poem which dilutes its reputation as an epic. It is true that Keats character d not act
according to their status and ability.
Style:-

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So far style of the poem is concerned it is befittingly elevated and dignified. It can sensate the loss which
hit suffers on account of little action. No great action is planned or expected on any level. Keats’s seems
to have learnt a lot from Milton’s and make this poem equally rich in expression. He has made an
occurrence at use of Milton’s inversion. He has tried to elevate the language to Milton’s height. There is
complete restraint on the part of poet who does not indulge in any superficiality and superfluous material.
The rhythm is stately and dignified there is lucidity of outline and dignified march of doubt but it lacks
stately action. Lyrical quality weakens the character of opic:- Besides Hyperion possesses on added
beauty of its own that is its lyrical qualify though it is contrary to the spirit of epic with war like
atmosphere yet Keats being genius of lyrical poetry introduces lyrical qualify of which further weakens
its character and reputation as an epic.
The poem is lovable:-
Of course he takes up Apollo once more and Book III is entirely dedicated to the history of his own soul
thus the third book of Hyperons has a charm of its own we find whole panorama of flowers giving sweet
fragrance all around while narrating Apollo he gives him knowledge enormous and “makes a god of me”
As a matter of fact Keats’s reputation as writer of lyrical poetry especially and odes, makes the critic
think that he would be marvelous here in epic as well but they found some basic qualities of epic poetry
missing it should not be forgotten that despite his failua as an epic writer this poem has appeal and it is a
lovable poem it lacks a few ingredients of epic poetry but does not lack all of them so we feel that
Hyperion is a fragment of heroic narrative which deals with my theological theme and allegorical
significance the sustained elevation of style goes in its favour the gigantic figure are undoubtedly stately
figure of course not acting accordingly. Imitation and reminiscence of Mitton:- It has an elevated style
and its opening is very impressive appropriate to an epic thus Keats maintains epic like tone and grandeur
by adopting Milton’s method Mr. Pedley quotes the passage “ His place bright flushed angrily” which
suggests Miltonic voice and imagination so we find here and there the imitation and reminiscences of
Milton both verbally and an idiom frequently.
A memorable literary piece:- With all its drawbacks Hyperion is a lovable poem it presents a thesis of life
in a concrete shape. Though it deals with superhuman characters yet it retains human character, it has its
artistic beauty which makes it a memorable literary piece.
To memorable literary piece.
To conclude Hypeuon is free from superfluous material and there is no loading of every lift with ore. As
in other languor poem like Endymion there are no irrelevant episodes and phantom journeys through
subterranean corridors and submarine caves. As it has been rightly summed up by one critic. “Hyperion
presents a Greek theme in the Greek manner with Miltonic echoes nevertheless a new and original
creation with merits and drawbacks all its own yet a symbolic meaning enters to quicken and ancient
myth a new life.
16. Discuss Hyperion as a political allegory?

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Meaning of allegory:- Hyperion is an allegory means it has multiple meaning and the real purpose of
writer is quite different from what it appears to the eyes. In other words we may say that storey can be
interpreted in more than one way and the readers should not give undue importance to the surface story so
an allegory is a story which has different meaning to convey one should not go after its surface meaning
but should go deep and find out the real purpose or intention of the writer. Allegory and political
repression:- As a matter of fact it is quite obvious that during political repression it is an extremely risky
step to criticize the govt. or the powers to be writers resort to allegorical stories the artists are sensitive lot
and they cannot remain quiet when nation is facing crisis and there is no way out they may wish to
censure the govt. but cannot do for fear of retaliatory action by govt.
Romantic writers wrote for a cause of the oppressed.
All the romantic writers were enamored of liberty equality and fraternity of human being Shelley and
Byron were the fire brand leaders who openly came out to save the poor from the clutches of
unscrupulous and immoral capitalists, landlords and employers. Keats too was against the present
situation in which a poor person like him were to face humiliation and censorship and sometimes
persecution.
View convey implicitly and not explicitly:-
Thus the writers want to convey their views to the public implicitly and not explicitly as it would have
invited the wrath of the govt. so they write about Gods and Goddess and thereby convey their actual
message and meaning. The titans and Saturn represent the ancient regime and political system before the
French revolution:- Politically the Titans represent the ancient regime and the political system before the
French revolution they stand for kingship and one man’s rule. Like a king of the ancient regime. Saturn
has ruled alone like dictator with absolute authority when he is defeated and over thrown he also sits
alone and thus maintains his identity as distinct personality thus stern an absolute monarch is sitting
alone, benefit of all powers, crest fallen and defected. He is utterly confused and reacts with despair
unable to think. He has been a ruthless ruler and was so blinded by power that he could not suspect the
simmering fire of revolt. Oceanus tells him that he was never wide awake and was blind from sheer
supremacy.
Saturn is led by others and a female deily:-
So naturally he is upset. He does not know why it so happened and what he should do next. He is still
boastful and sporadically talks of his former glory and majesty. He offers no idea at the Titans conference
as way out. He is asked by other duties to join the other Titans if he could not lead them former position
of power. Ultimately he is led by others as he is completely shaken and finds no support from any quarter.
Saturn is led by a female diety indicates that formal regime with its value is over and is taken by new
revolutionary council it represents the end of patriarchal system in which old, male duties govern and
their authority goes unchallenged. Goddesses are relatively unimportant and play secondary role.
Dethronement of satern means replacement of kingship by democracy:-
Escalades is spokesman of warring element. He stands for war and for all those who favoured patriarchal
system the forces which overthrew them were the radical who be lieved that kings indulged in their game
of selfishness and greed and they soldeom gave any consideration to the poor masses whom they ruled

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thus the reactionary forces against the monarchy revolted and crushed the king and destroyed one man
rule. To conclude we say Hyperion is key figure in this political allegory. He stands for aristocracy since
he is allied to the king in all state matters, he wields power but he is worried to see the pitiable condition
of Saturn. Hyperion is motivated by self interest. He adopts the policy of aloofness from the rest of
Titans. He represents on aristocrat class which is selfish and is guided solely by self interest. He supports
the king with the vain hope that with the restoration of kingship his position will remain safe and secure
and he would be able to enjoy all privileges and luxuries unchecked Hyperion does reflect his
involvement in the new ideas and concepts which brought French revolution and the air was thick with
political turmoil and the ideal of liberty, equality and fraternity gathered moment.
17. Comment on the use of Myth imagery and symbolism in Waste Land?
Ans. Eliot uses the symbolistic technique to express a complex and decadent civilization. His symbolism
is predominantly traditional and so comparatively easy to understand. Even when he uses a private
symbol it is easy to understand its suggestive significance from the context of Eliot’s symbols are drawn
from the literature and mythologies of the past. Moreover the same symbols are frequently repeated and
this helps to classify their suggestive significance. In the wasteland dry bones signify spiritual decay and
desolation and rats the ugliness and humor of modern civilization. In the same way dry grass cactus land
rocks winds are all of spiritual sterility from what reserves the desolation of the contemporary wasteland
as well as the wastelands of the past.
But the most significant of his symbols are drawn from ancient myths and legends and are centered round
the basic theme of birth-death rebirth. Thus spring stands for rebirth, winter for death, rain for spiritual
fertility, draught for spiritual dryness. Fishing symbolizes spiritual rebirth and rejuvenation water is an
ambivalent symbol. It symbolizes destruction as well as transformation and purification. Fire symbolizes
list and passion which are destructive. But ambivalently it also symbolizes spiritual exhalative abut
ambivalently it also symbolizes spiritual exaltation and purification.
The first lines of the wasteland “April is the cruelest month is an invention of the popular myth that April
is a time of warmth love and joy. The chrotains connect it with Easter and the resurrection of Christ. In
the fertility myths the coming of spring is associated with the growth of potency and fertility in mankind
animals and the earth the trees and plants drawing life giving sap from the land through their roots grow
leaves and flowers in their branches. The flowers eventually develop into fruits with seeds that are a
promise of the life to come in the following years. But these things are anticipated in Eliot’s poem with
fear rather than hope and thus April is cruel rather than the kind tiresias observes with dismay the coming
of April and its perverse effect on the people of the wasteland. They fear the onset of the season of life
giving rain since they are incapable of enjoying the mysterious process of the regeneration of the earth.
The myths and symbols of fertility and sterility are central to the first part of “the wasteland” These are
noticed in the images of the Hyacinth girl Madam Sosostris, the plaoenecian sailor and the corpse in the
garden which are linked to speculations on life. Life in death, death in life, decay and renewal winter and
spring memory and desire (Past, Present). The fertility theme is projected through the symbolism of
spring rain, wet hair vegetation and flowers. At the same time, it is contrasted with the dryness of the arid
landscape. The dead trees provide no shelter the dry stones give no sound, if water caught between two

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shadows of morning and evening of youth and age the mankind is haunted by the fear of mortality and
doons.
The two episodes of love in “The Burial of the Dead” are studies in contrast symbolizing the gulf
separating the ecstasy of love from the frustrations in love. The Hyacinth girl standing in rain with flower
in her arms is an image of youthful aspiration and passion that is bound to have a tragic end that is how
Eliot the contsummate poet conveys his impression of the frustrations suffered by his contemporary
generation. The Sweeney image stresses the mental paralysis of humanity since it can neither understand
nor speak about the terrible state in which it finds itself in the modern world of twentieth century.
18. Discuss the title of the poem the Wasteland?

Ans:- A great poet while writing himself should write of his time. Eliot’s wasteland expresses the mood
of weariness and despair of post war Europe. Eliot gives us a horrid picture of the despair ridden
humanity thereby giving a sort of detached commentary on the disintegration of post war civilization.
His poems and poetic dramas deal with the condition of human souls which are always in a state of
anxiety and in a state on irredeemable crisis.
A spiritual approach to life:-

As for the socio political situation is concerned the age passing through a crisis. His wasteland depicts
irreconcilable conflicts of human souls which make the reader aware not only of the problems of
modern life but also of mankind as a whole. The soul of man finds itself in horror and loneliness unless
it is redeemed by faith and courage. Eliot has a spiritual approach to life which is rare in the twentieth
century dominated by science and materialism.
Human mind devoid of hope and faith:-

Eliot gives us a horrible picture of the anxiety ridden post war state of mind in his poem. The mind of
the human is compared to a wasteland and it is devoid of faith and hope. The poet surveys the desolate
scene of the world with a searching gaze Eliot in the section of “the Burial of the dead emphasizes the
inevitable dissolution. The sacred wisdom too has fallen on evil days and it is shown by the introduction
of the Tarot pack of cards, used formerly for divination now for fortune telling.
Sex in the modern world mechanical and sterile:-

The sex and which had holy associations in the past has degenerated into sexual boredom in the

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modern world. It has become mechanical and sterile and breeding not life and fulfillment but disgust
and unanswerable questions. The modern lady typist in “the Fire Seemow” does not give any importance
to chastity and after the completion of the mechanical sex act for money.
A Game of chess- a neurasthenic episode:-

As Allen Tate observes “this scene gives a terrible into the modern western civilization. Eliot in the
section “A game of chess” presents a rich neurotic lady who is obsessed with sex and anxiety. The rich
neurotic lady with her dry hair spread out in fiery points” is the symbol of loveless lust so also her
husband is obsessed with sex like hamlet the condition of the poor is also pitiable lil suffers from the evil
physical effects of abortion and also of contraceptives. The people have one anxiety ridden perhaps it is
these psychological perversions of the moderns may be the reason which induced prof. F.R leavis to call.
A game of chess a “neurasthenic episode. Fear and anxiety are the cardinal causes for impotency in the
modern world “the central conception of the wasteland says Prof. Pinto “is sexual impotence used as a
symbol for the spiritual malady of the modern world. The presence of fertility nymphs is a nightmare to
the casual lovers assembled on the banks of Thames wasteland in the minds of individuals. Actually
wasteland is located nowhere and it is present everywhere in the minds of individuals it is the spiritual
wasteland of you and I presented in a number of frustrated sexual images signifying death it is a cosmic
vision into the immense panorama of futility and anarchy that is modern civilization. The poem is full of
broken images which is also the state of modern civilization. Eliot describes an age without purpose
being haunted by fear the poem consists of a series of scenes rather like film shots fading and dissolving
into each other seen from the view point of an impersonal observer who is the quester representing the
all inclusive consciousness.
Hope for the Parched and sterile:-

It is true that skepticism in matters of belief and confusion in thought are the order of the day. This
bewilderment and confusion have a direct bearing upon art and letters. This same sense of anxiety fear
the sense of aimlessness and frustration and impotence as in Eliot is found in the poem of Hardy
Housman Hopkins They are also in search of a faith which is eluding through the world remains
parched. It is not meaningless. It has got a meaning says Prof. Pinto. According to AG George the natural

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end of the emotional sequence is line
Religious affirmation of life- the only remedy

The absence of humility complete self surrender and faith in God account for the note of confusion
madness and does pair on which the poem ends. The same view is held by Dr. S Radhakrishnan who in
his book the Recovery of faith sees no escape from the nemesis of purely materialistic civilization except
in a return to the life of faith and to the fundamental religious affirmation of life.
19. Comment on the Themes and the art of the poem The Wasteland.
T.S. Eliot projects several levels of modern experience in “The Wasteland” these are related to various
sympatric wastelands in modern times such as
a. The wasteland of religion where there are but no water.
b. The wasteland of spirit where all moral springs have dried up and
c. The wasteland of the reproduction instead of sex have become a means of physical satisfaction rather
than a source of regeneration.
The poet communicates to the reader his own sense of anarchy and futility that he finds everywhere to
the contemporary world. He has no intention of expressing the disillusionment of an entire generation.
But the poem remains an important document of social criticism of the world to which Eliot belonged.
The wasteland is mainly concerned with the theme of barrenness in the mythical wasteland of the
twentieth century. The land having lost its fertility nothing useful can grow in it. The animals and crops
have forgotten the true significance of their reproductive function which was meant to rejuvenate the
land. The negative condition of the land is closely related to that of its lord, the Fisher King who too
through illness and maiming has lost his procreative power. There is some curse on the land and its
master and this could be removed only by a concerted effort at spiritual regeneration. At a different fact
of meaning one of the themes of the poem is also death. Death by water being only one aspect of it.
According to Cleanth Brooks the poem deals with the contrast of two kinds of life and two kinds of
death. Death in life and life in death. Life devoid of meaning is a kind of death while death is a sacrifice
is a renewal of life as it provides hope of life to Come. Through all the five section so if the wasteland

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Eliot explores at some length the variations of this paradoxical theme. Along with this, he presents
through his poetic art the wonderful trinity of religion culture and sex.
The theme of the poem is a variation upon the theme of so much of Eliot’s poetry the relation between
sexual incompetence to love and spiritual death and that life is empty without an external divine help.
then the idea that the abuse of love has meant the denial of life is treated as a musician might handle it
although perhaps never as directly it is implied. Rather than stated but the suggested idea is introduced
counterpointed is repeated complicated transposed and developed with musicians skill and symphonic
effect. The poem is about the degeneracy of human nature, in particular with regard to the experience
of sex and the nature of love it concerns itself mainly with degraded forms of love even where by
implication it refers to finer loves. It suggests that such loves do not now occur its hope lies in that love
which is generous and the sympathetic the seduction. Theme is universalizes and becomes relevant to
the whole of England. It is developed in most parts of the titles “Game of Chess” and “Fire sermon” They
depict scenes of lust at various levels of society. The game of chess is a device to cover up affairs
between ladies and gents in the most luxurious surroundings reminiscent of Cleopatra and Dido.
20. Comment on the themes of death and suicide in the poetry of Sylvia Plath.
Ans. The American poet and novelist Sylvia Plath attempted suicide several times
in her youth, finally succeeding in the year 1963. In turn and taking particularly the
biographical nature of her work, a reader can easily find death as a major theme in
most of her works. This paper will analyze the variety of images that Plath
employs to portray the idea of death in her poems. In poems like “Barren Woman”,
“Edge”, “Lady Lazarus” and “Daddy” Plath faces the element of death either
directly or indirectly through images that represent depression and anxiety.
In “Barren Woman” Plath introduces the theme of death through a woman’s

character and her inherent sense of ’emptiness’. In the poem, the central theme of
emptiness stands synonymous with lifelessness or more aptly, a kind of death. In
“Barren Woman” she speaks of death in a metaphorical manner, by showing the
lack of life in a woman through her emptiness. At the onset of the poem, Plath
writes:
“Empty, I echo to the least footfall,

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Museum without statues, grand with pillars, porticoes, rotundas” .
Plath uses the image of emptiness throughout the poem. Here, the idea of
emptiness represents a lack of life and movement, therefore depicting death. Plath
speaks of a rather stunted and halted growth. For Plath, any sign of creative energy
is stunted. Moreover, through the acknowledgement of her infertility, Plath casts
herself as an incomplete woman who is now futile because of her inability to create
something and because of her inability to be creative; she becomes a woman in
whose “courtyard a fountain leaps and sinks…” . Moreover, images, such as “Nun-
hearted,” “blind to the world,” “Marble Lilies,” and “pallor like scent” further
depict a sense of barrenness and death . Therefore the concept of death in this
poem is represented by Plath as something very metaphorical, since the images that
represent Plath as lacking vitality can be inferred as representing death.
Plath concludes the poem by representing images of voids and vacancies. She
represents the stillness of creativity particularly as she imagines herself to be the
“Mother of a white Nike and several bald-eyed Apollos” . Since Nike represents
the goddess of victory and Apollo the God of sunlight and music, the references
give the idea as something powerful and creative. However Plath’s depiction is
ironic in that it stresses upon the poets desire for creativity,which is, in reality,
countered and undermined by their lifelessness and loss of vision – both of which
are represented in her reference to Nike as “white” and the Apollos as “bald-
eyed.” This sense of death is further emphasized in the following line where Plath
claims that “instead” of her desire for creative power, “the dead injure me with
attentions, and nothing can happen” . Lastly Plath concludes with the following
lines:
“The moon lays a hand on my forehead,
Blank-faced and mum as a nurse” .
Ending with a ‘blank’ image and a ‘mum’ sound she reinforces the dying art and
the growing stillness and silence within her. This finally represents the
metaphorical death of her creativity.
In her later poems, Plath moves towards speaking of death in rather literal terms.
For example, in “Edge”, the last poem of her collection “Ariel”, Plath directs the
concept of death head on. She describes a woman’s corpse rendering it as rather
perfect. With Sylvia Plath poems, the reader often finds her admiring, fantasizing
and sometimes even romanticizing the idea of death. The very beginning of the
poem lays out for the reader the following text of the poem. She introduces the

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image of a corpse and adding images to the blank face Plath claims for it to attain
an expression of accomplishment; she writes:
“The woman is perfected.
Her dead
Body wears the smile of accomplishment”
In referring to herself as the woman in the poem, Plath can be seen as idealizing
the idea of death and referring to it as an “accomplishment.” If we consider Plath’s
biography in our analysis of the poems, then we learn that it was written a week
before Plath’s suicide. In this poem she depicts her journey leading up to her death
by writing:
“Feet seem to be saying:
We have come so far, it is over” .
Though the phrase “it is over” conveys a tone and sense of futility Plath refers to
the act as something grand and victorious. She depicts the process of her preparing
herself for death and romanticizes it by using images of petals and odors. Death
holds importance in Plath’s poetry not just because it remains a driving force in
them but also because Plath handles death as her desired finality. Repeatedly, and
in similarity with the poem discussed previously, Plath uses images that represent
“emptiness.” She writes:
“One at each little
Pitcher of milk, now empty” .
Plath can be seen very easily to have approached death with a pre-conceived
notion. Neither the poet nor the reader possesses the ability to describe ‘life after
death’ as perfected or better than the life lived on earth. This can be assumed to be
understood by Plath as she calls death an accomplishment. As Plath represents
death as the ‘final’ action for her or as the only solution to her much distressed life
one can witness increasingly a sense of vulnerability towards the concept. Though
Plath’s work shows a great deal of strong images and sensuous details, these
images only help in reinforcing her idealization of death.

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In “Edge” she tries to idealize and picture her life after she has convinced herself
that “it is over.” She writes of death by describing the corpse as stiff yet sensuous;
“Stiffens and odors bleed” . Therefore, along with fantasizing with the idea of
death the romantic element seeps in again; “From the sweet, deep throats of the
night flower”
She romanticizes “bleeding” and makes the odor of it sensuous; “… them back into
her body as petals’ . Moreover, she singles herself out as a rose and calls the world
around her the garden; “Of a rose close when the garden” .
Yet again, at the end of this poem, Plath uses the same image as she uses in her
previous poem, which is the image of the moon. In “Barren Woman” she claims to
have the moon on her hand; similarly, in “Edge” she says:
“The moon has nothing to be sad about” .
The moon represents stillness, isolation and coldness, all three sentiments that are
lacking in life and in vitality. By concluding the poem with such coarse and harsh
images, Plath can be seen to have dealt with the concept of death head on.
Like other poems written by Plath, “Lady Lazarus” holds several meanings and
layers to it. Death yet again becomes an important theme in this poem. She begins
her poem by referring back to her suicide attempts that continuously failed in
execution. At the beginning of her poem, she declares:
“I have done it again.
One year in every ten
I manage it” .
She begins with a reference to her suicide attempts and again uses the image of
emptiness signaling to her face as “featureless.” Here, the word “featureless”
denotes emptiness and therefore represents an absolute lack of life and vitality.
Apart from depicting herself as a woman who lacks life, she also presents an image
of distress and paleness. By using the term “eye pits” she inhibits and intensifies
the struggles that have led to her eyes to sink. The eye pits also present a decaying
image, an image of something being eaten away or dying. Continuing from a
rotting and decaying image she writes:
“And I a smiling woman.

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I am only thirty.
And like the cat I have nine times to die’ .
Through the reference to the cat, she affirms life again and exoticizes death at the
same time as she does in the two poems discussed earlier. She writes as to how she
will keep coming back, thus rendering her experience of death in all its
interminable horror. Plath’s tone conveys her conviction that her suicidal attempts
are not something out of the ordinary. Rather, it is something that is bound to
happen and will. She claims to possess no emotion and represents grotesque
images through her poem. She continues her poem by portraying an image of
nakedness and exposure by writing:
“Peel off the napkin
O my enemy.
Do I terrify?” .
She speaks of the idea of being exposed, of her individuality being completely
wiped out of her. She claims to have no identity and through the image of a napkin
being peeled off she speaks of the same thing simply and directly. Therefore, she
claims to have a horrid, a scary and threatening ‘true’ self. She goes on by writing:
“This is Number Three.
What a trash
To annihilate each decade” .
The closing line of the stanza above represents complete destruction. Through a
very direct reference to her suicide attempts she refers to the annihilation of her
true self.
The stanza that follows depicts the vulnerability of the poet. Through the
unwrapping and unpeeling of her skin and bones she directs disgust to herself by
showing how she is being controlled and therefore presents a vulnerable image of
herself. In other words, she simply repeats the idea herself of being exposed of her
true self, and therefore it becoming a cause of annihilation. The destructive
element of the poem, that is the trashing and annihilating, leads back to the present
condition in the poem. Through the evolution of time between her suicide attempts,

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Plath returns to the initial concept of death again or in a more precise context, of
her suicide attempts. She writes:
“Nevertheless, I am the same, identical woman.
The first time it happened I was ten.
It was an accident” .
Here she compares and shows a transition from her earlier suicide attempts to her
later attempts. She very directly recalls her suicide experience as she writes:
“The second time I meant
To last it out and not come back at all.
I rocked shut” .
An aspect worthy of consideration here is once again the idealization of death.

Plath seems to be unaware of the life that may wait for her after death and despises
people for struggling to save and rescue her. She writes:
“They had to call and call
And pick the worms off me like sticky pearls”
Later she mocks people for being scared to die, as she speaks of death as an “art,”
the people afraid to die or afraid to embrace the experience are mocked by the
poet. She writes:
“Dying
Is an art, like everything else” .
She claims that she has done it so often that only she can understand what it feels
like. Another very important matter under the theme of discussion is her bold
portrayal of herself as a masochist. Plath writes:
I do it so it feels like hell.
I do it so it feels real.

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I guess you could say I’ve a call” .
Plath represents how she likes to inflict pain upon herself and enjoys torturing
herself. The stanza above also represents how death makes her feel real and alive.
One can clearly see that Plath states that her purpose of life is to practice death.
Death becomes something that provides her with power for she writes:
“There is a charge
For the eyeing of my scars, there is a charge
For the hearing of my heart”.
Here she takes the power, holds it and asserts a charge on it. She is the one who
puts up the price of death and life. She claims how the experience of practicing
death is so grand that when she survives her suicide attempts that people, “the
peanut crunching crowd” will want to know what happened to her and she will
hold the power as she will charge people for it. More so that it would be so grand
that she exhibits it as a show. The last stanza of the poem shows affirmation of
power back to the poet as she represents a very strong image, although of
destruction and of intensity. She concludes the poem by writing:
“Out of the ash
I rise with my red hair
And I eat men like air” .
By the end of this poem Plath regains the power and represents a very intimidating
image of the phoenix through which she represents her physical disillusion and
discreetness. With the final image of the poem Plath implies how her repeated
confrontation with death has made a monster out of her.
In light of the reference above, it can be concluded that Sylvia Plath uses death
time and time again as a major theme and as a driving force in her poems. Death
becomes either something she desires, something she fears, something she wills to
achieve and something only she understands at perhaps a much elevated state of
mind. Therefore, it can be understood that Plath uses death as a very important and
prominent element in most of her poems. In every poem analyzed above Plath
features death as either the final destination she chooses to eventually lead up to or
as her aimed destiny.

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21. Critically evaluate “ Lycidas “ as an elegy.
Ans. Milton’s ‘Lycidas’ is one of the greatest pastoral elegies in English

literature. Pastoralism in literature is an attitude in which the writer looks
at life from the view point of a shepherd. In classical literature this has been
successfully handled by Theocritus of Sicily, and after him by Virgil and
Bion. In English literature it was popularised by Sir Philip Sydney and
Edmund Spenser, but the scintillating star in the firmament of pastoralism
is certainly John Milton.
Pastoral elegy has its own conventions handed down from generation to
generation. Let us see how far Milton has observed them in ‘Lycidas’. The
pastoral poet begins by invoking the Muses and goes on referring to other
figures from classical mythology. In ‘Lycidas’ we find an invocation to the
Muses from line 15 to 22. Milton concludes by expecting a similar service
from some other poet when he is dead.
Secondly, the mourning in pastoral poetry is almost universal. Nature

joins in mourning the shepherd’s death in ‘Lycidas’, private sorrow giving
place to public sorrow. Lines 37-49 in Lycidas describes the
mourning. Woods and caves once haunted by Lycidas now mourn for him.
The inquest over the death is another tradition found in Pastoral poems. In
lines 50-63, Milton charges the nymphs with negligence. But the next
moment it dawns on him that they would have been helpless. Triton, the
herald of the sea questions every wind and is assured that the air was calm
when Lycidas set sail. The conclusion drawn is that the fatal ship that sank
Lycidas was built during the eclipse and fitted out in the midst of curses.
Then comes a description of the procession of mourners as found in all

pastoral elegies. Camus, representing Cambridge university and
leadership, leads the procession. The last among the mourners is St.Peter
mourning the loss to the church incurred by the death of Lycidas. With a
denunciation of the corrupt clergyman, St.Peter disappears. Lines 88-111
are occupied with this description.
Post-Renaissance elegies often included an elaborate passage in which the

poet mentions appropriate flowers of various hues and significance
brought to deck the hearse. Lines 133 to 151 carry such a

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description. Among the primrose, the crowetoe, the pink and the woodbine,
the amaranth alone signifies immortality with its unfading nature.
In orthodox pastoral elegies there is a closing consolation. The poet

accordingly asks the shepherds to weep no more, for Lycidas is not dead,
but has merely passed from one earth to heaven. Lines 165 to 185 offer
consolation. In Christian elegies, the reversal from grief to joy occurs when
the writer realizes that death on earth is entry into a higher life. But Milton
adds that Lycidas has become a genius of the shore to play the guardian
angel to those who wander in the dangerous flood.
Milton has followed the conventions in pastoral poetry, but he has mingled
in it Greek mythology and Christian theology. In addition there are two
digressions from pastoral strain: a) a discussion on the true values of life,
and, b) a bitter criticism of the clergyman of the day. He introduces St.Peter
into the list of mourners which shows the deepening puritanical fervour of
the poet. In the other parts of the poem he has merely used the images
handed down from classical ages. But when questions about the religious
state of England rose in his mind, he could not restrain himself. He puts
into the mouth of St.Peter a trade against the corrupt clergymen of his
day. He prophesies that the domination of the corrupting leaders is
doomed. The note of keen personal regret is conspicuous by its
absence. Milton here laments the loss of the church, for Edward king was
intended for the church. He would have certainly set an example of purity
and devotion to the other priests. In addition, the poet is bewailing the loss
of another poet, who also knew “to build the lofty rhyme”.
‘Lycidas’ is unquestionably a pagan poem. But Milton, the austere puritan

could not help introducing Christian elements into it. Thus with its curious
mixture of pagan loveliness and Christian austerity, it becomes the
offspring of Milton’s unparalleled genius. The poem starts with an apology
for breaking the poet’s resolve not to write any poetry until his poetic talent
has matured fully. The concluding eight lines from a sort of epilogue in
which Milton speaks directly, having stepped out of the character of the
shephered. Having passed through many moods and sung in different
strains, the shepherd draws his clock around him and leaves the spot.
22. Justify the sub-title of The Prelude as ‘Growth of a poet’s mind.’

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Ans. The subtitle of The Prelude is ‘Growth of a Poet’s Mind’. William

Wordsworth (1770-1850) began writing his autobiographical blank verse epic in
1798, working on it intermittently until 1839. It was published posthumously in
1850. Book I establishes Wordsworth’s sense of life as a journey, both literal – as
the poet leaves the city for his beloved Lake District – and metaphorical, as he
searches for a subject to write about that will justify his decision to become a poet:
he eventually decides to focus on his own life. His vivid accounts of boyhood
incidents – skating on frozen lakes in the winter twilight, flying kites, playing cards
– give the poem an immediacy, justifying his description of his early years as the
‘seed-time’ of his ‘soul’. The poem is suffused with the beauty of the Cumberland
landscape, which for the most part is soothing and benevolent, characterised by the
‘blessing’ of the ‘gentle breeze’ that Wordsworth describes in the poem’s opening
lines. Crucially, however, there are also hints of nature’s more troubling power,
most notably in the ‘boat-stealing’ episode where the young Wordsworth is struck
by the ‘huge and mighty forms’ of the mountains that loom above him as fearsome,
admonitory presences. The poem can be seen as a response to John Milton’s
attempt to ‘justify the ways of God to man’ in his great poem Paradise Lost:
Wordsworth’s justification of his poetic vocation was an audacious attempt to
make the epic personal, giving the genre a new psychological focus.
He first gives a record of that innocent life out of which his poetry grew; then he
goes on to explore how the mind develops. He reveals a strange world, and the
deeper we dive into it, the stronger it becomes. Like the short poem, besides
touching upon many other things, this long poem traces the development of the
poet’s attitudes to nature, his poetic genius, and his understanding of fellow-beings
and the spirit of the universe; he moves from the typical childhood animal
pleasures, through adolescent, sensual passion for the wild and gloomy, to the adult
awareness of the relation of our perception of the natural world, and finally to our
sense of the human and moral world. Wordsworth basically tries to recapture and
record the full and intense life lived through the senses as a child and as a youth.
The child or the first stage is characterized by a vague understanding of the
influence of the nature’s moral influence because the child is indulged in mere
bodily pleasures; the adolescent phase is marked with dizzy raptures; he speaks of
youthful love of freedom and liberty, which he enjoyed in rambles through the
woods and on the mountain paths where he did not feel fettered by the claims of
the society and schoolwork. But those pleasures soon ended naturally after the
youth began to understand human suffering so that, back in the nature, he began to
make ‘spiritual interpretation of Nature as a living entity, by following whose ways
he could get rid of the eternal problems of human misery. At one phase of his
youth, Wordsworth became strongly attracted to the cause of the French

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Revolution, feeling that he was tied emotionally and spiritually to the popular
struggle against the monarchy. But the destructiveness of the revolution and the
popular indifference to the real causes and the real heroes, and the corrupted nature
of the leading revolutionaries, disillusioned him, and he returned home spiritually
broken, feeling that the innocent blood has poisoned the real causes of liberty. At
that phase of life, he turned to the nature, finding there not only the solace but also
the law and order lacking in the human society. Wordsworth opposed the
mechanical reasoning of the materialistic sciences and the logical philosophy as
too superficial to probe into the sciences and the logical philosophy as too
superficial to probe into the meaning and experience of life and nature.
Wordsworth has said, “To every natural form…. I gave a moral life”. His theory
has been called one of natural pantheism for this reason.
The Prelude is an autobiographical poem but it is not only the poet’s personal
confessions; it is an account of the growth of a poet’s mind. In it he tells the story
of his inner life from the earliest childhood up to 1798. But the events do not
always follow each of the chronological or even logical order, for the poem is
shaped by a kind of internal logic of the growth of mind rather than by the
sequence of eternal events. The development is roughly chronological but even as
the poem has progressed well into adulthood, at significant points, reference is
made back to his childhood contrasting later attitudes, or illustrating important
aspects of his theme. The poet’s faith is however based on intuition, and not on
reasoning, to understand or analyze life or nature. But his mysticism is not an
escape from common experience, with the help of some kind of fancy, but a
probing deep into common things and experience. His poetry has in fact been
called ‘the highest poetry of the lowest and prosaic things”. According to
Wordsworth’s The Prelude, nature had two basic formative influences on the
poet’s mind: one was of inspiration with its beauty and joy, and the other one was
that of fear and awe-inspiring influences that disciplined his mind since early in
life.
The Prelude presents a unique and original understanding of min, life, creativity
and such other things in its examination and linking of the factors both important
and trivial, which go to make up a complex human personality. The poet indeed
has an amazing gift for grasping the significance of the apparently insignificant,
and seeing all things as part of a meaningful whole. He tries to show us what he
and his poetry are made of, and they are made not only of great events and
emotions of marriage and passion, and the French revolution, but of small things
that a less observant or creative mind would have forgotten: of boating expeditions,

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of a chance meeting with old sailors, or dreams, of the noise of the wind in the
mountains, of the sight of the ash trees outside his bedroom window.
The Prelude is a modern poem in another sense; it is a self-reflective poem. By this

we mean a poem that has a part of its subject the writing of the poem itself. The
Prelude is a poem that incorporates the discovery of its ‘ars poetica’. It’s surely the
true ancestor of all those subsequent works of art that coil back upon themselves.
Both the beginning and the end of the double, quest, the voyage of self-exploration
and the effort to articulate the experience are perhaps those spots of time included
the earliest moments of moral and spiritual awareness and they are usually
associated with intensely felt responses to the nature even when he was a child.
23. Critically comment either on ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ or ‘Childe Roland to the

Dark Tower Came’.
Ans. "Porphyria's Lover" was quite subversive for its time (and to an extent,
still is) but prose writers of Browning's Victorian England were also dabbling in
Gothic literature and horror. This is one of many examples where Browning shared
more with his contemporary prose writers than with his contemporary poets.
The poem is a dramatic monologue which means the speaker addresses someone
(perhaps himself, God, the reader, or some other) and his words and thoughts
indicate to the reader his character and/or state of mind. The ababb rhyme scheme
and occasional enjambment (lines which grammatically carry over from one line to
the next) establish a subtly odd phrasing which parallels the subtle ways Browning
establishes the state of mind of the speaker (we get subtle clues but are taken by
surprise with the murder).
The poem is about the speaker murdering his lover, Porphyria, by strangling her
with her own hair. This poem is an exercise in considering madness, the potential
link between violence and sex, and the psychological impact love can have (in this
case, on an insane speaker; however, the reader is also left to wonder if the speaker
is not insane, perhaps merely a liar).
The calm, casual way the speaker describes the murder is strange, reflecting the
warped mind of the speaker. And the event of the murder seems to come out of
nowhere unless we consider that the murder is a shift of dominance. When
Porphyria comes in, she is active and the speaker is passive.

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She put my arm about her waist,
And made her smooth white shoulder bare,
And all her yellow hair displaced,
And, stooping, made my cheek lie there, (16-19).
Notice that she physically controls his movements and "makes" his cheek lie. The
speaker, mad with love and insecurity, sees a moment where he can become the
dominant figure in their love and takes it, and this takes the reader by surprise. He
waits until the "moment she was mine, mine, fair,/Perfectly pure and good."
Therefore, he can be with her in this so called "perfect" state forever.
"Porphyria's Lover" is similar to Poe in its treatment of Gothic subjects. And some
critics claim that a full analysis of this poem along the lines of Gothic horror has
been overlooked. Check the third link below for an analysis which posits that the
speaker is not really insane; he kills Porphyria believing she is a vampire. This
interpretation is a bit of a stretch, but horror was a contemporary subject in
Browning's time. For example,Frankensteinwas published in 1818, Poe lived from
1809-1849, and "Porphyria's Lover" first appeared in 1836.
Childe Roland hallucinates about dead comrades and imagines horrors that aren’t
actually there: like the modern city, this place strains his psyche and provokes
abnormal responses. Indeed, he has only arrived here by way of a malevolent
guide: Roland’s first instinct is to think that the man is lying to him, but his lack of
spiritual guidance and his general confusion lead him to accept the man’s
directions.
Childe Roland’s quest has no pertinence to the modern world, a fact evidenced by
the fact that the young man has no one with whom to celebrate his success—in
fact, no one will even know of it. In this way his journey speaks to the anonymity
and isolation of the modern individual. The meaninglessness of Roland’s quest is
reinforced by its origins: Childe Roland is not the creation of a genuine madman,
but of a man (Edgar in Lear) who pretends to be mad to escape his half-brother’s
murderous intentions. The inspiration for Browning’s poem thus springs from no
sincere emotion, not even from genuine madness: it is a convenience and a folly, a
sane man’s approximation of what madness might look like. The inspiration is an
empty performance, just as the quest described here is an empty adventure.

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Much of the poem’s imagery references the storm scene in Lear from whence its
inspiration comes. Shakespeare is, of course, the patriarch of all English literature,
particularly poetry; but here Browning tries to work out his own relationship to the
English literary tradition. He also tries to analyze the continued importance of
canonical works in a much-changed modern world. (Via his reference to
Shakespeare and to medieval themes, Browning places especial emphasis on these
two eras of literature.) He suggests that while the Shakespearean and medieval
modes still have aesthetic value, their cultural maintains a less certain relevance.
That no one hears Roland’s horn or appreciates his deeds suggests cultural
discontinuity: Roland has more in common with the heroes of the past than with
his peers; he has nothing in common with Browning’s contemporaries except an
overwhelming sense of futility. Indeed, the poem laments a meaninglessness so all-
pervasive that even the idea of the wasteland cannot truly describe modern life or
make a statement about that life; it is this sense of meaninglessness that dominates
the poem.
24. Examine Dylan Thomas’s use of images.
Ans. Dylan Thomas attached great importance to the use of imagery in his
poetry. As he was a poet of both of the sea and the woods, the common scenes and
sights of the countryside, the various objects and phenomena of nature are the most
important sources of imagery in his poetry. Besides these, images of pain, disease,
decay and death, as well as sexual imagery are frequent in his poetry.
On waking up early in the morning the poet witnesses the natural phenomena in a
mood of almost religious joy. He feels that everything belongs to him, and that
everything is being done for his sake. He finds all nature holy. The herons sitting on
the shore seem to him to be priests, praying for him, the waves of the ocean raising
high, the calling of the seagull coming from the shore and that of the rooks from the
wood seem to awaken the poet from sleep and pray for him. Thus the first stanza of
the poem offers us a beautiful picture of the dawn around the harbor, the neighboring
wood, the fish in the pools of water, the herons sitting on the shore, the seagull and
the rook calling, the boats sailing on the water.
In the second stanza there is a fantastic picture of waterbirds and the birds flying
over the trees, the creatures that seem to be aware of the poet’s birthday and they
also seem to be celebrating the occasion by flying over the farms and over the while

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colored horses, proclaiming his name. In the third stanza the poet says that the
presence of larks flying over the hill indicates that spring is approaching after the
autumn, and again the October sun is warm and seems to lend a touch of summer to
the season. On the hill the confusion of seasons indicates the schizoid’s inability to
distinguish between one thing and another. He lives and moves in a world of fantasy
where time, past and present, places, near distant, climates and seasons, all mingle
in a lovely confusion.
In the fourth stanza we come across the picture of the distant church which looks to
the poet as small as a snail. The towers of the church are its horns as it has been
likened to a snail. In the fifth stanza the phrase ‘Green chapels’ gives us a richly
sensuous picture. In a vision the poet sees ‘Fern Hill’ where was situated the farm
of his aunt, where child Thomas spent his happy childhood like a lord moving about
in a country of apples, pears and currants. Finally referring to the image of ‘summer
noon’ the poet says that though he still stands in the ‘summer noon’of childhood, he
is aware of the town below, ‘leaved with October blood’-of trees and of his October
heart, which sings this truth. ‘October blood’ refers to the red-colored autumnal
leavers which have fallen down from the trees.
To sum up, Thomas’s imagery is not decorative, it is functional. It severs to impart

formal and structural unity in his poems and the recurrence of certain image-patterns
help us to understand his meaning. It is true that his images are often exaggerated
and obscure but all the same it is fascinating.
25. Assess Alexander Pope’s An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot as a piece of satire.
Ans. Pope was born in the year 1688, a century where there was so much confusion in the
society. People were torn between the extremes of religion, society and politics. Pope, as a poet,
wrote many satires. Pope and his friends were fondly named as scriblerians. Dr. Arbuthnot,
Pope’s friend, was hopelessly ill. He wrote to Pope that he should be careful while attacking
others. Pope wrote this poem as a reply in 1734. This poem attacks Pope’s detractors and
defends Pope’s character and career. This poem could be divided into 7 parts.
The poem opens with Pope ordering John, a servant, to shut the door. Pope is afraid of letting in
the budding poets, who are like dogs. He asks John to ties the knocker of the door. He thinks
that the mental institutions like Bedlam and Parnassus are let loose in the road. He finds the
poets with papers in their hands and fire in their eyes. Pope is not left alone; wherever he goes
he is followed by the budding poets. They come into his house by climbing the wall and
shrubs. They get into his chariot and into his boat. They do not even leave him pray. Everyone
blames Pope in some way or the other. All people come to Twitnam, Pope’s house, to scold
him. Pope finally addresses Dr. Arbuthnot as “friend of my life”. Pope finds his friend’s illness

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and the troublesome poets as a plague. Pope is confused on what to do and what not to do. If he
appreciated their poetry they overflow with more poems, if he says something negative about
their poetry, they feel hurt. Pope gives the advice of Horace to the new poets. He asks them to
wait for nine years before publishing a poem. The writers are unable to accept this advice. They
ask Pope to make some corrections in their poem. They also try to bribe him. Some poets
blackmail him.
The second part of the poem talks about the dangers of being popular. Pope elaborates on the
comparison of Midas. He ridicules the poetasters by using Midas image, which ultimately
represents unreliability. Pope scolds a few poets like Colley, Harley, Bavius, Bishop Philips and
Sappho. At this point Arbuthnot warns Pope not to use names in his poem. He advises Pope to
be prudent. Arbuthnot ridicules Pope that he is twice as tall as Pope but he never uses any
names. Pope is angry again. He is willing to be honest. He claims that he would not be called
as cruel when he calls a fool as a fool. He then talks about how a few dramatists approach him to
recommend scripts, which are rejected by the theatres and production companies. They all try to
flatter Pope. Some say that Pope’s nose is like Ovid’s and they compare Pope with Hercules and
Alexander the Great. Pope does not listen to such flattery. He calls himself as an ordinary man.
This part talks about Pope’s life as a writer. He starts explaining why he writes. He says that he
wrote not out of any compulsion. He found it hard to learn numbers but it is not hard for him to
write poetry. Nobody asked him to write poetry but he did it by himself. He writes because his
friends like Swift, Granville, Congreve and others enjoyed reading his poetry. He did not write
poem for his personal reasons like loving his wife. Arbuthnot asks why Pope publishes his
works. Pope says that because his friends enjoyed reading his poetry. They praised his
works. Even Dryden encourages Pope to write and publish poems so Pope published them.
Part IV of this poem discusses about why Pope attacks other poets through his satire. Pope says
that he does not care a little for those who find fault with him. He calls them as donkeys and
fools. He sometimes tried to be friendly with them. He tried to take them out for a dinner. In
spite of all these some cheap critics criticizes him. Pope says that if their criticism is correct he
would readily accept it. Pope satirizes Ambrose Philips. Ambrose is a plagiarist. He copies
works from Greek literature and earns money. If he attempts to be original, he will not cross
eight lines a year. Pope then criticizes Addison. Addison, according to Pope, is a genius. He is
a good writer. His defect is that he wants to dominate the literary world. He thinks that he is the
greatest of all writers. Pope calls Addison a coward, because Addison attacks many writers but
he fears being attacked by them. Lord Halifax is attacked next. Lord Halifax loves being
flattered. He helps the poetasters who flatter him.
This part describes Pope’s current attitude towards life and career. Pope asks the poetasters to let
him leave live in a peaceful manner. He says that he lives in debt. He is someone normal who
prays to god regularly. He says that only liars will fear his satire and attacks. A man of good
intention and honest behavior need not fear him.
In this part, Pope attacks Lord Hervey in the name Sporus. When Arbuthnot hears the name
Sporus, he starts scolding him. Sporus is a man who drinks the milk of a donkey. He is capable
only of killing a butterfly with his wheels. He is such a senseless person that he is not able to
distinguish satire and other kinds of poem. If Pope is a paragon of independent judgment,
Hervey is a man who will say anything to please the people at court and in government. He

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values glamour, sensual pleasure, and social climbing. Hervey was also homosexual. Hervey is
not only a man-woman but an animal-demon, a shape-changer, like Satan
Pope’s final draft of his self-portrait, summing up the virtues he wants Arbuthnot to believe he
has. Pope says that he has never been a worshipper of fortune. He is bold and courageous. He
has never flattered anyone for selfish reasons. He attacks his enemies and critics. He claims that
he was brought up well by his parents. His parents are peace loving. They are good citizens of
England. They led a happy domestic life. Pope also wants to live a similar life. He concludes
the poem by praying that Arbuthnot should lead a happy, peaceful and prosperous life.
26. Write a critical appraisal of either ‘Church Going’ or ‘The Whitsun
Weddings’.
Ans. The title, ‘Church Going’, is not hyphenated, to allow for a secondary
meaning to be glimpsed – or, in fact, a tertiary meaning, since ‘Church Going’ is
itself already carrying a double meaning. It immediately suggests going to church
as an act of worship, but Larkin is not a ‘church-goer’ in that sense: he visits the
churches (something, he tells us, he ‘often’ does) for other reasons, and is not
himself a believer or worshipper. But ‘Church Going’ also glimmers with another
meaning: the idea that the church, as institution, is ‘going’ or fading from view.
Then we come to the first line: ‘Once I am sure there’s nothing going on’. ‘Going’
again, this time in the popular idiom ‘going on’. Of course, Larkin means ‘once
I’m sure I’m not interrupting a service or ceremony’, but his choice of words
invites, again, the idea that there is nothing going on inside the church these days:
nothing of any great moment or significance anyway. Note the proliferation of
references to endings in the poem: the altar is referred to, untechnically, as ‘the
holy end’ of the church, while the snippet of biblical verse which Larkin recites,
louder than he’d intended to, is, tellingly, ‘Here endeth’ (as in ‘Here endeth the
lesson’, though the lopping off of the final two words homes in on the idea of
something coming to an end). Larkin confides that he ‘always end[s] much at a
loss’ when visiting churches. Throughout, there is a sense of the churches falling
further into disuse, of something coming to an end.
Indeed, once he has briefly explored the church, Larkin begins to meditate on the
future of the church, and whether it will continue to have significance. Will
‘dubious women’ who are fond of superstition (perhaps with ‘Gypsy’ blood?)
bring their children to touch a stone of the church as a good omen? Or people come
to pick herbs and ‘simples’ from the churchyard in an attempt to cure cancer? Who
will be the very last person to visit the church – a‘ruin-bibber’, one who likes to go

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in search of old antiques? Or someone who retains a fondness for the ceremony
and trappings of Christianity (Christmas, and the like), but harbours no religious
belief? Or will it be someone like Larkin himself, who values churches because
they were once a distillation of some of the most important aspects of our lives:
birth (Christenings), marriage (weddings), and death (funerals).
Larkin then ends by praising the church as a ‘serious house’ built on ‘serious earth’
(i.e. the graveyard, hallowed ground), as a place that takes our natural compulsions
and ‘robes’ them in religious ceremony. For Larkin, this quality alone ensures that
churches will continue to exercise a fascination and importance for some people,
especially those who find themselves seized by a surprising urge to make
themselves more ‘serious’ and contemplative. And churches, Larkin concludes, are
fine places to cultivate wisdom, not least because they remind us that our time on
Earth is short (as the many gravestones around the church make plain).
‘Church Going’ is about something that is fading from view, something that Larkin
sees as carrying value and significance, even though he rejects the literal truth of
Christianity. He nevertheless sees the importance of cultural rituals and traditions
as giving a shape and momentousness to the ‘rites of passage’ in our lives. In the
last analysis, ‘Church Going’ is perhaps the greatest Christian poem written by a
non-Christian, and a fine, if measured, paean to the continued worth of churches in
secular times. As he says elsewhere of something else, ‘Let it always be there.’
The poem The Whitsun Weddings by Philip Larkin is about the poet's journey to
London in a train. The day is a Whitsun Day on which the British Government
frees marriage taxes for one day. Therefore the day fascinates people belonging to
the lower economic class because they cannot afford the payment of marriage
taxes on other days. The poem on the surface level is a description of these
experiences of that particular day.
In the beginning the poet seems to be showing a kind of hatred for marriage or the
newly married couples. Therefore, his description of physical appearances of those
couples and their relatives is full of mockery. But towards the end of the poem, the
poet realizes the importance of marriage. This time he realizes marriage to fertility
(“the arrow shower” and “rain”) and thus to the continuity of the human race. The
new knowledge contradicts his previous attitude towards marriage, it results in a
kind of irony which affects the poet himself, therefore, the poem becomes self
ironic.

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In the first and the second stanza, the poet describes his past experiences when he
was traveling in a train. These two stanzas are full of panoramic description of the
scenes; that pass by as the train moves forward. The description shows that the
poet is beginning his journey from the country area to a city that is London. The
important moment in the poem comes when newly married couples board on the
train. These newly married couples are accompanied by their relatives and they
certainly belong to a lower economic class. The description of their physical
experiences with the words and phrases like “pomaded girls”, parodies of fashion”
suggest that they are from the lower economic class. In each station and platform
the poet witnesses the flow of such newly married couples. The poet virtually
being an unmarried man is full of disgust for marriage with the arrival of those
people and the poet undergoes mystifying experiences of suffocation. He is put in
an uneasy situation and starts mocking the appearances of those married couples
and their relatives.
The poet after the description of the wedding couples and their relatives once again
focuses on scenes outside landscape. The description can be contrasted to the
description of the landscape. The turning point in the poem comes at the end
shown by the lines “A sense of falling, like an arrow shower sent out of sight,
somewhere becomes rain”. In these lines the poet expresses his realization of
importance of marriage. The poem suddenly becomes ironic because his realization
contradicts his previous attitude towards marriage. In these lines “arrow, showers”
and “rain” relate marriage to fertility and to the continuity of life. Therefore the
ultimate knowledge about marriage is finally achieved by the poet.
The phrase ‘a happy funeral’ and ‘a religious wounding’ in the poem are
noteworthy. The poet treats a marriage as a happy funeral and as a religious
wounding. The implication is that, although a marriage is a happy event, it carries
within the seeds of the death of happiness which is bound to occur in the course of
time. Similarly, the ceremony of marriage is described here as a religious
wounding, meaning that the ceremony would subsequently turn out to be a painful
affair. Thus, Larkin takes a cynical view of marriage. The happiness of marriage
cannot last forever according to him.
RTC’S MEG 01

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BLOCK 1
1. Hir nose tretys, hir eyes greye as glas ;
Hir mouth ful smal, and ther-to softe and reed ;
But sikerly she hadde a fair forheed ; it was almost a spanne brood.
I trowe ; For, hardily, she was nat undergrowe.----- Gen.prologue C.T
2. Sin thilke day that she was seven night old,
That trewely she hath the herte
in hold Of Chauntecleer loken in every lith ;
He loved hir so, that wel was him therwith.---------NPT
3. 0 Chauntecleer, accursed be that morwe,
That thou into that yerd flaugh fro the bemes !
Thou were ful we] y - warned by thy dremes,
That thilke day was perilous to thee. -------NPT
4. But for to tellen yow of his array,
His hors were gode, but he was not gay.
Of fustian he weved a gipoun, Al bismotered with his habergeoun;
For he was late y-come from his viage,
And wente for to doon his pilgrimage. ------- Gen.prologue C.T
5. Madame, the sentence of this Latin is –
Womman is mannes joye and al his bhs.
For whan I fele a-night your softe syde,
Al-be-it that I may nat on you ryde,

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For that our perche is maad no narwe, alas !------ NPT
6. But for to tellen yow of his array,
His hors were gode, but he was not gay.
Of fustian he weved a gipoun, Al bismotered with his habergeoun;
For he was late y-come from his viage, And wente for to doon his pilgrimage. -----
Gen.prologue C.T
7. "That fro the tyme that he first bigan
To riden out, he loved chivalric, Trouthe and honour,
fredom and curteisie.
Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre," ----- Gen.prologue C.T
8. "I seye for me, it is a greet disese
Where as men han been in greet welthe and ese,
To heeren of hire sodeyn fal, alias!
And the contrarie is joye and greet solas."------- The Prologue of the Nonne
Preestes Tale
9. "A lovyere and a lusty bachelor,
With lokkes crulle as they were leyd in presse.
Of twenty yeer of age he was, I gesse.
Of his stature he was of evene lengthe," ------ Gen.prologue C.T
10. "A povre wydwe somdeel stape in age,
Was whilom dwellyng in a narwe cotage,
Biside a grove, stondynge in a dale.
This wydwe, of which I telle yow my tale,"----- NPT

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11. Lo, swich it is for to be recchelees,
And necligent, and truste on flaterye.
But ye that holden this tale a folye,
As of a fox, or of a cok and hen, Taketh the moralitee, good men.-----NPT
BLOCK 2
1. And thou, glad Genius ! in whose gentle hand
The bridale bowre and geniall bed remaine,
Without blemish or staine; And the sweet pleasures
of theyr loves delight With secret ayde doest succour and supply,
Till they bring forth the fruitfull progeny, Send us the timely fruit of this same
night.---- Epithalamion
2. Nor Joue himselfe when he a swan would be
For love of Leda, whiter did appeare;
Yet Leda was they say as white as he Yet
not so white as these, nor nothing nerve:
So purely white they were.------ Prothalamion
3. So let us rest, sweet love,
in hope of this And cease till then
our tymely ioyes to sing,

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The woods no more us answer, nor our echo ring.------ Epithalamion
4. Against the Brydale day,
which is not long :
Sweet Themmes runne softly,
till I end my song.------- Prothalamion
5. "Wake now my love, awake! for it is time;
The Rosy Morrie long since left Tithones bed,
All ready to her silver coche to clyme;
And Phoebus gins to shew his glorious hed." ------- Epithalamion
6. "There, in a meadow, by the rivers side,
A flocke of Nymphes I chaunced to espy,
All lovely daughters of the flood thereby,
With goodly greenish locks, all loose untyde,"----- Prothalamion
7. "My love is now awake out of her dreame(s),
And her fayre eyes like stars that dimmed were
With darksome cloud, now shew theyr goodly beams
Move bright then Hesperus his head doth rere." ------ Epithalamion
8. "At length they all to mery London came,
To mery London, my most kyndly nurse,
That to me gave, this lifes first native sourse

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Though from another place I take my name,"------ Prothalamion
9. Ali my deere love why doe ye sleepe thus long,
When meeter were that ye should now awake,
T'awayt the comming of your joyous make,
And hearken to the birds' lovelearned song,
The deawy leaves among. ------ Epithalamion
10. Against the brydale day,
which is not long : Sweet Themmes !
runne softly, till I end my song.----- Prothalamion
BLOCK 3
1. If they be two, they are two so
As stiffe twin compasses are two,
Thy, soule the fixt foot, makes no show
To move, but cloth, if the' other doe. -------A Valediction forbidding mourning
2. Of the eves and murderers; there I him espied,
Who straight, your suit is granted said, & died.-------Redemption
3. But 0 alas, so long, so farre
Our bodies why do wee forbeare ?
They are ours, though they are not wee,

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Wee are The intelligences, they the Spheare -----The ecstasy
4. When God at first made man,
Having a glass of blessings standing by ;
Let us (said he) pour on him all we can :
Let the world's riches, which dispersed lie, Contract into a span.-----The pulley
5. "I wonder by my troth, what thou,
and I Did, till we lov'd ?
Were we not wean'd till then ?
But suck'd on country pleasures, childishly ?
Or snorted we in the seaven sleepers den ?" -------- The good morrow
6. "Fair Quiet, have I found thee here,
And Innocence, thy sister dear !
Mistaken long, I sought you then In busy companies of men."----The garden
7. "Let sea-discoverers to new worlds have gone,
Let Maps to other, worlds on worlds have showne,
Let us possesse our world, each hath one, and is one.
My face in thine eye, thine in mine appeares,"------The good morrow
8. "When we have run our Passions' heat,
Love hither makes his best retreat.
The Gods, that mortal Beauty chase,
Still in a Tree did end their race :”------- The garden
9. If they be two, they are two so

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As stiff twin compasses are two; Thy soul,
the fix'd foot, makes no show To move,
but doth, if th' other do. ------- A Valediction forbidding mourning
10. Yet let him keep the rest,
But keep them with repining restlessness;
Let him be rich and weary, that at least,
If goodness lead him not, yet weariness May toss him to my breast.-----The pulley
BLOCK 4
1. Hence vain deluding joyes,
The brood of folly without father bred,
How little you bested Or fill the fixed mind with all your,
toyes; Dwell in som idle brain, ----- Il Penseroso
2. Enow of such as, for their bellies' sakes
Creep and intrude, and climb into the fold------Lycidas
3. Hence loathed Melancholy
Of cereberus, and blackest midnight born,
In stygian cave forlorn 'Mongst horrid shapes,
and shreiks, and sights unholy, Find out som uncouth cell, ------ L'Allegro
4. For we were nursed upon the self same hill,
Fed the same flock, by fountain, shade, and rill,----- Lycidas
5. "Lap me in soft Lydian Aires,

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
Married to immortal verse,
Such as the meeting soul may pierce In notes,
with many a winding bout" -------L'Allegro
6. Fame is the spur that the clear spirit doth raise
To scorn delights, and live laborious dayes;
But the fair Guerdon when we hope to find,
And think to burst out into sudden blaze,
Comes the blind Fury with the abhorred shears...------ Lycidas
7. "Methought I saw my late espoused
Saint Brought to me like Alcestis from the grave,
Whom Joves great son to her glad Husband gave,
Rescu'd from death by force through pale and faint." ------Sonnet 23
8. "With such a horrid clang As on mount
Sinai rang While the red fire, and smouldering
clouds out brake The aged Earth agast ..."------- On the Morning of Christ's
Nativity
9. For so the holy sages once did sing,
That he our deadly forfeit should release,
And with his Father work us a perpetual peace. ------On the Morning of
Christ's Nativity
10. Oft in glimmering bowers and glades
He met her, and in secret shades Of woody Ida's inmost grove,
While yet there was no fear of Jove.------- Il Penseroso

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BLOCK 5
1. All humane things are subject to decay,
And, when Fate summons, Monarchs must obey: ------- Mac Flecknoe
2. As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame
I lisp'd in numbers, for the numbers, came------ Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot
3. Sh - alone my perfect image bears,
Mature in dullness from his tender years;
Sh - alone of all my sons is he who stand
s confirm'd in full stupidity. ------Mac Flecknoe
4. Like cato, give his little senate laws,
And sit attentive to his own applause ;------ Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot
5. "Besides his goodly fabric fills the eye,
And seems design'd for thoughtless majesty :
Thoughtless as monarch oaks, that shade the plain,
And, spread in solemn state, supinely reign."------ Mac Flecknoe
6. "Shut, shut the door, good John !
fatigu'd, I said, Tie up the knocker, say I'm sick,
I'm dead. The dog-star rages ! nay 'tis past a doubt,
All Bedlam, or Parnassus, is let out :"------- Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot
7. "Sinking, he left his drugget robe behind,

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
Borne upwards by a subterranean wind :
The mantle fell to the young prophet's part,
With double portion of his father's art."------- Mac Flecknoe
8. "No place is sacred, not the church is free,
Ev'n Sunday shines no Sabbath-day to me.
Then from the Mint walks forth the man of rhyme,
Happy! to catch me, just at dinner-time."------- Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot
9. Some beams of wit on other souls may fall,
Strike through and make a lucid interval;
But Sh 's genuine night admits no ray,
His rising fogs prevail upon the day.------- Mac Flecknoe
10. As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame,
I lisp'd in numbers for the numbers came.
I left no calling for this idle trade, No duty broke, no father disobey'd.----- Epistle
to Dr. Arbuthnot
BLOCK 6
1. In every cry of every Man,
In every infant's cry of fear,
In every voice, in every ban,
The mind-forged manacles I hear ----- London
2. 0 lady! We receive but what we give,
And in our life alone does Nature live !------ Dejection

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
3. Tyger ! Tyger ! burning bright,
In the forests of the night,
What immortal hand or eye,
Dare frame thy fearful symmetry ? -----Tyger
4. No familiar shapes Remained,
no pleasant images of trees, of sea or sky,
no colours of green fields ; But huge and mighty forms that
do not live,
Like living men moved slowly through the mind
By day, and were a trouble to my dreams.------ The Prelude
5. "Free as a bird to settle where I will.
What dwelling shall receive me ?
in what vale Shall be my harbour ?
underneath what grove Shall I take up my home ? ..." ------The Prelude
6. Down the green hill athwart a cedarn cover !
A savage place ! as holy and enchanted As e'er
beneath a waning moon was haunted
By woman wailing for her demon-lover !"------ Kubla Khan
7. "Keen as a Truant or a Fugitive,
But as a Pilgrim resolute,
I took, Even with the chance equipment of that hour,
The road that pointed toward the chosen Vale." ------The Prelude

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
8. "And 'mid these dancing rocks at once and ever It
flung up momently the sacred river.
Five miles meandering with a mazy motion
Through wood and dale the sacred river ran,"------- Kubla Khan
9. Nor will it seem to thee, 0 Friend !
so prompt In sympathy,
that I have lengthened out With fond
and feeble tongue a tedious tale. --------The Prelude
10. Weave a circle round him thrice,
And close your eyes with holy dread,
For he on honey-dew hath fed,
And drunk the milk of Paradise.------- Kubla Khan
BLOCK 7
1. That what I thought was an old root which grew
To strange distortion out of the hill side,
Was indeed one of those deluded crew, ----- The Triumph of Life
2. Upon the sodden ground His old right hand lay nerveless,
listless, dead, Unceptred; and his realmless eyes were closed;
While his bow'd head seem'd list'ning to the Earth,
His ancient mother, for some comfort yet.------ Hyperion
3. 'Whence I am, I partly seem to know,

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
And how and by what paths I have been brought
To this dread pass, methink even thou mayst guess;
Why this should be, my mind can compass not; -----The Triumph of Life
4. Instead of sweets, his ample palate took
Savour of poisonous brass and metal sick :------ Hyperion
5. "Under the self same bough, and heard as there
The birds, the fountains and the oceans hold
Sweet talk in music through the enamoured air.
And then a vision on my brain was rolled."------- The Triumph of Life
6. ".... Upon the sodden ground His old right hand
lay nerveless, listless, dead, Unsceptred;
and his reahnless eyes were closed;
While his bow'd head seem'd list'ning to the Earth,"----- Hyperion
7. "The chariot rolled, a captive multitude Was driven; —
all those who had grown old in power Or misery, —
all who had their age subdued By action or by suffering." ------The Triumph of
Life
8. "Then with a slow incline of his broad breast,
Like to a diver in the pearly seas,
Forward he stoop'd over the airy shore,
And plung'd all noiseless into the deep night."------- Hyperion
9. 'First, who art thou .... Before thy memory,

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
I feared, loved, hated, suffered, did„
and died, And if the spark with which Heaven lit
my spirit Had been with purer nutriment supplied,
Corruption would not now thus much
inherit Of what was once Rousseau, -------The Triumph of Life
10. Upon the sodden ground His
old right hand lay nerveless, listless, dead, .
Unsceptred, and his realmless eyes were closed;----- Hyperion
BLOCK 8
1. And have I not saint Praned's ear to pray
Horses for ye, and brown Greek manuscripts,
And mistresses with great smooth manbly limbs ? ------ The Bishop Orders His
Tomb at Saint Praxed's
2. Yet each man kills the thing he loves,
By each let these be heard,
Some do it with a bitter look,
Some with a flattering word,------ The Ballad of Reading Gaol
3. Central peace, mother of strength,
Ask those calm - hearted doers
what they do when they have got their calm !

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
And is it true, Fire rankles at the heart of every globe ? ------ Sordello
4. I am poor brother Lippo, by your leave !
You need not clap your torches to my face------ Fra Lippo Lippi
5. "The rain set early in to-night,
The sullen wind was soon awake,
It tore the elm-tops down for spite,
And did its worst to vex the lake:" ------- Porphyria's Lover
6. Vanity, saith the preacher, vanity !
Draw round my bed: is Anselm keeping back ?
Nephews — sons mine... ah God, I know not !
Well – She, men would have to be your mother once,"---- The Bishop Orders
His Tomb at Saint Praxed's
7. "Her darling one wish would be heard.
And thus we sit together now,
And all night long we have not stirred,
And yet God has not said a word!" ------ Porphyria's Lover
8. "And leave me in my church, the church for peace,
That I may watch at leisure if he leers —
Old Gandolf, at me, from his onion-stone,
As still he envied me, so fair she was!"------ The Bishop Orders His Tomb at
Saint Praxed's
9. Go dig The white-grape vineyard
where the oil-press stood,

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
Drop water gently till the stuface sink,
And if ye find ... Ah God, I know not, I ! ------The Bishop Orders His Tomb
at Saint Praxed's
10. Yet each man kills the thing he loves
By each let this be heard,
Some do it with a bitter look,
Some with a flattering word,
The coward does it with a kiss,
The brave man with a sword !-------- The Ballad of Reading Gaol
BLOCK 9
1. The long-legged moov-hens dive,
And hens to moov-cocks call;
Minute by minute they live;
The stone's in the midst of all ------ Easter, 1916
2. These fragments I have shoved against my ruins
Why then lle fit you. Hieronymo's mad againe.------- The Waste Land
3. Why, what could she have done, being what she is ?
Was there another Troy for her to burn ? -------No Second Troy
4. Gang was sunken, and the limp leaves Waited for rain,
while the black clouds Gathered far distant, over Himavant.------ The Waste Land
5. "I have met them at close of day Coming

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
with vivid faces From counter or desk among
grey Eighteenth-century houses." -------Easter, 1916
6. "What are the roots that clutch,
what branches grow Out of this stony rubbish ?
Son of man, You cannot say, or guess,
for you know only A heap of broken images,..."------- The Waste Land
7. "Now and in time to be,
Wherever green is worn,
Are changed, changed utterly :
A terrible beauty is born." ------Easter, 1916
8. "Unreal City, Under the brown fog of a winter dawn,
A crowd flowed over London Bridge,
so many, I had not thought death had undone so many."------ The Waste Land
9. Though Hamlet rambles and Lear rages,
And all the drop-scenes drop at once.
Upon a hundred thousand stages,
It cannot grow by an inch or an ounce. ------- Lapis Lazuli
10. The hot water at ten.
And if it rains, a closed Car at four.
And we shall play a game of chess,
Pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock upon the door.------ The Waste
Land

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
BLOCK 10
1. And as I was green and carefree,
famous among the barns About the happy yard
and singing as the farm was home,
In the sun that is young once only,
Time let me play and be Golden in the mercy of his means, ------Fern Hill
2. A serious house on serious earth it is,
In whose blent air all our compulsions meet,
Are recognized,. and robed as destinies,
And that much can never be obsolete,-------Church Going
3. I never ran to when I got depressed.
The boys all biceps and the girls all chest,
Their comic Ford, their farm where
I could be 'Really myself'. ------- I Remember I Remember
4. You do not do, you do not do Any more, black shoe
In which 1 have lived like a foot For thirty years.------Daddy
5. "They shall have stars at elbow and foot;
Though they go mad they shall be sane,
Though they-sink through the sea they shall rise again;
Though lovers be lost love shall not;"------And Death Shall No Dominion
6. "Coming up England by a different line For once,
early in the cold new year, We stopped, and,

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
watching men with number plates Sprint down the
platform to familiar gates, "Why, Coventry !" I exclaimed. "I was born here.----- I
Remember I Remember
7. "Under the windings of the sea
They lying long shall not die windily;
Twisting on racks, when sinews give way,
Strapped to a wheel, yet they shall not break." ------ And Death Shall No
Dominion
8. "This was Mr. Bleaney's room.
He stayed The whole time he was at the Bodies,
till They moved him ! Flowered curtains,
thin and frayed, Fall to within five inches of the sill,"------ Mr. Bleaney
9. The force that through the green fuse drives
the flower Drives my green age; that blasts
the roots of trees Is my destroyer.
And I am dumb to tell the crooked rose
My youth is bent by the same wintry fever. -----
The Force that through the Green Fuse Drives the Flower By Dylan Thomas
10. Ah were I courageous enough
To shout Stuff your pension !
But I know, all too well,

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that's the stuff That dreams are made on :-----Toads
MIX RTC’S
1. Ne let the fame of any be enuide,
So orpheus did for his owne bride,
So I vnto my selfe alone will sing,
The woods shall to me answer and my Eccho ring.------- Epithalamion
2. 'But not the praise', Phoebus repli'd,
and touch'd my trembling ears :
'Fame is no plant that grows on montal soil,
Nor in the glistering foil.... ------Lycidas
3. Porphyria's love ; she guessed not how Her darling
one wish would be heard.

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And thus we sit together now,
And all night long we have not stirred.------- Porphyria's love
4. Weep no more, woful shepherds weep no
more,
For lycidas your sorrow is not dead,
Sunk though he be beneath the watry floar,
So sinks the day-star in the ocean bed,
And yet a non repairs his drooping head. ------ Lycidas
5. Exceeding sweet, yet voyd of sinful vice,
That many sought yet none could ever taste,
Sweet fruit of pleasure brought from paradice ;
By himselfe and in garden plaste.------- Amoretti: Sonnet 77
6. Structk to the heart by this sad pageantry,
Half to myself I said — And what is life ?
Whose shape is that within the car ? And why' —
I would have added — is all here amiss ? —
But a voice answered — 'Life' ! -------The Triumph of Life
7. And death shall have no dominion Dead men
maked they shall be one With the man in

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the wind and the west moon ; When their
bones are picked clean and the clean bones gone.------- And death shall have no
dominion
8. The phoenix ridle hath more wit By us,
we two being one, are it So,
to one neutral thing both sexes fit, Wee dye and rise the same,
and prove mysterious by this love. --------- The Canonization
9. There dwels sweet love and constant chastity
Unspotted fayth and comely womanhood,
Regard of honour and mild modesty,
The vertue raynes as queene in royal throne, And giveth lawes alone.------
Epithalamion
10. Born to no pride, inheriting no strife,
Nor marrying discord in a noble wife,
Stranger to civil or religious rage,
The good man walled innoxious thro' his age------ Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot
11. When the stars threw down their spears,
And water'd heaven with their tears,
Did he smile his work to see ?
Did he who made the Lamb make thee ?--------The Tiger

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12. This widewe of which I telle yow my tale,
Syn thilke day that she was last a wyf,
In pacience ladde a ful symple lyf,
For litel was hir catel and hir rente -------NPT
13. There she beholding me with mylder looke,
Sought not to fly, but fearlesse still did bide :
Till I in hand her yet halfe trembling tooke,
And with her owne goodwill hir fyrmly tyde.-------- Amoretti: Sonnet 67
14. Oh there is blessing in this gentle breeze,
A visitant that while it fans my cheek
Doth seem half conscious of the joy it brings
From the green fields, and from yon azure sky.----- The Prelude
15. That is Heaven's part, our part
To murmur name upon name,
As a mother names her child When sleep
at last has come On limbs that had run wild.-------Easter 1916
16. A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man,
That fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden out,

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he loved chivalrie Trouthe and honour,
freedom and curteisie.------ Gen. Prologue C.T
17. I wonder by my troth, what thou,
and I Did, till we lov'd? were we not wean'd till then?
But suck'd on countrey pleasures, childishly?
Or snorted we i' the seaven sleepers den?------ The Good Morrow
18. Upon the sodden ground His old right hand
lay nerveless, listless, dead, unsceptred;
and his realmless eyes were closed;-------Hyperion
19. Unreal city,
Under the brown fog of a winter dawn.
A crowd flowed over London Bridge,
so many, I had not thought death had undone
so many.------The Waste Land
20. Such wilt thou be to mee,
who must Like th' other foot, obliquely runne;
Thy firmness makes my circle just,
And makes me end, where I begunne. ------ A Valediction Forbidding

Mourning

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21. Where was heard the mingled measure
From the fountain and the caves.
It was a miracle of rare device,
A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice ! -----Kubla Khan
22. She was the Goddess of the infant world,
By her in stature the tall Amazon Had stood a pigmy's height,
she would have ta'en Achilles by the hair and bent his neck.------Hyperion
23. What, 'tis past midnight,
and you go the round And here you catch me at an alley's end
Where sportive ladies leave their doors ajar ?-------Fra Lippo Lippi
24. And specially from every shires ende of Engelond,
to Caunterbury they wende,
The hooly blisful martir for to seke,
That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke. -------Gen. Prologue C.T
25. But see the Virgin blest, Hath laid her Babe to rest.
Time is our tedious Song should here have ending. ------ On the Morning of
Christ's Nativity

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26. Oh there is blessing in this gentle breeze,
A visitant that while it fans my cheek
Doth seem half-conscious of the joy it brings
From the green fields, and from yon azure sky.------The Prelude
27. We two,' she said, 'will seek the groves
Where the lady Mary is
With her five handmaidens,
whose names Are five sweet symphonies------ The Blessed Damozel
28. His comb was redder than the fyn coral,
And batailed, as it were a castel wal;
His byle was blak, and as the jeet it shoon;
Lyk asur were his legges, and his toon. ------NPT
29. There, in a Meadow, by the Rivers side,
A Flocke of Nymphes I chaunced to espy,
All lovely Daughters of the Flood thereby,
With goodly greenish locks all loose untyde. ------- Prothalamion
30. But at my back I alwaies hear
Times winged Chariot hurrying near
And yonder all before a lye

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Desart,s of vast Eternity.------- To His Coy Mistress
31. With ravished ears
The monarch hears,
Assumes the god,
Affects to nod,
And seems to shake the spheres. -------- Alexander's Feast
32. When the stars threw down their spears,
And water'd heaven with their tears,
Did he smile his work to see ? ---------"The Tiger"
33. So, let the blue lump poise between my knees,
Like God the father's globe on both his hands. ------- The Bishop Orders His
Tomb
34. Was that' my friend smiled, `
where you "have your roots" ?'
No, only where my childhood was unspent.
I wanted to retort, just where I started.-------I Remember, I Remember
35. Of fustian he wered a gypoun

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Al bismotered with his habergeoun,
For he was late y-come from his viage,
And wente for to doon his pilgrymage. ------- Gen. Prologue C.T
36. Nor can you more judge womans
thoughts by teares,
Than by her shadow, what she weares.
O perverse sexe, where none is true
but shee, Who's therefore true, because her
truth kills me.-------- Twickenham Garden
37. Her face was vail'd, yet to my fancied sight,
Love, sweetness, goodness,
in her person shin'd So clear,
as in no face with more delight. ------Sonnet 23 milton
38. What walls can guard me,
or what shades can hide ?
They pierce my thickets, thro' my grot they glide,
By land, by water, they renew the charge;
They stop the chariot, and they board the barge. ------ Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot

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39. for they of Athens and Jerusalem
Were neither mid the mighty captives
seen Nor mid the ribald crowd that followed them------- The Triumph of Life
40. And thus we sit together now,
And all night long we have not stirred,
And yet God has not said a word ! ------ Porphyria's Lover
41. Caught in that sensual music all
neglect Monuments of unageing intellect.------ “Sailing to Byzantium”
42. Wel coude he sitte on hors, and faire ryde.
He coude songes make and wel endyte,
Juste and eek daunce and wel purtreye and wryte.
So hote he lovede, that by nightertale
He sleep namore than dooth a nightingale. ------ Gen. Prologue C.T
43. In heaven at his manour I him sought :
They told me there, that he was lately gone About some land,
which he had dearly bought Long since on Earth,
to take possession.------- Redemption

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44. Receiv'd of wits an undistinguish'd race,
Who first his judgment ask'd,
and then a place : Much they extoll'd his pictures,
much his seat, And flatter'd ev'ry day, and some days eat :------- Epistle to Dr.
Arbuthnot
45. While on the perilous ridge I hung alone,
With what strange utterance did
the loud dry wind Blow through my ears !
the sky seemed not a sky Of earth,
and with what motion moved the clouds.--------The Prelude
46. As here I lie In this state-chamber,
dying by degrees, Hours and long hours in the dead night,
I ask "Do I live, am I dead ?"------- The Bishop Orders His Tomb at Saint
Praxed's
47. Was it a dreame, or did I see it playne ?
A goodly table of pure yvory,
All spred with juncats, fit to entertayne
The greatest Prince with pompous roialty. ------ Amoretti: Sonnet 77

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48. Thou by the Indian Ganges' side.
Should'st Rubies find : I by the Tide Of Humber would complain.
I would Love you ten years before the Flood;
And you should if you please refuse Till the Conversion of the Jews.------- To His
Coy Mistress
49. Ring out, ye crystal spheres !
Once bless our human ears,
If ye have power to touch our senses so;
And let your silver chime Move in melodious time;------- “On the Morning of
Christ's Nativity”
50. He enter'd but he enter'd full of wrath;
His flaming robes stream'd out beyond his heels,
And gave a roar, as if of earthly fire,
That scar'd away the meek ethereal Hours ------ Hyperion
51. Why, what could she have done, being what she is ?
Was there another Troy for her to burn ?------- No Second Troy
52. Ye learned sisters which have oftentimes been to me ayding,

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others to adorne : Whom ye thought worthy of your grace full rymes,
That even the greatest did not greathy scorne
To heare then names sung in your simple layes.
But joyed in theyr prayse.------- Epithalamion
53. Where were ye Nymphs when the remorseless
deep clos'd o're the head of your lou'd Lycidas ?------ Lycidas
54. Swift as a spirit hastening to his task of glory and of good,
the sun sprang ferth Rejoicing in his splendour,
and the mask. of darkness fell from the Awakened Earth.------ The Triumph of
Life
55. The rain set early in to-night,
The sullen wind soon awake,
It tore the elm-tops down for spite,
And did its worst to vex the lake :
I listened with heart fit to break.------- Porphyria's Lover
FINAL NOTES FOR MEG 02

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
1. Discuss the elements of Aristotelian tragedy in Elizabethan

drama.
In The Poetics, Aristotle defines tragedy as an "imitation of an action" that is

serious and not trivial and that has "magnitude," or great importance, and that is
"complete in itself," we might say having beginning, middle and justifiable end. He
further says the events should arouse "pity" for the hero's circumstance and "fear"
for the hero as consequences approach. Aristotle states that pity and fear provide
the "catharsis" of the emotions within the play--fulfill it's emotional resolution. In
more general terms, tragedy is defined as a literary drama in which the hero suffers
a horrible fate.
Aristotelian tragedy emphasizes several other points as requirements to tragedy.

Some are:
(1) Events should be complete, representing a total reversal of the hero's fortunes.
(2) The hero must be a person of renown with superior attainments.
(3) The language should be that of poetry with elevated diction and "embellished
with every kind of artistic expression," meaning taking advantage of many literary
techniques.
(4) The drama must provide a catharsis of its own action so that the ending
resonates with the magnitude of the drama, thereby providing a "catharsis"
(washing away) of the pity and fear aroused by actions within the drama.
(5) The hero cannot be purely good or purely evil, but must be a superior person
who has human qualities and fallibility.
(6) The tragic end of the hero results from a mistaken action that itself arises from
an error in judgment (tragic error) or a personal flaw in character (tragic flaw).
(7) The hero need not die; other tragic consequences may serve the catharsis of the
tragedy (e.g., blinding, exile).
Elizabethan/Shakespearean tragedy takes several divergences from Aristotelian

tragedy. Some of which are:

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(1) Shakespeare abandoned the Aristotelian unities of action, time, and place (e.g.,
Hamlet covers many months) although Ben Jonson insisted on maintaining the
unities.
(2) Shakespeare innovated tragedy by creating romantic tragedies with grand

sensation, such as Macbeth.
(3) Greek tragedy used the Chorus to report battles and other horrific events,
whereas Elizabethan/Shakespearean tragedy began to show these onstage.
(4) Shakespeare deviated from Aristotelian requirements by adding passages of

prose in with the poetry.
(5) Elizabethan/Shakespearean tragedy required death as the appropriate outcome.
(6) Tragic character flaws overtook tragic errors becoming sole causes of the
tragedies.
(7) The Aristotelian Chorus is replaced by Fools and Clowns who continue the
Chorus function of delivering plot points and plot information; they are particularly
useful in revealing information about characters.
(8) Catharsis came to mean a purging of vile tendencies from the audience by a
cathartic identification with the character flaw and tragedy of the hero: catharsis
shifted from a focus within the setting to a focus on the audience.
2. Discuss revenge tragedy in Elizabethan England.

A “revenge tragedy” or “revenge play” refers to a literary style in which the
protagonist or some other character vows vengeance against his real or perceived
foes because of some kind of transgression committed against him. Usually, the
result of this passionate quest for revenge results in the death of the main character,
providing the piece with a tragic outcome. In the Elizabethan period (1558–1606),
some of the most famous examples of revenge literature were produced by the
English playwright William Shakespeare (1564–1616), whose Hamlet serves as
perhaps the most influential example of tragic literature ever put to paper. In
Hamlet, the protagonist, Hamlet, prince of Denmark, inexorably sets himself to
avenging the murder of his father, the former King Hamlet, by the new king

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Claudius. His actions lead his friends and relatives to believe he has gone mad. By
the end of the play, although he successfully slays Claudius, he is killed in the
process.
Most revenge tragedies share some basic elements: a play within a play, mad
scenes, a vengeful ghost, one or several gory scenes, and, most importantly, a
central character who has a serious grievance against a formidable opponent. This
central character takes matters into his own hands and seeks revenge privately,
after justice has failed him in the public arena. It should be noted that Hamlet is the
only protagonist in any Elizabethan revenge play who can be considered a hero,
aware of the moral implications involved in exacting his revenge.
Key Revenge Plot Events
1. The ghost of Hamlet's father appears to Horatio, Marcellus, and Barnardo.

Horatio begs the apparition to speak, but it refuses. Horatio reports the encounter to
Hamlet.
2. The Ghost appears to Hamlet and they leave to speak in private .
3. The Ghost reveals that he is, in fact, the ghost of Hamlet's father. The revenge
plot is established with the Ghost's utterance, "So art thou to revenge, when
thou shalt hear" .He tells Hamlet that he was poisoned by his brother Claudius as
he slept in his orchard and, if Hamlet is not already feeling the desire, the Ghost
makes plain the demand: "Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder" .
4. To be certain of Claudius's guilt, Hamlet decides to re-enact the murder of his

father with the production of The Murder of Gonzago (known also as the play
within the play or The Mousetrap). If Claudius is disturbed by the play it will
reveal his guilt. In Hamlet's words:
The play's the thing
Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king .
5. Hamlet stages The Murder of Gonzago and Hamlet and Horatio agree that the
agitated Claudius has behaved like a guilty man during the production .
6. Hamlet has an opportunity to kill the unattended Claudius in his chamber, but,

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after soliloquizing on the matter, he decides not to take action because Claudius is
praying. Killing Claudius in prayer would not really be revenge because he would
go to heaven, "fit and season'd for his passage" .
7. Hamlet kills Polonius, mistaking him for Claudius as he hides behind a curtain.
8. The Ghost appears again to Hamlet. He is angry because Claudius is still alive.
He tells Hamlet he has returned to "whet thy almost blunted purpose" .
9. Claudius banishes Hamlet to England for the murder of Polonius .He sends
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on Hamlet's actions and makes plans to have
Hamlet assassinated on English soil.
10. Horatio receives a letter from Hamlet reporting that he is returning to Denmark,
thanks to pirates who had captured his boat and released him on the promise of
future reward .
11. Claudius hears of Hamlet's return and he conspires with Laertes, Polonius's
son, to murder Hamlet. Laertes will use a poison-tipped sword during a fight with
Hamlet, and Claudius will have a poisoned drink at the ready .
12. Hamlet stabs Claudius and forces him to drink the poisoned wine .The revenge
plot is thus concluded. Hamlet himself then dies from the wound received during
the fight with Laertes .
3. Discuss romantic exuberance in the comedies of Shakespeare.
Shakespeare is celebrated as the poet of romantic love. The Shakespeare comedy

plays have stood the test of time. Shakespeare’s comedies are pre-eminent for two
reasons: for the values they present and for the skill of presentation.
His comedies are just intermingling of romance with the hard actualities of life,
passion trembling on the verge of tragedy and comedy charmingly triumphant
after all. By the end of comedy something has been achieved, not its moral purpose
or its commercial value but its philosophical and psychological
character. Shakespeare communicates his comedy through language. The romantic
comedies of Shakespeare can be otherwise called as “comedies of incidents” or
“comedies of mistaken identity”. The plot is often driven by mistaken identity.

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Characters play scenes in disguise and its common for female characters to
disguise themselves as male characters.
The Shakespearean comedy is Romantic not only in the sense that it does not
observe the classical rules of dramatic composition, but also in the sense that it
provides an escape from the sordid realities of life. Shakespeare’s romantic
comedies are all conceived in an imaginative setting far away from the dull and
dreary world of everyday life. Their characters are also different from us as they
are inhabitants of not our humdrum world but the imaginary, colourful world of
their own.
A comedy that relies on romantic exuberance is A Midsummer Night's Dream. In

this play, two couples (Hermia and Lysander, Helena and Demetrius) escape to the
woods to avoid the dictate of Egeus, who has demanded that his daughter, Hermia,
marry his choice of husband, Demetrius, rather than her choice, Lysander.
While in the woods, two immortals, Oberon and Titania, decide to get involved in
the lover's affairs. A love potion is used and the misapplication of the elixir causes
much romantic exuberance.
Perhaps the funniest example occurs when Titania, affected by the powers of the
potion, falls in love with Bottom, whose head has been transformed into a donkey.
In confusion, Bottom begins braying. The noise wakes up the slumbering goddess
but instead of being horrified, she is overcome with romantic feeling and exclaims:
I pray thee, gentle mortal, sing again:
Mine ear is much enamour'd of thy note;
So is mine eye enthralled to thy shape;
And thy fair virtue's force perforce doth move me
On the first view to say, to swear, I love thee.
It is not only comedies, however, in which Shakespeare uses romantic exuberance.

In Romeo and Juliet, the two teenagers fall immediately in love. Upon laying eyes
on Juliet, Romeo opines:
O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!

It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night

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Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;

Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear!
They become intoxicated with each other and their "exuberance" leads them to go
against their families' wishes and elope. Of course, their "exuberance" leads to one
of literature's most famous tragedies as they both die for their love.
A Shakespearean comedy is the story of love ending with the ringing of marriage
bells. Not only the hero or the heroine is in love but all other characters are also in
love. And so in the end there is not one marriage but a number of marriages. The
entire atmosphere echoes filled with love. The lovers are all young people and
everyone fall in love at first sight. This desire of the eyes is exhibited in many
beautiful forms finally leading to unexpected goals.
4. Examine the growth of English tragedy since the mystery and

miracle plays.
The reign of Queen Elizabeth lasted from 1558 to 1603. It was one of the great
periods in which English drama flourished and changed, in part due to Elizabeth's
own support for the arts.
In almost all the countries drama has been cradled by religion. This is true about
England too. Drama is deeply rooted in the religious instincts of man. The ancient
Greek drama never lost its kinship with religion. Thus in Europe the cradle of the
drama rested on the alter. It was difficult to understand the services of the church.
It is because they were in Latin. So they illustrated the Gospel stories by a series of
pictures. Later on these pictures were replaced by the performers. They acted the
stories in dumb show.
The first major transition we observe is from a medieval model, with limited
genres and performance opportunities, to a far more diverse model. At the start of
Elizabeth's reign, there were two main forms of drama. Mystery drama consisted of
plays that told Bible stories in English. These were initially developed in part
because Roman Catholics (before the foundation of the Church of England by
Elizabeth's father Henry VIII) conducted church services and read the Bible in
Latin, which was incomprehensible to most of the population, who did not know
Latin and were illiterate. Another genre common in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries was the morality play, also a fundamentally religious genre in which

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
various virtues and vices were personified and the plots were generally allegories
of religious and conventional morality.
The mysteries and miracles: The next step of the development came when the
actors spoke. These early plays were called mystery plays or miracle plays. They
came into being in the 14th century. The mystery plays were the dramatic
representations of the stories from the Bible. Even in the 10th century these mystery
plays existed. These plays were performed by the priests in the church. These plays
became popular and the number of the themes increased.
In the miracle plays the lives of the saints were staged. Perhaps these miracle
plays were more popular because of their variety, human characters and urbane style.
These plays were both serious and comic. They prepared the ground for the
Elizabethan drama.
The morality plays and Interludes: The third stage of the development is
remarkable. At this stage we find the advent of the morality plays and interludes. In
the earlier plays the serious and comic elements were mixed. Now they parted. The
morality plays had serious tone and didactic purpose. The interludes were comic and
amusing. The morality plays showed the struggle between good and evil in human
soul. The characters were allegorical and aimed at teaching. The aim of interludes
was amusement and entertainment. They were full of humour, which was generally
coarse. It was a short play, which introduced real characters. It was far superior to
morality plays. Heywood was the most gifted writer of the interlude.
The English tragedy: The next stage was the beginning of the English tragedy. The
first tragedy in English literature was Gorboduc. It was written by Thomas Sackville
and Thomas Norton. It earned praise from Sidney. It was followed by other tragedies
like The Misfortunes at Arthur and Tancred and Gismunda.
The University Wits: The drama found its full flowing with the dramatists called
the university wits. Marlowe was the central sun of this group. Others were Lyly,
Peele, Greene, Lodge, Nash and Kyd Lyly was a comic playwright. He is well known
as the author of Euphues. Peele’s work has great variety. His The Old Wive's Tale
is the first English play of dramatic criticism. Green was an expert in the art of
plotting. The English tragedy moves on its way with Kyd. With Marlowe the drama
reaches the highest point of its glory. His contribution is memorable. In many ways
he showed a path to Shakespeare.

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The revival of classical knowledge, and especially Roman drama, led to the
development of more realistic forms of drama, including comedies, tragedies, and
history plays. Interludes and masques were often performed at court and permanent
theaters were built, supplementing the ad hoc performance spaces used earlier.
Court patronage allowed playwrights to earn a living and popular audiences, and
aristocratic patronage supported the foundation of professional theater companies.
5. Discuss how Elizabethan tragedy departs from Aristotelian

formulations of tragedy.
In the course of Greek drama, tragedy acquired a high seriousness both in
its purpose and treatment of materials and reckoned with the concerns of the
whole community and strove to raise fundamental questions about human
existence and also to provide deep psychological insight into the
metaphysical and epistemological processes of the world and human life.
Aristotle, the Greek philosopher in the fourth century B.C.
After examining Greek drama of his time very minutely, offers a definition
of tragedy and its constituent elements in his treatise on drama called Poetics.
For him, "tragedy is a representation of an action which is important, complete
and limited in length. It uses language made beautiful in different ways and
in different parts of the play. It is enacted not recited and by arousing pity and
fear, it gives an outlet to emotions of this type.?' Aristotle uses the medical
metaphor, namely, catharsis to describe the function of tragedy which is to
purge the emotions of pity and fear in the audience. On seeing a tragedy the
audience unburdens the constricting emotions that inhibit the understanding
of their own life.
The elements of tragedy, according to Aristotle, are plot, character, diction,
ideas music and spectacle. The plot must have a beginning, middle and
end. The moving devices of plot are peripeteia and anagnorisis. Peripeteia
entails an ironic frustration of purpose on the part of the protagonist who is
not only a man of noble birth but obviously blessed with outstanding
qualities, producing an opposite result from the one intended. The
increasing failure of the protagonist is on account of the tragic error or
hamartia. Essentially, the protagonist moves or is driven towards
anagnorisis, the discovery of the true situation. The progression of the plot

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displays both verbal and dramatic irony. Verbal irony occurs when tile
actual intent of the speaker or the writer is expressed in words that carry the
opposite meaning. Dramatic irony enables the spectator or reader of a play
to know more than its character. The irony is tragic since the audience or
the reader understand the predicament of the protagonist who indulges in
self-delusory assertions.
6. Analyze Eliots contributions to literary criticism in the context on

and the three voices of poetry.
Eliot also made significant contributions to the field of literary criticism, strongly
influencing the school of New Criticism. He was somewhat self-deprecating and
minimising of his work and once said his criticism was merely a "by-product" of
his "private poetry-workshop", He is a very penetrating influence, perhaps not
unlike the east wind."
In his critical essay "Tradition and the Individual Talent", Eliot argues that art must
be understood not in a vacuum, but in the context of previous pieces of art. "In a
peculiar sense [an artist or poet] ... must inevitably be judged by the standards of
the past." This essay was an important influence over the New Criticism by
introducing the idea that the value of a work of art must be viewed in the context of
the artist's previous works, a "simultaneous order" of works (i.e., "tradition"). Eliot
himself employed this concept on many of his works, especially on his long-poem
The Waste Land.
Also important to New Criticism was the idea—as articulated in Eliot's essay
"Hamlet and His Problems"—of an "objective correlative", which posits a
connection among the words of the text and events, states of mind, and
experiences. This notion concedes that a poem means what it says, but suggests
that there can be a non-subjective judgment based on different readers' different—
but perhaps corollary—interpretations of a work.
The Three Voices of Poetry
Eliot through this essay brings to the surface the fact that each poem or
work o art has a distinctive voice. The voice differs with the situation as if
one is writing for the stage the approach would certainly be different from

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verse writing that is to be read or recited. Thus, for a work to be really

successful, the voice must be in tune to what is being said and vice versa.
The first voice is that of the poet talking aloud to himself without thinking of
addressing an audience. The second voice is best seen in a dramatic
monologue where a poet addresses himself to an audience. The third voice is
an indirect manifestation of the second one. Here, the poet uses an
imaginary character as a mouth piece, and this character addresses another
imaginary character thus, letting the poet have the liberty to speak his mind
seen most commonly in the poetic drama. However, the employment of
these voices is much more difficult than can be seen on the surface.
The Voices
When we look at the difference between the first and second voices we find
the problem o poetic communication to be posed. And when we look at all
three voices together we see that there is a difference in the dramatic,
quasi-dramatic and non-dramatic verse.
From Eliot’s viewpoint, it is an illusion to think that there is such a voice as

that of a poet talking to one person even though there are poems addressed
to particular people (Epistles). There is a certain amount of overhearing
expected, even though a love poem may be addressed to one person it is
meant to be overheard by others for Eliot finds prose more suited to private
discourse with one’s beloved.
Eliot on taking up the dramatic pen found that he used the second voice of
the poet addressing the audience rather than addressal through imaginary
characters (third voice). In fact, even the second voice is hard to master as
many a time it is the character bending to the writer’s view than showing
any real character for itself. When dealing with a group or choir a writer
must employ verse that differs from that used for a single speaker. Thus, it
is when the writer practically sits done to write that the voices make
themselves most clear.
“Its (the chorus’) members were speaking for me, not uttering
words that really represented any supposed character of their own.”
To write in the second voice, the writer must first identify himself with the
characters instead of the other way around to make it successful. In the
case of the third voice, the writer has to identify himself with the characters
but also find the words to make the communication taking place between
these fictionous characters seem plausible. When writing non-dramatic
verse one writes in the terms of one’s own voice (the way the writer would
speak) and while writing tests it to see how it sounds when you read it to
yourself. The reason it is so is because it is the writer speaking in his natural

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voice and as for communicating ideas to a reader; that is not the main aim.
The writer isn’t interested in getting the reader to understand what is being
said; it is the act of expression that is of greater importance. Thus, when
speaking for an imaginary character the thrust changes for it is not yourself
merely but the character that you also must consider.
Complexity of the third voice – poetic drama
When dealing with a verse play, a writer has a varied range of characters to
gift speech to and these characters vary in temperament, background,
education and intelligence. Due to this, the writer cannot single out one
character for identification with and bestow all the important line or poetry
to it. Take for example Jane Austen’s writing. All her characters have some
say or the other and move the plot onward, none of them pose as mere
furniture. A character cannot be a mere mouthpiece as it will bring to notice
the artificial aspect of the play and drama is a suspension of belief. You
believe what you see on stage to be true temporarily so as to engage with it
but for this the words assigned to the character should sound plausible,
bring out the right degree of emotion and move the action forward.
“The poet writing for the theatre may, as I have found, make two mistakes:
that of assigning to a personage lines of poetry not suitable to be spoken by
that personage, and that of assigning lines which, however suitable to the
personage, and that of assigning lines which, however suitable to the
personage, yet fail to forward the action of the play.”
Eliot further elaborates that to make a character actually seem alive is not
possible by just words alone but by certain sympathy excited in the writer’s
breast fro that character. A novelist has more scope to manipulate a
character but a dramatist is hard put due to the lack of time and space
provided. He also poses the question whether it is even possible to
therefore, make a villain seem real as weakness will have to blend with
either heroic virtue or villainy for a truly evil character to stay real.
Therefore, the image of Iago is far more frightening than that of Richard the
Third.
The creation of a character leads to a give-and-take between the author and

the character. Besides the other traits of the character, the author may
bestow some of his own traits to it and also may to a certain extent be
influenced by the character. Thus, author is compelled to sysmpathise with
characters that may be at a contrast to each other while allocating poetry as
widely to each character as possible and also diving this poetry so that there
is variation in style suited to the character that speaks it.

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The second voice – dramatic monologue
It can be termed non-dramatic poetry with an element of the dramatic in it

and is on contrasting terms from poetic drama where the author must have
divide loyalties. As Eliot very succinctly puts it, there is no check on the poet
while writing a dramatic monologue as he deals with one particular character
that needs only to identify with him or vice versa. There is no second
character that has to be replied to or set at variance at.
“What we normally hear, in fact, in the dramatic monologue, is the voice of

the poet, who has put on the costume and make-up either of some historical
character, or one out of fiction. His personage must be identified to us – as
an individual, or at least as a type – before he begins to speak.”
Frequently we find that the poet adopts a history character or a known

character of fiction for this role. Erza Pound, Browning’s greatest disciple
adopted the term ‘persona’ to indicate several historical characters through
whom he spoke. Eliot also brings out the fact that a dramatic monologue
cannot create a character as action constitutes one and it can only be
created by communication between imaginary people.
If the poet only speaks in his own voice a character cannot be brought to life
as it is only mimicry taking place. And the point of mimicry lies in recognition
of the person being mimicked and in the incompleteness of the picture. If we
are deceived into thinking the speaker and person mimicked are same then
it is impersonation. When we read or listen to Shakespeare’s plays we aren’t
listening to his voice but that of his characters and when we read Browning’s
dramatic monologues, we are listening to no other voice expect Browning’s.
Thus, the dramatic monologue is the second voice, i.e. the voice of the poet
speaking to an audience. The fact that the poet dons a mask is in itself self
obvious as no one would go to such lengths merely to talk to himself. The
second voice in poetry is the one heard most often and is clearer than the
rest. All poetry has some conscious social purpose, either to preach, instruct,
and tell a story, moral and the like. In the epic this is the most employed
voice though in Homer you do hear a dramatic voice from time to time.
There are points when the hero tells his tale directly.
The first voice of poetry – the poet addressing himself alone
Meditative verse is a form of poetry where the poet writes not to be listened
to but to purge himself of the emotions he is unable to carry. The poet is
concerned only with using the best words possible to convey what he feels.
“He does not know what he has to say until he has said it; and in the effort

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to say it he is not concerned with making other people understand

anything.”... “He is oppressed by a burden which he must bring to birth in
order to obtain relief.”
According to Eliot a “psychic material” - call it inspiration, the muses or what

you may, causes the poet to feel the urge to convey something through his
pen. This is the germ of creation that causes the poem to be written. Here,
poetry has no fixed shape and it is only after it is written that the final
structure is seen which is not the case in works of the second and third voice
where already some preconceived form is adhered to even though
modifications in the process of its creation may creep in.
Union of voices – a summation
Even though a poet may have written the poem without keeping an audience
in mind, he would be curious to see how people react to his thoughts and on
discussions might add to or modify his work changing the voice of the poem
slightly. “If the author never spoke to himself, the result would not be
poetry, though it might be magnificent rhetoric; and part of our enjoyment
of great poetry is the enjoyment of overhearing words which are not
addressed to us. Even in dramatic verse there are times when the author
and character both speak in unison saying something that though
appropriate to the character can be something that the author can say from
his context too even though the words may not hold the same symbolic
value for both.
7. Discuss the basic plot of Romantic Comedy with reference to A Midsummer

Night's Dream.
William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream fits the description of

"romantic comedy" for at least two reasons: it focuses on the romantic
relationships of characters, and it ends in marriages. The latter trope is typical of
classical comedies. While tragedies end in deaths and/or downfalls of protagonists,
comedies end in marriages. Along the way, there are obstacles that create humor
and comedy, but these plays end happily, with the lovers paired and united.
A Midsummer Night’s Dream, one of Shakespeare’s most beloved comedies, is

generally thought of as a sparkling romantic farce. However, while the play is
lovely and comic, it also has a strong trace of darkness and cruelty, a sinister
underside that is inextricable from its amorous themes. Midsummer may end with a

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series of happy weddings, but along the way it clearly depicts how male-female
relationships can involve a great amount of cruelty, with the potential to spread
discord throughout society.
Nearly all the male characters threaten their female counterparts with violence at
some point in the play. Theseus, for example, won Hippolyta not through seduction
or courtship but by military conquest, having vanquished the Amazons, her tribe of
woman warriors. He says to her in the opening scene, “I wooed thee with my
sword, / And won thy love doing thee injuries,” drawing an explicit connection
between love and assault. Later in the same scene, Egeus publicly threatens to kill
Hermia, his daughter, if she does not consent to marry Demetrius. Oberon, for his
part, does not put Titania at risk of true physical danger, but he does brainwash her
with a love-potion for the express purpose of humiliating and humbling her.
Lysander may be the only male who does not consciously seek to harm his mate.
But even so, Hermia cannot escape peril. Just after the bewitched Lysander
abandons her, she wakes from a nightmare, trembling with fear as she describes
how she dreamt she saw “a serpent [eat her] heart away.” Though Lysander isn’t in
control of his own actions at this moment, Hermia’s subconscious still registers his
desertion as an act of violation.
The female characters in the play, particularly Helena and Hermia, end up
internalizing much of this violent behavior. In the most vicious exchange in the
play, Lysander bluntly tells the lovesick Helena that he does not love her and that
he is “sick” when he looks at her. He warns her that he will “do [her] mischief” in
the woods—a far more menacing promise when we realize that mischief had a
much stronger connotation in the period, meaning something closer to “harm” or
“evil” than “naughtiness.” Helena, however, is undeterred. She accepts the
aggression directed at her and turns it into an argument for her stamina, pleading
with him to treat her like his “spaniel,” since the more he “beat[s]” her, the more
she will “fawn” on him. Eventually, the two young women fall victim to the
hostility in the air and turn on one another. Their confrontation in Act III, scene ii
is often played as a comic catfight, but that ignores the poignancy of Helena’s
speech, in which she pleads with her “sister” not to “rend [their] ancient love
asunder” by conspiring with the men to shame her. Hermia, however, does not
listen, and the two dissolve into a torrent of mutual abuse. Even at the end of the
play, when the couples are paired off harmoniously, it is unclear whether the
women’s intimate friendship will ever be repaired.
Throughout the play, romantic strife is portrayed as a force that can spread, like a
contagion. At one point, the whole earth becomes infected. When the sparring fairy

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monarchs, Titania and Oberon, confront each other in Act II, scene i, Titania
describes a tumultuous world filled with sickly clouds and rotting vegetation. She
insists that this chaos has sprung from her and Oberon’s quarrel, and that they are
the “parents” of the planet’s current state of turmoil.
A Midsummer Night’s Dream ends with several happy (if magically-induced)

weddings, but even the joy of the closing celebration does not completely banish
the play’s threatening undercurrent. The nuptials are commemorated with a
clownish performance, but significantly, the craftsmen’s theme is a gruesome one:
a romantic couple that meets a violent and tragic end. In addition, the blessings
offered by Puck and Oberon seem to evoke more terror than good will. Oberon
offers the more traditional blessing, wishing the couples fertility and lasting love.
However, he also mentions “blots of nature,” such as harelips and other
deformities, calling attention to the dangers that can befall vulnerable children
even as he wards them away. Puck, for his part, spends most of his speech
describing all the horrible things that lurk outside the wedding chamber door, such
as hungry lions and ghosts from “gaping” graves. In the end, we don’t know if the
newlyweds are inside experiencing the flush of matrimonial bliss or if the discord
that has been bubbling up throughout the play has unsettled them: As Puck closes
the door against the terrible creatures of the night, he shuts the audience out, as
well. With the ultimate fate of our protagonists so ambiguous, A Midsummer
Night’s Dream cannot properly be called a romantic comedy.
8. What is the role of the play within the play in A Midsummer Night’s
Dream?
One of the notable characteristics of the dramatic construction and presentation of

William Shakespeare’s play A Midsummer Night’s Dream is the fact that it
contains two distinctly different plays within the larger framework of the main
play. The author’s skillful development and juxtaposition of these simultaneously
unfolding plays serves the function of reiterating some of A Midsummer Night’s
Dream’s principal themes. Similarly, the utilization of this multiple play structure
also situates Shakespeare in relationship to the creative process and his own work.
Furthermore, the three-play structure allows the reader to question the very nature
of creativity and of love.
The play staged by the mechanicals is particularly effective in this regard. The
comic, lighthearted tone of the players as they prepare for and fulfill their roles in
Pyramus and Thisbe serves as a welcome contrast to the more dramatic
circumstances between the women characters in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”
and Hermia, Lysander, Helen, and Demetrius, as well as the more fanciful plot

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involving the faeries. Even more than these other plays, the play of the
mechanicals raises a number of important questions about life, love, and creative
production and performance.
The lower class laborers who comprise the unlikely dramatic troupe which will
perform Pyramus and Thisbe are introduced to the reader in Act I, Scene II of A
Midsummer Night’s Dream. Everything about these players is comical, from their
most superficial characteristics to their deeply embedded personality traits which
include a habit of bumbling, mispronouncing words so that the meanings of their
sentences are completely and comically misconstrued, and generally playing the
part of fools. As soon as the reader learns of the rag-tag actors’ names—Bottom,
Flute, Snug, Snout, Starveling, and Quince– he or she becomes immediately
oriented to the fact that the introduction of these characters is intended to disrupt
the larger narrative of the play and if anything, provide further comic relief to the
slightly more serious (although still lighthearted) main narrative.
Additionally, these goofy characters also exist to raise questions about the subjects
and themes in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” that are most present throughout
the work. This observation is confirmed with each new detail that the reader learns
about each of the tradesmen/actor characters. Nick Bottom is a weaver who, like
his fellow tradesmen, has no previous acting credentials. In fact, it is not entirely
clear how these men have come together or who decided that they were “worthy"
of putting on a play. This issue of worthiness, or fitness, for playing certain roles,
whether on the stage or on life, is a central theme and preoccupation in A
Midsummer Night’s Dream.
9. Discuss the gender issues in the play A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', features many relationships that give the modern
reader some areas for discussion regarding sexism, gender roles, and inequality.
Shakespeare showed us the plight of women in a patriarchal society by showing us
the anguish they went through after the men around them either dominated or took
advantage of them.
Historical Context
For a contemporary reader, there are elements of Shakespeare's comedy A

Midsummer Night's Dream that instantly seem to reflect inequality. You will
probably see these elements, such as the relationship dynamics between characters,
as uncomfortable - perhaps even disturbing. You may ask yourself questions about

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the treatment of women by men, or the level of control that authority figures have
over others.
To get an accurate view of what's happening in the play, some historical context is
helpful. The play was written in the late 16th century, and set in the time of
Ancient Greece. It's important to consider both time periods to get an accurate
impression of the relationships and social norms portrayed.
In Shakespeare's England, women still had little to no status unless they were
royalty. Girls were expected to get married and have children. In fact, there is a
rather famous passage in Virginia Woolf's 1929 essay ''A Room of One's Own''
that references a hypothetical sister of William's who aspired to be a writer, but had
no opportunity to do so. The path of professional success was simply not open to
women.
Types of Inequality
So let's look at the play itself, and the gender dynamics happening there. First of
all, there is the level of authority contained in the ruling class. Theseus, as king,
has control over all of his subjects. The issue at the beginning of the play is that
Egeus' daughter Hermia refuses to marry the man her father has chosen for her,
Demetrius. She prefers Lysander, who is also in love with her.
In one pivotal scene, the king declares that Hermia is her father's property and that
he can dispose of her as he sees fit. Modern readers generally jump on the feminist
bandwagon at this point, asking why on earth Hermia should follow this
declaration. Of course, she doesn't intend to, as she and Lysander plan to run into
the forest to escape Athenian law.
Next, there is the issue between the King and Queen of the fairy realm, Oberon and
Titania. Oberon manages to get back at Titania, and at the same time make a fool
of the tradesman Bottom. Remember, Oberon and Titania are both powerful
creatures, seemingly involved in a constant power struggle.
The unfortunate Bottom is transformed into a man with a donkey's head, and
Titania is placed under a spell which causes her to fall in love with the ridiculous
tradesman. Again, the male character has gotten the better of his female
counterpart.

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And what about the marriage between Theseus and Hippolyta, former Queen of the
Amazons? In mythology, Hippolyta is seen as the symbol for strong, independent
women. Yet, in Shakespeare's play, the army of Theseus has conquered her female
warriors, and won Hippolyta's hand in marriage. The message seems to be that men
will always win, and that women will eventually be happy to be conquered.
10. Discuss A Midsummer Night’s Dream in the context to the pastoral space.
Shakespeare’s play A Midsummer Night’s Dream is undoubtedly a pastoral

comedy. In telling the story of several sets of lovers who must overcome obstacles
and misunderstandings before they are finally united in marriage, The play’s
central couples, Hermia and Lysander and Helena and Demetrius, begin the play
facing two classic obstacles of Shakespearean comedy: parental disapproval and
misdirected love. Hermia’s father forbids her to marry Lysander, insisting that she
marry Demetrius instead. According to Athenian law, Hermia faces death or exile
if she disobeys her father. Meanwhile, Helena loves Demetrius, but his love is
currently directed at Hermia. These initial obstacles become confused and
compounded when the couples enter the forest. The fairy Puck’s mistaken
enchantments result first in Lysander loving Helena, and then in both men loving
Helena, a reversal of the play’s opening. But by the next morning, the confusion
has been resolved. Lysander’s enchantment has been removed while Demetrius’s
enchantment remains, and the couples are for the first time happily balanced. The
couples’ final barrier is overcome when Theseus overrules Hermia’s father’s
wishes, and the play ends as all Shakespearean comedies do: with a wedding.
Like other Shakespearian comedies, Midsummer focuses on the characters’

situations rather than their emotions. For example, in the play’s first scene, rather
than dwelling in despair because they are forbidden to be together, Hermia and
Lysander focus on a solution and make a secret plan to escape. Later, the fairy king
Oberon witnesses Helena pledging her devotion to Demetrius and immediately
decides to intervene when Demetrius harshly rejects her. Both the lovers’ decision
to go into the forest and the fairies’ decision to intercede in the lovers’ lives create
situations that confuse and trouble the lovers. However, as audience members we
are never seriously worried that the outcome will be anything but happy because
the play’s fantastical situations and overwrought language distance us from the
lovers’ pain. Secure in our knowledge that the magical mistakes will eventually be
repaired and that order will be restored, we can enjoy watching the drama unfold.
11. Doctor Faustus is a Tragedy of the Renaissance and Reformation

comment?

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Renaissance, as we know, was a widespread cultural and educational movement in

history during which the old conventions of medieval age were dissolved followed
by liberation in all arenas of life and culture. It was marked by the increased quest
for power, learning, knowledge; Worldliness, materialism; and love and hankering
for sensual pleasures, beauty etc. We see in the play that Doctor Faustus is not
satisfied with the classical knowledge, he yearns for more. His proud declarations,
supreme thirst for more knowledge and power, inclination towards worldly
pleasures lead towards his tragic end. In his last soliloquy, Faustus blames his
divine knowledge for his downfall and even wishes to burn his books.
He falls for lust and sensual desires also. Even in his last days, he spends time
indulging in debauchery. Hence Doctor Faustus is the tragedy of Renaissance.
Reanaissance was immediately followed by widespread Reformation and
Protestantanism. The Reformers and Protestants challenged the Church doctrine.
Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus embraces the spirit of Reformation. In the play, the
Pope is shown to be an unholy, greedy man.
When Faustus plays tricks, the Pope and others think it is a ghost from purgatory
and try to use a bell and candle. This is a direct satire on Christian beliefs.
Moreover, Mephistopheles appears as a Friar, another attack on Catholicism. This
was actually a popular view of them during Reformation. We can thus say that
Christopher Marlowe's play Doctor Faustus is a tragedy of Renaissance and
Reformation. Doctor Faustus, a scholar famed the world over, thinks that he has
reached the limits of knowledge in philosophy, medicine, law, and theology, and
he hungers for power. Magic lures him with the offer of knowledge without work
or study, and Faustus sells his soul to the devil in return for 24 years during which
he will have everything he wants. Faustus begins with grand plans: to free his
country, to help the poor, and to make himself master of the world. In the scenes
that follow, the reader never sees him even try to reach these goals. Instead, he
performs parlor tricks for the Emperor and plays practical jokes on the Pope. When
he asks his servant devil Mephostopilis, the secrets of the universe, he gets what he
calls “freshman” answers.
Only at the end of the play does Faustus realize that he has tried to get something
for nothing: knowledge without work and power without responsibility. Marlowe’s
gorgeous language tends to hide the meanness of his character’s desires. Time and
again, Faustus begins to repent, only to be distracted by spectacle or frightened by
threats. Marlowe’s play, first staged in 1592 or 1593, presents a figure who is a
mirror: Each age sees Faustus in its own terms. Readers during the Romantic

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period, often more interested in the struggle than the goal, saw Faustus as an
“overreacher,” someone who pushes the limit of what humans can achieve.
12. Discuss Sin and Redemption in Dr. Faustus.
Marlowe’s play “The tragic story of Doctor Faustus” is an interpretations of a

popular German legend, about a historical person, a man who called himself Dr.
Johann Faust. Marlowe wrote a tragic story of the warlock, who sold his soul to the
devil.
Keeping intact all the important episodes of the legend, as set out in the translation
of the German popular book about Faust, the poet has given the legend a
completely different meaning. Â Faust in the tragedy made by Marlow is much
like his literary predecessor, but otherwise the playwright interprets three main
problems in the image of Faust: the problem of choosing between “good” and
“evil”, the problem of “honest” and “unfair” knowledge, and the problem of
“saving souls”. Marlowe in his play gives a new perspective on sin, redemption
and faith. This play offers a new way of looking at sin, challenging traditional
values of right and wrong, while during the play readers may wonder whether or
not Faust’s “sins” are truly wrong.
Dr Faustus is a damn for the start. His main damnation is proved when he go
through a deeper change of purpose as to sin and go godliness . A true conversion,
a revolution . His damnation is more clearly defined in the enlightenment of the
theory of Calvinism. Total depravity is the first aspect of his theory which regarded
with the original sin that is defined by our own confession of faith. By original sin
we mean the evil quality which characterizes man’s natural disposition and will.
“Man, by his fall into a state of sin, hath wholly lost all ability of
will to any spiritual good accompanying salvation”.
“One is free whenever what he chooses to do is the result of his own

preference”.
It is Dr Faustus wish to learn black magic. Faustus illustrates the worst case
scenario of the doctrine of predestination. He originally decides to pursue magic
after convincing himself that he is doomed be damned. He proved to be damn
because of the desire of knowledge,
“These metaphysics of magicians
And necromantic books are heavenly”.
“I gave then my soul for my cunning”

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“Why then believe we must sin,

And so consequently die
What will be shall be
Divinity adieu!”
Faustus’s action stem, at least partly from a desire to know more . Faustus forgot
the lord, his maker, and Christ his redeemer, became an enemy for all man kind.
“Had not I desired to know much, I had not been in this case.”
Think’st thou that I, who saw the face of God,

And tasted the eternal joys of heaven,
Am not tormented with ten thousand hells,
I am being deprived of everlasting bliss.
It is not a sin to acquire more and more knowledge but should be used for the
welfare of man kind. Dr Faustus acquires for serving his purpose. Miserable Dr
Faustus never falling to repentance truly, thereby to attain the grace of holly spirit
of God again. There can be no room for misunderstanding when dealing with a
subject as important as the devil and damnation. His damnation was inevitable. His
rejection of God and subsequent inability to repent are taken as evidence that he
never really belonged to the elect, but rather had been predestined from the very
beginning for reprobation.
The whole plot of the play has many instances in which Dr. Faustus is instructed
either by the good angel on his shoulder or by other good people to stop his sinful
journey and ask God’s forgiveness. Dr. Faustus is a well-respected German
scholar; however, he grows insecure with the limitation of traditional knowledge
and seeks more. His friends, Valdes and Cornelius suggested him to learn black
magic. He learns few black magic tricks and summons Mephastophilis, the
assistant devil of Lucifer, and ask him to tell his master that he is willing to sell his
soul to the service of Lucifer and in return he wants 24 years of immense
knowledge and power. The time passes bay and Faustus conscious keeps on
tossing inside him asking him to repent, but Faustus turned a blind eye to it and
delayed his repentance.
According to the Christian believe, if one asks God’s forgiveness, he will be

granted His mercy no matter how grave his sin is. Faustus is provided with many
chances and his good angel on his shoulder keeps reminding him about the mercy
of God. He is constantly told that he can still ask for forgiveness and save his soul
to be burned in hell after death. The moment Faustus starts to become weak,
Lucifer and Mephastophilis come and entertained him and enjoy his sinful life.

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Faustus never redeems and the devils never allow him to redeem. The night before
the expiration of 24-years deal with Lucifer, Faustus is asked by an old person to
repent, the person is like an emissary of God asking Faustus to seek God’s mercy,
but he ignores him and again indulges in his black magic and entertain his guest
scholars by summoning Helen of Troy. And the night comes when he has to be
punished for his wrong doings. Only if he has redeemed, his sins would have been
forgiven and he would have been saved from a tragic end.
13. “The irony of dr. faustus career lies in his tragic dilemma.”
Discuss the statement with reference to doctor faustus.
The irony of Faustus' career lies in his tragic dilemma because while he signed
away his life in blood for unlimited command of the cosmos, he was thereafter
limited by Lucifer's constraints and, instead of gaining all command, Faustus was
given magic tricks and left to dance with Seven Deadly Sins.
LUCIFER. sit down, and thou

shalt see all the Seven Deadly Sins appear in their proper shapes.
[...]
In meantime take this book; peruse it throughly,
And thou shalt turn thyself into what shape thou wilt.
This is the painful irony because he lost what he traded his soul to gain.
Faustus. All things that move between the quiet poles

Shall be at my command:
...
raise the wind, or rend the clouds;
...
Stretcheth as far as doth the mind of man;
A sound magician is a mighty god:
Faustus had mastered all knowledge available to him in economics, divinity,

medicine and all other fields. Yet he found none that would occupy his attention
for the rest of his life. He discarded them all. He chose the lines and circles and
allure of magic aided by the demonic. He planned to have demons answer his beck
and call and to fulfill all his wishes as though they were his servants: "my servile
spirits."

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The greatest irony in Dr. Faustus is his hubris(excessive pride), and his faith in his
own mortal powers to command the service of devils. in the end, he is torn limb
from limb, and his soul is cast into the doom of Hell through his unwise decisions.
Structural Irony is present throughout Faustus as a whole. Marlowe presents this

structural irony through the traditional use of an unreliable or naive narrator: Dr.
Faustus is smart, ambitious and proud of his accomplishments, but refuses to
recognize the faulty reasoning which eventually leads to the loss of his soul. Upon
graduation, he rejects professions in law, medicine, theology and philosophy,
believing that he is destined for something infinitely more satisfying, such as an
omnipotent destiny filled with power and worship by the masses. This structural
irony is supported by different types of irony such as dramatic and situational irony
throughout the play.
An example of situational irony occurs when Faustus summons Mephistopheles, a

demon who is servant to Lucifer. In exchange for twenty four years of power,
honor and earthly riches, Faustus aims to sell his soul to Lucifer. The Good Angel
attempts to dissuade him from such a disastrous course of action, but the Bad
Angel tells him that all his fears are just inconsequential nuisances in his quest for
self-fulfillment. Faustus falsely believes that he will never be called to account for
his deadly decision as he believes that hell is a myth; however, we readers know
that the Good Angel is actually right.
When Faustus asks for a wife after he seals the deal with his own blood, the devils
tell him that the option of holy matrimony is now beyond his reach. Instead, they
send him a succession of prostitutes for his sexual enjoyment. In the meantime,
Beelzebub, Lucifer and Mephistopheles entertain him with absurd and entertaining
manifestations of the seven deadly sins.
Faustus did not reckon on the demonic reality requiring obedience to Lucifer. Yet,
as the quotation in the Question Box shows, Mephistopheles himself was under
command of Lucifer. To his surprise, Faustus found he was, too, under the
command of Lucifer and, scared for the torments that might befall him in life,
Faustus obediently gave up his ideas of grandeur and of knowledge of the cosmos
and yielded to Lucifer and Mephistopheles's ideas of necromancy (magic).
14. Critically Examine Doctor Faustus as a Tragedy of Human Heroism.
Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, the Tragic Hero, is a fascinating must-read chef-

d’oeuvre featuring Dr. Faustus as the protagonist and a knowledgeable who

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decided to sell his soul to the devil to gain knowledge. He enters into an agreement
that lasts for twenty-four years.
He is optimistic about himself. His quest to acquire skills leads him to a horrible
ending when he goes to hell following his malicious killing by the Lucifer. Though
many interpreters of this character view him as a misguided sinner, there is
sufficient evidence that depicts Faustus as a tragic hero as revealed in the paper.
A tragic hero is an individual who evokes people’s pity as well as their terror
because he has both good and bad characteristics. The first instance, which
portrays Dr. Faustus as a tragic hero is that he evokes the listeners and the readers’
pity. It creates some form of connection between the audience and the character.
Before joining Lucifer, he was working as a normal individual doing his studies in
law, medicine, and theology. The mistakes that he does are just the same as those
that any other person can make.
Like any other normal human being, he is optimistic and ambitious in life aspiring
to gain more knowledge. As human beings, people sympathize with the doctor
because he had made the wrong decision in life by choosing Lucifer instead of
God. Therefore, people wish that he finds the truth and accepts to repent his sins
and come back to God. His fate is dreadful and hence the people’s pity for him. At
the end of the play, he is destined to lose his life and taken to hell because of his
decisions that they made.
Even though Faustus has committed many evils, people pity him and want God to
forgive him rather than being so fierce to him. Therefore, the tragic hero character
is manifested at the end of the play where Faustus pleads with God to forgive him
and liberate him from the hand of the devil. He says, “My God, my God, look not
so fierce on me.
The fact that Faustus is a scholar is stated twice, first, in the opening and then at
the end of the play. This clue demonstrates the scholar as a tragic hero for the
readers and the audiences to sympathize with him throughout the play. For
instance, at the beginning of the play, Faustus is a person who is prosperous and
well known.
His reputation is known as a well-respected professional. For instance, he presents

his speech to students and servants in different areas of scholarships. This
demonstrates his level of intellect. For example, he says,” philosophy is odious and
obscure, both law and physics are for petty wits”. Furthermore, in the closing line
of the play, his colleagues lament about their fallen hero and scholar.

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15. Critically Analyse Hamlet as a revenge play.
Shakespeare’s Hamlet is complex and multifaceted play bringing

together many themes. It is evident that in writing Hamlet,
Shakespeare, to some extent, adopted the dramatic conventions of
revenge tragedy. Revenge proved to be popular theme for Elizabethan
dramatists and the audience. Although it was a wild justice, Elizabethan
audience considered vengeance to be a pious duty laid upon the next of
kin. The old law claimed an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth;
vengeance demanded both the eyes, a jaw full of teeth, and above all
the victim should go direct to hell there to live in everlasting torment. A
perfect revenge therefore needed great artistry.
Hamlet is a play that very closely follows the dramatic conventions of

revenge tragedy. All revenge tragedies originally stemmed from the
Greeks, who wrote and performed the first plays. After the Greeks came
Seneca who was particularly influential to all Elizabethan
playwrights including William Shakespeare. The two most famous
English revenge tragedies written in the Elizabethan era were Hamlet,
written by William Shakespeare and The Spanish Tragedy, written by
Thomas Kyd. These two plays used almost all of the conventions for
revenge tragedies in one way or the other. Hamlet especially
incorporated all revenge conventions which truly made Hamlet a typical
revenge play.
During Elizabethan era revenge plays were well acclaimed. Most of them
were a typical revenge tragedy, a melodrama with so many turns and
twists to keep the audience spell-bound. “Hamlet” as well as “The

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Spanish Tragedy” tackled almost all those areas that were essential for
the consummation of a great revenge tragedy.
Shakespeare in Hamlet employs the framework of Senecan Tragedy to
convey the revenge theme. But underneath the outer framework of
Senecan Revenge Tragedy, lie key Shakespearean themes of human
condition, social indoctrination, the morality of the ghost’s injunction,
and the ethics of revenge.
The opening scene sets the tone of the play – a play shrouded in mystery
and horror. The ghost appears to the night guards, a shadowy figure
resembling much in the dress and the armour of the late king. The
appearance of dead king’s ghost has a profound effect upon the night
guards as Marcellus remarks:
“Something is rotten in the state of Denmark”.
Although Horatio will not believe in the ghost until witness of his eyes;
it appearance “harrows him with fear and wonder”.
It is not made to speak rather “stalks away majestically”. The ghost
appears twice in the opening scene but does not vouchsafe a reply to
Horatio’s questions. Hamlet is amazed at the idea of his father’s
apparition:
“My father’s spirit in arms! All is not well/ I doubt some foul
play.”
Hamlet himself is dumbfounded at the sight the ghost. The ghost
makes the shocking revelation of its murder to Hamlet. It further
enjoins on Hamlet the sacred duty of avenging his “foul and the
most un-natural murder”.
The ghost’s injunctions are very clear:

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“Let not the royal bed of Denmark be/A couch for luxury and
damned incest”.
The awful revelation of the ghost forms the soul of the tragedy and
drives the entire action.
Verity points out:
“Without the ghost’s initial revelation of truth to Hamlet, there
would be no occasion for revenge; in other words no tragedy of
Hamlet.”
Hamlet’s mind is assailed with doubt whether or not this apparition is a
demon sent from hell, or if it is truly his father’s spirit which has come
from purgatory, to divulge the horrors of his murder, in the hope of
revenge:
“The spirit that I have seen/ May be the devil and the devil
hath power/To assume a pleasing shape.”
To verify the truth of the ghost’s statement, Hamlet first feigns
madness, and then gets enacted mousetrap play to “catch the
conscience of the king”. During the play Hamlet closely watches
Claudius’ reaction when the actors perform the murder scene. Hamlet's
plan works and his uncle in a fit of discomfort runs out the room, where
Hamlet goes after him. Now, Hamlet knows that Claudius is guilty.
Afterwards Hamlet finds Claudius at prayer, confessing his sins:
“O, my offence is rank it smells to heaven/It hath primal eldest
curse upon it/A brother’s murder.”
He pulls out his sword and gets ready to kill Claudius. But suddenly
Hamlet changes his mind because if he kills his uncle while he is praying
he will go to heaven, and Hamlet wants him to go to hell. So Hamlet
postpones the execution of his uncle at this point in the play.

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The next confrontation between Hamlet and Claudius does not happen
till the end of the book. Claudius hatches a plan according to which
Hamlet and Laertes will have a mock sword fight, but Laertes will be
using a real poisoned sword. Laertes stabs him with the poisoned sword
then Hamlet takes hold of the poisoned sword, and stabs Laertes with
it. Meanwhile Queen Gertrude dies from the poisoned drink intended for
Hamlet. As Laertes lays down dying he reveals to Hamlet that his uncle
King Claudius was behind it all. Hamlet then in a fit of rage runs his
uncle through with the poisoned sword. Hamlet has now finally revenged
his father but too late and at the cost of so many lives.
Hamlet fulfills all the conventions of typical revenge tragedy: there is

murder, adultery, insanity, incestuous marriage and faithfulness.
Besides these, there is a melodramatic element also – violence and
bloodshed, terrible and blood-chilling scenes – which is in line with the
revenge tragedy conventions.
Hamlet is not a simple revenge tragedy. Shakespeare has woven

complex threads of the contrasting characters. Shakespeare has
introduced characters like Laertes and Fortinbras that are obviously
foils to Hamlet. Fortinbras, the son of the slain king of Norway, is all hot
for action. He finds “quarrel in a straw” and intends to risk his life
even for an “egg-shell”. He travels many miles to take his revenge and
ultimately succeeds in conquering Denmark. When Hamlet murders
Polonius, another revenge is ready to begin. Laertes is a typical revenger
who is capable of direct and headstrong revenge even at the cost of
damnation.

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“To hell, allegiance! Vows to the blackest devil.” , he declares.

If Hamlet feels “Thus conscience doth make cowards of us all”,
Laertes consigns conscience to the devil, and will “cut his throat in
the church”. Hamlet, on the other hand, has to convert the external
action of revenge into one that is internal, free and truly moral.
Summing up, to say Hamlet merely a revenge tragedy would be to do a
great injustice. It would ignore play’s artistic superiority over other plays
of this genre. It is only befitting that its hero falls to the beautiful
heavenly benediction of Horatio:
“And flights of angels sing thee to thy rest.”
16. Bring out the enormous significance of the soliloquies in

Hamlet.
Shakespeare gives soliloquies to complex character in order to bring out the secret
feelings and plans which the character cannot share with other characters. In his
work, Hamlet, Shakespeare’s title character speaks in seven soliloquies. Each
soliloquy progresses the plot, exposes Hamlet's inner thoughts to the audience and
helps to create an atmosphere in the play. When Hamlet speaks in these soliloquies
he is always true to the self; never pretending to be mad or taking on an insincere
way of talking as he does at times in dialogue with others. These soliloquies,
therefore, add much to the overall content of the play Hamlet and allows
Shakespeare's audience a much better understanding of the plot. Hamlet
soliloquizes often thereby revealing his doubts, dilemmas, fears, anger and
musings on questions of morality. Hamlet is not the acting type so the reflective or
contemplative side of his personality is best brought out through his soliloquies.
His 'to be or not to be is the question' is one of the most remarkable soliloquies that
serves to highlight the state of indecision in which he finds himself.
Soliloquy is a dramatic technique of speaking alone on the stage. It is a dramatic

convention of exposing to the audience - the intentions, thoughts and feelings of a
character who speaks to himself while no one remains on the stage. Here in the tragic
play “Hamlet” the soliloquies spoken by the protagonist are directed to the audience,

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rather than seeming like conversations with himself. Some of the famous Hamlet’s
soliloquies have been elucidated below.
Hamlet’s first soliloquy reveals him to be thoroughly disgusted with Gertrude,

Claudius and at the world in general. He considers the world to be an unweeded
garden with no significance of life and in a grievous tone says:
“O God! God!
How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable,
Seem to me all the uses of this world!”
He is saddened at the death of his father, whom he admired as a king and husband
to his mother. His grief over his father’s death is compounded by his mother’s hasty
marriage to Claudius. Hamlet believes that even a beast that has no power of
reasoning, would mourn longer but she had not. The worst part is that he cannot tell
them how he feels. This soliloquy kindles an interest in the readers and provides a
glimpse on Hamlet’s thoughts while informing the audience of the history of his
family’s tribulations.
In the second soliloquy, Hamlet calls on the audience ‘the distracted globe’ to hear
his vow to take revenge on his uncle. Now he promises to erase all the foolish lessons
in order to remember the commandment of the ghost. The ghost that resembles his
father has told him that King Claudius has murdered his father and his soul cannot
rest until the revenge is taken. The audience here learns Hamlet’s promise to make
Clausius pay for this unnatural crime. Already the audience is excited at Hamlet’s
promise because it is giving them something to look forward.
In his third soliloquy, Hamlet admits to the audience that he is a coward. So for his
inaction like a day dreamer, he is chiding himself in this way:
“O, vengeance!
Why, what an ass am I!
Then he is telling the audience about his new idea of justifying the credibility of the
news provided by the ghost. This results in delay to reach his goal. Although heaven
and hell urge him to take revenge, he must examine the truth through the play with
the poison pouring scene. If his uncle reacts to the scene, he will be confirmed of his
uncle’s involvement in the murder. Now the audience have even more of a build up
of what is to come.

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In the fourth soliloquy, the Prince of Denmark is in a dilemma whether to commit

suicide or to accept the pangs of the world stoically or to fight back against them.
“To be or no to be – that is the question;”
Then he is frightened of the consequences of the life after death and its punishment.
He puts a logic that if there were no punishment of God for suicide, nobody would
tolerate injustice, the insults of the world, the arrogance of the undeserving superiors,
the sufferings of the unrequited love, the delay of law, adversities and the cruelty of
a tyrant. It is such fear that robs of courage to commit suicide and transforms us into
a coward. Here the audience observes that Hamlet is incapable of taking revenge, as
he is always contemplative.
What seems to have been Shakespeare's intention in writing all these long
soliloquies for his hero was to characterize him as a man who thinks too much. We
in the audience are to understand that we are eavesdropping on only a small
portion of all his reflections, meditations, cogitations, speculations, recollections,
and other mental processes. The soliloquies characterize him as a man who is by
nature a deep thinker and who has become addicted to thinking as a result of his
long years of study. This characterization is of special importance because it
explains why Hamlet does not act decisively.
17. Analyse the use and significance of rhetorical devices in hamlet.
Language plays a major role in the definition of a character's trait in conditioning

our response to him.We must appreciate that great popularity that Shakespeare and
his characters have enjoyed over the last four centuries owes itself in a manner way
to the language of his plays. what the characters say is important, because they
linger in our minds for what they say as much as for what they do or feel or suffer.
But the way they say what they say is of paramount importance. The manner and
method of a speaker affects the response of the audience to what they hear.
Theatre-goers respond not merely to the meaning of words, but also how the
words are conveyed to them. Shakespeare's choice of metre, rhythm, imagery and
of course , diction, determines how we respond to what the characters say, and to
the characters themselves. Ultimately this affects- enriches-- the total experience of
interacting with a play on stage or on page. The meaning of the word is important
but attention should be paid to what goes into making the meaning of words
effective communication and manipulation of audience response.

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An interesting aspect of Shakespeare's use of language is thefact that certain

linguistic features are meant to be appreciated as rhetorical devices for their own
sake and not merely as starting points for generalisations for the larger context of
the text.
Literary Devices in Hamlet
Irony: Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows something that the
characters do not. In Hamlet, one of the major examples of dramatic irony is the
fact that Hamlet, the Ghost, and the audience all know the truth about his father’s
death, but the other characters do not. Shakespeare uses dramatic irony numerous
times throughout the play in order to underscore motifs of mischief, deception, and
distrust.
Metaphor: Hamlet is rife with metaphors, the most persistent and notable of which
are those about the natural world. Hamlet compares the world to “an unweeded
garden” to describe its current problems. Laertes describes Ophelia as a “rose of
May” and tells Ophelia to think of Hamlet’s love for her as “A violet in the youth
of primy nature”, suggesting that it will be short-lived. By comparing the
characters and the state of the world to various parts of nature, Shakespeare gives
the audience a deeper understanding of the characters’ beliefs, perspectives, and
values.
Symbols: Symbols in Hamlet are used to display the characters’ inner motivations
and turmoil. Since one of the main themes in Hamlet highlights the difficulty in
understanding the inner thoughts and feelings of others, symbols help give the
audience deeper insight. For example, clothing emphasizes the difference between
inward and outward appearances, gardens and flowers often symbolize temptation
and lust, and the ghost symbolizes haunting memories and emotions.
18. Claudius rather than Hamlet is the Protagonist of the play. Do you agree?
The answer to whether Claudius or Hamlet is the protagonist of Hamlet resides in

the definition of tragic hero, assuming, of course, that when referring to a
Shakespearean tragedy "protagonist" is equated with "tragic hero." Though it may
be said that Claudius has a flaw in personal moral character, Claudius's actions
remove him from consideration under the Aristotelian definition of tragic hero.
Claudius's actions are horrible instead of tragic.

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The Aristotelian definition of a tragic hero requires that the tragic hero commit a
tragic mistake that arises from a tragic error in judgment or from a tragic character
flaw. The horrible events that the tragic hero precipitates are not out of intended
deliberate manipulative plotting but out of error or flawed character. What about
Macbeth? He is represented as being loyal to Duncan and tending toward
graciously accepting his reward, though less than expected. He is swayed from his
inclinations of loyalty by ambition, by the supernatural powers that come to thwart
him, and by the overbearing influence of his intentionally and deliberately cruel
wife. The difference between a tragic hero and a wicked character is intention and
deliberation.
Shakespeare doesn't seem to deviate significantly on this point of definition except

in his preference for tragic character flaw over tragic error in judgment.
Shakespeare's tragic heroes were all men who were superior humans who were
fallible to the point of tragedy. Claudius's character traits depart from this
definition in that his fallability displays itself as deliberate choice rather than
mistakes stemming from error or unperceived character flaws. In this, Claudius is
more akin to Lady Macbeth than to, for example, Othello. In other words,
Claudius's actions are derived from intention and deliberation; they are not
mistakes that take him by surprise with their consequences.
Therefore, even though Claudius's character is flawed--by villainous levels of

ambition and greed--and even though Claudius tries to pray for repentance and
even though Claudius's affection for Gertrude may give a glimmer of redemptive
power, his actions--which are manipulated and derived from intention and
deliberation with nothing mistaken or accidental about them and which he himself
calls murder--are horrible, not tragic. Thus Hamlet is the protagonist/tragic hero of
Hamlet. His mistakes and tragic end can be traced to errors in judgment and to one
or more tragic flaws in his nature.
19. Discuss the nature of four temptations that Beckett confronts in Murder in
the Cathedral.
The four temptations faced by Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, are
variations on the three temptations Jesus faced when Satan tempted him in the
desert, plus a fourth. As the play opens, Becket knows he has to follow his
conscience in facing down the demands of Henry II and knows he will probably be
killed for opposing the king.

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It would be easy and completely ordinary for Becket to rationalize himself out of
the situation. The first tempter offers Becket a variation of "turn these stones into
bread." Becket has the power simply to retreat into a materially secure situation
and take care of himself and his own needs.
In Part I, a man, the First Tempter, enters. He identifies himself as Old Tom, one of
Becket's former friends, and speaks nostalgically about "the good times" of the
past. Mistaking Becket's return as a sign that the Archbishop and King have
resolved their argument, he expresses his anticipation for the "gaiety" to come.
Thomas quickly disabuses him of the notion, insisting he is no longer a carefree
young man. The First Tempter then warns him that such "proud" sternness will
cost him greatly and reminds him that "the easy man lives to eat the best dinners".
In effect, he is tempting Thomas to drop his sternness and responsibilities so as to
enjoy an easier, more luxurious life. Thomas remains firm in his refusal of the
temptation and the man leaves. Thomas considers aloud how the man's offer was
tempting even though it would have been impossible to accept.
The second tempter offers a variation on Satan's offer to give Jesus all the
kingdoms of the world if he will bow down and worship him. In this case, Becket
is tempted to work with the king, rationalizing it as the best way to create a stable
state that will help the poor and bring justice to the land. He is tempted to try to use
the power of the "devil," in this case Henry II, to do good.
He enters and identifies himself as someone Thomas met years before when the
latter was still Chancellor. He tempts Thomas by suggesting Thomas "guide the
state again," thereby reclaiming his former power and glory. When Thomas points
out that he is a man of God, the Second Tempter reminds him that the Chancellor
is actually more immediately powerful than the King (since he carries out the
laws), and Thomas could therefore do good works like "protect the poor" with
more expediency than he does as Archbishop. Thomas is angered by the man's
insistence that he can have more power. Thomas argues that he would lose virtue
as Chancellor because of compromises he would have to make with corrupt barons
and bishops. He then insists his power is greater as Archbishop, since from that
vantage he is placed "to condemn kings, not serve among their servants." Bested,
the Second Tempter leaves and Thomas reminds himself that worldly power is
inherently limited.
The third tempter offers a variation on Satan's challenge that Jesus fling himself
out of a tower to prove he is God's chosen one—God's angels, Satan says, will not

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allow him to hit the ground below. In Becket's case, he's tempted to join with
others to overthrow the king, a risky venture.
He arrives and claims he is "unexpected," a claim Thomas denies . The temper

identifies himself as "a country-keeping lord" and "rough straightforward
Englishman," more interested in his business than in politics. He tells Thomas that
there is no chance of reconciliation with Henry, but that he and other barons will
help him overthrow the King. Believing that Becket's connection to Rome will give
them legitimacy, he wants to create a coalition with Thomas at its head. However,
Thomas easily rejects him, remembering how such "wolves" used to sit at his door
constantly when he was Chancellor. The man leaves and Thomas tells himself, "if I
break, I must break myself alone" .
The fourth temptation is the hardest because it tempts Becket most strongly: to
invite martyrdom for the wrong reasons. Becket has to wrestle with whether he is
acting out of his own personal desire for glory, his wish to become a famous saint
in the church, or because opposing
He arrives and is genuinely unexpected by Thomas. He is deliberately mysterious

about his identity, saying, "I always precede expectation," and "I do not need a
name… You know me, but have never seen my face". When Thomas asks him to
speak, the tempter briefly agrees with Thomas's replies to the previous tempters
and then suggests that Thomas should die for his beliefs. By becoming a martyr,
the Fourth Tempter suggests, Thomas will "bind/King and bishop under [his]
heel." The tempter's argument is that the world of "temporal power" is transient
and unfixed, whereas the prestige of martyrdom is eternal and all-powerful.
Thomas admits he has considered this path before, and the tempter reveals that he
knows the Archbishop's deepest fears: Thomas is afraid he will not only be hated
until his death, but also become irrelevant in the face of history. The tempter
reminds Thomas that martyrdom will make his enemies irrelevant in the face of
history, and Thomas rebukes him as offering nothing but "dreams to damnation".
Thomas begins to despair at being faced with his deepest, most shameful fantasies.
The tempter throws his philosophy about "acting" and "suffering" back into his
face, repeating the speech almost verbatim.
As Thomas is silent in his pain, the Chorus considers how there is "no rest" to be
had in this situation. They feel affected by the uncertainty. The Four Tempters then
address the audience in verse, suggesting that "all things are unreal," and that
Thomas is doomed, "lost in the wonder of [his] own greatness." The priests address
Thomas directly, begging him not to fight against "the intractable/tide"

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20. Comment on the use of device Chorus in Murder in the Cathedral.
Chorus in the play Murder in the Cathedral by T.S Eliot is a group of Canterbury
women (Though, no definite number of women is mentioned). Dramatically very
significant in the play, the chorus is the action teller, delivering odes in the play
that basically tell the story of Thomas Beckett, the Archbishop of Canterbury.
Chorus/Canterbury women tell us about Beckett’s life, decisions and death. They
are extremely worried for Beckett. They are merely helpless eyewitnesses. In the
beginning, they tell us that they wait for Beckett who has been away for seven
years from Canterbury and pray for his wellbeing. Their choral songs foreshadow
the upcoming violence and tragedy. Then the voices change to telling the past
action so that the audience fully relates to the events happening in the present.
They fear the murder of their spiritual leader and in the end mourn Beckett’s death.
Thus, all of the action, in simple terms, is successfully portrayed through the
chorus. The chorus not only plays the character of ordinary people of Canterbury,
but also act as a connecting link between the audience and play.
We also see chorus changing and developing during the course of the play. The
style is much similar as the chorus in a Greek tragedy.
Their songs make us understand the misery and hardships of the life of ordinary
people of Canterbury. They are poor, powerless. The foreseen loss of their spiritual
leader worsens their condition. The chorus helps the audience relate and fear the
foreseen troubles along with them. And in a way, they become the audience
themselves.
Chorus is a very powerful dramatic device here as the thoughts of Chorus help the
audience understand the true meaning and message of the play. The chorus also
sheds a light to the significance and value of Beckett’s martyrdom. In fact the
true interpretation of the play can’t be done without taking into account the chorus.
21. Analyse the structure of The Alchemist.
Ben Jonson prided himself on his skills of design as a dramatist, and certainly the
design of his play The Alchemist reveals the kind of complex unity of which he
was justly proud. Samuel Taylor Coleridge would later commend the play for
having one of the three best plots in literature (Oedipus Rex and Tom Jones having
the other two), and the skill with which Jonson manages the intricate complications

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of the play’s structure is definitely impressive. Among the most notable features
of the play’s design are the following:
• The way it begins so abruptly, by plunging us immediately in medias res

(“into the midst of things”), thus demonstrating that the plot of a literary
work is something quite different than the mere chronological order of
incidents on which the plot is based. The plot of a play is the artistic design
the playwright imposes on those incidents. The opening lines of the play are
as startling on the page as they are on the stage:
FACE. Believe 't, I will.
SUB. Thy worst. I fart at thee.
DOL. Have you your wits? why, gentlemen! for love --
FACE. Sirrah, I'll strip you --
SUB. What to do? lick figs

Out at my –
• The “centripetal” nature of the play’s design, in which all the dupes are
pulled into the house, as into a kind of vortex, where Face, Subtle, and Doll
have set up their deceptive enterprise.
• The ways the different kinds of dupes represent different kinds and social
levels of foolishness and greed, so that Jonson suggests an entire society
pervaded by selfish motives (including such representative types as a knight,
a druggist, a lawyer’s clerk, two Puritans, an aggressive young man whose
wealth is rather recent, that youth’s attractive sister, and a perceptive if
cynical gambler). Jonson, in other words, introduces great social diversity
into the play; many representatives of many different social groups visit the
house.
• The play’s adherence to the three classical “unities” (of time, place, action),
although its unity of action has sometimes been disputed because some
critics have seen it as being two diffuse in its presentation of varying
incidents. Most audiences, however (including Coleridge) have been highly
impressed by the ways Jonson manages to tie all the threads of the plot
together.
• The ways the characters are highly individualized (who can ever forget Sir
Epicure Mammon?) while also representing clear social types.

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• The methods by which Jonson complicates the plot in ways that at first seem
threaten to unravel it, even as he manages to keep everything under precise
control by giving his schemers opportunities to improvise. Thus, Dapper is
being duped when Mammon unexpectedly arrives, so Dapper has to be
quickly gotten out of the way (by being shoved into a water closet). Similar
antics appear at the end of the play when the absent master of the house,
Lovewit, unexpectedly appears.
• All in all Jonson manages to produce a play that seems both highly,
comically chaotic and supremely ordered and well designed.
22. Do you think The Alchemist points a lowering of the standard of

judgement? Give reason./ Evaluate the alchemist as a moral comedy.
In the prologue to the Alchemist, Jonson voices how the contemporary time was
dominated by manners what is now commonly regarded as Humours. Thee is a
mention of the whore,, the bawd, the pimp, and the imposter as persons that
represent some of the humours. It is the humours that supposedly determined the
disposition of a man, viz—choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic or sanguine. To what
was humours to Jonson is now man’s obsession or complex.
Alchemist makes an elaborate survey of man’s gullibility, the humour thereby
represents is the master passion of greed that manipulates each of the dupes in the
play. Pointed out in the prologue Jonson represents such humours to comic effect
to make people realize the absurdity of their situation in face of foibles and follies.
It's basically a farce with a very dark underbelly. A conceit is set up: two conmen
con stupid person after stupid person and get money from them. Each gull sees a
different set of disguises from the two conmen: a lot of costume changes, a lot of
props changes, and a lot of running aroudn ensue!
Yet then Jonson gradually complicates matters by having the gulls come in
unexpectedly. The conmen gradually lose their control over the plot, and the
strings become harder and harder to hold on to: and their methods of keeping the
con running get ever more complicated (so, when Surly tricks them into thinking
that he is a Spanish Grandee, they have to hide him in a room in the house and
arrange to marry him off to Dame Pliant in order to get his money and get him out
of the way!).
Although there are certain elements of a morality tale in this play, overwhelmingly
there are far more elements that make this play a comedy - the theme of "gulling"
or deceiving was very popular in Johnson's times and the audience is able to enjoy

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the "fleecing" of the central characters of a number of stock characters, that are
deliberately undeveloped and rather shallow. These characters have also been
carefully chosen to represent a cross-section of London society, so all can enjoy
and laugh at the way they are tricked. Besides the coincidences and slapstick
comedy that ensues, the real humour lies not just in the skill of the "fleecers"
(Face, Subtle and Dol Common), but in the characters who are fleeced themselves.
For it is ultimately they who allow themselves to be deceived by their greed. They
project all of their desires onto the central characters and are therefore easily
gulled. The one room as well which is where the action of the play occurs, changes
for each "customer". Of course, there is the obvious comparison between the
willingness of the audience to be gulled in exactly the same way, as we believe
what is set before us, no matter how unbelievable or ridiculous, expecting the
"alchemy" of the theatre to transform it into reality. The last laugh, therefore, is
actually on us.
In one scene in Act 4, most of the gulls appear at the same time, and the conmen
have to really struggle to hold things together. And it is JUST at the point where
they think they have managed it that Lovewit comes back from his holidays, and
they have to rapidly evacuate the house - forgetting about Dapper, whom they have
locked in the toilet, in the process!
23. The Alchemist is a satiric comment on the real social conditions of its time.
Comment.
Jonson's satire of human materialism was set in then contemporary London. There
are therefore a great many characters and themes which the original audience
would have recognised Audiences would have been entirely familiar with:
1. The Plague. Attempts at control of this periodic epidemic meant that theatres in
London were frequently closed during periods of high infection, and the play's first
performance is recorded as taking place in Oxford in September 1610, when the
London theatres had been closed since July. Everyone would have recognised the
setting of The Alchemist: a city hit by plague restrictions regarding crowds and
public gatherings, and from which everyone who could afford to move away did.
That left the poor, and those whose businesses would have been robbed had they
left them. Lovewit is a gentleman who has gone to the country, but his servants
decide to remain in Town, risking infection in order to capitalise.
2. Social Mobility. This new Jacobean age had become very aware of the
possibility of making money, and the social implication of successful trade and

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enterprise enabling the crossing of social divides which not long before had been
regarded as insurmountable.The 'gulls' - the dupes who believe that they can get
rich quick by magic - are also risking their lives, and are portrayed across the
social spectrum: from the Knight to the failing tobacconist. Nobody is immune to
greed and acquisition, but the Spaniard (impersonated by Surly) was a popular
post-Reformation hate-figure, as were Puritans (represented here by the
Anabaptists, an extreme Protestant sect who practised a sort of proto-communism)
and who were notoriously anti-theatre. Within the context of the satire, the literal
'making' of money is the pivotal point, hence
3. Alchemy. With its ancient roots in Hellenistic Egypt, historically alchemy was
the scientific/philosophical search for a Universal Panacea (to eradicate disease),
Elixir of Life, (to discover the secret of immortality) and the fabled 'Philosopher's
Stone', which was supposed to have the power to turn base metals into gold. It is
this last that concerns the 'alchemists' of Jonson's play. Alchemy was perceived
ambivalently by the early 17th Century - variously as devilry, as merely crackpot,
and a belief among some that there might be something in it. All attitudes are
represented in the play. (Think of the way we regard astrology now, still...)
Certainly, the Elizabethan age had seen a significant rise in con-artists, and these
would have been highly familiar to the sophisticated London audience in 1610.
However, alchemy had begun to merge with actual early chemical research with
the emergence of actual experimental scientists such as the philospher-chemist
Paracelsus who pioneered the use of minerals in medicine. A bit like a similar
merging of 'astrology' and 'astronomy' in the same age, the boundaries between
science and magic were inevitably blurred. It is therefore entirely plausible that the
'gulls' are taken in by a (formula?) of science and magic, and Subtle can play on his
victims' particular prejudices, so that a delicate scientific process or an arcane
magic spell could be wrecked by being observed. Thus for his gulls, the main
business takes place in another room (giving scope for quackery) just as for the
audience (placed in the same position) it takes place off-stage.
24. Examine playboy of the Western world as an ‘extravagant comedy’.
Playboy of the Western World by Synge can be termed as a tragi-comedy. A

tragic-comedy is a play which claims a plot apt for tragedy but which ends
happily like a comedy. The action seems to end in a tragic catastrophe until
an unexpected turn in events brings out the happy ending. In such a play
tragic and comic elements are mixed up together. The play Playboy of the
Western World ends in comedy though it might have well ended as a tragedy.

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In one mood we may suggest that Playboy of the Western World is sheer
extravagant comedy, with elements of strong farce in the resurrection of
Christy’s father, and in the deflation of a boastful man. As such, it embodies
the classic elements of reversal and recognition. And yet it is a comedy which
ends unhappily for Pegeen who is unable to marry Christy, the Playboy.
Another way of looking at this play is to regard it as a satirical comedy. It is a
satire on the proverbial willingness of the West to give shelter to the criminal
and murderer. In that case Christy, the Playboy, becomes a comic Oedipus,
the man who killed his father.
A tragedy
But again we may see the play, if we wish, as a tragedy, with Pegeen as the
heroine-victim. Pegeen found her man, made him, won him in the teeth of
opposition from her own sex, and then lost him. Pegeen’s loss at the end is
absolute and beyond comfort, because she has lost his body too; while the
complacent Shawn sees the obstacle to his marriage with her removed.
A distorted tragedy
According to the critic, The Playboy has a very special place in the history of
tragedy. This critic regards it as a deliberately distorted tragedy, all the joints
wrenched out of place by a comic vision that Synge imposed upon it. This play
contains in itself a number of the formal qualities of traditional tragedy. The
hero possesses, or acquires through the story of his murder of his father, a
Promethean virtue in his destruction of the “jealous old tyrant”, a tyrant who
was about to force him into a hateful marriage. It is, however, a distorted
tragedy because at the end we find ourselves face to face with the comic
resurrection of the slain tyrant-father, and the dissolution of the heroism
which had been built up by Christy’s imagination and the imagination of his
listeners. The hero vanishes, the son is reconciled to his father, our interest,
in so far as it is tragic, is transferred to Pegeen whose final speech is a lament
reminding us of the lament of Dido, the Queen of Carthage, over the departure
from her kingdom of her lover, Aeneas.
Serious Elements in the Play: The Two Murders
Now, if we were to choose a label for this play, we would unhesitatingly

describe it as a comedy, though we would at the same time admit that there
are some tragic elements in it. The Playboy contains an abundance of fun, and
at places makes us laugh heartily. The tragic elements in this play do not
produce any lasting impression on our minds, and though Pegeen’s lament at

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the end at having lost her over is quite moving, it does not alter the character
of the play as a comedy.
Christy’s Grievances against his Father
Christy’s complaints against his father in the course of his conversation with
Pegeen in ActI have also a certain degree of seriousness about them. Christy
describes his life in his native village as having been one of drudgery with few
recreations. He tells Pegeen that his father was drinking and cursing all the
time, and ill-treating him under the influence of a hard-hearted woman.
Christy’s account of his past life and of his father’s callous treatment of him
certainly gives rise to the kind of pity which we associated with a tragedy.
Old Mahon’s Grievances against His Son
Subsequently it is the father’s turn to complain against his son’s misbehavior.

Talking to Widow Quin (in ActII), Old Mahon says that his son had driven him
out in his old age when he had nobody to aid him. He tells Widow Qui that his
son was an ugly young “streeler” with a murderous mouth, “a lier on walls”,
a “talker of folly,” an idler who did not do any useful work at all, an ugly
background. Even if half of what Old Mahon alleges against his son be true,
we have every reason to sympathise with him. We are inclined to sympathise
with the old man even more towards the end when he has to accept defeat at
the hands of his son and when Christy tells him that he will be the leader from
now on, the master of all flights, and that the old man will have to cook his
oatmeals and wash his potatoes.
Widow Quins Futile efforts to Save Christy from the Crowd
Then there is something pathetic about Widow Quin’s efforts to save Christy.
The whole crowd has turned hostile to Christy, and he finds himself helpless.
Widow Quin alone stands by his side and tries to take him away beyond the
reach of the crowd, but Christy refuses to go away because he does not want
to leave Pegeen. Widow Quin tries even to disguise his as a woman in order
to make it easy for him to slip away, but he is determined to stay on in the
hope that Pegeen will marry him. This attempted disguise also has its comic
side.
The Persecution of Christy
The persecution of Christy by the crowd is also a melancholy episode in the

play. Without going into the merits of what Christy has done or not done, the
manner in which the crowd, and especially Pegeen, treats him does arouse a

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feeling of sympathy in us. Pegeen declares that the world will see this man
beaten like a schoolboy, and she refers to him as an ugly liar who was trying
to play off as the hero. She goes to the extent of scorching his leg. Michael
and others have bound Christy with a rope, and he lies struggling vainly on
the floor. All this has a touch of tragedy. But even this situation has been
enlivened by various comic touches.
Pegeen’s Lament at the end
But it is the final speech of Pegeen which lends to this play a certain distinctly
tragic quality. After Christy has left, all Pegeen’s dreams vanish. She has told
him earlier in this Act that she and he would make an excellent pair of “gallant
lovers,” and she had said that she would be burning candles to celebrate the
divine miracle which had brought him to her. She has also told her father that
she was now determined to marry Christy, and she had obtained his consent.
But all Pegeen’s hopes have come to nothing, and she finds herself deserted
by her lover, though the fault is entirely her own. After having finished reading
the play, out thoughts do remain with Pegeen for some time, and we share
the grief to which she gives expression in her final speech.
Funny Situations
Some of the situations in the play are uproariously funny. For instance, Shawn
slipping away from Michael’s hold and leaving his coat in Michael’s hands
cannot fail to make the audience in a theatre roar with laughter. Other funny
situations are Pegeen and Widow Quin each pulling Christy’s boots; Christ’s
holding a mirror behind his back; Christy hiding himself behind the dooe when
he sees his father alive and coming towards the shebeen; Philly searching for
some more liquor when he is already semi-drunk; and above all, Christy’s
biting Shawn on the leg and Shawn’s screaming with pain.
Humor of character
Most of the characters in the play make us laugh because of their absurdities
or weakness. Drunkenness is most often amusing and we here have four
heavy drunkards-Michael James, Philly, Jimmy, and Old Mahon. Michael and
his friends make it a point to go to a wake in order to drink the free liquor that
is served there. Old Mahon once drank himself almost to a state of paralysis
when he was in the company of Limerick girls. Cowardice is another comic
trait. Shawn Keogh of Killakeen amuses us not only by his refusal to fight
Christy but by refusing even to feel jealous of “a man did slay his da.”

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Humor of Dialogue
The dialogue in the play too is a source of rich comedy. Leaving aside a few
speeches which may momentarily depress us or put us in a serious mood, the
rest of the dialogue amuses us greatly. The verbal duel between Pegeen and
Widow Quin is one of the comic highlights of the play. Widow Quin slanders
Pegeen by saying that the latter goes “helter-skeltering” after any man who
winks at her on a road, and Pegeen accuses the widow of having reared a ram
at her own breast. Then there are the satirical remarks Pegeen makes to
Shawn. She tells him that he is the kind of lover who would remind a grit of a
bullock’s liver rather than of the lily or the rose. And then she ironically
advises him to find for himself a wealthy wife who looks radiant with “the
diamond jewelleries of Pharaoh’s ma.”
A Boisterous Rollicking Comedy on the Whole
In spite of all this, The Playboy is a comedy, and a boisterous, rollicking

comedy at that. A play which amuses us at every steps and makes us laugh
again and again cannot be called a tragedy just because it ends in the
frustration of the hopes of the heroine. The heroine’s frustration at the end is
almost neutralized by Christy’s departing speech in which he thanks the
people of Mayo for having transformed him into a hero.
25. Discuss christy role as a master story teller in The Playboy of the Western
World.
When we first meet Christy it is by way of report. He is presented as a tramp, “a kind of fellow
above in the furzy ditch groaning wicked like a maddening dog”, or a “queer fellow above, going
mad — “. When we first see him he is, according to the stage direction, a ‘slight young man –
very fired and frightened and dirty’. The first impression we get is one of timidity and fear: in
short he is a coward but not totally lacking in spirit. His retort to Michael’s accusation that maybe
he is wanted for “robbing and stealing” is given with a flash of family pride: ”And I the son of a
strong farmer”. He relaxes as the others convince him that he is in a house safe from the ‘polis’,
and begins to respond to their interest in the curiosity about his origins. Was he the victim of
bailiffs, agents, landlords; did he indulge in alchemy, marry three wives, fight “wars for
Kruger”? Pegeen’s impatient “you did nothing at all” provokes the required confession: “I killed
my poor father, Tuesday was a week”.
The “lie” Begins
He is now definitely to be feared and respected, simply by what he has said. The hero in Christy
is about to emerge; he is ‘a lad with the sense of Solomon’: “the peelers is fearing him”, he ‘should
be great terror when his temper’s roused’, brave enough to “face a foxy divil — on the flags of
hell”, and to stand up to “the loosed khaki cut-throats, or the walkin dead”.

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The “lie” Takes Effect
Christy can hardly believe his ears: “Well glory be to God!” is all he can exclaim at the character
the others are building for him. When he is left alone with Pegeen who describes him as a “fine,
handsome young fellow with a noble brow” his amazed reply is: “Is it me?”. She further likens
him to Owen Roe O’Sullivan (Eoin Ruadh O’Suilleabhain) the greatest of the Kerry poets, ‘a fine
fiery fellow with great rages’ and passions.
Synge’s Sympathy For The” Lie”
The local response to Christy’s appearance on the scene highlight for us the drabness of such rural
living, where the imagination has been starved, and there is longing for some excitement. Behind
the obvious comedy in this scene we see a certain pathos: Synge was most definitely not out of
sympathy with such peasant people (After all he had forsaken his own kind for their company).
Christy Given Romantic Image
Pegeen’s mention of Eoin Ruadh O’Suilleabhain reveals much about her character: he was a rather
rakish fellow, a womaniser and an eloquent poet. She wants excitement and is prepared to defy
the ‘priesteen’ and the powers of Rome to get it. Maybe Christy is a re-incarnation of the poet –
that is what she wants to believe. Self-deception it is but understandable in the circumstances. She
and the others want a hero and Christy wants to be that hero.
So Christy has now progressed from tramp and coward to poetic hero, which brings us to the end
of Act 1. By this stage it is obvious that Synge has created a mock-hero, a parody of the hero of
Celtic epic literature.
Christy Settles in To His New Image
At the start of Act II Christy feels quite at home and would be prepared to remain here ‘his whole
life talking out with swearing Christians – never a day’s work’. The emphasis is on talking rather
than working. He is aware now that his talent is verbal with a licence to lie or, at best, to bend and
decorate the truth.
Heroes Must Prove Themselves
His status as hero is confirmed at this point by the arrival of the local girls bearing gifts, and by
the Widow Quin’s announcement that she has entered him ‘in the sports below for racing, leaping,
pitching’. All heroes must be put to the test: it is a feature of the epic poem that the hero must
prove his prowess and strength in epic combat. For Christy this is to be done in the more humble
local sports.
Comedy In Parody
The girls get their reward for bringing presents when Christy once again tells the story of his
homicide (‘da-slaying’). His new found confidence is reflected in the telling. Now we have mime

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to enhance the comic absurdity. There is even comedy in the “weapons” used; a chicken bone and
mug replace the mighty weapons of the traditional hero.
Temporary Set Back For Christy
This comic episode ends with the return of Pegeen who bristles at the sight of other women,
especially Widow Quin, making free and easy with her man. They are dismissed imperiously and
Christy receives a verbal punishing for his vanity. “You’ll be shut of no jeopardy no place if you
go talking with a pack wild girls”. This provokes a great outburst of self-pity from Christy which
softens the heart of Pegeen, making her realise how lucky she is to have found a lad with “a mighty
spirit in him and a gamy heart”.
Power Of The “Lie” Again
Once again she is under the spell of Christy’s poetry, its rhythms and imagery: “it’s a lonesome
thing to be passing small towns with the lights shining sideways, when the night is down”, “ drawn
to the cities where you’s hear a voice kissing and talking deep love in every shadow of the ditch”,
“but I was lonesome all times, and born lonesome, I’m thinking as the moon of dawn”, “the way
I’ll not be waking near you another dawn of the year till the two of us do arise to hope or judgement
with the saints of God”.
Comedy Of Christy’s Victory’ Over Shawn
Christy is now given and opportunity to act the hero. Shawn Keogh, that representative of
‘respectability and conformity’, has to be confronted and humiliated. Our new hero enjoys
inflicting this humiliation on Shawn Keogh: he himself had often suffered similarly at the hands
of his own father. At the height of his heroic success Christy is suddenly brought back to earth
with a bump when he sees “the walking spirit of my murdered da”, “that ghost of hell”.
Another Side To Christy By His Father
Ironically Christy in hiding has to suffer the humiliation of hearing his father sarcastically describe
the real Christy:
“An ugly young streeler with a murderous gob”
“a dirty stuttering lout”
“a lier on walls, a talker of folly, a man you’d see stretched the half of the day in the brown ferns
with his belly to the sun”.
“he’d be fooling over little birds – or making mugs at his own self in the bit of glass – – -“.
“if he seen a red petticoat coming swinging over the hill, he’d be off to hide in the sticks… “
“a poor fellow that would get drunk on the smell of a pint”

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“the laughing joke of every female woman”
“the loony of Mahon’s”
This is not exactly the character reference that Christy would give and had given to himself! An
interesting point to note, however, is that the father has a ‘power’ of words himself!
Christy Becomes ‘The Playboy’
Once again Synge deglamourises the peasant and his lifestyle, reality keeping a firm grip on
fantasy. The cult of the hero needs to be exposed for what it is; gratuitous violence masquerading
as bravery. (Synge was a pacifist and was appalled by the violence of his own day and the false
image of Ireland and its people that was being manufactured to support political ideas). The
Widow Quin dubs Christy sarcastically ‘the walking Playboy of the Western World’. Christy is
now in the hands of the Widow Quin and she being the practical person she is cashes in on his fear
of exposure. Since she cannot have him for herself she will demand a fee for his silence: ’give me
a right of way I want, and a mountainy ram, and a load of dung at Michaelmas’. The Act ends
with Christy half-reassured that he has bribed the Widow into silence, and off he goes to his
greatest test as hero, indeed the traditional test of all heroes.
Christy: Proven Hero At Last without ‘Lies’
In Act III Christy successfully proves himself at the races winning all before him, so when he
returns to the Shebeen in triumph he is master of all. There is no limit to his courage and
confidence now.
26. Examine The Playboy of the Western World as a bildungsroman drama.
A Bildungsroman is a literary term describing a formative novel about a

protagonist’s psychological and moral growth from their youth into adulthood.
Bildungsroman novels are generally written in the first-person and often feature the
name of the protagonist directly in the title. The Bildungsroman literary genre
originated in Germany. The German word “bildung” means education” and the
German word “roman” means “novel.” Thus, “Bildungsroman” translates to “a
novel of education” or “a novel of formation.”
The playboy of The Western World- first a satiric comedy written and
performed just over one hundred years ago, still addresses many themes that
are relevant in today's society. The play is set in rural western Ireland, still
under British rule and still in relative poverty, the play is set over just one

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day. The general themes that are addressed in the play are; feelings of
community, the importance of fantasy and reality, Heroism, love, authority
and morality. All of which can be applied to today's society.
The play is the story of Christy Mahon, a young man running away from his
farm, claiming he killed his father. The locals are more interested in vicariously
enjoying his story than in condemning the immorality of his murderous deed.
He captures the romantic attention of the bar-maid Pegeen Mike, the daughter
of Flaherty. When Christy Mahon first walks into Flaherty's tavern boasting
eloquently of how he has killed his father, the townspeople do not berate him
for committing an immoral and evil deed. Instead, his story of rising up and
destroying his father (a figure of authority) inspires the people in the pub and
Christy becomes an unlikely hero. This singular act signifies the importance of
fantasy and storytelling, the people in the tavern have not seen the deed and
they do not know if its necessarily true but it creates a great deal of excitement
in their rather mundane and boring lives. Storytelling, embellishment and
stories of "heroism" are still just as important today, but expressed through
different mediums such as the mass media rather than in the setting of a
tavern. When Christy attempts to kill his father again in front of the villagers
they turn against him, because seeing this immoral act in reality betrays the
fantasy they had envisaged in their heads about Christy and his challenging
of authority. In the end when Christy is banished from the Village with his
father, Pegeen then laments betraying and losing Christy, The Playboy of the

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Western World. The ending signifies that language, fantasy and love is
superior to mundane, boring and oppressive lives.
In the end Pegeen and the others are stuck with their old lives, while the
father and son go off to start a new one - based on storytelling. The play's
ending asserts the triumph of fantasy, imagination and language over
convention and repression.
The play is a singularly arresting play by reason of its extraordinary
combination of qualities that are ordinarily deemed contradictory. It is a
comedy of Irish peasant life, extravagant, even boisterous at moments, yet
based on the tragic theme of the murder of a father by his son; it is illuminated
not only by the richest of humor but by poetic touches of poignant beauty,
and all told in language so vivid and picturesque, so full of the zest and color
of life, as to make ordinary English seem pale and tame.
The ultra-Nationalists professed to regard the play as an attack on Irish morals
and character and organized hostile demonstrations when ‘The Playboy’ was
first produced at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin in 1907, and later in London,
and in the United States. In reality Synge has done the highest service to the
Irish cause by creating dramas of artistic distinction and originality from purely
Irish material.
In his preface to the play Synge says, “I have used only one or two words that
I have not heard among the country people of Ireland or spoken in my

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nursery.” Another quotation from Synge furnishes a most significant
commentary on ‘The Playboy.’ “On the stage one must have reality and one
must have joy; . . . the rich joy found only in what is superb and wild in reality.
. . . In a good play every speech should be as fully flavored as nut or apple,
and such speeches cannot be written by anyone who works among people who
have shut their lips on poetry.” ‘The Playboy’ is based on a story Synge heard
in the Aran Islands; its language, its humor, its poetry, its flavor, its “reality,”
its “joy,” are all drawn from Irish country folk and transmuted by the hand of
the artist into an enduring work of art that is very human and very beautiful.
The play contains an ironic mixture of rebellion and conformity to social
conventions.
The play is a portrayal of Playboy in the early twentieth century of Ireland -
Playboy did not have the meaning it has today, rather it meant hoaxer or
tricker. Whereas, today it denotes a pleasure seeking person indulging their
lifestyle in all sorts of mal-practices especially having innumerable woman
affairs and flirting.
" The playboy of the western world" was presented as a microcosm of the
world itself. It may have taken place in the Aran Islands but it still can be
linked to societies in different parts of the world. His characters, most
importantly his protagonist represents the universal youth in search of his
identity and how he finally finds his place in the society as he realizes his full
potential among other more complex themes in the play. The Playboy has a

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two-fold theme, patricide and the transformation of a young man by change
in circumstances and environment. The story deals with how the Mayo people
make a hero of a Youngman who just committed patricide. The glorification of
a murderer by the people of Mayo seem quite for fetched but Synge here
decribes a real character by telling us in his book ‘The Aran Islands’ of an
actual case of this kind whereby the people of Aran Island gave shelter and
helped a murderer who had killed his father. Hence already it is a play whose
foundation lies in being real and so relevant.
27. Comment on the Title of the play Look back in Anger.
The title Look Back in Anger predicates a definite touch of ambiguity. The title
may be taken as an imperative on the part of the speaker (author), the audience or
purposely among the characters set in the framework of a play, which could be
nothing but a miniature for the world against the age in question.
Whatever be the intent, the play demands a looking glass analysis of the
circumstances and the characters vis-à-vis a charged currents and under-currents of
conflicts that seem to run through the socioeconomic, socio-psychological and
historical swathes criss-crossed by political discontent of the times.
A closer look at the title would elicit an objective division of two themes embodied
in it—‘to look back’ and ‘anger’. It is very likely that Osborne is of the view that
to put an age in retrospect needs an emotion and there can be simply nothing more
appropriate than ‘Anger’, when things come to rest on history of an age that
governs the lot of an ill fated generation.
Despite its intellectual inconsistencies, the myth of anger helped place all who
believed in it as it gives them a better reach into numerous areas of personal and
public life hitherto inexplicable but stand accessible to emotion.
As Jeff Nuttall puts it, ‘Not one of us had any serious political preoccupation, but

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all had a crackling certainty of now.’ In the aftermath of post war austerity, the
idea of anger came with the excitement of risk encompassing the new heaven of
consumer pleasure and the looming paranoia of atomic warfare. English angst
envisaged both fear and anger. Of the two, anger helped established identity—it
made people take sides.
Anger thus was not only directed towards class resentment but also towards its
‘phoney’ values.
Writing for the New Statesman, T.C. Worsely commended the play for its
‘authentic new tone of the Nineteen Fifties....’ Though he acknowledged many of
its weaknesses, he went on to urge the readers not to miss the play, ‘If you are
young, it will speak for you. If you are middle aged, it will tell you, what the young
are feeling.’
Jimmy’s anger: the fundamental character of a generation.

The cause why Jimmy is angry is to a great extent rooted in his background. The
character Jimmy runs a close analogy with, ‘Lucky Jim’ a novel by Kingsley Amis
published in 1954 spearheading a mocking, irreverent view of the social
pretensions, cultural snobbery and authoritarianism of middle-class academics. The
educated, working-class protagonist (Hero), Jim Dixon, instantly became a cult
figure in the make of an aggressive, young rebel.
But why is Jimmy angry? Embittered at the betrayal of the promise of the Brave
New World, Jimmy fights a lone battle against the sham and hypocrisy of the
world around him. But why does he fight albeit a losing battle?
Jimmy Porter is a character who doesn’t have much of a future and he is aware of
that. From his attic room Jimmy can only fulminate against the outside world that
he looks upon as responsible for his present situation. On a deeper level his lot is in
a constant state of dilemma regarding the voice they are to support—the voice of
the political icons and that of the glaring reality; for they too need the assurance of
a future, an upward mobility. But they cannot make up to be in league with either
and thus begins the contours of an uncertain and bleak world ahead, wrought in
fear and insecurity with no place for respite. His attitudes and behaviour strongly
reflect the social conflict of the working class.
Another aspect of his persona reveals a track that demands a ‘look back’ into his

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childhood.
Jimmy was sympathetic to his dying father, a character that exercised great
influence on the emotional patterns of Jimmy as a child. In his words—
“But you see, I was the only one who cared. His family was embarrassed by the
whole business. Embarrassed and irritated...we all waited him to die................You
see, I learnt at an early age what it was to be angry—angry and helpless. And I can
never forget it. I knew more about—love...betrayal...and
death........................................”
Thus the suffering of his father warped the fine balance between his juvenile
idealism and the way he looked upon the world, i.e. perception and acceptance of
reality.
Thus his past experience and inability to reconcile with the rest, especially his
mother, in regard to his father engendered deep rooted mistrust aimed especially at
his mother and inadvertently at the entire womankind. This psychological conflict
of gender of childhood forms the basis of misogyny in his persona. It won’t be
wrong to say that in his predicament the character of his dying father super-
imposed on him and roused in him an indomitable urge for justice. Failing it
quickly morphed into wrath which he couldn’t direct at anyone in particular and so
consequently it developed inferiority complex and schizophrenic disposition with
which he threads through kindness, cruelty, praise and attack.
Unable to resolve his tension and contradiction with the larger social world, his
anger turns against the others, who are also, like himself—victims of their
environment. So what begins as a drama of social criticism comes across as a
drama of social despair, and even as many critics have pointed out, an apology for
cruelty and misogyny.
Thus it is the duality of an inconsistent mind which seems to seek space for the
manifestation of all the desires, fears or memories which the conscious mind
suppresses when awake.
Jimmy as an antagonist to himself or Jimmy’s anger towards to himself.
Jimmy’s anger may also be directed towards his persona though he may not be
aware of it.
The helpless, hopeless, ignominy and death of his father act as slew of triggers that
jabbed his paranoid mind rousing fear of the uncertainty around. His failure on the
social platform and his position among the hopeless rung of the society make up

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his outwardly grotesque behaviour.

On a subtle level the anger is also towards his persona because Jimmy is also a part
of the social decadence and he even embodies it. The pain is that he can’t stand up
to it.
Jimmy’s marriage with Alison.
The portrayal of Jimmy and Alison in wedlock represents the zenith of class-
conflict at one end and the culmination of love-hate relationship men have with
their mother figure encompassing dependence and resentment of such dependence
and a desire to destroy, on the other.
Jimmy’s anguish is expressed through the secondary castigation of a ruling class
which has left him nothing to fight for, and a woman is a threat and has to be
destroyed metaphorically.
Presence of Alison is somewhat cathartic to Jimmy’s enormous anguish. For
Alison there are only two ways open –continuous victimisation or walk out on
Jimmy as their conflict is not only theirs, it is a metaphor for social and personal
conflict that has no easy solutions.
Institution of marriage is both a trap and a refuge for Jimmy and Alison, both being
more or less necessary evil to one another.
Sex is no solution.
True there is a strong factor of sex that works between them but is not a solution.
Sex binds them together for mutual coexistence and catharsis, above which the
game of bear and squirrel that is the victor and the vanquished underplays. It is
another matter that the victor may himself be the vanquished at some other plane
of reality.
Look back in Anger is thus a painful portrayal of suffering and survival in a world
that offers no hope; in a world that plays on through the cycles of remembering and
forgetting.
28. Show the importance of man –women relationship in look back in Anger.
The plays written in the modern and post modern period throw a series of
questions regarding the relationship shared between one another residing in and
around the same house. The position of the individual in society has been an
interesting subject for writers, as values and allegiances continue to alter
drastically through the years. The significance of human relationships in society is
crucial to its well-being and sanity as a whole. Exploration of this theme has a long

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tradition in European drama, including English drama. John Osborne too shows his
concern with a drastic deterioration in the stability of the man-woman and such
proximate relationships, as evident in his play Look Back in Anger.
While exploring various relationship equations, Osborne shows the

multidimensional society that imposes uncharitable demands on the individual. He
also points out that in order to allow development of society, one must break away
from frozen traditions and customs, steering away from the confining shackles of
the mindless conventions. The relationships as projected in Look Back in Anger are
dynamic in their aspects such as marital, extra-marital, parental and fraternal.
The most vivid among all relationships is the one shared by Alison and her
husband Jimmy. Both are down-to-earth and ordinary persons, unafraid of showing
their emotions. Jimmy’s intrusion in Alison’s life, his harassing attitude, his
cynicism and Alison’s reluctance to understand Jimmy make the marital bond
appear a mutual massacre. Both of them suffer in isolation and the relationship
verges on a breakdown. For Jimmy, marriage is the most demanding, fulfilling and
dehumanizing of all relationships. He loves Alison, but she falls short of his
expectation. His is vexed by her pusillanimity. His actual search is for love and
spiritual companionship in marriage:
“Oh heavens, how I long for a little ordinary human enthusiasm. Just
enthusiasm — that’s all. I want to hear a warm, thrilling voice cry out
Hallelujah!…Hallelujah! I’m alive!”
They can only communicate in the non-verbal, almost bestial, level of non-human
non-intellectual intimacy. Their game of bears and squirrels becomes a trope of
escaping the inevitable angst of isolation and denial. The real tension evolves from
the series of sufferings that Alison experiences—the pain of loving Jimmy and the
pangs of her separation from him. This is supplemented by her desperate anguish
of losing her unborn child. However, despite all the discordant notes in the Jimmy-
Alison relationship, the close of the play exhibits a profound tenderness and
renewed harmony. At the same time one must remember that this harmony takes
refuge in the world of furry little imaginative animals and the role-plays that they
engage in.
The Jimmy-Cliff duo in Look Back in Anger presents a picture of genuine

Platonic friendship between two men, despite their similarity in values and
disparity in responses.

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The early part of the play leads us to suspect Cliff to turn out to be the intrusive
agent in the Jimmy-Alison alliance. However, very soon we find him the confidant
to both Jimmy and Alison, acting as a bridge of amity. He does not exploit
Alison’s vulnerability, but shares her anxiety and problems.
Alison: I don’t think I want anything more to do with love. Any more. I can’t
take it on.
Cliff: You’re too young to start giving up. Too young, and too lovely.”
The friendship of Cliff and the Porters is free from deceit, meanness or malice.
Cliff acts as a calm catalyst, an agreeable choric complement to Jimmy. In that
way, he appears more down-to-earth and rational. His presence equips Jimmy and
Alison to sort out their differences as Cliff acts as a reconciliating agent. Helena
shows suspicion about Cliff’s intensions only to be reprimanded by Alison: “
We’re simply fond of each other.”
On the other hand, from the outset, Cliff considers Helena a menace in the Porter
family. Her arrival is regarded with more suspicion than pleasure. She is
instinctively drawn to Jimmy as if it is a challenge to be won, yet she succumbs to
his charms. Their relationship is a temporary respite. A basic stubbornness, a clash
of values and attitudes somehow forge a bond between the two. Helena shrewdly
gauges the predicament in the Jimmy-Alison marriage with a detachment and
realizes the need to help Alison cope with the crisis. She becomes instrumental in
Alison’s reluctant retreat to her parental home. Her prolonged absence might even
serve as an adhesive in their estrangement and brings about a reunion. Therefore,
indirectly, Helena becomes a catalyst in bringing about a renewed surfeit of feeling
in Jimmy and Aison. When Alison actually comes back in a pathetic and distressed
state, Helena experiences profound guilt. Yet her judicious discretion about
Alison’s rightful status stirs her hidden sense of remorse as she resolves to quit.
The relationships in Look Back in Anger, therefore, bring out the temperament of
the new permissive society of the young generation of the fifties who could
understand Jimmy’s sexual vacillations and adherence to a new set of values,
neither traditional nor conventional. Free mixing, living together and separation
were accepted norms in daily lives. The true meaning of friendship as a cementing
bond between two persons joined to one another in intimacy and mutual
benevolence apart from sexual leanings gets focused in the play Look Back in
Anger as much as sexual love and marital bonds.
29. Analyse the concept of the ‘angry young man’ in the context of the play
Look Back in Anger.

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In the wake of the Second World War human life turned into a mere debris of the
traditional values. The royal glory of the British nation had almost evaporated;
degeneration came at all the levels- political, religious, moral, conjugal etc.-of life .
Besides, the evils , say,class-distinction, middle-class morality, stark materialism ,
sexual violence etc. cropped up. The conscious and intellectual British people ,
who had the sound memory of the past glory and the awareness of the present
damnation and yet had no power to do something philanthropic, could not live as
passive witness to the ‘panorama of futility’ or the wasteland to which their
civilization was reduced, but started to vent vitriolic anger upon those they were
related. This generation of perceptive men that included the young men , come to
be identified as ‘Angry Young Man’. John Osborne , Kinsley Amiss, Nigel Dennis,
and John Wain have created central characters who are generally anguished and
angry.
Jimmy Porter , the protagonist of John Osborne’s archetypal play of the “ Angry
Young Generation”, Look Back in Anger is the typical representative of Angry
Young Generation of the post Second World War period. An intellectual misfit, he
is dissatisfied with the status qua and rebels against it. He debunks at the ruling
Conservative Party through his criticism of his brother- in- law,Nigel Redfern, the
budding Tory politician. In the play Jimmy’s above- the – average consciousness is
used as the veritable screen through which float diverse images of futility,
damnation, degeneration, darkness, slovenliness and barbarism. Jimmy constantly
revolts against the lowliness and beastliness of human existence. Others do not feel
so. They are ,as it were , confined in the narrow cocoon of peripheral
consciousness. There lies a huge gulf between the consciousness of Jimmy and that
of the average men and women .This accounts for why Jimmy is so angry at
everybody.
Jimmy fervidly strikes at the upper class and condemns their ‘hostage’ , Alison
particularly the smugness and ideal of the stiff upper life. He cannot forget the
upper middle class origin of his wife and constantly rails at her , her friends and
relatives as “ Dame Alison’s mob”. He banters Alison for her virginity before
marriage and defies the conventional sexual code that heralds the death of the
middle class- morality. Alison fails to give him the perfect solidarity, the working
class traits. Jimmy cannot trust women and therefore, Alison and Helena are seen
wearing Jimmy’s shirt thus partly got transvestite. The women also symbolize the
status qua , the boredom Jimmy hankers to come out from.

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As representative angry young man, Jimmy voices his invective against the
existing irritation torpor. He wants to hear just a warm thrilling voice that cries out
“ Hallelujah”. Everybody including his wife wants peace, which is nothing more
than a deathly coma or narcosis. We cannot fail to recognize Jimmy when he utters
that he is one to whom the miseries of the world are his misery. Imaginative
suffering is a profoundly solitary experience.
Psychologically considered Jimmy is not the epitome of the Angry Young Men of
his generation. He is rather like Hamlet, an exceptional individual, a tortured soul
who finds the ‘ time’s out of joint’ but has not the capability to usher in a golden
millennium.
30. How does Shaw attack social snobbery and class difference in Pygmalion.
George Bernard Shaw’s ‘Pygmalion’ is a play that is scathing in its attack on the
pruderies, hypocrisies and inconsistencies of higher society in early 20th century
London. Through the transformation of Eliza Doolittle, Shaw reveals to the
audience that amongst the ‘draggletailed guttersnipe[s]’ of the lower class, there
lies hidden an intelligence, honesty and tenacity that exceeds the virtues of the
upper class, and that the way in which they are treated by their apparent social
betters is unjustified. However, Shaw’s castigation of the upper class is not simply
restricted to the character of Eliza – through various characters in the play, Shaw
creates a moral landscape that juxtaposes people at the top end of the social
hierarchy, with those at the very lowest end. He challenges the bases of judgements
made by the upper class (judgements based on trivial surface appearances, such as
one’s accent, one’s social niceties and one’s occupation), and questions the
supposed inadequacies of Eliza’s class. Ultimately, Shaw encourages the audience
to look beyond the stifling class barriers of the period and embrace the basic
human characteristics of goodness. The character of Eliza embodies this goodness,
and the audience is therefore provoked to have disdain for the upper class who, in
contrast, treat her so poorly. According to Shaw in his preface, great art can never
be anything but didactic, and in ‘Pygmalion’ didacticism is truly forefront, as Shaw
confronts his audience to consider whether this high society to which Eliza aspires,
is actually worth aspiring to at all.
In the very first scene of the play, Eliza’s protestations against the cursory
judgements of her by the upper class reveal much about her character; ‘I’m a good
girl I am’ – Eliza’s catchphrase that is so central to her character, as well as to
Shaw’s intentions, is introduced here. Shaw reveals to the audience, through this

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simple line, the level of self-respect Eliza has for herself. Furthermore, the tone of
this line – that is, exclamatory, and filled with despair – evokes the intense
feistiness and energy of Eliza that is perpetuated throughout the play. Shaw
encourages the audience to see that Eliza cannot simply be pigeon-holed, like so
many other beggars were, as an immoral, insignificant flake of a person. In the
Edwardian era in which the play is set, members of the ‘upper class’ (that is, those
born into wealth and social status due to a noble lineage) generally held a view that
people like Eliza lacked any sense of morality, however with this simple line,
Shaw creates in Eliza a character which destroys this mould. This is pivotal to
Shaw’s intentions in ‘Pygmalion’, demonstrating the inconsistencies that permeate
the upper class – even though the members of high society considered themselves
the paradigm of morality and virtue, they are ignorant to the immorality of their
unjustifiable behavior towards people like Eliza, who evidently don’t deserve to be
treated with such disdain and contempt. Shaw is demonstrating to the audience
that, contrary to common opinion, morality transcends class barriers, and is one of
the earliest examples of Shaw condemning the inconsistent and questionably
judgmental behavior of the upper class, as well as a society that seeks to lock
people into certain personas based on class alone, without thorough consideration
of their individual merits.
Despite the fact that many, if not all, of Eliza’s admirable qualities are present in
her initial character, these qualities are further showcased by Shaw in a
confrontational scene between Higgins and Eliza after her transformation is
complete – a transformation which essentially uncovers more of Eliza’s hidden
virtues and brings them to fruition. Here, Eliza demonstrates a skillful grasp on
wit, comparing Higgins’ statement that he ‘treat[s] a duchess as if she was a flower
girl’ to the behavior of her father, a comparison which would have been taken very
unfavorably by Higgins, due to his and others’ tendency to look down upon
Doolittle’s behavior for its lack of morality and decency. Not only is Shaw
reinforcing here that laudable qualities, such as wittiness, can be present in anyone,
regardless of social distinction, Eliza’s comparison of Higgins to Doolittle
demonstrates that the reverse is also true; despicable and condemnable qualities
exist irrespective of class or social status, discrediting even further the idea that the
class structure impacts in any way on the individual human condition.
When Eliza allows Pickering to call her by her first name, but politely requests that
Higgins call her ‘Miss Doolittle’, Eliza maintains common courtesy and decorum,
yet the grit and cheek which is so distinctive about her character, is still present.
Shaw uses this comment by Eliza to satirize the prudent and restrained nature of
high society – Eliza puts Higgins in his place through this slight impudence,

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however maintains the manners which were so treasured during the period. She
demonstrates intelligence and control here; she knows that in order to gain power
over Higgins and make him responsible for his actions, she must present it to him
in the way to which he is accustomed (with grace and polish), and to resort to the
wailing and desperation of her past language would be to succumb to Higgins’
claims that she is not a lady at all. What she does however, is maintain the niceties
to which Higgins is accustomed, but uses her own characteristic boldness to gain
Higgins’ attention. Essentially, this is Shaw’s attempt to discredit the woodenness
of the upper class, using Eliza’s language here as an example of how comments
that verge on impertinence, can be used to one’s own benefit, without
compromising one’s integrity or polish, as Eliza does in this scene. Fundamentally,
Shaw uses the transformation of Eliza to showcase all of her estimable and
admirable qualities, such as her biting wit, and the way in which she cleverly
harnesses her spunky energy for her own advantage, creating a character to whom
the reader aspires.
Whilst Shaw utilizes the transformation of Eliza to focus on the hidden merits of
the lower class, this is not the only presence that the playwright uses to condemn
the qualities of the upper class in ‘Pygmalion’. Perhaps the most powerful device
that Shaw uses for this end is the juxtaposition between the estimable character of
Eliza, and certain members of high society, whose values portrayed as anything but
estimable. The varying characters in the play create a moral landscape which
positions Eliza, complete with all her virtue, vibrancy and goodness, at one end of
the spectrum, and clearly places characters such as Higgins, from high society, at
the very opposite pole. The contrast between these groups of characters could not
be starker; Eliza is honest, straightforward, and moral, whereas Higgins, who in the
words of his own mother, ‘has no manners’, and is a character who treats Eliza
with such inferiority that it seems as if he views as her as non-human, or like ‘a
pebble on the beach’ (as Mrs Pearce puts it). Shaw uses the frequency with which
Higgins talk about Eliza as if she is not present, such as when he says she’s ‘so
deliciously low – so horribly dirty’, to convey to the audience the immorality of
Higgins’ behaviour. Higgins later claims to treat everyone equally, (‘and I treat a
duchess as if she was a flower girl’) however the audience already knows this to be
untrue from the manners which he employs with people such as Mrs Eynsford Hill
throughout the play. This hypocrisy of Higgins serves to do more damage to the
audience’s perception of his character, and hence the high society to which he
belongs. Given that the audience is privy to the unexpected nuances of Eliza’s
character, such as her self-respect and morality, Higgins’ defamatory comments
towards Eliza, such as his calling her a ‘piece of baggage’ are intended by Shaw to
be uncomfortable for the audience, who are intentionally provoked to reflect upon

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their own behaviour with a new consideration for members of the poor such as
Eliza. This juxtaposition is perhaps the salient vessel through which Shaw aims to
condemn the values of high society, and discredit the idea that morality and class
are somehow related. It is evident in Shaw’s eyes that the two are mutually
exclusive.
One character however – Freddy – stands out from amongst his social
counterparts; instead of judging Eliza based on her speech and other external
features, Freddy is thrilled and excited by the refreshing honesty and
straightforwardness of Eliza. He finds her ‘awfully funny’, and contrasts with the
other upper class characters in the play who shun Eliza based upon her outward
appearances and background. Shaw uses the character of Freddy to endorse a
societal freedom and the breaking down of class barriers; Freddy is depicted as a
courageous visionary who can see beyond the lack of social niceties and
conventions in Eliza’s character, and respect her integral morality and energy
which is so lacking in many of the people with whom he spends his time. Shaw
offers the character of Freddy, who breaks away from the social expectations of
him, to pursue a life with a common flower girl, as an alternative to the superficial
and immorally hypocritical life as a member of the upper class. In the sequel of the
play, it is made distinctly clear that Freddy’s intelligence pales in comparison to
Eliza’s brilliance, when Higgins declares that ‘if [Freddy] tried to do any useful
work some competent person would have the trouble of undoing it’, and that Eliza
would have ‘an ideal errand boy’ in Freddy. Shaw made this decision regarding
Freddy’s character for a number of reasons, however he intends Freddy’s lack of
smarts to make his courageous decision more accessible, creating an “if he can do
it, then so can I” mentality among members of the audience. Shaw uses Freddy’s
lack of intelligence in an effort to engender angst, or perhaps even paranoia in the
audience, that maybe they too, should be undergoing a similar conversion to
Freddy, which is further evidence of Shaw’s attempt to create a didactic work of
theatre that aims to break down and dismantle class barriers.
Shaw’s active presence as a socialist is strongly felt in ‘Pygmalion’ – the pruderies,

hypocrisies and inconsistencies of high society are condemned in such an emphatic
way that his evident egalitarian views are conveyed in a subtle, yet forceful
manner, the concerns of Shaw being disguised beneath the satire and light-
heartedness of the play’s action. However, upon closer inspection, the models of
Eliza and Freddy, revolutionary in their respective abilities to refute and reject
preconceived notions around class, provide the soother to the undercurrent of
societal anger that permeates throughout the play. Through the transformation of
Eliza, as well as the juxtaposition between Eliza and people generally seen as her

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societal betters in terms of morality and decency, Shaw imparts to the audience a
secret and almost taboo knowledge; that class barriers are far weaker than they
seem. He challenges members of the audience to consider, if they are part of the
upper class, whether they are truly as virtuous as they think, and, if they are
aspiring to be in the upper class, why exactly this is so. In this way, ‘Pygmalion’ is
an utterly didactic work that seeks to challenge, and ultimately obliterate all class-
related preconceptions and barriers.
31. Discuss Shaw’s use of myth in Pygmalion.
Shaw took his title from the ancient Greek legend of the famous sculptor named
Pygmalion who could find nothing good in women, and, as a result, he resolved to
live out his life unmarried. However, he carved a statue out of ivory that was so
beautiful and so perfect that he fell in love with his own creation. Indeed, the statue
was so perfect that no living being could possibly be its equal. Consequently, at a
festival, he prayed to the goddess of love, Aphrodite, that he might have the statue
come to life. When he reached home, to his amazement, he found that his wish had
been fulfilled, and he proceeded to marry the statue, which he named Galatea.
Even though Shaw used several aspects of the legend, most prominently one of the
names in the title, viewers, writers, critics, and audiences have consistently insisted
upon there being some truth attached to every analogy in the myth. First of all, in
Shaw's Pygmalion, Professor Henry Higgins is the most renowned man of
phonetics of his time; Higgins is also like Pygmalion in his view of women —
cynical and derogatory: Higgins says, "I find that the moment I let a woman make
friends with me, she becomes jealous, exacting, suspicious, and a damned
nuisance." And whereas in the myth, Pygmalion carved something beautiful out of
raw stone and gave it life, Shaw's Higgins takes a "guttersnipe," a "squashed
cabbage leaf" up out of the slums and makes her into an exquisite work of art.
Here, however, the analogies end. Shaw's "Galatea," Eliza, develops a soul of her
own and a fierce independence from her creator.
Another myth that exists in Pygmalion, in the figurative sense, at least, is Professor
Higgins belief that appearance can create a reality. That is, he is convinced that he
can "make a duchess of this draggle-tailed guttersnipe," he can transform Eliza
Dootlittle into a lady. Unfortunately, Higgins does not realize what another
Englishman, W. Somerset Maugham did,

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....men and women are not only themselves, they are also the region in which
they are born, ...the games they played as children, the old wives' tales they
overheard,...and the God in Whom they believe.
For, once the transformation of appearance has been made in Eliza and she can
speak well and has the necessary manners for higher society, she is yet displaced.
Being not clearly a part of any particular class, Eliza no longer knows who she
truly is. Therefore, despite the belief of one of the characters of Dean Koontz, who
declares, "Perception is reality," Eliza finds no reality in her reflection that presents
her with what appears to be a lady--only myth.
32. Outline the changes that Lucky and Pozzo undergo during the play
Waiting for Godot.
In Act I of Waiting for Godot, Pozzo is travelling to the market to sell Lucky, his
slave. Pozzo is healthy, possessed of a good appetite and cruel and there seems to
be nothing physically wrong with him. He treats Lucky in a despicable way.
Lucky, he claims, used to be such a pleasant slave to have around, but he has
become quite annoying, and so he is going to get rid of him. This is their position
the first time they meet Vladimir and Estragon.
Suddenly and without warning, as in the first act, Pozzo and Lucky come back on
stage. Their arrival puts an end to Vladimir and Estragon's games. Things have
changed significantly for Pozzo and Lucky. The long rope which bound them
together is now much shorter, binding them closer together and suggesting that
however much man might consider himself to be different from others, ultimately
he is drawn or bound closer and closer. Furthermore, Pozzo and Lucky are
physically changed: Pozzo is blind and Lucky is dumb (i.e., mute). But the entire
scene is played without the audience's knowing that Lucky is now dumb. As they
enter, staggering under their load, Lucky now carries suitcases filled with sand
(symbolically, perhaps, the sands of time). Lucky falls and drags Pozzo down with
him.
With the arrival of Pozzo and Lucky, Vladimir and Estragon think that help
("reinforcements") have arrived from Godot. But they soon realize that it is just
Pozzo and Lucky. Estragon wants to leave then, but Vladimir must remind him
once again that they cannot go; they are "waiting for Godot." After some
consideration, Vladimir decides that they should help Pozzo and Lucky get up. But

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Estragon wants to consider an alternative plan. After all, he was wounded by

Lucky the day before. Vladimir reminds him, however, that "it is not everyday that
we are needed." This is one of the most profound comments of the drama.
Vladimir realizes that Pozzo's cries for help were addressed to "all of mankind,"
and "at this place, at this moment of time, all mankind is us, whether we like it or
not." This statement certainly clarifies the idea that Vladimir and Estragon
represent all mankind in its relationship to God (Godot). Realizing this, Vladimir
also realizes that man's fate is to be a part of "the foul brood to which a cruel fate
consigned us."
Instead of Hamlet's "To be or not to be, that is the question," Vladimir asks, "What
are we doing here, that is the question." Again, his problem is more akin to the
dilemma of T. S. Eliot's Prufrock (who is also faced with an "overwhelming
question": should he marry or not?) than it is to the predicament of Shakespeare's
Hamlet. Vladimir concludes: "We [all mankind] are waiting for Godot to come."
Hamlet's metaphysical question about existence is reduced to a Prufrockian
decision to do nothing but wait.
At the end of Vladimir's speech, Pozzo's call for help loses importance as Vladimir
once again asserts his pride in the fact that they have at least kept their appointment
to meet Godot; not all people can make such a boast. Vladimir's confusing the
metaphysical with the practical anticipates the confused actions that are to
immediately follow — that is, Vladimir decides that they should help Pozzo and
Lucky get up, and the result is that all four of the men ultimately end up on the
ground. Thus their cries for help fall on deaf ears.
The entire scene in which the two tramps try to help two equally distraught figures
get up returns the drama to the burlesque house. The scene is a parody of many
similar types of scenes found in burlesque theaters, thus emphasizing again the
absurdity of man's actions, or in the words of Estragon: "We are all born mad.
Some remain so."
Immediately after the above statement, Estragon leaves off with philosophy and
becomes very practical; he wants to know how much Pozzo is willing to pay to be
extricated from his position. Meanwhile, Vladimir is concerned with finding
something to do to pass the time: "We are bored to death"; he begins his efforts to
help Pozzo, but, as noted above, they all end up in a heap on the ground, and
Pozzo, in fear, "extricates himself," then crawls away. This incident also serves as
a contrast to Pozzo's actions in the first act; there, he was proud and disdainful and
asserted himself with aloofness and superiority. Now he has lost all his previous

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qualities and is simply a pathetic, blind figure crawling about on the ground. Like
Job or Sophocles' blind Oedipus, Pozzo seems to suggest that no man's life can be
secure since tomorrow might bring incalculable catastrophes.
Lying on the ground, Vladimir and Estragon try to call to Pozzo, who doesn't
answer. Then Estragon decides to call him by some other name:
ESTRAGON: . . . try [calling] him with other names . . . . It'd pass the time.
And we'd be bound to hit on the right one sooner or later.
VLADIMIR: I tell you his name is Pozzo.
ESTRAGON: We'll soon see. (He reflects.) Abel! Abel!
POZZO: Help!
ESTRAGON: Got it in one!
VLADIMIR: I begin to weary of this motif.
ESTRAGON: Perhaps the other is called Cain. Cain! Cain!
POZZO: Help!
ESTRAGON: He's all humanity.
Beckett's use of the names of Abel and Cain stresses the universality of the
characters since Pozzo answers to both names. According to some interpretations
of the scriptures, all of mankind carries with it both the mark of Cain and the mark
of Abel; thus Pozzo can answer to both names because "He's all humanity! "
To pass the time, Estragon suggests that they stand up. They do. Then Estragon
suggests once again, "Let's go," only to be reminded once again that they must
remain because "we're waiting for Godot."
Since there is nothing else to do, Vladimir and Estragon help Pozzo get up. It is
then that they discover that he is blind. In contrast to the Pozzo of the first act, we
now see a pathetic figure leaning on the two tramps for physical support and
pleading for help because he is blind. For Estragon, there is hope in Pozzo's
blindness because the prophets of old, such as the Greek Tiresias, were often blind
but could "see into the future," exactly what Estragon hopes Pozzo can do. But

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there is no hope for Vladimir and Estragon. Carrying through with the Greek
imagery, Estragon tires of holding Pozzo, especially since he can't prophesy for
them. Pozzo wants to drop him since he and Vladimir "are not caryatids" (caryatids
were statues of Greek goddesses used to hold up temples; why Estragon uses this
word instead of "telamons," the male equivalent, is confusing).
Because of his blindness, Pozzo has also lost all contact with time. He even refuses
to answer questions about what happened yesterday: "The blind have no notion of
time." This confusion over time is symptomatic of his changed condition; just as
lie has lost all contact with life, so also has time lost all significance for him. When
Vladimir hears that Lucky is dumb, he inquires, "Since when?" The question
incenses Pozzo and causes him to violently reject Vladimir's concern with time:
"Have you not done tormenting me with your accursed time! It's abominable!
When! When! One day, is that not enough for you, one day he went dumb, one day
I went blind, one day we'll go deaf, one day we were born, one day we shall die,
the same day, the same second, is that not enough for you?" For Pozzo, one day at
a time is enough for him to cope with. All he knows now and all that he "sees" now
is the misery of life. Life itself is only a brief moment — that flash of light
between the darkness of the womb and of the tomb. "They give birth astride of a
grave, the light gleams an instant, then it's night once more." Thus the grave-digger
is the midwife of mankind. Ending on this note of utter despair, Pozzo arouses
Lucky and they struggle off to continue on their journey.
33. Comment about structure of waiting for Godot?
“Waiting for Godot” is not a play to which traditional ideas of plot; action,
structure etc. do apply. To a certain extent, Beckett has deliberately discarded or
parodied such conventions. There is double-structure in “Waiting for Godot”
linear and cynical. The structural devices can be seen in dialogues,
characterization and bringing out of the themes. In cyclical structure, there is no
change, no movement, development, nothing happens but linear things have their
ways of changing.
The major structural devices are parallels. The two acts are bold experiments in
use of parallelism, which is saved from the monotony by an admixture of contrast
in it. Repetition or paradigm is primarily dominant in the play. In each act
Vladimir asks Estragon how he spent the night, in each act Vladimir offers to
embrace Estragon and latter does not, at first, kindly take this gesture. Every now
and then, Estragon says:

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“Let’s go.”
Vladimir patiently says:
“We can’t.”
Estragon wants to know why not, and Vladimir replies that:
“We’re waiting for Godot.”
This is followed every time by a sigh of Estragon. In each act Estragon wants to be
allowed to sleep. In each act when they were at the ends of their wit, they indulge
in meaningless trivialities. By the arrival of Lucky and Pozzo, in both the acts the
tramps are helped at a particularly tedious moment. When they feel that their
situation is absolutely unbearable, they toy with the idea of committing suicide,
but in each case there is a major hurdle in their way. Each time they console
themselves with a thought that they will bring a piece of rope next day with which
they would commit suicide.
Recognition and forgetfulness also act as structural principles in both the acts. In
both the acts the tramps take the arrival of somebody else to be that of Godot. The
wait is terminated in both the acts by the arrival of a messenger. Before going
away, they together think of suicide. In each act, they say that they are leaving and
do not leave the place.
The conversation itself takes a rhythmic course. In Act-I Vladimir asks Estragon
about his foot and Estragon in return asks Vladimir about his kidney trouble.
Vladimir wants to relate to Estragon an incident in the New Testament and
Estragon in return wants to relate an anecdote about an Englishman, but both are
not ready to hear each other. Vladimir requests Estragon to take interest in his
conversation. Similarly Pozzo asks Vladimir and estragon to give ear to his speech.
In both acts Vladimir asks Estragon whether he recognizes the place, each time
Estragon’s memory fails, similar is the case with Pozzo. In Act II Pozzo is unable
to collect that he met Estragon and Vladimir on the previous day. Likewise
Estragon and Pozzo also disbelieves the common notion of time and place in both
the acts Estragon sleeps soundly and meanwhile Vladimir feels boredom. Estragon
is waked up by Vladimir. Estragon has nightmare every time to tell to Vladimir but
Vladimir is not interested to hear it.

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Act I:
Estragon: I had a dream.
Vladimir: Don’t tell me.
Estragon: I dreamt that.
Act II.
Estragon: I was falling …
Vladimir: It’s all over, it’s all over.
Estragon: I was on the top of a …
Both the acts end with the same pair of dialogues:
Estragon: Let’s go.

Vladimir: We can’t.
Estragon: Why not?
Vladimir: We are waiting for Godot.
The play gains a structural cohesion because the rhythmic repetition of certain
themes, incidents and situations.
There is a parallelism and contrast even in characters. Estragon and Vladimir are
both tramps who are facing a common situation of bored waiting. But Estragon is
weaker and more temperamental whereas Vladimir is strong, protective and
clear-headed. At crucial times Estragon goes to sleep. Estragon always blames
Vladimir for troubles but Vladimir is much tolerated. Vladimir has greater control
on himself than Estragon. There are parallels and contrasts in Lucky and Pozzo
also.
The structure of “Waiting for Godot” is unique. Nevertheless there are important
modifications in Act II which makes us pronounce that the pattern outside
Estragon and Vladimir's world is linear. The tree in Act II shows sign of growth as
four or five leaves have sprout on the dead branches of it. Lucky and Pozzo do
arrive as in act I but now in Act II Pozzo has become blind and Lucky dumb. The
messenger boy of Act I look after Godot’s goats whereas the messenger boy of Act
II looks after his sheep. In Act II Lucky does not deliver a tirade.
“Waiting for Godot” on philosophical level maintains a close relationship with

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the philosophy of Hera-Clatus who is of the view that “change is the crux of
life”. But Samuel Beckett presents an opposite situation where he depicts “nothing
happens twice”. There are anecdotes, incidents, agreements, conversations,
contradictions, questions and meaningless answers. The play seems like sympathy
of ‘Mozart’.
34. Bring out the full significance of the title ‘Waiting for Godot’.
The two key words in the title are "waiting" and "Godot". What Godot exactly
means has been the subject of much controversy. It has been suggested that Godot
is a weakened or diminutive form of the word "God." Godot may therefore suggest
the intervention of a supernatural agency. Or perhaps Godot stands for a mythical
human being whose arrival is expected to change the situation. We may presume,
too, that both these possibilities (a supernatural agency and < a supposed human
being) may be implied through the use of the name "Godot". Furthermore,
although Godot fails to. appear in the play, he is-as real a character as any of those
whom we actually see. However, the subject of the play is not Godot; the subject is
"waiting", the act of waiting as an essential characteristic aspect of the human
condition. Throughout their lives, human beings always wait for something, and
Godot simply represents the objective of their waiting an event, a thing, a person,
death. Beckett has thus depicted in this play,a situation which has a general human
application.
The Play, a Direct: Presentation of Waiting, Ignorance, Impotence, Roredom
At first sic )t this play does not appear to have any particular relationship with the
human predicament. Fro instance, we feel hardly any inclination to identify
ourselves with the two garrulous tramps who are indifferent to all the concerns of
civilised life. Godot sounds as if he might have some significance; but be does not
even appear on the stage. However, soon we are made to realise that Vladimir and
Estragon are waiting and that their waiting is of a particular kind. Although they
may say that they are waiting for Godot, they cannot say who or what Godot is, nor
can they be true that they are waiting at the right place or on the right day, or what
would happen when Godot comes, or what would happen if they stopped waiting.
The have no watches, no timetables, arid there is no one from whom they can get
much information. They cannot get the essential knowledge, and they are ignorant.
Without the essential knowledge they cannot act, and so they are impotent. They
produce in us a sense of baffled helplessness, which we experience when forced to
remain in a situation which we do not understand and over which we have no

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control. All that they do is to seek ways to pass the time in the situation in which
they find themselves. They tell stories, sing songs, play verbal games, pretend to be
Pozzo and Lucky, do physical exercises. But all these activities are mere stop gaps
serving only to pass the time. They understand this perfectly. "Come on, Gogo."
Pleads Didi, breaking off a reflection on the two thieves crucified with Christ,
"return'the ball, can't you, once in a way?" and Estragon does. As Estragon says
later,
"We don's manage too badly, eh Didi, between the two of us,......We always find
something, eh Didi, to give
us the impression we exist" Here we have the very essence of boredom actions
repeated long after the reason for them has been forgotten, and talk purposeless in
itself but valuable as a way to kill time. We could appropriately say that the play is
not about Godot or even about waiting; the play puts "waiting" on the stage. The
play is waiting, ignorance, impotence, boredom, all these having been made visible
on the stage before us. As a critic says, Beckett in his dermas does not write about
things but presents the things themselves. In other words, a play by Beckett is a
direct expression or presentation of the thing itself as distinct from any description
of it or statement about it. In the waiting of the two tramps we, the audience,
recognise our own experience We may never have waited by a tree on a deserted
country road for a distant acquaintance to keep his appointment, but we have
certainly experienced other situations in which we have waited and waited. We
may have waited and waited for a communication offering a job, or for the arrival
of a train, or for a love-letter, or for something to turn up. In other words we can
discover a common ground between ourselves and the two tramps who are waiting
for Godot. We feel with them and with millions of others who have known
ignorance, impotence, and boredom. Here is then the recognisable significance of
the play and it is this which accounts for the play's widespread appeal.
The Mood of Vain Expectancy
Vladimir and Estragon have travelled far towards total nihilism, but they have not
fully achieved it. They still retain enough remnants of hope to be tormented by
despair. And in place of hope as a dynamic, they have expectancy. This rs the main
motif of the play, spelt out in the title, which in an earlier version was simply:
Waiting. The two tramps ale in a place and in a mental state in which.nothing
happens and time stands still. Their main preoccupation is to pass the time as well
as they can until night comes and they can go. They realise the futility of their
exercises and that they are merely filling up the hours with pointless activity. In
this sense their waiting is mechanical; it- is the same thing as not moving. In

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another sense, it is an obligation. They have to remain .where they are though they
resent doing so and would like to leave. This might be called a moral obligation,
since it involves the possibilities punishment and reward. If Godot comes, a new
factor may be introduced into their existence, whereas if they leave they will
certainly miss him. Their waiting therefore contains a certain element of hope, no
matter how cynical they may be about it. This mood of expectancy has also a
universal validity, because whenever we wait we are expectant even though we are
almost certain that our waiting will not be rewarded.
"Waiting" and the Flow of Time
It is in the act of wailing that we experience the flow of time in its purest,, most
evident form. When we are active, we tend to forget the passage of time but,if we
are waiting passively, we are confronted with the action of time itself. Being
subject to the flux of time, human beings are, at no single moment; Identical with
themselves. We can never be sure that the human beings we meet are the same
today as they were yesterday. When Pozzo and Lucky first appear, neither
Vladimir nor Estragon seems to recognise them; Estragon even takes Pozzo for
Godot. But after they have gone, Vladimir comments that they have changed since
their last appearance. Estragon insists that be did not know them while Vladimir
insists: "We know them. I tell you. You forget everything." In Act II, when Pozzo
and Lucky reappear cruelly deformed by the action of time, the tramps again have
their doubts whether those are the.same people whom they met on the previous
day. Nor does Pozzo remember them. Here then is another aspect of "waiting"
which is conveyed to us the act of waiting makes us experience the flow of time.
To wait meaps to experience the action of time, which is constant change. And yet
as nothing real ever happens, that change is in itself an illusion. The more things
change, the more they are the same.
That is the terrible stability of the world. "The tears of the world are a constant
quantity says Pozzo, "For each one who begins to weep somewhere else another
stops." One day is like another, and when we die, we might never have existed. As
Pozzo exclaims in his great final outburst: "Have you not done tormenting me with
your accursed time?......They give birth astride of a grave, the light gleams an
instant, then it's night once more." Still Vladimir and Estragon live in hope: they
wait for Godot whose coming will bring the flow of time to a stop Godot
represents, to the two tramps, peace and rest from waiting. They are hoping to be
saved from the fleetingness and instability of the illusion of time, and to find peace
and permanence outside it. Then they will no longer be tramps or homeless
wanderers, but will have arrived home.

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Themes or Habit and "the Suffering or being"
Waiting for Godot is a dramatisation of the themes of habit, boredom, and "the
suffering of being". Habit is a great deadener, says Vladimir and by the lime he
says so, he and Estragon have had about ninety minutes on the stage to prove it. It
is the sound of their own voices that re-assures the two tramps of their own
existence, of which they are not otherwise always certain because the evidence of
their senses is so dubious. The tramps have another reason also to keep talking.
They are drowning out those voices that assail them in the silence, just as they
assailed nearly all Beckett's heroes in the novels.
The Pointlessness of Existence
This play is a parable. Godot may stand for God, or for a mythical human being or
for the meaning of life, or for death, or for something else. The play is a fable
about a kind of life that has no longer any point. This fable is a representation of
stagnant life. It is a fable that suffers from a lack of cohesion because a lack of
cohesion is its very subject matter. This fable does not relate an action, because the
action it relates is life without action. This fable offers no story, because it
describes man eliminated from, and deprived of, history. The characters in this
play have been pulled out of the world, and they no longer have anything to do
with it: The world has become empty for them. The two heroes, or anti-heroes, are
merely alive, but no longer living in a world. And this concept is carried through
with a merciless consequence. Where a world no longer exists, there can no longer
be a possibility of a collision with the world. In our world today millions of people
have begun increasingly to feel that they live in a world in which they do not act
but are acted upon. The two tramps, in spite of their inaction and the pointlessness
of their existence still want to go on. The millions of people today do not after all
give up living when their life becomes pointless. The tramps are waiting for
nothing in particular. They even have to remind each other of the very fact that
they are waiting and of what they are waiting for. Thus, actually they are not
waiting for anything. But, exposed as they are to the (iaily.continuation of their
existence, they cannot help concluding that they must be waiting. And, exposed to
their continued waiting they cannot help assuming that" they are waiting for
something. It is meaningless to ask who or what the expected Godot is. Godot is
nothing but the name for the fact that the life which goes on pointlessly is wrongly
interpreted to mean waiting or as waiting for something. What appears to be a
positive attitude of the two tramps amounts to a double negation their existence is
pointless and they are incapable of recognising the pointlessness of their existence.

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35. ‘Nothing happens ,nobody comes, nobody goes, it’s awful!’ Analyze the
sense of metaphysical anguish expressed in Waiting for Godot.
“Nothing happens. Nobody comes, nobody goes. It’s awful.” How far do you
agree? Initially written in French in 1948 as “En Attendant Godot”, Samuel
Beckett’s play was first staged in 1952, in Paris. It represents one of the most
important movements of the twentieth century and is an example of the so-called
“Theatre of the Absurd”, which had subsequently inspired numerous plays that
were based on the idea of an illogical universe. The plot of the play is fairly simple
and is, in fact, purely a development of its title. Its description is rather ambiguous,
for while one may think that no action whatsoever takes place throughout the play,
another might suppose otherwise. Principally, the story…show more content…
Hence it is an extract from a monotonous and impassive life of two vagabonds,
who do nothing and go nowhere. They grope blindly for a meaning in existence,
yearning for a sign, some sign, any sign – just like Pozzo, blind and helpless, cries
for help in Act II. This immobility of the characters, the lack of action and the
perpetual exchange of insignificant dialogue may seem tedious to an audience. In
this case Estragon’s phrase: “Nothing happens, nobody comes, nobody goes. It’s
awful!” is a summary of the play. From this point of view, the play does, indeed,
seem drained of any rational and common sense. There is no logical structure to it,
nor is there a sense of fluidity in the ideas expressed by the characters. In fact, one
might go as far as to affirm that the play is devoid of ideas entirely and represents a
mere collection of spontaneously improvised dialogues: as if Vladimir and
Estragon were one unit (one being a man on the verge of mental sanity and the
other – his consciousness) whose thoughts were scattered randomly across the
pages of the script, their words avoiding any rationalization.
There are three aspects to the existential Angst: anguish, forlornness, and
despair. Beckett, trying to “eff the ineffable,” has found a way to “imitate the
action” of our own forlornness (the feeling of having been abandoned), by
presenting a stage depiction of “waiting”—for meaning, for direction, for
purpose. He has written a “play in which nothing happens, twice.” The human
consciousness, too, waits for meaning and purpose, as we live through the eternally
present. In the play, much is made of the inability of Gogo and Didi to distinguish
one day from the next, one beating from the next, one expectation from the
next. The line quoted in the question is an existential cry of anguish, where the

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pain of waiting, for change, for direction, becomes unbearable. To existentialist

thinking, there is pain, anguish, in purposelessness; the despair is depicted
(“imitated”, in Aristotle’s vocabulary, “an imitation of an action”) by the
feeble talk of suicide, by the discussion of giving up, and ultimately, by the
entrance of Pozzo and Lucky, who, having despaired of direction in their
wandering, have attached themselves to each other as the only connection available
to the senses (and the blindness and lameness and falling down, etc. all speak to the
inability of our human awareness of the
”other” to give order and meaning to our day-to-day activities--stool, rope, etc. all
emblematic of the physical world—and Lucky’s “thinking” speech encapsulates
the hopelessness of language to straighten out the mess of “meaningless” life-
activity. Somehow, Beckett has succeeded in imitating the action of our own
existence, in which “nobody comes, nobody goes, it’s awful!”
36. Short notes
1. Helen in Dr. Faustus - In Scene XIV of Christopher Marlowe's Doctor

Faustus, we meet Faustus speaking with two or three Scholars about the subject of
"fair ladies". The Scholars had chosen Helen of Troy as the most beautiful woman
"who ever lived" (although she is a mythological figure), and they ask Faustus to
use his power to bring back Helen of Troy for them.
Helen of Troy is a lead figure of Greek mythology. The Greeks think of her as the
most beautiful woman in the world. Legend says that she is the daughter of Zeus
and Nemesis. Other versions of the same legend point Helen's mother as Leda, who
was presumably raped by Zeus, producing Helen as one of her offspring.
In Homer's The Iliad , as well as in The Odyssey, Helen is the reason behind the
Trojan War. This is because Helen is the wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta. Paris, a
prince of Troy, elopes with her (it is not ascertained whether she was kidnapped or
if she goes voluntarily) thinking that Helen is the beautiful gift that Aprhodite had
promised him. This is what sparks the war.
After the message of the Old Man, we see Faustus realizing the extent of his folly
and feeling despair. Mephistophilis reproaches him for his "disobedience" to
Lucifer and lays renewed claim on his soul, "I arrest thy soul.". To prove his
sincere intentions toward Lucifer, "with my blood again I will confirm / My former
vow," he requests that Mephisto give him Helen as his "paramour."

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Instead of by asking God or anything holy. Faustus makes his sin even greater by
embracing Helen as his spiritual guide.
Sweet Helen, make me immortal with a kiss.[Kisses her.] Her lips suck forth my
soul; see, where it flies!—Come, Helen, come, give me my soul again. Here will I
dwell, for Heaven is in these lips, And all is dross that is not Helena.
Faustus inability to change his fate and accept the grace the Old Man says is with
him makes him commit even further sins.
[Helen's] sweet embracings may extinguish clean

These thoughts that do dissuade me from my vow,
And keep mine oath I made to Lucifer.
Therefore, the entrance of the character of Helen of Troy is representative of the

Renaissance ideal of revisiting all things Greek. This is illustrated in that Faustus, a
Renaissance man himself, meets with scholars to speak of this very topic.
However, Helen also represents Faustus's inner lust for knowledge and to power.
However, she also represents Faustus's struggle to keep to his agreement to

renounce God and unite with Lucifer: he asks for her after being tempted to call on
God's grace; after being chastised by Mephisto; after desperately agreeing to renew
his vow; after begging for mercy from Lucifer. He asks for her as a way to distract
his mind from calling on God's grace.
2. Bottom in a Midsummer Night Dream - Whereas Puck’s humor is often

mischievous and subtle, the comedy surrounding the overconfident weaver Nick
Bottom is hilariously overt. The central figure in the subplot involving the
craftsmen’s production of the Pyramus and Thisbe story, Bottom dominates his
fellow actors with an extraordinary belief in his own abilities (he thinks he is
perfect for every part in the play) and his comical incompetence (he is a terrible
actor and frequently makes rhetorical and grammatical mistakes in his speech).
The humor surrounding Bottom often stems from the fact that he is totally unaware
of his own ridiculousness; his speeches are overdramatic and self-aggrandizing,
and he seems to believe that everyone takes him as seriously as he does himself.
This foolish self-importance reaches its pinnacle after Puck transforms Bottom’s
head into that of an ass. When Titania, whose eyes have been anointed with a love

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potion, falls in love with the now ass-headed Bottom, he believes that the devotion
of the beautiful, magical fairy queen is nothing out of the ordinary and that all of
the trappings of her affection, including having servants attend him, are his proper
due. His unawareness of the fact that his head has been transformed into that of an
ass parallels his inability to perceive the absurdity of the idea that Titania could fall
in love with him.
3. The Theatre of the Absurd - 'The Theatre of the Absurd' is a term coined by
the critic Martin Esslin for the work of a number of playwrights, mostly written in
the 1950s and 1960s. The term is derived from an essay by the French philosopher
Albert Camus. In his 'Myth of Sisyphus', written in 1942, he first defined the
human situation as basically meaningless and absurd. The 'absurd' plays by Samuel
Beckett, Arthur Adamov, Eugene Ionesco, Jean Genet, Harold Pinter and others all
share the view that man is inhabiting a universe with which he is out of key. Its
meaning is indecipherable and his place within it is without purpose. He is
bewildered, troubled and obscurely threatened.
The origins of the Theatre of the Absurd are rooted in the avant-garde experiments
in art of the 1920s and 1930s. At the same time, it was undoubtedly strongly
influenced by the traumatic experience of the horrors of the Second World War,
which showed the total impermanence of any values, shook the validity of any
conventions and highlighted the precariousness of human life and its fundamental
meaninglessness and arbitrariness. The trauma of living from 1945 under threat of
nuclear annihilation also seems to have been an important factor in the rise of the
new theatre.
At the same time, the Theatre of the Absurd also seems to have been a reaction to
the disappearance of the religious dimension form contemporary life. The Absurd
Theatre can be seen as an attempt to restore the importance of myth and ritual to
our age, by making man aware of the ultimate realities of his condition, by
instilling in him again the lost sense of cosmic wonder and primeval anguish. The
Absurd Theatre hopes to achieve this by shocking man out of an existence that has
become trite, mechanical and complacent. It is felt that there is mystical experience
in confronting the limits of human condition.
As a result, absurd plays assumed a highly unusual, innovative form, directly

aiming to startle the viewer, shaking him out of this comfortable, conventional life
of everyday concerns. In the meaningless and Godless post-Second-World-War
world, it was no longer possible to keep using such traditional art forms and

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standards that had ceased being convincing and lost their validity. The Theatre of
the Absurd openly rebelled against conventional theatre. Indeed, it was anti-
theatre. It was surreal, illogical, conflictless and plotless. The dialogue seemed
total gobbledygook. Not unexpectedly, the Theatre of the Absurd first met with
incomprehension and rejection.
One of the most important aspects of absurd drama was its distrust of language as a
means of communication. Language had become a vehicle of conventionalised,
stereotyped, meaningless exchanges. Words failed to express the essence of human
experience, not being able to penetrate beyond its surface. The Theatre of the
Absurd constituted first and foremost an onslaught on language, showing it as a
very unreliable and insufficient tool of communication. Absurd drama uses
conventionalised speech, clichés, slogans and technical jargon, which is distorts,
parodies and breaks down. By ridiculing conventionalised and stereotyped speech
patterns, the Theatre of the Absurd tries to make people aware of the possibility of
going beyond everyday speech conventions and communicating more
authentically. Conventionalised speech acts as a barrier between ourselves and
what the world is really about: in order to come into direct contact with natural
reality, it is necessary to discredit and discard the false crutches of
conventionalised language. Objects are much more important than language in
absurd theatre: what happens transcends what is being said about it. It is the
hidden, implied meaning of words that assume primary importance in absurd
theatre, over an above what is being actually said. The Theatre of the Absurd
strove to communicate an undissolved totality of perception - hence it had to go
beyond language.
Absurd drama subverts logic. It relishes the unexpected and the logically
impossible. According to Sigmund Freud, there is a feeling of freedom we can
enjoy when we are able to abandon the straitjacket of logic. In trying to burst the
bounds of logic and language the absurd theatre is trying to shatter the enclosing
walls of the human condition itself. Our individual identity is defined by language,
having a name is the source of our separateness - the loss of logical language
brings us towards a unity with living things. In being illogical, the absurd theatre is
anti-rationalist: it negates rationalism because it feels that rationalist thought, like
language, only deals with the superficial aspects of things. Nonsense, on the other
hand, opens up a glimpse of the infinite. It offers intoxicating freedom, brings one
into contact with the essence of life and is a source of marvellous comedy.

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4. Hermia’s Dream - Hermia is caught in a romantic entanglement where she

loves one man, Lysander, but is being courted by another, Demetrius, whose
feelings she does not return.
Though she loves Lysander, Hermia's father, Egeus, wants her to marry Demetrius
and has appealed to Theseus, the Duke of Athens, for support. Under Athenian
law, Hermia's refusal of her father's command would result in her being put to
death or being banished to a nunnery.
Lysander and Hermia flee into the forest, meeting Demetrius' former fiancé, and
Hermia's lifelong friend, Helena. Demetrius had abandoned Helena to woo Hermia
but Helena is still hopelessly in love with him. Hermia tells Helena not to worry;
Hermia will elope with Lysander and Demetrius will no longer see her face.
Helena relates Hermia's plan to Demetrius in the hope that he will realize her love
for him, but Demetrius pursues Hermia and Lysander into the forest with Helena in
pursuit.
Demetrius tries to persuade Helena to stop following him but Helena declares her
love.
Oberon is the king of the fairies. He is invisible to humans and has been watching
the story unfold. He orders his sprite, Puck, to place a drop from a magical flower
on the sleeping Demetrius' eyelids so that he will fall in love with Helena when he
wakes, and everyone will be content. However, Puck mistakes Lysander for
Demetrius; when Lysander awakes, he sees Helena and falls deeply in love with
her, forsaking Hermia. After discovering the mistake, Oberon places a drop of the
magical flower on Demetrius' eyes. Demetrius awakes and his love for Helena is
now rekindled; he joins Lysander in the quest for Helena's hand.
With both Demetrius and Lysander pursuing her, Helena becomes angry. Because
Lysander's love for Hermia was so great and Demetrius had been wooing her in
accordance with her father's wishes, Helena believes that they are cruelly mocking
her. When Hermia returns to the scene, Helena accuses her of being part of the
joke. Hermia feels betrayed by the accusation and asserts that she would never hurt
her friend that way. Accusations and challenges fly between Lysander and
Demetrius and between Helena and Hermia. Hermia now thinks the two swains
prefer Helena because she is taller and offers to fight Helena. Helena asks for
protection because Hermia was a scrapper in their younger years, saying, "And
though she be but little, she is fierce."

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Lysander and Demetrius resolve to settle their rivalry with swords and separately
head further into the forest.
Wearied by the conflict and the chase, and with Puck providing some magic
assistance, the four young Athenians fall asleep in the forest. Puck places the
antidote on Lysander's eyes but not on Demetrius'. The four wake up the next
morning when Theseus, Hippolyta, his betrothed, and Egeus find them.
This is the day Hermia is to make her choice: marry Demetrius, enter a nunnery or
die. However, the lovers wake up dazed; Unable to explain how they fell asleep,
they talk about a strange dream.
Demetrius, now permanently under the love flowers spell, says that he loves only
Helena. With Demetrius out of the picture, Theseus overrules Egeus, freeing
Hermia from her obligation. Hermia and Lysander marry each other at the wedding
As Hermia's name comes from the god of trade, there may have been an economic
reason for Demetrius' courtship and Egeus' insistence on their marriage.
5. Widow quin - Widow Quin is a woman of thirty years who acts as a kind of
rival to Pegeen Mike. Not much is told about her past, but the audience does find
out that she killed her husband and has had to bury her children. She displays a
certain lustiness towards Christy Mahon when he arrives, feeling that they have
(justified) murder in common. She plays an important role in the play, being the
first character to discover that Old Mahon is in fact still alive. She is also crafty,
making two deals within the course of the play. The first of these is with Shawn
Keogh, who offers farm animals and turf in exchange for her trying to marry
Christy and thus remove him as a rival for Pegeen’s affections; this fails. The
second deal comes when she agrees to keep Christy’s secret that Old Mahon is still
alive in exchange for similar rewards as and when he gets married to Pegeen. As
part of this, she tries to convince the locals that Old Mahon is a madman who only
thinks Christy is his son because he has heard the story of Christy’s deed.

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FINAL NOTES MEG 03 BRITISH

NOVEL
1. Write as critical note on the Evolution of British novel.
Ans. This question is difficult to answer as there is debate about when the "novel"
began and what constitutes a novel. The general agreement is that the novel form
began with Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe which is the first writing which was
not based on historical characters familiar to all in a different telling of the old
story. Defoe's character was new and his whole life explained in mundane detail
which had not been done before. The writings before Defoe were not about NEW
characters or NEW stories of one person's life, so Robinson Crusoe fits the criteria
for first novel. The next person who fits the criteria would be Samuel Richardson
and his novel Pamela which becomes successful leading to Henry Fielding's novel
Tom Jones. With the now established success of novels, other writers began to
follow the new idea of writing novels. The 18th century had several factors which
also helped the idea of a novel such as the rise of realism, the rise of the middle
class and literacy which wanted affordable fiction. However you write your
presentation, include the idea of what was different about the first novel, why
novels became popular, which authors would be included as I have not Included
them all, and why the 18th century was an ideal time for the concept of the
Scientific Revolution lending its ideas to the creation of a new form of writing in
the development of the British novel.
The word ‘novel’
So the novel begins as if it were a ‘true’ story. Yet Defoe’s fiction was not noticed
by contemporary literary critics, and not included in discussions of the best
literature of the age. Many of his novels were lumped together in the public
imagination with the published accounts of criminal lives that were popular in the
period. Readers were not yet aware that a new genre was with them. The preface to
Robinson Crusoe has many words for the narrative – ‘Story’, ‘Adventures’,
‘Account’, ‘Life’, ‘History’, ‘Fact’ – but none of them is that word ‘novel’. It is
significant that readers did not yet use this word to describe this new genre. The
noun existed, but it referred to what we might call a short story or novella: a genre

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of brief tales, often of forbidden romantic entanglements, usually published in

collections. Many of the leading writers of these were women, of whom
Delarivière Manley and Eliza Haywood were the most famous. Defoe’s last novel
Roxana, the fictional memoir of a Restoration courtesan, owes something to this
briefly dominant sub-genre of prose fiction, featuring as it does the scandalous
affairs of courtly men and women.
2. Write a brief essay on Fiction as History.
Ans. Fiction can be a part of of historical records in many ways it can be seen as
history when injected into settings. To clear this in detail one need to know the
elements in the context of historical fiction.
Character – whether real or imagined, characters behave in keeping with the era
they inhabit, even if they push the boundaries. And that means discovering the
norms, attitudes, beliefs and expectations of their time and station in life. A Roman
slave differs from a Roman centurion, as does an innkeeper from an aristocrat in
the 18th century. Your mission as writer is to reveal the people of the past.
Dialogue – dialogue that is cumbersome and difficult to understand detracts from

readers’ enjoyment of historical fiction. Dip occasionally into the vocabulary and
grammatical structures of the past by inserting select words and phrases so that a
reader knows s/he is in another time period. Don’t weigh the manuscript down or
slow the reader’s pace with too many such instances. And be careful. Many words
have changed their meanings over time and could be misinterpreted.
Setting – setting is time and place. ‘to bring the past to life’ as the primary reason
for reading historical fiction. Even more critically, you need to transport your
readers into the past in the first few paragraphs. Consider these opening sentences.
Theme – most themes transcend history. And yet, theme must still be interpreted
within the context of a novel’s time period. My fanwy Cook’s book Historical
Fiction Writing: A Practical Guide and Toolkit contains a long list of potential
themes: “ambition, madness, loyalty, deception, revenge, all is not what it appears
to be, love, temptation, guilt, power, fate/destiny, heroism, hope, coming of age,
death, loss, friendship, patriotism.” What is loyalty in 5th century China? How does
coming of age change from the perspective of ancient Egypt to that of the early
twentieth century? What constitutes madness when supposed witches were burned
at the stake.

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Plot – the plot has to make sense for the time period. And plot will often be shaped
around or by the historical events taking place at that time. This is particularly true
when writing about famous historical figures. When considering those historical
events, remember that you are telling a story not writing history.
Conflict – the problems faced by the characters in your story. As with theme and
plot, conflict must be realistic for the chosen time and place. Readers will want to
understand the reasons for the conflicts you present. An unmarried woman in the
15th century might be forced into marriage with a difficult man or the taking of
religious vows. Both choices lead to conflict.
World Building – you are building a world for your readers, hence the customs,
social arrangements, family environment, governments, religious structures,
international alliances, military actions, physical geography, layouts of towns and
cities, and politics of the time are relevant. As Harry Sidebottom, author of
Warrior of Rome series said: “The past is another country, they not only do things
differently there, they think about things differently.”
3. What attitudes towards marriage does Fielding illustrate in Tom jones?
Ans. Throughout Tom Jones by Henry Fielding, there are many examples of
marriage. There is Squire Western's marriage, Mr. and Mrs. Fitzpatrick's marriage,
the mentions of Allworthy's wife, the marriage of Nightengale and Nancy, and the
marriage of Nightengale's cousin and the clergyman, and finally the marriage of
Tom and Sophia. Some of these marriages end with a happy ending and some do
not and we, the reader, are supposed to look at these marriages and see why they
went wrong or why they are good. Through all these examples of marriage,
Fielding is urging us to question the current institution of marriage and what it is
based on.
Fortune is a big issue in the book, especially when marriage is involved. Squire
Western's wife's father married her off to the Squire against her will because of his
fortune, and she became more of his servant than his wife. He treated her badly and
they ended up hating each other. Mr. Fitzpatrick also married his wife for her
money, which is made evident by the letter sent to Mr. Fitzpatrick by Sam
Cosgrave concerning Mr. Fitzpatrick's debt and Mrs. Fitzpatrick's "ready money".
Mr. Fitzpatrick and Mrs. Fitzpatrick grew to resent each other, he treated her
horribly, and he spent all of her money. Using these examples, Fielding challenges

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the reader to question if money should be the foundation of marriage. Squire

Western's marriage is prearranged by the Squire and Mrs. Western's father (just as
he would like to do for Sophia). It was a tradition in this time for marriages to be
prearranged by the parents according to fortune, title, etc.
Women had no voice in whom they were to marry and the marriage became more
of a t... ... middle of paper ... ... Injustice and Oppression..." and he likewise says in
the book that no one should be married to each other except on the basis of love.
Fielding is trying to get the point across to the readers that marriage should be
based on love, not fortune, estate, or prearrangement. In this book fielding gives
the reader examples of how a marriage can be if it is prearranged with fortune in
mind or how it can be when it is based on love. He challenges the reader to
question the current institution of marriage and all it's faults. He, then, suggests a
happy alternative through love. In this book fielding is challenging his readers to
think about the world around them and about issues such as injustice in marriage
and oppression of women through marriage.
4. Discuss how Tom jones is a novel about the division of life in segments.
Ans. Fielding tends to ‘reveal’ a character instead of describing it. In this way, we
learn about the character subjective to other people. The characters in the novel
could be easily placed on a gradation scale. Some like Squire Allworthy and
Sophia Western are virtuous and genteel, while some like young Blifil and Lady
Bellaston are evil and spiteful, both kinds being on the extreme ends of the scale.
Then there are characters with varying levels of goodness. Characters like Jenny
Jones, Partridge, and Tom deviate along the path and go under considerable
development through the course of the book. Many of these characters are
motivated by money and personal gain but they use different methods to attain
those, which the author uses to show hypocrisy in England. People like Blifil’s
tutors abhor and even physically abuse Tom to get in good terms with Allworthy
and his sister. People at inns judge Tom on the basis of his attire and hence try to
con him in paying more for his lodgings. Blifil approved of violence for marrying
Sophia so he could get her money. Surroundings play a huge part in this. Tom
grows under the tutelage of Allworthy and is thus, genteel and innocent. Blifil
grows up in Tom’s shadows and feels jealous of him for all the attention Tom gets.
This is true in other cases too. Bridget grows in the shadows of her brother with no
hopes of a fortune unless she marries, making her disapproving of her brother and
dismissive of marriage. Jenny who shows scholarly talent from her younger years

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has to resort to prostitution to make ends meet and grows more street-smart.
Nightingale grows in the London societies and learns the ways of shrewd women
like Bellaston, as he uses in getting rid of her. The local people also become a part
of this.
Within the novel, people in the country are judgmental and more prevalent in
spreading rumors than in knowing the truth, so much so that they label Tom as
Allworthy’s bastard son. People at inns, too, are judgmental of Tom’s bastardry
and so refuse him lodgings. When they don’t, it’s just because they don’t want to
lose favor with Allworthy. Mrs. Fuller is also judgmental of Tom and asks him to
leave but then discovers his charitable nature and her views about him are changed.
One thing common about these people is that they all are bound by the shackles of
the society and are afraid of doing anything that might bring ill-repute to them.
Another thing to note that Fielding rarely describes the temper of a character, it’s
usually through the eyes of some other character that we discover him, but when he
does, it leads to a staticity. Characters like Allworthy and Sophia are synonyms for
virtue and righteousness. But, so little of their real motivations is described. Both
Sophia and Allworthy are said to be born in privilege, learn of city manners in
London and are sure of their place and so, have no insecurity. They have little or
no flaws and no character change throughout the story, while a lot of major
characters go through some significant changes, including Blifil who gets spiteful
enough to conspire against Tom’s life. It is also worth noting that Allworthy and
Sophia are based on real people who Fielding knew during his time, thus we see
them almost through Fielding’s eyes than Tom’s.
Another feature of the narrative worth noting that Fielding keeps people as close to
their characters as possible and uses prose exceptionally in this scheme. This is
evident from Partridge’s Latin ramblings, Honour’s misspelt letters, and Western’s
abusive tongue. And, while doing so he may not agree with the character’s opinion
and may use irony and satire boldly while patronizing those. The author uses a
number of literary devices to create a most engaging narrative and thus creates
some of the most memorable characters. Jenny Jones who undergoes a complete
change in her character from a talented and learned young girl to a cunning woman
who uses her street smart ways to avoid getting trampled in the judgmental society.
She is not married and solicits for money but, takes the salutation of a wife to
evoke respect from others. She stays true to her word even in the end and reveals
Tom’s parentage, in spite of her hardship and a promise of a hefty sum to get Tom
executed. We learn a bit about Fielding’s temperament too. He twists the plot to
give a comic ending. In the last chapters, the characters have no role in all the

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occurrences, it is completely because of a plot twist that Tom is deemed worthy

enough to marry Sophia.
Even though Fielding criticized hypocrisy and used satirical elements all
throughout the novel is unable to imagine a plot where Tom can ‘become’ worthy.
He must be ‘born’ worthy. He is unable to break class barriers, either because he
can’t think of such a society or because he didn’t want to irk the readers. Maybe,
this outcome was to ‘nullify’ the promiscuity but the book gained notoriety
anyway. While the use of irony thus used, exposes hypocrisy in human nature, but
in some cases, it also makes one realize the weakness in the protagonist. Jones is a
highly flawed character. Even though, he is genteel and sensitive, he has no
intelligence, no talent to speak of. He learns nothing to make his ends meet during
his travels, he sleeps with other women while he speaks of loyalty to Sophia. He
keeps landing himself in one trouble after another, from which other people rescue
him. It’s always some external medium that saves him, which somehow contradicts
the author’s beliefs on deux ex machina, he mentions in Book 18 Chapter 1. “This
I faithfully promise, that, notwithstanding any affection which we may be
supposed to have for this rogue, whom we have unfortunately made our heroe, we
will lend him none of that supernatural assistance with which we are entrusted,
upon condition that we use it only on very important occasions.” While the
incidents that saved Tom’s life were not supernatural, but were out of his or
anybody else’s means to achieve. It was a sheer coincidence that medical aid was
available for Fitzpatrick, another coincidence that Mrs. Waters was staying with
him. Yet another coincidence is that Partridge sees Mrs. Waters as she left.
Although this scenario satisfies the comic nature of the novel, one can’t deny how
well everything plays out.
While Jenny who had had academic talent and has to resort to prostitution to make
ends meet is met with ridicule for seducing Tom and other men, Tom is waved off
as an innocent when it comes to his affair with Lady Bellaston, just because he
feels indebted towards her. Fielding’s bias towards him is highly obvious. Fielding
strongly patronizes those who he feels are doing behaving immorally, but Tom’s
promiscuity is always overshadowed by his greatness. Yet, it is no doubt a feat the
way Fielding creates a rich amalgam of characters who are not just figments of his
imagination, but who live and thrive. While they are riddled with Fielding’s
subjectivity, it’s only through their motivations and that we can try to understand
them.
5. Discuss the narrative technique in pride and prejudice . How does it

influence the reader’s reaction to the novel?

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Ans. Jane Austen uses the following narrative techniques in her novel "Pride and
Prejudice" :
1. The Third Person Omniscient Author Technique: In this method of narration the
author Jane Austen is in complete control of the narration of the story. Whatever
she says we have to accept unquestioningly and wherever she leads us we have to
follow. The opening remark of the novel is a good example of this narrative
method:
"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good

fortune must be in want of a wife."
This method of narration sometimes entails the novelist to directly address the
readers. This is known as Authorial Intrusion. In Ch.61 Jane Austen directly
'intrudes' into the action remarking "I wish I could say."
2. The Dramatic Method of Narration: In this method of story telling the novelist
Jane Austen completely withdraws from the action and with very minimal
narration and description the entire scene is played out right in front of our eyes.
The dialogue very effectively portrays the personality of each character and
simultaneously develops the plot of the novel. The very first chapter of the novel is
a dramatic scene which not only introduces us to the family of the Bennets but also
kick starts the action by mentioning the arrival of Bingley in the neighborhood.
3. Dramatizing the Consciousness of the character: In this progressive method of

narration Jane Austen takes her readers into the mind of her characters. She records
very minutely the entire thought process of the character and reveals the feelings
and emotions of that character. In Ch.36 Jane Austen records in great detail the
mental change that took place in the personality of the heroine Elizabeth after she
had read and reread several times Darcy's letter:
``How despicably have I acted!'' she cried. -- ``I, who have prided myself on my
discernment! -- I, who have valued myself on my abilities! who have often
disdained the generous candour of my sister, and gratified my vanity, in useless or
blameable distrust. -- How humiliating is this discovery! -- Yet, how just a
humiliation! -- Had I been in love, I could not have been more wretchedly blind.
But vanity, not love, has been my folly. -- Pleased with the preference of one, and
offended by the neglect of the other, on the very beginning of our acquaintance, I
have courted prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where either
were concerned. Till this moment, I never knew myself.''

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Thus we see that Jane Austen uses a variety of narrative techniques according to
the varying needs of the plot and characterization of "Pride and Prejudice."
6. Comment on the comic characters in Pride and Prejudice.
Ans. Jane Austen wrote the novel, Pride and Prejudice, during the early 19th
century. During this time, most of the female novelists would base their plots on
'tacky' love stories, all with similar scenarios. Austen however broke the trend. She
based her novel on the follies of human nature, and wrote a controversial but
highly amusing novel. Her book exposed the foolishness of the society she lived in
and how human behaviour of her time was in some ways ignorant. She used comic
characters to portray this, and does it in a highly amusing manner. She uses
comedy to portray her view on society, to make the novel more light hearted and
not seem as controversial, whilst also making the reader laugh at the 'follies' of
human nature. At the time pride and prejudice was written, society was based on
strict rules and life was strongly mannered. The women in pride and prejudice
were financially dependant on men and the main goal in life was to get a rich
husband. This book picks up on the difficulty of finding a suitable man for
marriage, in the upper class society. Austen incorporates several comic characters,
including Mrs. Bennet, who is a mother of five daughters, Mr. Collins, a Wife-
seeking clergyman and many more …
Mrs. Bennet: The entire novel pokes fun at Mrs. Bennet every chance it
gets. Right from the first page, she provides comical relief for readers. Her
biggest concern in life is to get her daughters married off, however, with her lapses
of social grace she in turn alienates the suitors she so desired to attract. Her
biggest taunter is comically her husband to which she has no clue. In the first two
chapters he acts like he is not going to introduce himself to the new tenant in the
neighborhood who could be a potential suitor for one of their daughters, when in
reality he just tells her this to get a rise out of her. It seems that any chance he
gets, he makes a mockery of his wife. Judging from how she acts, it doesn’t seem
that hard to poke fun at her expense. Mrs. Bennet seems to be the type of neighbor
who knows everything about everyone. She keeps tabs on all of the gossip that
goes on and tries to save it to use to her advantage, which always seems to
backfire. Her character is a satire of the effects of lower breeding and unbecoming
behavior.

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Lydia Bennet: One of Elizabeth’s younger sisters. She is promiscuous and is

more than excited when the naval party settles in town. She and her sister Kitty are
constantly throwing themselves at the officers. Little does she know, or care, that
this disgrace on her part in turn threatens the entire Bennet family. She eventually
runs off with one of the seamen, Wickham—yes, Darcy’s nemesis, and lives with
him out of wedlock, imposing more shame on the family. Her character portrays
the idea that the apple doesn’t fall too far from the tree. If her mother had instilled
a better sense of values she may have not turned out like this. Also, she ends up
miserable in the end, showcasing that bad decisions will eventually catch up with
you.
Mary Bennet: The middle Bennet sister; readers cannot help but feel sorry for
Mary. She seems to be that girl in school who thinks she has a great voice, when
in reality she sounds like an alley cat dying. Mary probably receives the least
amount of attention from her parents and is easily pacified. She would rather be
off reading than participating in family activities. However, when she wants
people to notice her she will make sure that they do, even if it means playing the
pianoforte way off key. Overall, Mary is not included in the novel a great deal, but
when she is, it is to provide comic relief as the misfit sister.
Mr. Collins: The inheritor to the Bennet household since they have five daughters
and property is not passed on to a female heir. He is "not a sensible man, and the
deficiency of nature had been but little assisted by education or society." Mr.
Collins is a pompous man who lacks common sense. Sure that she will say yes to
benefit her family, Mr. Collins proposes to Elizabeth. Upon rejection Elizabeth
categorizes him as “a conceited, pompous, narrow-minded, silly man". Within a
few days he becomes engaged to Elizabeth’s best friend, Charlotte. Mr. Collins
values rank and wealth over intelligence and does not see the flaws in Lady
Catherine’s speeches and actions. He is also incessantly bowing to people which
gets on everyone's nerves. In general, Mr. Collins is an ignorant man who lacks
the judgment to know when he is not welcome, imposing on the Bennets at his
leisure. Even his new wife suggests he spend more time gardening as to avoid
interaction with him.

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Miss Bingley: Mr. Bingley’s sister. Throughout the novel she rides around on her
high horse passing judgment on those whom she encounters, having a strong
disdain for the middle class. She finds great amusement in the Bennet family,
seeing them as inferior and disgraceful. Though she longs to become Mrs. Darcy,
it is through her attempts at dissuading Mr. Darcy in his attempts to woo Elizabeth
that in turn push him even more in her favor.
7. Identify the chief features of love and marriage in Pride and Prejudice.
Ans. Pride and Prejudice is one of the most popular novels of Jane
Austen due to its multi-dimensional versatility of themes. Andrew H.
Wright remarks: “ She (Jane Austen) develops themes of the broadest
significance, the novels go beyond social record, beneath the didactic,
to moral concern, perplexity and commitment”
One of the most important themes of Pride and Prejudice, love and
marriage, is also the central theme of the novel. The oft-quoted
opening sentence of the novel demonstrates this basic theme: “It is a
truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a
good fortune must be in want of a wife”
It is true that the chief preoccupation of Jane Austen’s heroines is

getting married and life is a matrimonial ceremony for them. Pride and
Prejudice dramatizes the economic inequality of women, showing how
women had to marry undesirable mates in order to gain some financial
security. Marriage was a significant social concern in Jane Austen’s
time and she was fully conscious of the disadvantages of being single
as she wrote to her niece Fanny Knight, “Single women have a
dreadful propensity for being poor….which is one very strong argument
in favour of matrimony”.

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Through five marriages, Jane Austen defines good and bad reasons for
marriage. Charlotte – Collins, Lydia – Wickham, Jane – Bingley and
Elizabeth – Darcy are the four newly-weds. The old marriage is that of
Mr. and Mrs. Bennet.
The marriage of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet is the worst example of its kind
in the novel. They are pole apart in their thoughts and temperaments.
Their marriage is shown to be a disaster, with the wife playing the part
of a fool and the husband retreating to live an uninvolved life. Jane
Austin says about this marriage:
" Her (Elizabeth’s) father captivated by youth and beauty … had
married a woman whose weak understanding and illiberal mind had
very early in their marriage put an end to all real affection for her “.
Their marriage lacks "emotional compatibility and intellectual
understanding". The Bennet’s marriage ends in mutual forbearance.
Charlotte and Collins are the first newly-weds. Charlotte agrees to

marry Collins solely for her financial security. It is relatively her
advancing age that hastens her engagement. Charlotte tries to justify
her position by giving argumentative reasons to Elizabeth: “I am not
romantic you know, I never was, I ask only a comfortable home”.
Thus, to Charlotte, marriage is an economic transaction undertaken in
self-interest.
The runaway marriage of Lydia-Wickham is based on mere superficial

qualities as sex, appearance, good looks and youthful flirtation. The

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passion between the unprincipled rake, Wickham and the flighty Lydia
is bound to cool, and in their unhappy conjugal life, mutual toleration
is the nearest approach that can be expected.
The marriage between Jane and Bingley is a successful marriage of its

kind. Jane Austen expresses her opinion about this marriage through
the words of Elizabeth:
"All his (Bingley) expectations of felicity, to be rationally founded,
because they had for basis the excellent understanding, and super
excellent disposition of Jane, and a general similarity of feeling and
taste between them."
However, unlike Darcy and Elizabeth, there is no planning in their
relationships. Both the characters are too gullible and too good-
hearted to ever act strongly against external forces that may attempt
to separate them. So, their marriage is in between success and failure.
The fifth and final example of marriage is that of Elizabeth and Darcy.
It is a kind of an ideal marriage based on the true understanding and
cross examinations. According to Jane Austen , the courtship of Darcy
and Elizabeth is a perfect union which sums up the purpose of her
novel. Although it begins with the pride and prejudice; it passes
through many stages as "it converts from full hatred to complete
admiration and satisfaction" . For Darcy, Elizabeth is no longer the
woman who is "not handsome enough to tempt (him)", as he admits
that “… it is many months since I have considered [Elizabeth] as one
of the handsomest women of my acquaintance.”. Also for Elizabeth ,
he is no longer "the last man in the world whom (she) could ever be

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prevailed on to marry" but he becomes the "man who in disposition

and talents , would most suit her" .
Thus the theme of love and marriage is very aptly exemplified in Pride
and Prejudice. Beginning with the arrival of Bingley and Darcy, both
single men “in possession of a good fortune”, the novel traces the
courtship of Jane-Bingley and Elizabeth-Darcy through various
misunderstandings and hindrances, before they are happily married to
each other. We can sum up above discussion in the words of Elizabeth:
“There can be no doubt that it is settled between us already that we
are to be the happiest couple in the world.”
8. Comment on the use of wit and irony in the novel Pride and Prejudice.
Ans. In Pride and Prejudice, wit is the allure of the narratorial voice and irony is
the lens through which the errors, transgressions, foibles and follies of the
characters are seen and the brush with which their lives are drawn. Wit in the 18th
and 19th centuries (even though Jane Austen's first and subsequent novels were
published in the 19th century, they were written in the 18th century) encompassed
a larger idea than humorousness. Wit entails a great intelligence, one that can
express ordinary observations with an original insight born of mental acuity and
one that see the differences between what is expected and what is actual and can
find and convey the ironic mirth in the comparison of the two.
Jane Austen's gift is for witty irony. She has the ability to drawn on her small piece
of "ivory" true to life characters, complete with all their flaws, who are beloved to
Austen's readers precisely because they are seen truly with their good and their
bad...with certain exceptions. However, even the unlovable exceptions like Mr.
Collins and Lady De Bourgh are revealed under the light of irony with such a
delicate hand that they aren't wholly despised.
The opening line of Pride and Prejudice is the most oft quoted example of
Austen's witty irony. She says: "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single
man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife." The wit is most
evident in the words: "It is a truth universally acknowledged...." For one thing,
universal truths are usually very large ideas that are very serious and very

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important. To think of rich bachelors "wanting" wives in that context is always

worth a chuckle. The irony is most evident in the idea that wealthy single men are
in search of wives. In truth, it is probably universally acknowledged that wealthy
single men are the last ones to go looking for wives.
Wit in Pride and Prejudice provides intelligent glimpses into human nature and
life choices through original juxtaposition of ideas and astute observations. Irony
in Pride and Prejudice presents human truths and realities through situations,
beliefs and narratorial observations that shows an opposing reality to what is
expected to more clearly enlighten what is actual.
9. Discuss the narrative technique in Wuthering Heights.
Ans. "Wuthering Heights" is Emily Bronte's only novel, and it tells the tale of star-
crossed lovers Catherine and Heathcliff. Catherine refuses to be with Heathcliff
because he is poor, so Heathcliff goes off to win his fortune, only to return home to
find her married to Edgar. The novel employs a complex narrative structure to tell
this tale, which winds on for many decades and includes many plot twists and turns
along the way.
Multiple Narrators
The novel employs two primary narrators: Lockwood and Nelly. Lockwood is
Heathcliff's tenant in the present day, and he wants to learn more about the
mysterious man. His narration provides a frame narrative for the story. Lockwood
learns the back story of Heathcliff, Catherine and the other residents of Wuthering
Heights and Thrushcross Grange from the housekeeper, Nelly. Her narration
provides the internal narrative, which is focused in the past. Other characters
provide important narration through their dialogue to Nelly. By using Lockwood as
the external narrator, Bronte creates some distance from the events. Then, when
introducing Nelly's narrative, supported by the other characters' narratives, the
novel takes on the tone of a stage drama. All of the narrators are considered
unreliable, creating more intrigue around the suspenseful story.
Multiple Narratives
In addition to using multiple narrators, the novel also uses multiple narrative
devices. For example, Catherine provides significant narration through her diary,

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as does Isabella in a letter that she writers to Nelly. Each of these devices allows
the characters to provide extensive, first-person narration, which gives important
intimate details about the story. Catherine's narration reveals her conflicted feelings
about Heathcliff, showing his softer side. Meanwhile, Isabella's letter reveals the
lengths to which Heathcliff will go for revenge, revealing his darker nature. These
internal narrative devices help to provide more nuance into the already complex
series of events.
Time Shift
The shift between Lockwood and Nelly's narratives also represents a shift between
past and present. The novel starts in the present day, when Heathcliff appears to be
an irredeemable and evil man and Catherine is only a ghost, whether just haunting
Heathcliff's mind or physically haunting the manor, as he suggests. By starting in
the present day, the novel shows just how desperate the situation has become. The
reader knows from the start that the story will not end happily. This creates
suspense about how the events will unfold.
Gloomy Setting
The choice of setting is another significant narrative technique. The moors are
dark, stormy and gloomy, which reflects the tone of the story. The novel begins
and ends with gloomy circumstances. There are few moments of levity throughout,
and even those are overshadowed by a sense of foreboding, such as Catherine
knowing that she will never marry Heathcliff, even though she loves him. The
narrative's interior is just as stormy as the moors outside.
10. In what way is the concept of marriage central to Wuthering Heights?
Ans. Marriage in Wuthering Heights separates people who are in love and causes
misery to others. Bronte uses marriage to condemn patriarchal oppression.
The great tragedy of the novel is that its two most passionate lovers, Catherine
Earnshaw and Heathcliff, cannot marry because Heathcliff's position in life has
been so degraded. Catherine marries a man she likes, but does not love, for status,
safety, and wealth, but in the process breaks her own heart and Heathcliff's. Kind
as Linton is, he cannot compete with Heathcliff for Catherine's heart and soul—but
he can tyrannize over her by denying her access to Heathcliff. It doesn't take her
long to die, torn apart by her emotions.

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Cathy and Heathcliff’s relationship, arguably the strongest love and passion that
exists in the novel, never bears any fruit. Soon before Cathy’s death, Heathcliff
laments to Cathy, “Why shouldn’t you suffer? I do!” and further complains that he
will “writhe in the torments of Hell” upon her absence (168). Their love-hate
relationship typifies the love that can never be. Surely, these two stubborn, prideful
characters are partly to blame for their fate. Yet, I wonder if Bronte is also
criticizing British societal expectations for marrying within your own social class.
The most puzzling part of Cathy and Heathcliff’s relationship to me is its constant
fluctuation. They provoke each other, go through phases of hating each other,
seeking revenge (Heathcliff marries Cathy’s sister-in-law to spite her), but still
have an insatiable love for each other. To me, it seems completely unrealistic. I
wonder why Bronte would make such unrealistic relationships for the sake of her
credibility as an author.
In hopes of reconciling this tension the reading of the novel poses for me, I looked
to Charlotte’s editor’s preface. She explains that Emily was a generally kind person
but never sought intercourse with others and seldom experienced it. As far as we
know, Emily did not ever experience romantic love. Therefore, creating a novel
that revolved around multiple marriages proved an unfamiliar task. Also, Charlotte
notes that what Emily’s mind concluded about the people around her “was too
exclusively confined to those tragic and terrible traits of which, in listening to the
secret annals of every rude vicinage, the memory is sometimes compelled to
receive the impress”. Charlotte seems to think the negative images of marriage
Emily processed stuck with her and tainted her perception of romance and
marriage. If Emily had not been such a withdrawn and lonely soul, I cannot help
but wonder if Heathcliff and Cathy—or any other marriage in the novel, for that
matter—would have succeeded.
11. In what ways is Wuthering Heights a psychological novel?
Ans. Psychological interpretation of Wuthering Heights talks about relationships

between individuals and society. It can also be taken as a representation of society
where situations and vistas change thinking and mental actions of people. We will
use some Freudian theories while studying different characters and their
implication on society.

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According to Freud, there are three different kinds of mental processes that result
in three kinds of personalities. Those are Id, Ego and Superego.
Id is related to man’s animalistic instinctive and attitude. It seeks pleasure in pain

and roughness of life. According to Psychology, two most important characteristics
of id are pleasure and death principles or pain, which is also known as Thanatos. In
Wuthering Heights, Heath cliff represents all the qualities of id. His losses of
identity, untamed nature, and vengeful attitude towards society are all the traits of
id. Id shows primitive feelings of human beings and remains unaffected by time.
So is the case with Heathcliff. Until his death, his vengeful nature and his
desperation remain unchanged. He shows roughness of life, on which love has no
effect. It remains embedded in his unconscious which is also referred to as a ‘dark
continent’ in psychology, a continent where all the evils hide and justify
themselves.
Ego relates to society. It is said to be self-reliant and has an internal sense of right
and wrong. Full of emotions and excitement, ego is not wild as id. Catherine
possesses the characteristics of ego in Wuthering Heights. She knows what is right
and what is wrong and has space to accept or reject something. She tests the
patience if id (Heathcliff) and tries to keep a balance between id and superego,
which is Linton in this novel. It is said that ego has the capacity to improve and
when improved, it becomes superego. Because what one person (ego) thinks, right
and wrong, if coincides with the thinking of a larger group of people, it results in
society (superego). As we see, that when ego (Catherine) stays at superego’s
(Linton) for three months, she transforms into superego.
Superego, as discussed above, is society. It manifests the qualities of

sophistication, balance and proper behavior. It can never be wrong completely. It is
full of love and compassion and morality as well. Linton is portraying superego in
this novel, full of civilized culture, proper behavior. He is an educated person who
knows how to handle difficult situations and work hard. Unlike Heath cliff, which
is slave to his unconscious, Linton uses his conscious and judges all the situations
dispassionately.
This novel also shows the ‘alternation of generation’ quality i.e. in the next
generation, all the characters and their personas are altered. In the next young
generation, young Catherine has now improved to superego, Linton changes from
superego to ego and Hareton represents id.
12. Discuss Great Expectations as a Bildungsroman.

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Ans. A Bildungsroman is a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and

moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood (coming of age), in which
character change is important. The term comes from the German words Bildung
("education") and Roman ("novel") and can thus be translated into English as "a
novel of formation, education, culture; coming-of-age story"
The great expectations referred to in the title of Dickens's novel are entirely bound
up in the class system. When Jaggers meets with Pip and Joe, he describes Pip's
future thus:
I am instructed to communicate to him...that he will come into a handsome

property. Further, that it is the desire of the present possessor of the property that
he be immediately removed from his present sphere of life and from this place, and
be brought up a gentleman — in a word, as a young fellow of great expectations.
Pip has an exaggerated respect for money, as do several of his "gentleman" peers
and guardians. Pumblechook, by virtue of being one of the more wealthier
inhabitants of Pip's hometown, is as conceited as he is revered among the
townspeople. Estella ends up marrying Drummle, although he is of the rudest
disposition. Jaggers, famous for getting the most savage of criminals off the hook
(or out of the noose), cleans his hands of it with lemon-scented soap at the end of
every day. With his eye for portable property and collection of death tokens from
murderers and felons, Wemmick is perhaps most disturbing when he sheds his
London skin as he walks towards home. Joe and Magwitch, on the other hand,
repulse Pip because they lack social status, even though they are the ones who
enable him to reach maturity. As Stephen Wall points out, Joe is the meterstick by
which the reader judges Pip's outlook:
The Pocket household and the Finches of the Grove prove, morally speaking, poor
substitutes for the forge and the Three Jolly Bargemen. Pip's change of fortune
does not entirely blunt his moral perceptions, and this is why he can survive his
ultimate catastrophe.
Magwitch is that ultimate catastrophe, as he forces Pip to confront the hollowness

of his fashionable accomplishments and overall prosperity.
Yet the reader can sympathize with Pip's shortcomings, as Dickens includes
narrative concerning the formation of these prejudices. Although the reader cringes

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when Pip remarks to Biddy that “Joe is a dear good fellow...but he is rather
backward...in his learning and manners", the portrait of Pip's overbearing and
derisive sister, Mrs. Joe, looms large even after her assault. Curiously, despite Pip's
utter misery at her hands, he ends up espousing her biases about money and
respect. When she instills these ideas in him, he cannot maintain any self-respect.
By encouraging Pip to prostitute himself to Miss Havisham, Mrs. Joe not only
pushes him out of his home, but pushes him into a materialistic mindset. Estella
takes over from there, switching to the role of would-be lover instead of would-be
mother.
Estella is but one of many great disappointments for Pip. He desires her above all
else, Miss Havisham leads him to believe that he will have her, she eventually
marries Drummle. He desperately wants to become a gentleman, Jaggers magically
shows up to proclaim his fortune, he discovers that a murderer has been his
benefactor. He forsakes Biddy for being too provincial, at his sister's funeral he
chides her for insinuating that he might not return as often as he promises, and
when he finally sees the error of his ways and wants to make amends, she is newly
wedded to Joe. Each of these events is due to a misunderstanding on Pip's part
about the nature of society: that money is the best indicator of virtue. Even as Pip
witnesses Jaggers in court, attempting nothing short of raw intimidation, he feels
nothing but respect for the power Jaggers wields. This blindness leads Pip to
misinterpret the behavior of other characters so often that it borders on delusion.
Estella tells him over and over again that he should not become attached to her, yet
he believes in the love myth that Miss Havisham feeds him. Jaggers also warns
him against speculation with regard to his patron, and that Pip should on no
account expect hints of any sort from Jaggers. Pip then twists his interpretation of
Jaggers' gestures in such a way as to support his sadly mistaken idea that Miss
Havisham is his patron. Biddy never promised that she would wait for Pip, in fact
she reacts with disgust when he visits them, but his hubris conceals the source of
her dismay from him.
Pip's development climaxes when Magwitch returns. He is the ultimate paradox for
Pip: so wealthy that he could finance Pip's education as a gentleman, and yet a
dirty, uneducated, lower-class criminal. He is digusted by his patron, but still
bound to him not only by the money and power that he has become accustomed to,
but by his belief that money and power demand respect. He must first reconcile his
repulsion with Magwitch's riches; he comes to terms with the fact that not all
wealthy people are good people. More importantly, though, he realizes the
converse, that many good people are not wealthy. As the details of Magwitch's life

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come out, most notably that he is Estella's father, Pip's fear of Magwitch gradually
becomes a fear for Magwitch. When the river police arrest him, Pip sees
in the hunted wounded shackled creature,...only a man who had meant to be my

benefactor, and who had felt affectionately, gratefully, and generously, towards me
with great consistency through a series of years. I only saw in him a much better
man than I had been to Joe.
Even though Magwitch's riches are forfeited to to the Crown when he is convicted,
Pip nonetheless cares for him through the trial and to his death. Afterwards, Pip
endures his own serious illness. When he recovers, he has Joe to thank, and he
does thank him for a change. With this gesture, Pip conclusively relinquishes his
biases and is reborn into maturity.
13. How does Great Expectations subvert the idea of a fairy tale?
Ans. The fairy-tale theme in this novel is most apparent in its depiction of a rags-
to-riches situation with the character of Pip. Pip is born in humble, rural, working-
class surroundings but then catapulted to life as a well-to-do gentleman in London
on account of an unknown benefactor. This sudden social rise of a lowly, formerly-
despised figure is common to many fairy tales. Also consider Miss Havisham, who
appears witch-like, and Estella, the beautiful maiden; again, such characters are
staples of fairy-tales.
Of course, Dickens also gives the whole fairy-tale theme an ironic twist, when
Pip's wealth melts away; his fall is just as sudden as his rise. Also, unlike the usual
fairytale hero, he does not get the beautiful girl, Estella - at least not in the original
ending of the novel. Even the revised ending which Dickens came up with to
placate readers who were dissatisfied with this less-than-romantic outcome,
remains ambiguous.
Pip' fall from grace is seen to be mostly deserved, however. He does not develop
his character sufficiently as he ought; he becomes materialistic and condescending
towards his old friends, Joe and Biddy. He has to be punished for this. The
working out of a moral is also generally to be found in fairytales: the good
characters triumph, the wicked are punished. Pip is not good enough, so he has to
be humbled once more. There is no conventional happy-ever-after ending for him,
although he does learn his lesson, and is grateful for the chance he is given to start
over. This sense of thankfulness, once the great crisis in his life is past, is evident
when he returns to his old home:

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...my heart was softened by my return, and such a change had come to pass, that I
felt like one who was toiling home after distant travel, and whose wanderings had
lasted many years.
14. Explain social and gender concerns in Middlemarch.
Ans. George Eliot’s Middlemarch is set in a fictional Midlands town in the early
nineteenth century, an environment in which typical gender roles are very are
strictly enforced. While men are also expected to live up to gendered ideals,
Middlemarch mostly focuses on the way that such expectations are particularly
restrictive and suffocating for women. This is explored most notably through the
novel’s central character, Dorothea Brooke, who dreams of a grand, intense, and
meaningful life that is fundamentally incompatible with the role society has
prescribed for her. As a result, she becomes confused about what she really wants
and makes some bad life decisions that only serve to further isolate her from her
true self and desires. Through Dorothea, the novel implicitly critiques the
oppressive expectations society places on women. At the same time, however, it
also shows that any resistance is inherently limited, as alternative ways of living
for women at the time simply did not exist.
As a heroine, Dorothea is deeply sympathetic. She is ambitious, idealistic, free-

spirited, and kind, yet these admirable aspects of her personality make it difficult
for her to conform to the gender norms of the society in which she lives.
For example, she is “enamored of intensity and greatness,” fond of horse-riding,

and dreams of building cottages for tenant farmers so that they might live in better
conditions. These passions do not conform with societal expectations of women,
and thus although these dreams and impulses exist very strongly within her,
Dorothea feels ashamed of them and attempts to suppress them. She wants to
conform to a feminine ideal, which leads her to be highly self-critical and
continually make promises she doesn’t keep (such as her vow to give up horse-
riding).
Dorothea’s half-hearted attempt to suppress her own desires and personality leads
her to exist in a confused and self-contradictory state. This shows that gender roles
have the effect of alienating women from themselves.
Dorothea attempts to resolve the internal conflict she feels between her desires and
societal gender roles by marrying the much older Rev. Edward Casaubon. Because
Casaubon is a scholar working on a highly ambitious project on religious history

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(The Key to All Mythologies), she believes that she can access the “intensity and
greatness” she craves via him.
When Dorothea decides to marry Casaubon, the people around her are confused
and (accurately) predict that the marriage will not bring her happiness. They can
see what Dorothea herself cannot: she is both suppressing her own nature and
trying to achieve the impossible by living through her future husband. Dorothea
claims that she wants a husband who can be like a father to her and teach her about
things; however, as Mr. Brooke points out, she is a strong-willed person attached
to her own opinions. Marrying Casaubon is thus a recipe for disaster.
It is painful to witness Dorothea make such a patently bad life decision, which ends
up making her miserable. At the same time, the novel’s exploration of gender
norms shows that Dorothea’s decision to marry Casaubon is not made out of mere
foolishness. Rather, Dorothea is trapped by the conflict between her own impulses
and society’s expectations of her as a woman. The misery of her marriage to
Casaubon is only a symptom of this wider problem.
When Casaubon dies, Dorothea has a chance to reevaluate her life and, through her
second marriage to Will Ladislaw, ends up choosing a path that brings her far
greater happiness and fulfilment. This shows that it is better to stay true to oneself
than to attempt to conform to society’s restrictive ideals of how women should
behave. On the other hand, Dorothea’s ultimate fate as a housewife and mother
reminds readers that there is only so much women can do to resist gender roles in a
society that has so few rights, resources, and opportunities available to women.
Dorothea loves Will, but her own dreams—such as the cottages and “colony” she
planned to build for tenant farmers—remain unrealized at the end of the novel. The
narrator observes: “Many who knew her [Dorothea] thought it a pity that so
substantive and rare a creature should have been absorbed into the life of another,
and be known only in certain circles as a wife and mother. But no one stated
exactly what else that was in her power she ought rather to have done.”
This captures the difficulty of the situation Dorothea and other strong-willed
women of the time find themselves in. They desire a richer and more expansive life
than that of a wife and mother, but the reality is that there is basically no
alternative for them. Thus, even if they rebel against the gender norms of the era,
there is only so much that this rebellion can achieve.

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15. How do conflicting atttudes to money determine the relationship between

Lydgate and Rosamund in Middlemarch.
Ans. Middlemarch consists of an entire social network of intricate ties, and one
such classification of these relationships lies in the marriage that occur throughout
the text. In particular, the narrator discusses Rosamond Vincy and Lydgate’s
impending marriage in terms of a “gossamer web . . . made up of spontaneous
beliefs and indefinable joys, yearnings of one life towards another, visions of
completeness, indefinite trust” . As their marriage looms, these two young
individuals begin to weave an almost imperceptible “web” that links them together
in every which way, and their relationship functions as a microcosm of their
society, exhibiting the intricate nature of the ties that bind each and every character
in the story. Their union represents one of many, and it seems that their coming
together transcends Rosamond’s inherent egoism and exhibits her newfound ability
to move beyond herself and care for another. Her character has come far from the
beginning of the novel, in which she played on the affections of many men but
never committed to anyone, too busy seeking an outsider of their society with
whom to share eternity with than consider someone close in proximity and
experience.
Eliot goes so far as to comment that Rosamond and Lydgate’s engagement is so

clear and obvious that they do not even have to make any sort of public
announcement of their intention to marry. This leads to the implication that despite
the transparency and essential invisibility of these threadlike ties, the inhabitants of
Middlemarch understand the subtlety of these human relationships, and are
watching Lydgate and Rosamond weave their disparate lives into one of
togetherness. The reader’s attention is thus drawn to this “gossamer web,” and the
image of a spider weaving a web, with various overlaps and a multiplicity of
interconnectedness that defines the very nature of human bonds. The difficulty,
however, is that their marriage seems to fall into place far too easily; and the
critical reader questions whether or not it will be a lasting marriage of love, or will
burn out just as quickly as their hearts have become inflamed with passion for one
another.
16. Comment on Marlow’s shifting opinions in Heart of Darkness.
Ans. The "narrator" of Heart of Darkness is a little complicated to pin down. Most
of the novel is in the form of a story Marlow tells to a circle of colleagues, one of

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whom is the narrator, who, in turn, ostensibly "reports" what Marlow is saying. In
this sense, we never have any words from Marlow directly; everything he says is
reported to us by this first narrator. In a way, then, Marlow's tale is the narrator's.
This makes it hard to separate what the narrator might think about the story and
what purpose, if any, Marlow might have in telling it. The narrator remarks when
Marlow begins that "we were fated, before the ebb began to run, to hear about one
of Marlow's inconclusive experiences," suggesting first that Marlow was known to
tell stories like this and that they tended to be "inconclusive," which is another way
of saying "confusing" or even "pointless."
This kind of narrative setup raises all sorts of questions about the reliability of the
narrator and the information he gives us about Marlow and his story. Beyond that,
there is a sense in which Conrad's strategy is to circumvent his narrator in a way; to
the extent the reader becomes absorbed in Marlow's tale, she becomes another of
the circle listening to him aboard the Nellie, opening the narrator's attitudes about
Marlow and indeed the whole beginning of the book to interrogation.
17. Comment on the aptness of title Heart of Darkness.
Ans. The phrase “Heart of Darkness” has two meanings. Literally, the title refers
to the dark continent of Africa known as the Congo. “Heart of Darkness” is an
appropriate title for the novel because Marlow describes his experiences of the
interior region of the continent which was known as Congo. The events at the
beginning and at the close of the novel occur outside Congo but the major and the
most significant events of the story take place in the Congo and on the river
Congo. The savages really belong to the heart of darkness.
There are other features of the novel too, justifying the title “Heart of Darkness”.
One such feature is the description of the wild scenery of the thick, impenetrable
jungle, and the suggestive picture of the natives not fully visible to the white men
sailing over the river Congo. At one point in the novel Marlow says that sailing up
the river Congo was like traveling back to the earliest beginnings of the world. He
then refers to the great silence of the impenetrable forests where the air was warm,
thick, heavy and sluggish. Marlow perceived no joy in the brilliance of the
sunshine in that region. The long stretches of the water-way ran on into a mob of
wooded islands. One could lose one’s way on that river as one might lose one’s
way in a desert. The stillness prevailing there was not the stillness of peace but of a
relentless force brooding over some mysterious purpose. Now, a description of this

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kind occurs later when Marlow tells us that the night came suddenly and seemed to
strike him blind. Then, about three in the morning, Marlow heard a loud splash as
though a gun had been fired. When the sun rose, there was a white fog, very warm
and damp, and more blinding than the night. The fog remained there like
something solid. A little later in the morning the fog lifted as a shutter lifts.
Marlow then had a glimpse of the towering multitude of trees, of the immense
jungle, and of the blazing little ball of the sun hanging over it, all perfectly still.
And then the white fog came down again. There are other descriptive passages of
the same kind in the book, too.
The barbarism of the natives reinforces the effect of these descriptive passages and
intensifies the atmosphere of mystery and fear. Reading about the natives, we get
an even stronger impression that we are in the midst of darkness. On one occasion,
the natives, seeing Marlow’s steamer sailing up the river, draw near the river-bank
in order to launch an attack upon the intruders. Marlow on this occasion hears a
muffled rattle, then a very loud cry, as of infinite desolation. This cry gives rise to
a feeling of terror in the hearts of all the white men. Then the attack by the natives
actually begins. The white men then hit back by firing their rifles. In the fighting,
the helmsman of the steamer is killed with a spear hurled at him by a native. It is
the backwardness and the ignorance of the natives which creates the effect of
darkness. The natives have merely attacked the steamer because they have received
instructions to do so from their supremo, Mr. Kurtz. The personality of Mr. Kurtz
is very important because it is he who sums up the whole essence of the barbarism
and the savagery of the natives. Marlow has conveyed to us the demonic character
of Mr. Kurtz by the use of highly suggestive phrases. Instead of civilizing the
natives, Mr. Kurtz has himself become barbarian. Mr. Kurtz has begun to identify
himself with the savages. He has been presiding over their midnight dances which
always end with “unspeakable rites”. In Marlow’s opinion, Mr. Kurtz has taken a
high place among the devils of the land. He has been experiencing “abominable
satisfaction”, and he has been gratifying without restraint his “various lust”. In
short, Mr. Kurtz has become part of the darkness of the Congo.
The phrase “Heart of Darkness” has yet another meaning. It also stands for an

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exploration of the depths of Marlow’s own mind or soul. The human mind may
also be regarded as a kind of Dark Continent whose exploration is even more
difficult than the exploration of Congo. The book called “Heart of Darkness”
may be treated as a journey by Marlow into his own sub-conscious mind or into the
sub-conscious mind of all mankind. Marlow’s journey into the Congo is
metaphorically a psychological and anthropological might-journey. The book
called “Heart of Darkness” is symbolically the story of an essentially solitary
journey involving a profound spiritual change in the voyager. Marlow prepares us
for such a journey at the very outset. But it is, at the same time, a psychological
and mystical journey. Marlow also tells us indirectly that, by paying close attention
to the surface reality of the story and its external details, we would be able to arrive
at an inner meaning. Thus Conrad is here able to blend morality and adventure in a
unique manner, as he has done in some of his other novels as well.
There are many passages in the course of Marlow’s narration in which he gives us
glimpses of his own mind. At one point he tells us in explicit terms that he has
always hated and detested lies because he has always found a taint of death and a
flavour of mortality in lies. In the same context, Marlow also says that it is not
possible for any man to convey to others the life-sensation of any period of all
existence. He says:
“We live, as we dream – alone.”
At another point Marlow says that the mind of man is capable of anything because
everything is in it. In order to endure the stark realities of human life, a man should
possess an inner strength. What a man needs is a deliberate belief, at yet another
point in the novel, Marlow tells us of the effect on his own mind of the savage
sight of human skulls hanging from the tops of the posts fixed to the ground
outside Mr. Kurtz's residence. Later, Marlow tells us of the effect on his mind of
Mr. Kurtz’s arguments defending his action in slipping away from the ship’s cabin
into the jungle. Towards the end of the novel, Marlow tells us the working of his
own mind when several persons come to him, one after the other, claiming the
packet or papers and the photograph which, Mr. Kurtz had given him for safe
custody; and he also reveals to us the working of his mind when he goes the meet
Mr. Kurtz’s Intended. In all these cases, Marlow tells us not about his conscious
thoughts but also tries to probe his sub-conscious mind. This subconscious mind is
also the heart of darkness which Marlow or Conrad tries to explore.

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18. “Joyse uses epiphany and the stream-of-consciousness in A Portrait of the

Artist as a Young Man.” Discuss.
Ans. An omniscient narrative voice guides to the reader of A portrait of the Artist
as a Young Men through a continuous flow (many times without following the
chronological order of the events) of thoughts, opinions, feelings or fantasies of the
main character Stephen Dedalus, in a discourse that is frequently interrupted by
dialogues. The speed of this flow changes during the novel, slowing down as as it
progresses and Stephen gains more control over his thoughts. The first two
chapters skip months and years between paragraphs but in chapter three and
onwards the time length between paragraphs is shortened to hours and days.
James Joyce uses this form of narration (called “stream of consciousness”) mixing
associations, memories and others digressions of Stephen about moral and
ideological-politic issues, strengthening and adding complexity to the central plot
of the novel.
During most of the book the voice used is the third person, except on the final
section, which is composed of Stephen’s diary entries, that are narrated in the first
person by him. This transition from third-person narration to the first-person mark
the end of the novel, Stephen’s decides to break free of all nets that tied him and
once he has his own voice he chooses the only possible way to maintain it: exile.
Epiphany has also a particularly relevant presence in this novel, in fact it is

considered by many authors as an essential part of the Joyce esthetic theory.
Although there are many interpretations about the last meaning of this term, we
can associate it, in Joyce works, with a sudden revelation, a moment when an
ordinary object is perceived in a way that reveals a deeper significance.
The meaning of this term and its relevance for writing is addressed towards the end
of Stephen Hero, the unfinished draft of the autobiographical novel written by
James Joyce near 1904. In it Stephen Dedalus states that the function of writing is
“to record epiphanies with extreme care”…. In the same passage he defines the
epiphany as “a sudden spiritual manifestation, whether in the vulgarity of speech or
of gesture or in a memorable phase of the mind itself” (211). He believed that it
was the man of letters to record these epiphanies with extreme care, seeing that
they are the most delicate and evanescent of moments.
Epiphany term is nowhere mentioned literally in A Portrait of the Artist as a

Young Man, but it is present the term claritas, identified in Stephen Hero as the

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moment in which “the object achieves its epiphany” (213), a essential part of the
aesthetic of Stephen Dedalus who defined it saying that it is : “…the instant
wherein…the clear radiance of the esthetic image is apprehended luminously by
the mind which has been arrested by its wholeness and fascinated by its harmony
in the luminous silent stasis of aesthetic pleasure” .
Stephen’s epiphany has some things in common with other similar experiences as
for example a church epiphany or the moment of a scientific recognition, that is
related to the act of making manifest as a kind of truth.
19. Discuss the main principles of aesthetics put forward by stephen in A

Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.
Ans. Joyce's upbringing and education had much in common with that of the
fictional Stephen Dedalus in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Joyce's
parents were devout Catholics, and they sent him to Clongowes Wood College, a
Catholic boarding school in County Kildare, south of Dublin. Run by the Jesuit
order, this was considered the best Catholic school in Ireland. However, Joyce was
taken out of Clongowes Wood a few years later when his father suffered some
financial losses and the family's standard of living declined. After his family
moved to Dublin, Joyce enrolled at Belvedere College, a Jesuit day school, where
he was especially interested in poetry and languages.
The young man eventually becoming an artist in James Joyce's first novel, A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, is the Irish-born Stephen Dedalus. Set at the
turn of the twentieth century, the novel charts Stephen's preschool experience to his
university years, from an individual at the mercy of events to a person in control of
them and himself.
Childhood and School Years
A Portrait devotes the equivalent of only one page to Stephen's pre-school years.
The passage contains simple, childlike sentences skipping from subject to subject
like a child's attention diverted from object to object. In this short passage, Joyce
alludes on one level to Stephen's cultural, political, and familial influences, on
another to Stephen's primal joys and fears, and finally to figures of theme and
image recurring throughout the book.

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From here, the reader is catapulted several years into the future, to the time when
Stephen is a young man away at Clongowes, a Jesuit boarding school. The bulk of
this first chapter is devoted to Stephen's development from a fearful and confused
boy—twice knocked down by other boys—into a brave, confident student
successfully protesting to the rector that he, Stephen, has been unfairly beaten on
his palms by a prefect.
The school year is only broken up by Stephen's visit home for Christmas. A sole
event from the vacation is imparted: a religious dispute at the family's lavish
Christmas dinner. All participants are Catholics who favor Ireland's independence
from Britain. But while three men object to the Church's participation in politics,
one woman, Dante, believes religious involvement is righteous and that the Church
must be followed and respected in all matters. By the end of Chapter One, the
reader gleans an early version of Stephen's portrait. He is an Irish-Catholic boy
confused about language, politics, and religion. He stumbles and falls through
childhood, then picks himself up and stands tall before authority, his peers, and
himself.
The Girl with the Shawl
Home in Blackrock for the summer, playing, reading, and daydreaming, Stephen
increasingly views himself as different from others. That his family fortunes
plummet only worsens matters. Forced to pack up and move with his family to
Dublin, Stephen walks around the city—young, foolish, and no longer rich.
After a party he walks with an unnamed girl wearing a shawl to the streetcar. The
event passes by without even a kiss, yet the memory remains with Stephen
throughout the book. In Stephen's second year at the Dublin Jesuit school
Belvedere, he performs in a school production as the girl with the shawl watches.
His post-performance euphoria is overwhelming and only after running into town
and to the stables can the smell of urine and rotting hay bring him back to earth.
Later, Stephen rides with his father to Cork for an auction of his father's family
property. Listening to his father's advice and recalling childhood memories and
things old acquaintances say about his father, Stephen is struck dumb at the
distance between himself and his father, between himself and his surroundings, and
between his present self and his childhood. Stephen feels that he never had what
his father did, neither a boyhood of "rude male health nor filial piety." He views
himself as cold, detached from life, and lustful, drifting "like the barren shell of the
moon."

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In the final segment of Chapter Two, Stephen wins money from an essay contest
and tries—through gifts and loans—to reconnect himself with loved ones. The
scheme fails, however, and Stephen feels even more morosely detached and
lustful. One night, looking for connection, he wanders the more "hellish" and
grimy streets of Dublin and has sex with a prostitute.
Stephen Sins
Stephen's whoring lies uncomfortably on his mind. At the beginning of Chapter

Three, he feels guilty. While remaining convinced of his apartness from others,
Stephen is not yet ready to detach himself from the Church, especially from the
Virgin Mary, a figure he sees as compassionate. At a Catholic retreat for St.
Francis Xavier, students are asked to dwell on "last things": death, judgment,
heaven, and hell. After attending sermons on the physical and mental torments of
hell, Stephen emerges physically shaken. That evening he awakens from a
nightmare and vomits. Finally convinced of the enormity of his sin, Stephen
confesses, is relieved, and feels himself joyfully connected with all life, from the
muddy Dublin streets to a plateful of sausages. The next morning, fully confessed
and kneeling at mass, Stephen readies himself to be reborn.
Chapter Four opens with Stephen's immersion in the rituals of devotion and flesh
mortification. He begins to doubt his devotion and humility and is only able to
keep his doubts at bay by telling himself that at least he has amended his life.
Stephen's display of piety is not lost on the director of Belvedere, who asks
Stephen to become a Jesuit priest. Realizing he cannot lead a cloistered life,
Stephen arrives home to find that his family will once again be moving,
presumably because they are unable to pay the rent.
Next, Stephen is shown agitatedly waiting outside the university while his father
likely attends to business connected with Stephen's admission. No longer able to
wait, Stephen walks to the beach and reflects that, within him, art, nature, and
sensuality are gradually overshadowing religion. There is a sense now of Stephen's
increasing isolation amid a sea of humanity.
The Final Chapter
Leaving family and religion behind him, Stephen thinks about his courses,
classmates, and his increasing poverty. At the university he casually discusses
beauty with a dean, attends physics class, and finally meets friends for a political
gathering. At the meeting he refuses to sign a declaration for world peace, perhaps

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because he suspects the emptiness of the gesture and disrespects the classmates
who support it, and further, because over the declaration there is a framed picture
of the Russian Czar, a figure Stephen dislikes. Stephen's political independence is
driven home in a conversation in which he expresses his distaste for Irish
nationalism. Walking out on politics and into another discussion about beauty and
art, Stephen later writes a poem to the shawled girl of ten years ago. One evening
he stands watching migrating birds over the library, foretelling of his eventual
departure from Ireland. Finally, walking and talking with a friend, Stephen
declares his distance from family, nationality.
20. Discuss A Passage to India as a novel focusing on the East-West interface.
Ans. A Passage to India begins and ends by posing the question of whether it is
possible for an Englishman and an Indian to ever be friends, at least within the
context of British colonialism. Forster uses this question as a framework to explore
the general issue of Britain’s political control of India on a more personal level,
through the friendship between Aziz and Fielding. At the beginning of the novel,
Aziz is scornful of the English, wishing only to consider them comically or ignore
them completely. Yet the intuitive connection Aziz feels with Mrs. Moore in the
mosque opens him to the possibility of friendship with Fielding. Through the first
half of the novel, Fielding and Aziz represent a positive model of liberal
humanism: Forster suggests that British rule in India could be successful and
respectful if only English and Indians treated each other as Fielding and Aziz treat
each other—as worthy individuals who connect through frankness, intelligence,
and good will.
Yet in the aftermath of the novel’s climax—Adela’s accusation that Aziz attempted
to assault her and her subsequent disavowal of this accusation at the trial—Aziz
and Fielding’s friendship falls apart. The strains on their relationship are external
in nature, as Aziz and Fielding both suffer from the tendencies of their cultures.
Aziz tends to let his imagination run away with him and to let suspicion harden
into a grudge. Fielding suffers from an English literalism and rationalism that blind
him to Aziz’s true feelings and make Fielding too stilted to reach out to Aziz
through conversations or letters. Furthermore, their respective Indian and English
communities pull them apart through their mutual stereotyping. As we see at the
end of the novel, even the landscape of India seems to oppress their friendship.
Forster’s final vision of the possibility of English-Indian friendship is a pessimistic
one, yet it is qualified by the possibility of friendship on English soil, or after the
liberation of India. As the landscape itself seems to imply at the end of the novel,
such a friendship may be possible eventually, but “not yet.”

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The Unity of All Living Things
Though the main characters of A Passage to India are generally Christian or

Muslim, Hinduism also plays a large thematic role in the novel. The aspect of
Hinduism with which Forster is particularly concerned is the religion’s ideal of all
living things, from the lowliest to the highest, united in love as one. This vision of
the universe appears to offer redemption to India through mysticism, as individual
differences disappear into a peaceful collectivity that does not recognize
hierarchies. Individual blame and intrigue is forgone in favor of attention to higher,
spiritual matters. Professor Godbole, the most visible Hindu in the novel, is
Forster’s mouthpiece for this idea of the unity of all living things. Godbole alone
remains aloof from the drama of the plot, refraining from taking sides by
recognizing that all are implicated in the evil of Marabar. Mrs. Moore, also, shows
openness to this aspect of Hinduism. Though she is a Christian, her experience of
India has made her dissatisfied with what she perceives as the smallness of
Christianity. Mrs. Moore appears to feel a great sense of connection with all living
creatures, as evidenced by her respect for the wasp in her bedroom.
Yet, through Mrs. Moore, Forster also shows that the vision of the oneness of all
living things can be terrifying. As we see in Mrs. Moore’s experience with the
echo that negates everything into “boum” in Marabar, such oneness provides unity
but also makes all elements of the universe one and the same—a realization that, it
is implied, ultimately kills Mrs. Moore. Godbole is not troubled by the idea that
negation is an inevitable result when all things come together as one. Mrs. Moore,
however, loses interest in the world of relationships after envisioning this lack of
distinctions as a horror. Moreover, though Forster generally endorses the Hindu
idea of the oneness of all living things, he also suggests that there may be inherent
problems with it. Even Godbole, for example, seems to recognize that something—
if only a stone—must be left out of the vision of oneness if the vision is to cohere.
This problem of exclusion is, in a sense, merely another manifestation of the
individual difference and hierarchy that Hinduism promises to overcome.
21. Critically examine the symbols used in the novel A Passage to India .

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Ans. Forster is a distinguished novelist both in modern English and world

literature history. All his life, his main achievements are six novels and two
short story collections. His works ignite criticisms of different views, among
which individual relationships and the theme of separateness, of fences
and barriers are the main problems that the author always focuses on. After
the author’s two visits to India, the great novel A Passage to India (1924)
was produced, which continues his previous style, i.e. probing the problem
of personal relationship in a more complicated situation, and my article
aims at having a comparatively deeper discussion about the crisis of
human relationship in A Passage to India. Notably, it is a novel by E. M.
Forster set against the backdrop of the British Raj and the Indian
independence movement in the 1920s. In a word, it is a novel of cultural,
social, psychological, and religious conflict arising mainly from clashes
between India’s native population and British imperialist
occupiers. Altogether there are certain parts in this article highlighting on
the author’s philosophy, the imperialism, racialism and colonization in A
Passage to India from the perspective of symbolism.
The Use of Symbolism in A Passage to India:
As far as the definition goes, generally, the word ‘symbol’ stands for something
else, esp. a material object representing something abstract- Middle English
symbole, creed, from Old French, from Latin symbolum, ‘token, mark’, from
Greek sumbolon, ‘token for identification’ (by comparison with a counterpart).
From the viewpoint of literary & literary critical terms, it indicates an object,
person, idea, etc., used in a literary work, film, etc., to stand for or suggest
something else with which it is associated either explicitly or in some more subtle
way. E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India is painted with the colour of a wide range
of symbols.
1. The Marabar Caves:
The imaginary caves in A Passage to India are modelled by E. M. Forster on actual

caves about twelve miles from the city of Gaya in the state of Bihar. Nevertheless,
the actual caves are known as the Barabar Caves, not the Marabar Caves (Forster’s
fictional name for them). A Buddhist leader of the second century B.C, being
liberal of other religions, ordered workers to cut the caves from rock faces as holy

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places for monks of the Ajivika religion. There are four Barabar caves. Their even
inner walls maintain expanded echoes.
Forster’s A Passage to India is intense with the type of symbolic language that we
generally connect with poetry in spite of the deep political themes of the novel.
Forster depicts the manifestation of a blaze (in one of the more amazing passages)
against the extremely reflective shell of a Marabar cave:
“The two flames approach and strive to unite, but cannot, because one of them
breathes air, the other stone. A mirror inlaid with lovely colours divides the lovers,
delicate stars of pink and grey interpose, exquisite nebulae, shadings fainter than
the tail of a comet or the midday moon, all the evanescent life of the granite, only
here visible.“ (2.12.4)
The Marabar Caves stand for all that is unfamiliar about natural world. The caves
are older than anything else on the earth and represent emptiness and
meaninglessness—a factual void in the earth. They disregard both English and
Indians to act as guides to them, and their weird and wonderful attractiveness and
hazard disturb tourists. The caves’ strange feature also has the power to make
tourists such as Mrs. Moore and Adela face parts of themselves or the cosmos that
they have not formerly recognized. The all-reducing boom of the caves causes
Mrs. Moore to see the darker side of her mysticism—a declining promise to the
world of relationships and a growing ambivalence about God. Adela faces the
disgrace and humiliation of her understanding that she and Ronny are not in fact
attracted to each other, and that she might be attracted to no one. In this sense, the
caves both devastate meaning, in reducing all remarks to the same sound, and
expose or describe the unspeakable, the aspects of the universe that the caves’
visitors have not measured until now.
The Reverberation of the Cave
No matter what the sound is, e.g., sneezes, whistles, shouts, noise etc. return the
equivalent echo in the first of the Marabar Caves: boum, or a variation of it such as
ou-boum. This echo shows to ridicule the Hindu idea that the whole universe, and
everything in it, consists of a particular spirit, Brahman (not to be confused with
Brahmin or Brahma). Even the human soul, called atman by Hindus, is part of this
spirit. Therefore, a whistle is a sneeze and a sneeze is a soul, since all are
Brahman—that is, all are the same essence. The echo frightens Mrs. Moore
because she unclearly realizes that it symbolizes a power that decreases everything
to equality—a dull, bare sameness. Even biblical words that she had lived by

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become part of the Brahman and thus lose their meaning, as reported by the
narrator in the last paragraph of Chapter 14. Mrs. Moore thinks about the cave-
incident and tries to write a letter to her children, Stella and Ralph.
“[S]uddenly, at the edge of her mind, Religion appeared, poor little talkative
Christianity, and she knew that all its divine words from “Let there be Light” to
“It is finished” only amounted to boum. Then she was terrified over an area larger
than usual; the universe, never comprehensible to her intellect, offered no repose
to her soul . . . .”
After that, her experience in the cave troubles her, and she becomes bad-tempered
and sad. Her life and everything she believes in lose their meaning like the biblical
words. India had charmed her when she arrived in the country but now it drives her
back. Its interesting mystery has turned into the “muddle” spoken of by other
Britons. No, she does not curse the country and its people as Major Callendar and
Mrs. Turton do. Nor does she take Adela’s side against Aziz in the days leading up
to the trial. But, she can no longer tolerate India; it is too much for her. She decides
to leave; she does not even wait to give evidence for Aziz.
“Why should I be in the witness box?”
she later says to her son Ronny.
“I have nothing to do with your ludicrous law courts.”
The narrator then reports Heaslop’s thoughts:
“She was by no means the dear old lady outsiders supposed, and India had
brought her out in the open.”
She is oppressed by the Asian heat, her health declines and she dies on the ship and
becomes part of the huge barrenness of the Indian Ocean.
Adela Quested is captivated with India like Mrs. Moore when she arrives in the
country. But, she fears that its unrestrained variety will turn her into just another
pessimistic, disappointed Anglo-Indian if she marries Ronny Heaslop and becomes
an inhabitant of India. However, she sees a shine of optimism in Indian history,
especially in the person of the Mogul emperor Akbar (1542-1605), who ruled from
1556 until his death. He set up modifications (to unite the common people) that
centralized government functions. Furthermore, though he himself was a Muslim,
he encouraged conversation between people of all religions—Hindus, Muslims,

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Parsis, and so on—and even tried to begin a new religion that united parts of other
religions.
Adela asks Aziz in Chapter 14 about Akbar, “[W]asn’t Akbar’s new religion very
fine? It was to embrace the whole of India.” Aziz answers by saying that Akbar
was a great ruler and Akbar’s plan of a particular Indian religion was incorrect.
“Nothing embraces the whole of India, nothing, nothing, and that was Akbar’s
mistake.”
Adela then says,
“I hope you’re not right. There will have to be something universal in this
country—I don’t say religion, for I’m not religious, but something, or how else are
barriers to be broken down.”
She ends up saying that without a unifying power she would find it complicated as
an Anglo-Indian to “avoid becoming like them [Mrs. Turton and Mrs. Callendar].”
Afterward, she enters one of the upper caves alone and scratches a wall and hears
the echo. She later says that Aziz assaults her it is at this point. She struggles back
with her field glasses, escapes the cave, races through a field of cactuses that tear
her skin and insert needles in it, and returns to Chandrapore with Miss Derek. She
is confused, in a state of fright. She frequently hears the echo after her recovery.
But, she has no hint regarding its meaning unlike Mrs. Moore. When she asks the
old woman what it means, Mrs. Moore replies,
“If you don’t know, you don’t know; I can’t tell you.”
She fails to understand the sound and becomes like the other English men and
women who cannot understand Indians. She yet starts to question her own
insightfulness and starts to recognize that she has wrongly blamed Aziz. But,
Ronny and the others, who are using her as an tool to penalize the Indians,
influence her that she was correct about Aziz. However, she gathers the bravery at
the trial to confess that she was wrong and drops the charges. Then she leaves
India too. The leaving of Miss Quested and Mrs. Moore predicts the historical
British departure from India in 1947, which Forster may perhaps have seen as
unavoidable.
The Echo Representing a Hindu Resonance

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Certainly, the most unforgettable figure of speech in A Passage to India is

onomatopoeia: the boum echo in the caves. It calls to mind the om sound recited by
Hindus and Buddhists. “Encyclopaedia Britannica” says about this sound,
“The syllable Om is composed of the three sounds a-u-m (in Sanskrit, the vowels a
and u coalesce to become o), which represent several important triads: the three
worlds of earth, atmosphere, and heaven; the three major Hindu gods, Brahma,
Vishnu, and Siva; and the three sacred Vedic scriptures, Rg, Yajur, and Sama.
Thus, Om mystically embodies the essence of the entire universe. It is uttered at the
beginning and end of Hindu prayers, chants, and meditation and is freely used in
Buddhist and Jaina ritual also.”
Different critics have explained the three sections in diverse manners. Gertrude M.
White thinks that the splitting up of the novel into Mosque, Caves and Temple
match with thesis, antithesis and synthesis of the Hegelian dialectics. However, G.
D. Allen refuses her disagreement saying that the three sections stand for the ways
of work of knowledge and of love (as specified in Hindu philosophy) as well as
Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity. As said by Wilbur L. Cross, Forster has
attempted to portray “the native as he appears to himself, as he appears to the
British official and as he really is when his mind is revealed, presenting a
civilization which the West can disturb but will never acquire.” Whereas R. A.
Brower is of the view that “the communication between Britons and Indians, are
more generally the possibility of understanding relationships between say two
persons.”
However, most of these explanations are half-done and fall short to realize
Forster’s fundamental purpose. The fact is that the three sections symbolize the
three stages of man’s spiritual expedition. Forster had promoted the relationship of
the seen and the unseen in Howards End and he observes the dissimilar ways in
which this association can be best recognized. The unnoticed has an influence on
the social, spiritual, and emotional lives of the people and Forster looks for
establishing the way in which this influence is maintained best.
The Green Bird
Just after Adela and Ronny agree for the first time, in Chapter VII, to break off
their engagement, they notice a green bird sitting in the tree above them. Neither of
them can positively identify the bird. For Adela, the bird symbolizes the
unidentifiable quality of all of India: just when she thinks she can understand any
aspect of India, that aspect changes or disappears. In this sense, the green bird

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symbolizes the muddle of India. In another capacity, the bird points to a different
tension between the English and Indians. The English are obsessed with
knowledge, literalness, and naming, and they use these tools as a means of gaining
and maintaining power. The Indians, in contrast, are more attentive to nuance,
undertone, and the emotions behind words. While the English insist on labeling
things, the Indians recognize that labels can blind one to important details and
differences. The unidentifiable green bird suggests the incompatibility of the
English obsession with classification and order with the shifting quality of India
itself—the land is, in fact, a “hundred Indias” that defy labeling and understanding.
The Wasp
The wasp appears several times in A Passage to India, usually in conjunction with
the Hindu vision of the oneness of all living things. The wasp is usually depicted as
the lowest creature the Hindus incorporate into their vision of universal unity. Mrs.
Moore is closely associated with the wasp, as she finds one in her room and is
gently appreciative of it. Her peaceful regard for the wasp signifies her own
openness to the Hindu idea of collectivity, and to the mysticism and indefinable
quality of India in general. However, as the wasp is the lowest creature that the
Hindus visualize, it also represents the limits of the Hindu vision. The vision is not
a panacea, but merely a possibility for unity and understanding in India.
22. What are the issues raised by the author in The Prime of Miss Brodie.
Ans. The moral issue in this novel, set in the 1930s, is that although Miss Brodie
is a dedicated and competent teacher who does good for her chosen few students—
the "creme de la creme" in her view—she is a fascist.
It's never good to be a fascist, and especially not in Great Britain in the years
before World War II, when Germany posed an existential threat to the civilized
word. Yet Miss Brodie, who has been to Germany, admires the Nazi government
and the order it has imposed.
Her desire to identify an elite of superior girl students who receive special attention
and favor from her also smacks of fascism, with its emphasis on favoring and
privileging those who are considered "better" than everyone else.
Miss Brodie's tendency to idealize fascism and her inability to see its cold heart
make her a morally problematic character. Eventually, she is betrayed by one her
chosen girls and fired.

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Politics
It play a key role in 'The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie'. Miss Brodie is, from the start
of the novel, understood to be a great admirer of Fascism. She has pictures of
Mussolini, the Italian fascist dictator, in her classroom and talks about him in only
highly positive terms to her students. Her beliefs are unique among teachers at the
school who think that she is wrong to praise a dictator, especially in front of young,
impressionable students. This conflict between Miss Brodie and other staff
members and some parents is one of the most important conflicts in the novel
overall.
Sexuality and Lesbianism
In recent years, critics have looked at the novel through the lens of sexuality and
what they have found is particularly interesting. The setting of the novel is an all-
girls school in Edinburgh and the interactions between Miss Brodie and her
students suggest that their relationships are not entirely free of the possibility of
eroticism or sexual attraction. Miss Brodie also manipulates her students' sexuality.
For example, she is fixated with the idea that Rose, one of her most special
students, should have an affair with a married male art teacher, Mr Lloyd, instead
of her having an affair with him.
Education
What is the point of education? Can education go too far? These are two questions
that Spark forces the reader to ask themselves as they read the novel. Miss Brodie
emphasizes the importance of the classical languages, travel and experiences in
educating oneself about the world. Her education also involves praising a dictator
to teenage students and not acknowledging the reality of life under dictatorship,
something that a lot of readers will feel uncomfortable about. Aside from the
classroom, Miss Brodie's approach to education as something that should happen
everywhere includes education about sex and romance, something a lot of her
colleagues disagree with.
23. Discuss the autobiographical elements in the novel The Prime of Miss
Brodie.
Ans. The story takes place in the 1930s in Edinburgh, Scotland, and follows the
life of 6 young girls and their teacher, Miss Brodie. Miss Brodie was the girls
teacher for two years during their time in Junior School and chose the 6 girls,

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Sandy, Rose , Mary, Jenny, Monica and Eunice, to be part of her elite group “The
Brodie Set” and, as Brodie puts it, the “crème de la crème.”
Throughout the novel, Brodie continues to tell the girls that she is in her “Prime”
and that they are benefitting from this more than any one else. She, however, is a
very manipulative and physoclogically damaged person, and tries to change the
world around her to make it into what she sees as right. This leads to her becoming
even more lost in her own imagination and self.
The only one in the entire novel that can truly analyze and see the issues arising
through the course of the book is Sandy, the one who is the most like Miss Brodie
in the first place.
This book is written in a way that I personally have never read before. Not written
in the traditional sequential style of books, it is written in a series of flashbacks and
flash forwards, primarily to the times when the girls were 10, 16, and adults. It
jumps around constantly and does not give warning before doing so. This caused
me to personally get lost several times when I was in the first stages of this book.
This novel also happens to be a very physiological book. The book uses many
Freud references, such as the use of hats to display ones identity and the ideas of
Ego, Super Ego and Id. The book also heavily deals with the political movements
of the era, such as Fascism and the Spanish Civil War.
Partially based on the life of Christina Kay, one of Spark’s teachers during her high
school years in Scotland, this book has some autobiographical elements,
comparing Kay with Brodie and Spark with Sandy.
This novella has been adapted for the stage, film and TV and all fall under the
name The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. In the 1969 film adaption, Maggie Smith
stars as none other than Miss Jean Brodie herself.
Though when I originally started this book, I did not care for the plot or any of the
characters, I found that after analyzing the phycology behind the book, that I enjoy
this story much more than I had ever anticipated. It is the type of novel when you
must remember all of the elements, no matter how small to bring the entire story
together at the end.
24. Do you agree with the view that The Prime of Miss Brodie is a symbol of
non-conformity?

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Ans. Miss Brodie, with her dark Roman profile, is a charismatic but unorthodox
teacher at the Blaine Junior school. She doesn’t instruct her girls in history and
arithmetic, say, so much as she shares with them poetry, makeup tips, the virtues of
fascism, her own romantic history and the like. Although she is a woman of culture
and even has something of an artistic nature, Miss Brodie can also be dogmatic,
manipulative, and cruel. Just as the predestining God of Calvinism elects the few to
salvation, so does Miss Brodie elect six of her pupils to become her special girls,
girls whom she develops culturally and confides in, and who in turn loyally admire
her—these six girls make up the “Brodie set”. Miss Brodie’s power over those
around her—not just her pupils but also the men in her life—stems in part from her
feeling that she is in her prime, that is, at the height of her charisma both sexual
and otherwise. Indeed, she loves the Blaine art teacher Mr. Lloyd and he loves her,
but, as he is married, Miss Brodie renounces her love for him, becoming intimate
instead with the singing teacher Mr. Lowther. Nonetheless, she subtly grooms the
instinctual Rose Stanley to have a love affair with Mr. Lloyd as her proxy, and she
grooms her favorite, the insightful Sandy, to serve as her informant in regards to
the affair. In this way, Miss Brodie plays God, determining the course of fate. But,
in the end, all of Miss Brodie’s plots go awry: it is Sandy, not Rose, who ends up
sleeping with Mr. Lloyd, and it is Sandy who betrays Miss Brodie to the Blaine
headmistress, for Miss Brodie in her enthusiasm for fascism encouraged a Blaine
student named Joyce Emily to fight in the Spanish Civil War. So it is that Miss
Brodie is forced into retirement, a pale memory in the minds of her special girls
save Sandy, who both recognizes that Miss Brodie had an enlarging effect on her,
but also doubts whether Miss Brodie was worthy of her loyalty.
MEG 04 FINAL NOTES

1. What are the characteristics that distinguish human language
from other animal systems of communication?

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Language is one of the most remarkable characteristics that separates humans from
other animals. Despite the many remarkable abilities of non-human animals, and
despite the hopes and dreams of many animal lovers, animals do not have language
like humans do—but they do have basic ways of communicating with each other,
which we’ll explore later in the episode. In addition, no animal is able to acquire
human language. Like many urban legends, such myths are widespread! Let’s start
with a few animal communication systems; then, with what makes human
languages different; and finally.
Animal communication systems are both interesting and impressive, but very
limited in what they are able to express. Some animals seem to “talk” to each
other, leading people to believe that because we can’t understand animals, they
may have a language as complex as ours. Yet, this is not in fact the case. We are,
however, able to research and uncover much of what animals express to each other.
For example, you may have heard that bees can do a communicative dance to
convey the approximate location and even the general quality of a food source.
However, bees have no options to “talk” about any other subjects. We know this
because of experiments that made honeybees walk back to their nests. These bees
described how long they traveled to get home—indicating a very far-away food
source—but they weren’t able to explain that they had not flown back or what had
happened.
Another example is research using spectrograms to measure the amplitude and

sound frequency of dog barks. This research shows that dog barks can be divided
into sub-types that express different emotions such as wanting to play vs. greeting
other creatures. However, it can’t confirm for certain any consistent meanings
behind the sub-types of barks, or even that dogs perceive differences. Other
research does find an array of emotions that dog barks express, including distress
calls, protests, play, threats, and warnings. But, as we’ll see shortly, this repertoire
is a fraction of that of human language.
A third example is spiders, which have an intricate systems of courtship, including

both visual and auditory cues like dancing, vibrating, thumping, and signaling.
These cues vary, depending on whether the prospective female is in or out of her
nest, and can also be used to communicate aggressive emotions to other male
spiders. .Yet, the gentleman spider’s mating ritual is fixed; it only has one way to
explain itself to the lady spider. In contrast, the thought of humans having only one
single sentence to express affection for another would be very peculiar.

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A way to sum up what these examples have in common is to say that they are
stimulus controlled. Animals communicate when prompted to by stimuli like
hunger, danger, and other immediate circumstances, but they do not have
communicative choices, like people do. When we experience an environmental
stimulus like someone accidentally running into us, we may shriek in pain
inadvertently, but we have speaking options too, such as “Look where you’re
going!” or “It’s OK—my fault,” or “Fancy running into you here!”
It is true that we have not tested the communicative competency of every animal
out there. However, the nature of human language and cognition are such that
linguists aren’t holding their breath for the discovery of an animal communication
system that even approaches human-language complexity or spontaneity. Human
language is located in the language-centers of the brain, and these aren’t shared by
animals.
2. Discuss the difference between European and American

structuralism in detail.
To begin, in looking at the origin of the term ''structure'' one finds that the term
initially had an architectural meaning. It referred to ''the action, practice, or process
of building or construction'' and ''the way in which an edifice, machine, implement
is made or put together.'' The application of the notion of structure to language and
the social sciences in general came from developments in the field of linguistics
through the seminal Course in General Linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure, the
founder of structural linguistics.
In order to understand the nature of Structuralism we must look at some key

notions in Course in General Linguistics. For Saussure language studies should be
done synchronically, that is absence of time in language studies. And he thought
that language is composed of arbitrary signs. And in the General Linguistics he
developed a scientific model for language.
Saussure distinguished between language and speech. For language he said

'Langue' and for human speech he said 'parole.' In regard of this he proposed
following:
''Taken as a whole, speech, is many-sided and heterogeneous; straddling several

areas simultaneously - physical, physiological, and psychological- it belongs to the
individual and to society; we cannot put it into any category of human facts for we
cannot discover its unity.'' (2)

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His syntagmatic & paradigmatic, synchrony & diachrony, langue & parole
dichotomies and his thoughts on signs were very challenging and revolutionary in
linguistics. Also his phoneme studies paved the way for future phonetic studies .
After him many schools continued his synchronic and structural view and
developed his theories.
After his death we see many diversifications in Europe. So here we can talk about
the main structural characteristics in Europe.
After his death his students Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye founded
Geneva School. This school maybe the most close ecole to the Saussure's views
because Bally and Sechehaye are followers of their mentor.
In 1926 Linguistic Circle of Prague was founded by Vilem Mathesius. This school
involves Roman Jacobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy. Their method was again
structural method but this time they gave attention to folkloric texts and poems.
Also they studied phoneme. They slighlty changed Saussure's previous views and
adjust it to their studies. But main characteristic was synchronic studies.
Then we see a structural movement in Scandinavia. Here Copenhagen School was

founded by Louis Hjelmslev along with Hans Urdall. Here structuralism took a
different shape. They produced an algebraic theory. Theory's name is
Glossematics. So Copenhagen School's theories were far more abstract than other
school's. They see the minimum structure of a word as glosseme.
Else where Daniel Jones and J.R. Firth established British Structuralism. British
Structuralism's main focus was meaning. They cared for meaning very much. The
most famous one who deals with meaning was Bronislaw Malinowski and
Halliday. This school also extended the notion phoneme.
Situation in Europe
At the beginning of 20th century language studies shifted from diachrony to

synchrony with the great contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure. Linguistic value
and signs were important novelties. Language was begun to study in itself for
itself. Outer influences on texts were disregarded. After Saussure there emerged
many schools and these schools contributed synchronic language studies greatly.
Textuality, literary aspect of language, communication models, phonemes were
studied by these schools.

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Now we have come to America. Language studies in America also shifted to

structuralism approximately at the same time. In America Structuralism can be
started with Franz Boas (1858-1942) Other important names are Edward Sapir
(1884-1939) and Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949) Generally Structuralism in
America can be divided into two movement one is rationalism led by Boas and the
other one behaviorism led by Bloomfield.
There are some differences between American Structuralism and European

Structuralism. But why? First of all languages spoken in Europe had been studied
throughout the history. These languages' grammar rules and structures had been
determined. Also these languages had written documents. So it was needless to
analyze them again. So besides languages' structures, some theories regarding the
nature of language was put forward. But in America linguists and ethnologists
faced different communities that is Indic People. So before comparing these
language with English they had to determine their rules and grammar structures
first. So as to do this they had to describe these languages patterns. That is the most
important difference between European and American Structuralism.
In European Structuralism language studies were carried on abstract level. For

instance Langue-Parole distinction syntacmatic-paradigmatic distinction, concepts
seen as abstract units and so forth. But in America linguists didn't have time to deal
with these abstract notions because they needed to describe Indic languages.
So we can say in American Structuralism language studied applicatively. But

in Europe mainly theoretically.
Another distinction is that in America linguist had to study language hand in hand
with culture. We cannot separate language from culture. And in America new
cultures appeared so linguist and anthropologists tried to examine the relationship
between language and culture. From there the great theory of Linguistic Relativism
appeared because of this approach. In Europe there were no very different cultures
and language was studied on its own.
In European Structuralism paradigmatic and contrastive relationships were highly

regarded. But in America Syntagmatic relations were deemed.
Lastly in Europe one language theory or one model was tried to apply every
European Languages but in America for every Indic language different schemas
was tried to apply in order to get more accurate analysis

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
3. What is meant by derivational morphology? Explain the

classification of derivational affixes in detail.
Derivational morphology is concerned with forming new lexemes, that is, words
that differ either in syntactic category (part of speech) or in meaning from their
bases. Derivation is typically contrasted with inflection, which is the modification
of words to fit into different grammatical contexts. Words formed by derivation are
complex in the sense that they typically have a base or root that has been modified
in some systematic way to form a new word. The most widespread of techniques
for derivation is affixation, the addition of prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes,
and so on, but new words are often formed by other means such as reduplication,
internal modification or rearrangement of consonants and vowels, or by subtraction
of segments. Languages frequently have means of derivation that form agents,
patients, or locations from verbs or other syntactic categories, or verbs of various
sorts from nouns or adjectives. Adjectives may be formed from either nouns or
verbs. Words may also undergo derivation that does not change their category but
rather modifies their meaning, maintaining category. So, adjectives, nouns, or
verbs may be negated, concrete nouns can be made abstracts or collectives, verbs
may be made transitive or causative.
Types of Derivational Affixes
Derivational affixes are subdivided into two groups: class-changing and class-
maintaining. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class to which
they are added. Thus, the verb achieve and the suffix –able create an adjective
achievable. However, class-maintaining derivational affixes do not change the
word class but change only the meaning of the word; for example, the noun adult
and the suffix –hood create another noun adulthood, but now it is an abstract noun
rather than a concrete noun. Class-changing affixes, when added to the stems,
immediately change the class of the words, making them alternatively as a verb, a
noun, an adverb, or an adjective. Therefore, derivational affixes determine or
govern the word class of the stem. For instance, nouns may be derived from verbs
or adjectives; adjectives may be derived from verbs and nouns; adverbs -- from
either adjectives or nouns; and verbs may be derived from nouns or adjectives.
English class-changing derivations are mostly suffixes. Noun-derivational affixes,
which are also called nominalizers.

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
Verb-derivational affixes, also known as verbalizers, are used to coin verbs from
other classes of words. Although verbs are used to form other classes of words,
they are not readily formed from other parts of speech.
Adjective derivational affixes, or adjectivizers, are used to form adjectives mostly

from the nouns and rarely from the verbs.
Adverb-derivational affixes, or adverbializers, are affixes which help form adverbs

frequently from adjective and rarely from the nouns.
Class-maintaining derivations refer to those derivations which do not change the

class of the stem to which they are added but change its meaning. Unlike class-
changing derivations, which are mainly suffixes, class-maintaining derivations are
prefixes and suffixes.
Stress and Tone Placement
Sometimes a base can undergo a change in the placement of stress or tone to reflect
a change in its category. There are some pairs of words in English in which a verb
has a stress on the final syllable, while a corresponding noun is stressed on the first
syllable.
Compounding
Compounding is a word-forming process which coins new words not by means of

affixation but by combining two or more free morphemes. Compounding is a
productive word-formation process. Actually, the parts of compound words may be
only free morphemes, or the combination of free and bound morphemes.
Compounds have more than one root, e.g., girlfriend, textbook, classmate, and
others. Compounding is highly productive in the English language. It can be found
in all the major lexical categories, such as nouns, adjectives, and verbs, but nouns
are the most common type of compounds. The second element of a compound is
usually the head, which carries the lexical meaning and determines the category of
the entire word, whereas the first element only modifies the second element. For
example, greenhouse is a noun just as house is. In addition, compounding can
interact with derivation, e.g., abortion debate, in which the first word is derivation.
Compounds consisting of two roots are the most numerous in the English
language. Here are some examples of compounds, where nouns are initial
elements: air (air-bed, air-brake, airbus, air-cell, air-conditioner, and others), arm
(armchair), door (doorbell, doorjamb, and doormat), hand: (handball, handcar,

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
and handcraft), eye: (eyeball, eyelash, eyeliner, eyesore, and eyewitness), heart
(heartache, heartburn, and heartbreak), moon (moonbeam, moonboot, and
moonlight).
The process in which a suffix is added to a word and changes its part of
speech. For example, taking the verb swim, and adding the derivational suffix
-er, turns the verb swim into the noun swimmer.
4. Outline the grammatical changes from Old English to Modern

English .
In this brief introduction to the subject, we can look at the history of a language in
two main ways:
Externally – where, why and by whom the language was used; the political and
social factors causing change
Internally – the pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and written appearance of the

language; the motivations for change arising from the structure of the language
itself.
The Old English –(OE) This period can be regarded as starting around AD 450,
with the arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) in southern
Britain. They brought with them dialects closely related to the continental language
varieties which would produce modern German, Dutch and Frisian.
This Germanic basis for English can be seen in much of our everyday vocabulary –
compare heart (OE heorte), come (OE cuman) and old (OE eald) with German
Herz, kommen and alt.
Many grammatical features also date back to this time: irregular verbs such as
drink ~ drank ~ drunk (OE drincan ~ dranc ~ (ge)druncen) parallel German
trinken ~ trank ~ getrunken. Similarly, many OE pronunciations are preserved in
modern spellings e.g. knight (OE cniht, German Knecht), in which k would have
been pronounced and gh sounded like ch in Scots loch.
However, Latin, introduced to Britain by the Romans, and reinforced in its

influence by the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity during the 7th
century, had a significant impact, providing both vocabulary (e.g. master, mass,
school) and the basis for the writing system.

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OE was mostly written using the Latin alphabet, supplemented by a few Germanic
runic letters to represent sounds not found in Latin e.g. þ, which represented the th
sounds in thin or this. (A relic of þ survives as y in modern signs like Ye Olde Tea
Shoppe.)
Norse influence may also have contributed to an important grammatical change,

which mainly occurred in English between the 11th and 14th centuries, and which
marked the transition to Middle English (ME) (conventionally dated c.1100-
1500). OE had indicated many grammatical categories and relationships by
attaching inflections (endings) to word roots, in a similar way to Latin or German.
Thus, in the OE clause wolde guman findan ‘he wanted to find the man’, the –e on
wolde indicates a 3rd person singular subject: ‘he wanted’; the –n on guman
indicates that ‘the man’ is the object, not the subject of the verb; and the –an on
findan indicates an infinitive: ‘to find’.
In ME, changes in the pronunciation of unstressed syllables, mainly occurring at

the ends of words, caused most inflections to merge indistinguishably, or be
dropped altogether. This inflectional breakdown could have created ambiguity (e.g.
wanted man find), but speakers compensated by using more rigid word order
(subject – verb – object, usually), among other strategies.
Another important feature of the early ME period was the influence of Norman
(and later, central) French, following the Norman conquest of 1066. French
dominance and prestige in such contexts as the royal court, law, the church and
education encouraged extensive borrowing of vocabulary e.g. French words for
farmed animals pork, beef and mutton (modern French porc, bœuf and mouton)
were adopted alongside native words swine, cow and sheep.
The borrowed words came to signify only the meat of these animals, mainly eaten
by wealthier French speakers, whereas the words inherited from OE came to refer
only to the living animals. Norman scribes also influenced the way English was
written, respelling words using conventions from French; thus OE îs became ice,
cwçn became queen.
However, by the 14th and 15th centuries, French influenceBritain had begun to
wane, being replaced for many purposes by English.
An example of Middle English text can be seen in the start of Chaucer’s

Canterbury Tales (manuscript early 15th century)

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Modern English (ModE) can be regarded externally as starting with the

introduction of printing. Caxton’s selection of an East Midlands/London variety of
English for the first printed books at the end of the 15th century contributed to the
development of a standardised variety of the language, with fixed spelling and
punctuation conventions and accepted vocabulary and grammatical forms.
The perception of this standard variety as correct, ‘good’ English was also
supported by attempts at codification, notably Johnson’s dictionary and many
prescriptive grammars of the 18th century. The vocabulary of English was
consciously elaborated as it came to be used for an increasing variety of purposes,
including translations of classical works rediscovered in the Renaissance, a
burgeoning creative literature, and the description of new scientific activities.
Thousands of words were borrowed from Latin and Greek in this period e.g.
education, metamorphosis, critic, conscious.
An internal feature which characterised the movement towards ModE was the
Great Vowel Shift – an important series of linked pronunciation changes which
mainly took place between the 15th and 17th centuries. In ME, the sound system
had contained broadly corresponding series of long and short vowels, represented
in writing by the same letters.
For instance, the vowel in caas ‘case’ was simply a longer version of the vowel in
blak ‘black’; similarly mete ‘meat’ (long vowel) and hell (short vowel), or fine
(long) and pit (short). In early ModE, people began to pronounce the long vowels
differently from the corresponding short vowels: long e ended up sounding like
long i, leaving a gap in the sound system; this was filled by shifting the
pronunciation of long a to sound like long e, and so on.
These changes were not reflected in ModE spelling, already largely fixed by
standardisation, adding to the disparity between pronunciation and writing which
differentiates English today from most other European languages.
In the present day, English is used in many parts of the world, as a first, second or
foreign language, having been carried from its country of origin by former colonial
and imperial activity, the slave trade, and recently, economic, cultural and
educational prestige.
It continues to change at all linguistic levels, in both standard and non-standard

varieties, in response to external influences (e.g. modern communications
technologies; contact with other world languages) and pressures internal to the

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language system (e.g. the continuing impulse towards an efficient, symmetrical

sound-system; the avoidance of grammatical ambiguity).
We need not fear or resist such change, though many people do, since the
processes operating now are comparable to those which have operated throughout
the observable and reconstructable history of English, and indeed of all other
languages.
5. What are the main principles of Generative –syntax? Discuss.
Generative syntax is a major subfield of generative grammar, an outgrowth of

American structuralism in its insistence on rigorous formal modeling of linguistic
patterns. Generative syntax breaks with the structuralist tradition by attaching no
significance to discovery procedures and by not seeing accurate description of
individual languages as the ultimate goal of linguistics. Rather, the goal is to
extract cross-linguistic commonalities in order to characterize a core system of
grammar shared by all natural languages. This core system, called Universal
Grammar, is seen as a system of primitives and principles that determine how these
primitives can be put together to form complex linguistic structures by recursive
structure-building operations that will construct an infinite set of sentences and
characterize the relations between them. The most interesting and controversial
feature of generative grammar lies on the conceptual side.
By seeing Universal Grammar as rooted in an innate language faculty specific to

humans, generative grammar places the study of language within the cognitive
sciences. Since its inception in the 1950s, the generative theory of syntax has
spawned a number of approaches that differ from one another with respect to many
theoretical assumptions but still seem to agree that natural language syntax is
rooted in a species-specific cognitive capacity dedicated to language. These
various theoretical developments can be grouped into two major categories for
expository purposes. On the one hand, lexical-functional grammar (LFG) and
head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) develop architectures sufficiently
different from that of Chomskyan generative syntax to be regarded as distinct
branches of the generative enterprise. On the other hand, five different stages can
be identified within the line of development that has continued to be informed by
Noam Chomsky’s own work.
The research questions that arise concern both the internal organization of the
syntactic component (levels of representation) and the interaction between syntax
and other components of grammar, such as morphology, phonology, and

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semantics. These questions are intimately linked to the effort to isolate the essential
properties of syntactic structures and of the syntactic operations and the general
principles that govern their application.
Generativists adopt a lot of the structuralist notions of system, but their goal is
distinct: Not merely to understand linguistic systems, but to use linguistic systems
to understand how human minds work and develop. So the generativist asks
questions like “What does a speaker know?” and “How does the speaker come to
know it?”
The question of what a speaker knows leads to the grammar. As a speaker of
English, you know certain things that permit you to build grammatical sentences in
English, and to parse and understand grammatical sentences of English. These
things also allow you to know when a linguistic structure is not grammatical in
English.
So what is a language under this approach? Focus on the people, and you’ll see.
Each of us knows something that allows us to speak our language. That something
is built out of a tiny kernel called “Universal Grammar,” which we all share at
birth, plus the actual languages we’re exposed to, which we develop in childhood.
The latter relies on vast experience, and every person’s experience will be slightly
different. Consequence: Every person will have a distinct “language” all to
themselves. Now, me and my family members have distinct languages, but our
languages are all so close to each other that we understand each other without any
problem. That is, we “speak the same language.” Chomsky suggests looking at
these as separate phenomena: The I-language (for “individual”) is an actual set of
knowledge that each of us knows, and the E-language (for “external”) is a
linguists’ construct that ‘averages’ over idealized versions of I-languages. The E-
language is close to what Saussure called a langue, although unlike a langue it is
not accessed by speakers (who access their own I-language).
Another consequence of the generative view of language as acquired knowledge is
an emphasis on process rather than structure. For generativists doing analysis, the
structure is simply the first step to uncovering how the structure was built. Indeed,
the name generative reflects the notion that a speaker generates an expression
using lexical items and well-defined recursive rules of structure building. These
rules keep turning up in languages around the world, while others never do, and
this has led many generativists to believe that there is a limit to the kinds of rules
that are possible; this limit being a part of Universal Grammar.
6. Discuss with examples how new words are formed in English.

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Ans. In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes
contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary
between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define as a new use of an old
word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form.
Coinage
Coinage is a common process of word-formation in English and it is the invention of totally new
terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for one company´s product which
become general terms (without initial capital letters) for any version of that product.
For example: aspirin, nylon, zipper and the more recent examples kleenex, teflon.
This words tend to become everyday words in our language.
Borrowing
Borrowing is one of the most common sources of getting new words in English. That is the
taking over of words from other languages. Throughout history the English language has adopted
a vast number of loan words from other languages. For example:
• Alcohol (Arabic)
• Boss (Dutch)
• Croissant (French)
• Piano (Italian)
• Pretzel (German)
• Robot (Czech)
• Zebra (Bantu)
A special type of borrowing is the loan translation or calque. In this process, there is a direct
translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. For example: Superman, Loan
Translation of Übermensch, German.
Compounding
The combining process of words is technically known as compounding, which is very common
in English and German. Obvious English examples would be:
• Bookcase
• Fingerprint
• Sunburn
• Wallpaper
• Textbook
• Wastebasket
• Waterbed

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Blending
The combining separate forms to produce a single new term, is also present in the process of
blending. Blending, takes only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other
word. For instance, if you wish to refer to the combined effects of smoke and fog, there´s the
term smog. The recent phenomenon of fund rising on television that feels like a marathon, is
typically called a telethon, and if you´re extremely crazy about video, you may be called a
videot.
Clipping
Clipping is the process in which the element of reduction which is noticeable in blending is even
more apparent. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form,
often in casual speech. For example, the term gasoline is still in use but the term gas, the clipped
form is used more frequently. Examples
• Chem.
• Gym
• Math
• Prof
• Typo
Backformation
Backformation is a very specialized type of reduction process. Typically a word of one type,
usually noun, is reduced to form another word of a different type, usually verb. A good example
of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into ude and then the
term televise is created form it.
More examples:
• Donation – Donate
• Option – Opt
• Emotion – Emote
• Enthusiasm – Enthuse
• Babysit – Babysitter
Conversion
Conversion is a change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be used
as a verb without any reduction. Other labels of this very common process are “category change”
and “functional shift”. A number of nouns such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation and so on, can
via the process of conversion come to be used as verbs as in the following examples:
• My brother is papering my bedroom.

• Did you buttered this toast?

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• We bottled the home brew last night.
Acronym
Some new words known as acronyms are formed with the initial letters of a set of other words.
Examples:
• Compact Disk – CD
• Video Cassette Recorder – VCR
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO
• Personal Identification Number –PIN
• Women against rape – WAR
Derivation
Derivation is the most common word formation process and it accomplished by means of a large
number of small bits of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in
dictionaries. These small bits are called affixes. Examples:
• Unhappy
• Misrepresent
• Prejudge
• Joyful
• Careless
• Happiness
Prefixes and Suffixes
In the preceding group of words, it should be obvious that some affixes have to be added to the
beginning of a word. These are called prefixes: unreliable. The other affix forms are called
suffixes and are added at the end of the word: foolishness.
Infixes
One of the characteristics of English words is that any modifications to them occur at the
beginning or the end; mix can have something added at the beginning re-mix or at the end, mixes,
mixer, but never in the middle, called infixes.
Word formation by coupling

Compounds, Clipped Words and Blends in English
Compounding- is the word formation process in which two or more lexemes combine
into a single new word. Compound words may be written as one word or as two words
joined with a hyphen. For example:

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• noun-noun compound: note + book → notebook

• adjective-noun compound: blue + berry → blueberry
• verb-noun compound: work + room → workroom
• noun-verb compound: breast + feed → breastfeed
• verb-verb compound: stir + fry → stir-fry
• adjective-verb compound: high + light → highlight
• verb-preposition compound: break + up → breakup
• preposition-verb compound: out + run → outrun
• adjective-adjective compound: bitter + sweet → bittersweet
• preposition-preposition compound: in + to → into
Compounds may be compositional, meaning that the meaning of the new word is
determined by combining the meanings of the parts, or noncompositional, meaning
that the meaning of the new word cannot be determined by combining the meanings of
the parts. For example, a blueberry is a berry that is blue. However, a breakup is not a
relationship that was severed into pieces in an upward direction.
Compound nouns should not be confused with nouns modified by adjectives, verbs, and
other nouns. For example, the adjective black of the noun phrase black bird is different
from the adjective black of the compound noun blackbird in that black of black
birdfunctions as a noun phrase modifier while the black of blackbird is an inseparable
part of the noun: a black bird also refers to any bird that is black in color while a
blackbird is a specific type of bird.
Clipping-Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or

shortened without changing the meaning of the word. Clipping differs from back-
formation in that the new word retains the meaning of the original word. For example:
• advertisement – ad
• alligator – gator
• examination – exam
• gasoline – gas
• gymnasium – gym
• influenza – flu
• laboratory – lab
• mathematics – math
• memorandum – memo
• photograph – photo
• public house – pub
• raccoon – coon
• reputation – rep
• situation comedy – sitcom

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• telephone – phone
The four types of clipping are back clipping, fore-clipping, middle clipping, and complex
clipping. Back clipping is removing the end of a word as in gas from gasoline. Fore-
clipping is removing the beginning of a word as in gator from alligator. Middle clipping
is retaining only the middle of a word as in flu from influenza. Complex clipping is
removing multiple parts from multiple words as in sitcom from situation comedy.
Blending-Blending is the word formation process in which parts of two or more words
combine to create a new word whose meaning is often a combination of the original
words. For example:
• advertisement + entertainment → advertainment

• biographical + picture → biopic
• breakfast + lunch → brunch
• chuckle + snort → chortle
• cybernetic + organism → cyborg
• guess + estimate → guesstimate
• hazardous + material → hazmat
• motor + hotel → motel
• prim + sissy → prissy
• simultaneous + broadcast → simulcast
• smoke + fog → smog
7. Discuss the vowels of English and explain how they are different
from consonants.
There are five vowels and 21 consonants in English, right? Well, no.
Vowels and consonants are sounds, not letters. Depending on your accent and how
thinly you slice them, there are about 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
The difference between vowels and consonants
A vowel is a speech sound made with your mouth fairly open, the nucleus of a
spoken syllable.
A consonant is a sound made with your mouth fairly closed.

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When we talk, consonants break up the stream of vowels (functioning as syllable

onsets and codas), so that we don’t sound like we’ve just been to the dentist for
four fillings and the anaesthetic hasn’t worn off yet.
Consonants require more precise articulation than vowels, which is why children
find them harder to learn, and often end up in speech therapy after having become
so cross at not being understood that they’ve started hitting people.
Only a few children with severe speech sound difficulties (often called dyspraxia
or apraxia) sometimes need therapy to help them produce vowel sounds correctly.
Most syllables contain a vowel, though vowel-like consonants can occasionally be

syllables. And to complicate matters, many English vowels are technically two or
three vowels shmooshed together.
Vowels and Consonants
Phonetically, it is easy to give definitions: a vowel is any sound with no audible

noise produced by constriction in the vocal tract, and consonant is a sound with
audible noise produced by a constriction.
However, this definition forces us to identify as vowels many sounds

which function as consonants in speech. For example, in the English word "yes",
the initial [j] is phonetically a vowel according to the definition above. In the
phonological system of English, however, the [j] is in a typical consonant position
(compare "yes" with "mess", "less", "Tess" etc.). Similarly, there are sounds which
are phonetically consonants which under some circumstances do act as syllable
nuclei; a typical example would be the use of "syllabic [l]" in English "little" [lɪtl̩ ]
(cf. litter).
Contoid and Vocoid
A solution to this terminological difficulty, suggested by Pike, is to have two

different distinctions, one strictly phonetic and the other based on function,
or phonological criteria.
For the phonetic distinction, Pike advocated using the words vocoid and contoid.
A vocoid is defined as a "central oral resonant". It's central because not a lateral
sound, like [l]; oral because air passes through the oral cavity;
and resonant because there is no constriction, so all the sound comes from the
resonances in the oral tract resulting from the vibration of the vocal cords.

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Everything which is not a vocoid is a contoid. Thus, [j] is a vocoid, [i] is a vocoid,
[a] is a vocoid, [w] is a vocoid, but [l] is not; it is a contoid, as are [p], [b], etc.
This leaves the terms "vowel" and "consonant" available to be used as

phonological terms. Generally, vowels are syllabic vocoids. Thus, of the vocoids
above, [i] and [a] could be vowels, but [j] and [w] would not, as they are never
syllabic. Consonants are contoids which function as syllable margins, e.g. [p], [b],
and sometimes [l] (in words like "lip", "lot", but not the final segment in "little",
where the [l] is syllabic).
This definition of vowels and consonants leaves two other possible classifications:
nonsyllabic vocoids, such as [j], [w] and [ɹ];
syllabic contoids, such as English syllabic [l̩ ] and syllabic [n̩], or the syllabic
fricative [s̩ ] in "s'pose", or e.g. syllabic [z̩] in Chinese 四 [sz̩] "four".
Classification by place and manner
Consonants and vowels are traditionally classified in two

dimensions: place and manner of articulation. Place of articulation refers to the
location of the narrowest part of the vocal tract in producing a sound. For example,
for the consonant [b] the vocal tract is narrowest at the lips (in fact, it could not
possibly any narrower here!). In vowels, the narrowest part of the vocal tract is
usually in the middle of the mouth, in the region of the palate. "Manner of
articulation" refers to various other things, including whether the airflow is central
or lateral, oral or nasal, retroflex or non-retroflex, the phonation type, and
the degree of stricture.
8. Trace the three stages of evolution of English language.
English has been spoken in England since around 450 (449 is the date given by the
Venerable Bede in his history written in the early eighth century). To be more
precise a set of varieties of West Germanic have been spoken. The three main
groups were Angles, Saxons and Jutes. By and large, the Angles settled in the
middle and north of England, the Saxon in the south and the Jutes in the area of
present-day Kent.
After the Anglo-Saxon invasion there was little awareness of England let alone of
English. With the establishment of the West Saxon kingdom in later centuries and
with the court which formed the pivot point of this kingdom a first inkling of the

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idea of English developed. With the invasion of England by the Danes (after 800)
it became more clear that the Germanic tribes in England were separate from their
fellows on the continent and in Scandinavia.
Among the different groupings in England in the Old English period different
dialects (that is purely geographical variants) are recognizable: Northumbrian in
the north, Anglian in the middle and West-Saxon in the south. Due to the political
significance of West-Saxon in the late Old English period (after the 9th century) –
it was this region which under King Alfred (c. 849-899) sucessfully resisted Viking
expansion to the south – which the written form of this dialect developed into
something like a standard.
At this time it was Winchester and not London which was the political centre of
the country. The term used for the West Saxon ‘standard’ is koiné which derives
from Greek and means a common dialect, that is a variety which was used in
monastaries in parts of England outside of West Saxony for the purpose of writing.
Middle English
After the invasion of England by the Normans in 1066, the West Saxon ‘standard’,
which was waning anyway due to natural language change, was dealt a death blow.
Norman French became the language of the English court and clergy.
English sank to the level of a patois (an unwritten dialect). With the loss of
England for the French in 1204 English gradually emerged as a literary language
again. For the development of the later standard it is important to note (1) that it
was London which was now the centre of the country and (2) that printing was
introduced into England in the late 15th century. William Caxton (c. 1442-1491)
was the first to introduce printing to England in 1476. He also wrote introductions
to editions of works he printed.
Early Modern English
The present-day orthography of English is essentially that of the late Middle

English period. Nonetheless after the Middle English period several changes occur
which account for the particular form of English spelling today. The Early Modern
English period is however of interest to the linguist not only from the point of view
of orthography: during this time the vocabulary of English took on the profile
which it exhibits today: French loans were consolidated and a whole series of new

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classical loan-words (from Latin and Greek) were adopted into the language. These
were known as ‘hard-words’ and the dispute surrounding their suitability for use in
English is known as the Inkhorn Controversy. The explanation of such words
provided the impetus for early dictionaries of English such as that by Robert
Cawdrey in 1604
The Early Modern period is also interesting as it is from this time that the
colonisation of America by the English dates. This meant that the varieties of
English of the period were exported to America where several of their
characteristics have been retained due to the naturally conservative nature of
peripheral dialects of a language. Other dialects of English including the varieties
spoken in the developing world are based on the language of the Early Modern
period.
Not least because Shakespeare lived at a pivotal period for the development of
Modern English (late 16th and beginning of the 17th century) the term
Shakespearean English is used quite often. Care is necessary here to determine
what is meant as the reference can mean either the English of the period when
Shakespeare lived or can have the narrow meaning of the language of his plays and
poetry.
The Early Modern Period is remembered for the significant translation of the Bible
made during the reign of James I (1603-1625). This was done by a group of clerics,
begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The translation was designed to be
definitive, hence the label Authorized Version which is given to it. Because it was
prepared in the reign of James I it is also known as the King James Bible. Another
major religious work from a slightly later date is the Book of Common Prayer
(1662) which was produced by the Church of England. This was not accepted by
the non-conformists Protestants of the time, e.g. the Presbyterians in Scotland.
Late Modern English
It is now normal to divide the time since the end of the Middle English period into
the Early Modern English period (1500-1700) and the Late Modern English period
(1700-1900). The late begins with the Augustan Age (called after the reign
Augustus (63 BC - AD 14) which was a period of peace and imperial grandeur)
with the end of the Restoration period (1660-1690) and ends in the middle of the
18th century. Dates which can be mentioned for its end are the death of the poets
Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and Jonathan Swift (1670-1745). The latter was

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particularly concerned with ‘ascertaining’ and ‘fixing’ the English language to

prevent it from future change.
The eighteenth century is also a period when grammars of English were written –
by men and women. The most famous of these is that by Bishop Robert Lowth
(1710-1787) which he published in 1762. Many of the recommendations of Lowth
later became strictures, even though he may not intended this. The eighteenth
century grammarians were concerned with the codification of English. Out of this
grew a prescriptive standard, especially in the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries.
9. What are the sociolinguistics? Explain its scope and areas of

investigation.
Ans. It is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including
cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society's
effect on language. It differs from sociology of language, which focuses on the effect of
language on society. Sociolinguistics overlaps considerably with pragmatics. It is
historically closely related to linguistic anthropology, and the distinction between the two
fields has been questioned.
It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social
variables (e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc.) and how
creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or
socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place,
language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that
sociolinguistics studies.
The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and
Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by Louis Gauchat in Switzerland in the early
1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the
social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave
model of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was
by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of his 1939 article "Sociolinguistics in India"
published in Man in India Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and
was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the
UK. In the 1960s, William Stewart and Heinz Kloss introduced the basic concepts for
the sociolinguistic theory of pluricentric languages, which describes how standard
languagevarieties differ between nations
For example, a sociolinguist might determine through study of social attitudes that a
particular vernacular would not be considered appropriate language use in a business
or professional setting. Sociolinguists might also study

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the grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, and other aspects of this sociolect much
as dialectologists would study the same for a regional dialect.
The study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining
language in its contextual environment. Code-switching is the term given to the use of
different varieties of language in different social situations.
William Labov is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics. He is
especially noted for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and
change making the sociology of language into a scientific discipline.
Traditional sociolinguistic interview

Sociolinguistic interviews are an integral part of collecting data for sociolinguistic
studies. There is an interviewer, who is conducting the study, and a subject,
or informant, who is the interviewee. In order to get a grasp on a specific linguistic form
and how it is used in the dialect of the subject, a variety of methods are used
to elicit certain registers of speech. There are five different styles, ranging from formal to
casual. The most formal style would be elicited by having the subject read a list of
minimal pairs (MP). Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ in only one phoneme,
such as cat and bat. Having the subject read a word list (WL) will elicit a formal register,
but generally not as formal as MP. The reading passage (RP) style is next down on the
formal register, and the interview style (IS) is when an interviewer can finally get into
eliciting a more casual speech from the subject. During the IS the interviewer can
converse with the subject and try to draw out of them an even more casual sort of
speech by asking him to recall childhood memories or maybe a near death experience,
in which case the subject will get deeply involved with the story since strong emotions
are often attached to these memories. Of course, the most sought-after type of speech
is the casual style (CS). This type of speech is difficult if not impossible to elicit because
of the Observer's Paradox. The closest one might come to CS in an interview is when
the subject is interrupted by a close friend or family member, or perhaps must answer
the phone. CS is used in a completely unmonitored environment where the subject feels
most comfortable and will use their natural vernacular without overtly thinking about it.
Fundamental concepts
While the study of sociolinguistics is very broad, there are a few fundamental concepts
on which many sociolinguistic inquiries depend.
Speech community
Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a distinct group of

people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.
This is sometimes referred to as a Sprechbund.
To be considered part of a speech community, one must have a communicative
competence. That is, the speaker has the ability to use language in a way that is
appropriate in the given situation. It is possible for a speaker to be communicatively
competent in more than one language.

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Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon,

distinct social groups like high school students or hip hop fans, or even tight-knit groups
like families and friends. Members of speech communities will often develop slang or
jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities.
Community of Practice allows for sociolinguistics to examine the relationship between
socialization, competence, and identity. Since identity is a very complex structure,
studying language socialization is a means to examine the micro-interactional level of
practical activity (everyday activities). The learning of a language is greatly influenced
by family but it is supported by the larger local surroundings, such as school, sports
teams, or religion. Speech communities may exist within a larger community of practice.
High prestige and low prestige varieties
Crucial to sociolinguistic analysis is the concept of prestige; certain speech habits are
assigned a positive or a negative value, which is then applied to the speaker. This can
operate on many levels. It can be realised on the level of the individual sound/phoneme,
as Labov discovered in investigating pronunciation of the post-vocalic /r/ in the North-
Eastern USA, or on the macro scale of language choice, as realised in the various
diglossia that exist throughout the world, where Swiss-German/High German is perhaps
most well known. An important implication of the sociolinguistic theory is that speakers
'choose' a variety when making a speech act, whether consciously or subconsciously.
The terms acrolectal (high) and basilectal (low) are also used to distinguish between a
more standard dialect and a dialect of less prestige.
Social network
Understanding language in society means that one also has to understand the social
networks in which language is embedded. A social network is another way of describing
a particular speech community in terms of relations between individual members in a
community. A network could be loose or tight depending on how members interact with
each other For instance, an office or factory may be considered a tight community
because all members interact with each other. A large course with 100+ students would
be a looser community because students may only interact with the instructor and
maybe 1–2 other students. A multiplex community is one in which members have
multiple relationships with each other. For instance, in some neighborhoods, members
may live on the same street, work for the same employer and even intermarry.
The looseness or tightness of a social network may affect speech patterns adopted by a
speaker. For instance, Sylvie Dubois and Barbara Horvath found that speakers in one
Cajun Louisiana community were more likely to pronounce English "th" [θ] as [t] (or [ð]
as [d]) if they participated in a relatively dense social network (i.e. had strong local ties
and interacted with many other speakers in the community), and less likely if their
networks were looser (i.e. fewer local ties).
A social network may apply to the macro level of a country or a city, but also to the
interpersonal level of neighborhoods or a single family. Recently, social networks have
been formed by the Internet, through chat rooms, Facebook groups, organizations, and
online dating services.

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Differences according to class
Sociolinguistics as a field distinct from dialectology was pioneered through the study of
language variation in urban areas. Whereas dialectology studies the geographic
distribution of language variation, sociolinguistics focuses on other sources of variation,
among them class. Class and occupation are among the most important linguistic
markers found in society. One of the fundamental findings of sociolinguistics, which has
been hard to disprove, is that class and language variety are related. Members of the
working class tend to speak less standard language, while the lower, middle, and upper
middle class will, in turn, speak closer to the standard. However, the upper class, even
members of the upper middle class, may often speak 'less' standard than the middle
class. This is because not only class but class aspirations, are important.
Class aspiration
Studies, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, have shown that social
aspirations influence speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations. In the
process of wishing to be associated with a certain class (usually the upper class and
upper middle class) people who are moving in that direction socio-economically will
adjust their speech patterns to sound like them. However, not being native upper-class
speakers, they often hypercorrect, which involves overcorrecting their speech to the
point of introducing new errors. The same is true for individuals moving down in socio-
economic status.
In any contact situation, there is a power dynamic, be it a teacher-student or employee-
customer situation, this power dynamic results in a hierarchical differentiation between
languages
10. What is “Scope” in syntax? Describe the scope-bearing elements
in English with suitable examples.
Ans. In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the
structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually
including word order. The term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such
principles and processes. The goal of many syntacticians is to discover the syntactic
rules common to all languages.
Etymology
One basic description of a language's syntax is the sequence in which
the subject (S), verb (V), and object (O) usually appear in sentences. Over 85% of
languages usually place the subject first, either in the sequence SVO or the
sequence SOV. The other possible sequences are VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV, the last
three of which are rare. In most generative theories of syntax, these surface differences
arise from a more complex clausal phrase structure, and each order may be compatible
with multiple derivations.
The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini (c. 4th century BC in Ancient India), is often cited as an
example of a premodern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic

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theory (as works on grammar were written long before modern syntax came about). In
the West, the school of thought that came to be known as "traditional grammar" began
with the work of Dionysius Thrax.
For centuries, a framework known as grammaire générale (first expounded in 1660
by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title) dominated work in syntax: as its basic
premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and
therefore there is a single, most natural way to express a thought.
However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics,
linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language and to question
fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic. It became
apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought,
and therefore logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure
of language.
The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic. (Indeed, large
parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale.)
Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed
in terms of "subject – copula – predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even by the
early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp.
The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th
century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as
linguistics is concerned. (For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the
last two centuries)
Theories
There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of
thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton, sees syntax as a branch of biology,
since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the
human mind. Other linguists (e.g., Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view, since
they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system. Yet others
(e.g., Joseph Greenberg) consider syntax a taxonomical device to reach broad
generalizations across languages.
Generative grammar
The hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a structure of the human
mind. The goal of generative grammar is to make a complete model of this inner
language. This model could be used to describe all human language and to predict
whether any given utterance in a hypothetical language would sound correct to a
speaker of that language (versus constructions which no human language would use).
This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky. Most generative theories
(although not all of them) assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of
sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the
form of a sentence, rather than its communicative function.
Among the many generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are:

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• Transformational grammar (TG) (Original theory of generative syntax laid out by

Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957)
• Government and binding theory (GB) (revised theory in the tradition of TG
developed mainly by Chomsky in the 1970s and 1980s)
• Minimalist program (MP) (a reworking of the theory out of the GB framework
published by Chomsky in 1995)
Other theories that find their origin in the generative paradigm are:
• Arc pair grammar

• Generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG; now largely out of date)
• Generative semantics (superseded by Semantic Syntax )
• Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG)
• Lexical functional grammar (LFG)
• Nanosyntax
• Relational grammar (RG) (now largely out of date)
Dependency grammar
Dependency grammar is an approach to sentence structure where syntactic units are
arranged according to the dependency relation, as opposed to the constituency relation
of phrase structure grammars. Dependencies are directed links between words. The
(finite) verb is seen as the root of all clause structure and all the other words in the
clause are either directly or indirectly dependent on this root. Some prominent
dependency-based theories of syntax are:
• Recursive categorical syntax, or Algebraic syntax

• Functional generative description
• Meaning–text theory
• Operator grammar
• Word grammar
Lucien Tesnière (1893–1954) is widely seen as the father of modern dependency-based
theories of syntax and grammar. He argued vehemently against the binary division of
the clause into subject and predicate that is associated with the grammars of his day (S
→ NP VP) and which remains at the core of most phrase structure grammars. In the
place of this division, he positioned the verb as the root of all clause structure.
Categorial grammar
Categorial grammar is an approach that attributes the syntactic structure not to rules of
grammar, but to the properties of the syntactic categories themselves. For example,
rather than asserting that sentences are constructed by a rule that combines a noun
phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP) (e.g., the phrase structure rule S → NP VP), in
categorial grammar, such principles are embedded in the category of the head word
itself. So the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula
representing the fact that the verb acts as a function word requiring an NP as an input
and produces a sentence level structure as an output. This complex category is notated
as (NP\S) instead of V. NP\S is read as "a category that searches to the left (indicated

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by \) for an NP (the element on the left) and outputs a sentence (the element on the
right)." The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs
(its subject and its direct object) to form a sentence. This is notated as (NP/(NP\S))
which means "a category that searches to the right (indicated by /) for an NP (the
object), and generates a function (equivalent to the VP) which is (NP\S), which in turn
represents a function that searches to the left for an NP and produces a sentence."
11. Discuss the major learner factors that have a bearing on second
language acquistion.
Ans. It is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language
acquisition is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. The field of
second-language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, but also receives
research attention from a variety of other disciplines, such
as psychology and education.
However there are other crucial factors influencing success that are largely beyond the control of
the learner. These factors can be broadly categorized as internal and external. It is their complex
interplay that determines the speed and facility with which the new language is learned.
Internal factors
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the
particular learning situation.
• Age: Second language acquisition is influenced by the age of the learner. Children, who
already have solid literacy skills in their own language, seem to be in the best position to
acquire a new language efficiently. Motivated, older learners can be very successful too,
but usually struggle to achieve native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and intonation.
• Personality: Introverted or anxious learners usually make slower progress, particularly in
the development of oral skills. They are less likely to take advantage of opportunities to
speak, or to seek out such opportunities. More outgoing students will not worry about the
inevitability of making mistakes. They will take risks, and thus will give themselves
much more practice.
• Motivation (intrinsic): Intrinsic motivation has been found to correlate strongly with
educational achievement. Clearly, students who enjoy language learning and take pride in
their progress will do better than those who don't.
Extrinsic motivation is also a significant factor. ESL students, for example, who need to
learn English in order to take a place at an American university or to communicate with a
new English boy/girlfriend are likely to make greater efforts and thus greater progress.
• Experiences: Learners who have acquired general knowledge and experience are in a
stronger position to develop a new language than those who haven't. The student, for
example, who has already lived in 3 different countries and been exposed to various
languages and cultures has a stronger base for learning a further language than the student
who hasn't had such experiences.

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• Cognition: In general, it seems that students with greater cognitive abilities (intelligence)
will make the faster progress. Some linguists believe that there is a specific, innate
language learning ability that is stronger in some students than in others.
• Native language: Students who are learning a second language which is from the same
language family as their first language have, in general, a much easier task than those
who aren't. So, for example, a Dutch child will learn English more quickly than a
Japanese child.
External factors
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning situation.
• Curriculum: For ESL students in particular it is important that the totality of their
educational experience is appropriate for their needs. Language learning is less likely to
place if students are fully submersed into the mainstream program without any extra
assistance or, conversely, not allowed to be part of the mainstream until they have
reached a certain level of language proficiency.
• Instruction: Clearly, some language teachers are better than others at providing
appropriate and effective learning experiences for the students in their classrooms. These
students will make faster progress.
The same applies to mainstream teachers in second language situations. The science
teacher, for example, who is aware that she too is responsible for the students' English
language development, and makes certain accommodations, will contribute to their
linguistic development.
• Culture and status: There is some evidence that students in situations where their own
culture has a lower status than that of the culture in which they are learning the language
make slower progress.
• Motivation (extrinsic): Students who are given continuing, appropriate encouragment to
learn by their teachers and parents will generally fare better than those who aren't. For
example, students from families that place little importance on language learning are
likely to progress less quickly.
• Access to native speakers: The opportunity to interact with native speakers both within
and outside of the classroom is a significant advantage. Native speakers are linguistic
models and can provide appropriate feedback. Clearly, second-language learners who
have no extensive access to native speakers are likely to make slower progress,
particularly in the oral/aural aspects of language acquisition.
12. What is the relationship between linguistics and literary

criticism? Discuss.
Ans. For a very long period of time, roughly from the 1880s to the 1960s, it was tacitly
established among linguists and literary scholars that their specific disciplines were distinctive
and could not interact much. This disparity is not attributable to mere feelings of mutual rivalry,
insecurity, or mistrust, but to the fundamental difference between linguistics and literary studies
in their traditional conceptions and directions. De Beaugrande presents and briefly discusses a

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schematic set of contrasts between conventional linguistics and traditional literary studies which
account for the absence of interaction between them in past decades. These contrasts are:
1. While language, conceived as an abstract system, was the object of linguistics, the literary
text, apprehended as a concrete artifact, constituted the object of literary studies.
2. The linguist used to draw his/her material from data, all the samples of language gathered and
compared in detail by means of fieldwork and introspection. The literary scholar, on the
contrary, used to derive his/her material from the canon of literary texts established mainly by
tradition.
3. Linguistics adopted a synchronic approach to language by viewing it in its current state rather
than in its evolution. Literary studies, in contrast, remained determinedly historical as the
teaching/learning of literature was organized into frames of time periods where contemporary
literature was treated at best marginally alongside the canon of ‘classics’ of the past.
4. The ideal speaker who ‘knows’ the language and can produce an unlimited set of utterances
(or sentences) was the operable construct of linguistics, while the real author as a biographical
and historical figure was the concern of literary studies. Concomitantly, linguistics assumed an
ideal hearer who is endowed with essentially the same linguistic knowledge as the ideal speaker.
In literary studies, however, the scholar claimed to be the proper (qualified, discerning,
etc.) reader for the literary work, and went so far as to present his own reading in the name of the
real author, thereby merging author with authority, if not indeed with authoritarian posture.
5. Unlike linguistics, which targeted the entire (‘homogenous’) community of speakers, literary
studies had, as their widest group of addressees, the school or movement to which an identifiable
set of real authors could be assigned by conspicuous stylistic or thematic attributes.
6. Linguistics sought to formulate the most general principles, with a particular emphasis on
generalizations applying to an entire language or, better still, to all languages (‘universals’).
Literary studies, on the contrary, accorded much attention to the special or even unique quality of
the literary work.
7. Whereas linguistics addressed the rules of language encoding the patterns, usually formal,
which apply to all or most instances, literary studies addressed the conventions of genre, some of
which are based on form and others on theme or topic.
8. In linguistics, style was studied as choice, i.e. the selection of certain options offered by the
overall language system. In literary studies, however, style was perceived as ornamentation, i.e.
an aesthetically pleasing addition of ‘schemes’ and ‘tropes’ existing independently of the
‘content’ or ‘message’ of the work.
9. Linguistics resolved to be non-evaluative in that it recorded and described language
irrespective of prescriptive and proscriptive attitudes about ‘good’ and ‘bad’ or ‘correct’ and
‘incorrect’. Literary studies , on the other hand, remained evaluative, in spite of occasional
acknowledgements of the obscuring and distortive tendency of values.
10. The goal of linguistics was the description of a whole language as a total system, a
characterization of its phonological, morphological and grammatical regularities in compact and
perspicuous format. In contrast, the goal of literary studies
13. What is the difference between standard and standardized

English? Discuss the four stages in standardization process of a
language.

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Ans. The difference between standard and standardized is that standard is falling within
an accepted range of size, amount, power, quality, etc while standardized is designed
or constructed in a standard manner or according to an official standard.
Standard English (SE, also standardized English) refers to the dialect of English
language that is used as the national norm—the standard language—in an English-
speaking country, especially as the language for public and formal usage. In England
and Wales, the term standard English is associated with British English, the Received
Pronunciation accent, and the United Kingdom Standard English (UKSE) grammar and
vocabulary. In Scotland, the standard dialect is Scottish Standard English; in the United
States, General American is the standard variety spoken in that country; and in
Australia the national standard is called General Australian English.
Although a standard English is generally the most formal version of the language, a
range of registers exists within any standardized English, as is often seen when
comparing a newspaper article with an academic paper, for example. A distinction also
may be drawn between spoken and written usage. Spoken dialects are looser than their
written counterparts, and quicker to accept new grammatical forms and vocabulary. The
various geographical varieties form a generally accepted set of rules, often those
established by grammarians of the 18th century.
As the result of colonisation and historical migrations of English-speaking populations,
and the predominant use of English as the international language of trade and
commerce (a lingua franca), English has also become the most widely used second
language. In countries where English is neither a native language nor widely spoken, a
non-native variant (typically English English or North American English) might be
considered "standard" for teaching purposes. In some areas a pidgin or creole
language, blends English with one or more native languages.
The confluence of diverse cultures and perspectives within a territory serves as one explanation
for the evolution of language. This cultural evolution gives rise to an interesting phenomenon
known as ‘language standardisation’. What is language standardisation? It is an ongoing
historical process that develops a standard written and oral language to be practiced by everyone
in a society. Primarily concerned with the evolution of specific human languages, standardisation
can only occur when a society has an existing cultivation of their own language and
communicative methods. Following, the society must then express a desire for uniformity by
filtering out any irregularities and establishing a consistent communication system between
individuals.
The process of standardisation involves both ‘ruler-makers’ and ‘rule-breakers’; the former
makes the rules for spelling and pronunciation, in addition to selecting/eliminating the meaning
of commonly used words. The latter, in contrast, are then stigmatized for using non-standard
dialects. For instance, the use of double negatives – ‘that won’t do you no good’ – is deemed
confusing, redundant and incorrect by the masses. Thus, keep in mind that language
standardisation is a conscious course of development that produces both good and bad effects.
Although standardising language may improve efficiency for the general population, there will
be some who fall short of this new-found utility.

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Stages of Language Standardisation
Language standardisation begins by selecting one of the many forms of language that exist in a
society to be the standard. The chosen one is then accepted by the dominant clans in society,
who have the power to control how and where this language is standardized and diffused. They
enforce authority towards this language by codifying it—directly and indirectly—through
crimination against other forms of language. Once it has gained general approval, the standard
language is rigorously maintained through several means. The first is an elaboration of function,
where people of higher social standing perceive this language form to be more valuable and
important than other variations. Secondly, the language then gains prestige within the society for
being associated with those of high social status. Lastly, a writing system is established to
prescribe this language (along with official dictionaries and guidebooks). Such system is then
regarded as the absolute legitimate and “correct” standard of language, and hence, is esteemed
above everyday speakers of the language.
Those whom have accepted and are familiarised with the standard language can engage in
discourse , so to generate knowledge about communicative methods and processes. Establishing
a standard language ultimately shapes the standard ‘reality’ of the people . It creates a new
pattern of understanding which people could then apply in social settings . Thus, those who
refuse or cannot acquire the standard language properly are marginalised in the society, further
widening the language gap. Overall, the whole process aims to create a ‘melting pot’
environment, homogenising a certain culture that comes with the language. It is important to note
that these stages are hypothetical, and can sometimes overlap with one another. For instance, the
maintenance stage can start quite early in the process, and continues throughout
14. Give an account of the different types of clauses in English with

suitable examples.
Ans. clause is a group of related words; but unlike a phrase, a clause has a subject and verb. An
independent clause, along with having a subject and verb, expresses a complete thought and can
stand alone as a coherent sentence. In contrast, a subordinate or dependent clause does not
express a complete thought and therefore is not a sentence. A subordinate clause standing alone
is a common error known as a sentence fragment.
Independent clauses
He saw her. The Washingtons hurried home. Free speech has a price. Grammatically complete
statements like these are sentences and can stand alone. When they are part of longer sentences,
they are referred to as independent (or main) clauses.
Two or more independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions ( and, but,
for, nor, or, so, and yet) or by using semicolons. The most important thing to remember is that an
independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence.

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In the following example, the independent clause is a simple sentence.
Erica brushed her long, black hair.
Next, the coordinating conjunction and joins two independent clauses.
Fernando left, and Erica brushed her long, black hair.
Next, a semicolon joins two independent clauses.
Fernando left; Erica brushed her long, black hair.
All sentences must include at least one independent clause.
After she told Fernando to leave, Erica brushed her long, black hair.
In the previous sentence, the independent clause is preceded by a clause that can't stand alone:
After she told Fernando to leave.
Erica brushed her long, black hair while she waited for Fernando to leave.
Here, the independent clause is followed by a clause that can't stand alone: while she waited for
Fernando to leave.
Beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions
Any of the coordinating conjunctions ( and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet) can be used to join an
independent clause to another independent clause. Can you begin a sentence with one of these
conjunctions?
No one knew what to do. But everyone agreed that something should be done.
An old rule says that you shouldn't. But beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is
acceptable today. (Notice the preceding sentence, for example.) Sometimes beginning a sentence
this way creates exactly the effect you want. It separates the clause and yet draws attention to its
relationship with the previous clause.
Subordinate clauses
A subordinate clause has a subject and verb but, unlike an independent clause, cannot stand by
itself. It depends on something else in the sentence to express a complete thought, which is why
it's also called a dependent clause. Some subordinate clauses are introduced by relative
pronouns ( who, whom, that, which, what, whose) and some by subordinating conjunctions (
although, because, if, unless, when, etc.). Subordinate clauses function in sentences as adjectives,
nouns, and adverbs.

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Relative clauses
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and functions as an adjective.
In the following sentence, the relative pronoun that is the subject of its clause and won the
Pulitzer Prize is the predicate. This clause couldn't stand by itself. Its role in the complete
sentence is to modify novel, the subject of the independent clause.
The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn't sell well when it was first published.
In the next example , which is the relative pronoun that begins the subordinate clause. Celebrities
is the subject of the clause and attended is the verb. In the complete sentence, this clause
functions as an adjective describing ceremony.
The ceremony, which several celebrities attended, received widespread media coverage.
Note that in a relative clause, the relative pronoun is sometimes the subject of the clause, as in
the following sentence, and sometimes the object, as in the next sentence.
Arthur, who comes to the games every week, offered to be scorekeeper.
Who is the subject of the clause and comes to the games every week is the predicate. The clause
modifies Arthur.
In the following sentence , mothers is the subject of the clause, adored is the verb, and whom is
the direct object of adored. Again, the clause modifies Arthur.
Arthur, whom the team mothers adored, was asked to be scorekeeper.
Noun clauses
A noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence.
What I want for dinner is a hamburger. (subject of the verb is)

The host told us how he escaped. (direct object of the verb told)
A vacation is what I need most. (complement of the linking verb is)
Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to)
Pronoun case in subordinate clauses
Who, whom, whoever, whomever. In deciding which case of who you should use in a clause,
remember this important rule: The case of the pronoun is governed by the role it plays in its own
clause, not by its relation to the rest of the sentence. Choosing the right case of pronoun can be

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especially confusing because the pronoun may appear to have more than one function. Look at
the following sentence.
They gave the money to whoever presented the winning ticket.
At first, you may think whomever is correct rather than whoever, on the assumption that it is the
object of the preposition to. But in fact the entire clause, not whoever, is the object of the
preposition. Refer to the basic rule: The case should be based on the pronoun's role within its
own clause. In this clause, whoever is the subject of the verb presented.
A good way to determine the right pronoun case is to forget everything but the clause itself:
whoever presented the winning ticket is correct; whomever presented the winning ticket is not.
The following two sentences show how you must focus on the clause rather than the complete
sentence in choosing the right pronoun case.
We asked whomever we saw for a reaction to the play.
We asked whoever called us to call back later.
In each sentence the clause is the direct object of asked. But in the first sentence, whomever is
correct because within its clause, it is the object of saw. In the second sentence, whoever is
correct because it is the subject of called.
Adverbial clauses
Many subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Examples of these

conjunctions are because, unless, if, when, and although. What these conjunctions have in
common is that they make the clauses that follow them unable to stand alone. The clauses act as
adverbs, answering questions like how, when, where, why, to what extent, and under what
conditions.
When Mauna Loa began erupting and spewing lava into the air, we drove away as quickly as we
could.
In the preceding sentence , when is a subordinating conjunction introducing the adverbial clause.
The subject of the clause is Mauna Loa and the predicate is began erupting and spewing lava
into the air. This clause is dependent because it is an incomplete thought. What happened when
the volcano began erupting? The independent clause we drove away as quickly as we could
completes the thought. The adverbial clause answers the question “When did we drive?”
In the following sentence, because introduces the adverbial clause in which van is the subject
and needed the verb. This clause is an incomplete thought. What happened because the van
needed repairs? The independent clause The group of tourists decided to have lunch in the
village is necessary to complete the thought. Again, the subordinate clause as a whole acts as an
adverb, telling why the tourists decided to have lunch in the village.

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15. Examine the role of motivation and attitudes in second language

learning.
Ans. Motivation in second language learning is an increasingly important area in applied
linguistics. The current state of research is characterized by many different approaches, which
have developed over time. Today there are still divided views about motivation. The social
psychological approach dominated until the early 1990s. Criticized, later supplemented and
eventually replaced by pedagogical and psychological concepts. In order to understand the
importance of motivation in second language learning it is important to look at different types of
motivation after clarifying the definition of the term 'motivation' used in the text below.
The word ”m otivation” derives from the Latin word “movere” and stands for ' to move '. The
commonly held ideas about motivation as, „ (…) something that gets us going,keeps us moving,
and helps us get jobs done.“ are known by everyone. While a variety of definitions of the term
“motivation” have been suggested, this paper will use the definition suggested by MC Donough
who saw it as, „motivation is what moves us to act, in this context to learn English, to learn to
teach English, or to teach it.“ He describes motivation as a “property of the learner” which can
also come from a coach or a teacher. If people are less motivated it is possible to influence them.
Especially in school, pupils are often unmotivated to follow the lesson wherefore their teachers
should be able to motivate them. But before we are going to look at how teachers can motivate
students, I would like to focus on different kinds of motivation.
Different kinds of motivation
Empirical evidence showed that students complete their tasks with different kinds of motivation,
which will be explained more specify in the following sections.
Extrinsic / intrinsic motivation
The distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation goes back to Deci and Ryan and is a
more general one, which referred to the source of the influence. This kind of motivation arises
from the inner of a person and let this person feel better after completed tasks. In contrast,
extrinsic motivation comes from outside. People work on tasks for a financial reward or to relate
it to school, students want to pass an exam.
Integrative/ instrumental motivation
The distinction between integrative and instrumental motivation goes back to Gardner and has a
direct relevance to language learning. A wish to become a member of the speech community
using that language, Gardner described as integrative motivation. In contrast, the usefulness of a
language to become successful in own culture is called instrumental motivation. Students, who
learn a second language in order to achieve their school graduation requirement or just being
able to read publications in this language. The key problem in Gardner's approach is the fact that
evaluation of strength of motivation is based only on attitude questionnaires.

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Motivation for second language learners
Harmer argues that according to the view of most researchers and methodologists, “intrinsic
motivation produces better results than its extrinsic counterpart”. Indeed, it is hard to learn
something if it is not liked by students. But if they have to learn something they are interested in,
it will be easier for them to become better grades. The same goes for instrumental and integrative
motivation. But I do not entirely agree with Harmer. Some students get better grades if they are
single-minded, to be successful. Speaking personally, intrinsic motivation leads to better results
but such a statement cannot be transferred to all people.
“Motivation changes over time” .Someone may start off with instrumental motivation but this
develops later into integrative motivation. Thus, motivation is not fixed and can change in
learning process. Just if students start with integrative motivation they can loose over time their
interest in learning a second language and change their motivation in a instrumental one.
Avoiding the second kind of change mentioned above, it is important to know which different
factors can influence motivation.
ATTITUDE
In second language learning, motivation, attitude and aptitude relate closely to each other. It
influences the learner and therefore dominates the particular individual motivation towards
learning the target language. In casual observations in our daily life reveal to us that some people
learn a foreign language easier, faster or better than others do. This commonplace phenomenon is
best encapsulated by the theoretical construct of foreign language aptitude which presupposes
that “there is a specific talent for learning foreign languages which exhibits considerable
variation between individual learners” . Such an underlying assumption of foreign language
aptitude has been put to considerable empirical tests as early as the 50s and 60s of the last
century.
When learning a foreign language, students must take something that is initially unknown and
make it a part of who they are. Techniques in the field of teaching foreign language differ and
can be unique learning experiences. Students experience diverse emotions, as well as various
levels of success, while learning a foreign language. The difference could be a matter of
motivation. Is there more to this puzzling picture than motivation and attitude? Does the
individual difference of aptitude hold the learners’ success or failure? Gardner, Tremblay &
Masgoret (1997) have researched numerous variables concerning success in foreign language
learning. Some researchers consider aptitude as the number one indicator of success in foreign
language learning. Other researchers see motivation and attitude as the true indicators.
Attitudes are considered to be one of the most important factors affecting the failure or success
of foreign language learners. Therefore, it has recently received considerable attention from both
first and second language researchers.
According to Gardner, attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object,

inferred on the basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the referent. On the other hand,
Lambert mentions about two types of attitudes; ‘integrative’ and ‘instrumental’ attitude to

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language learning. An integrative attitude is a desire to know and become friendly with speakers
of a language, whereas an instrumental one is a desire to better oneself materially by means of
the language. He adds, “an integrative attitude is more likely to lead to success than an
instrumental one”.
Brown, in his great work ‘Principles of Language Learning and Teaching’ adds: “Attitudes, like
all aspects of the development of cognition and affect in human beings, develop early in
childhood and are the result of parent’s and peer’s attitudes, contact with people who are
different in any number of ways, and interacting affective factors in the human experience”. Here
it seems clear that there are many stimulants lead to positive or negative attitude of an individual.
16. What do you understand by language Planning ?

Ans. Language planning refers to various efforts by governments to create policies or plans
around issues of language. There are several different reasons why it might be necessary.
First, it often functions to maintain a sort of cultural integrity or identity. In Quebec, for example,
there is a significant concern about whether the local French culture can sustain its unique
identity without policies in place to emphasize the use of French and prevent English from taking
over. Greece, after it obtained its freedom from Turkish rule, attempted to purify its language and
return to a modernized form of classical Greek called Katharevousa as an assertion of cultural
identity and independence.
Philosophically, nations differ in their attitudes towards minorities and immigrants. Countries
which value diversity may encourage multilingualism while ones more concerned with
assimilation are likely to emphasize linguistic uniformity. This also may apply to regional
languages, dialects and traditions such as Basque, Catalan, and Gaelic ones where respecting
regional traditions must be balanced with issues of separate cultural traditions possibly leading to
political separatism.
Finally, one contemporary issue of language planning is the use of gender neutral language,
which has been seen as promoting gender equality.
17. What is speech community ? Discuss the problems in defining a speech community.
Ans. The term ‘speech community is probably derived from The German ‘Sprachgemeinschaft’
and refers to a group of individuals who share, inter alia, certain linguistic features and who
might be said to speak the same language (or dialect or variety).
In other words, any groups of people who perceive themselves as belonging to one
community on the basis of some shared values, customs, manners, etc. may qualify to be called a

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speech community if they also share a common language and see themselves as being different
from speakers of other languages.
Exactly how to define speech community is debated in the literature. Definitions of speech
community tend to involve varying degrees of emphasis on the following:
• Shared community membership

• Shared linguistic communication
A typical speech community can be a small town, but sociolinguists such as William Labov
claim that a large metropolitan area, for example New York City, can also be considered one
single speech community.
Early definitions have tended to see speech communities as bounded and localized groups of
people who live together and come to share the same linguistic norms because they belong to the
same local community. It has also been assumed that within a community a homogeneous set of
norms should exist. These assumptions have been challenged by later scholarship that has
demonstrated that individuals generally participate in various speech communities
simultaneously and at different times in their lives. Each speech community has different norms
that they tend to share only partially. Communities may be de-localized and unbounded rather
than local, and they often comprise different sub-communities with differing speech norms. With
the recognition of the fact that speakers actively use language to construct and manipulate social
identities by signalling membership in particular speech communities, the idea of the bounded
speech community with homogeneous speech norms has become largely abandoned for a model
based on the speech community as a fluid community of practice.
A speech community comes to share a specific set of norms for language use through living and
interacting together, and speech communities may therefore emerge among all groups that
interact frequently and share certain norms and ideologies. Such groups can be villages,
countries, political or professional communities, communities with shared interests, hobbies, or
lifestyles, or even just groups of friends. Speech communities may share both particular sets of
vocabulary and grammatical conventions, as well as speech styles and genres, and also norms for
how and when to speak in particular ways.
Problems
In literature, it can be assumed that any group of people within a novel or play, will speak in
language patterns that are common to all, unless the piece is humorous and the breakdown of
communication is part of the humor.
The "speech community" within a novel set in a Jewish community will use words common to
that culture/religion. In the same way, a novel written about cowboys and gunslingers will use
their own jargon, common to that "speech community."
If a story is written in the science fiction or fantasy genre, a new "jargon" may be created by the
author for words that are specific to that book or series of books. Those who read the series

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regularly will be aware and understand the jargon used, but those reading for the first time may
have to refer to the glossary of terms, often included in these kinds of books. In this way, a new
speech community is created.
18. Explain and exemplify language variation in terms of dialects ,

style and register.
Ans. In sociolinguistics, language variety—also called lect—is a general term for any distinctive
form of a language or linguistic expression. Linguists commonly use language variety (or simply
variety) as a cover term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language, including
dialect, register, jargon, and idiolect.
Background
To understand the meaning of language varieties, it's important to consider how lects differ
from standard English. Even what constitutes standard English is a topic of hot debate among
linguists.
Standard English is a controversial term for a form of the English language that is written and
spoken by educated users. For some linguists, standard English is a synonym
for good or correct English usage. Others use the term to refer to a specific
geographical dialect of English or a dialect favored by the most powerful and prestigious social
group.
Varieties of language develop for a number of reasons: differences can come about for
geographical reasons; people who live in different geographic areas often develop distinct
dialects—variations of standard English. Those who belong to a specific group, often academic
or professional, tend to adopt jargon that is known to and understood by only members of that
select group. Even individuals develop idiolects, their own specific ways of speaking.
Dialect
The word dialect—which contains "lect" within the term—derives from the Greek words dia-
meaning "across, between" and legein "speak." A dialect is a regional or social variety of
a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary. The term dialect is
often used to characterize a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the
language. Sarah Thomason of the Linguistic Society of America notes:
"All dialects start with the same system, and their partly independent histories leave different
parts of the parent system intact. This gives rise to some of the most persistent myths about
language, such as the claim that the people of Appalachia speak pure Elizabethan English."
Certain dialects have gained negative connotations in the U.S. as well as in other countries.
Indeed, the term dialect prejudice refers to discrimination based on a person's dialect or way

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of speaking. Dialect prejudice is a type of linguicism—discrimination based on dialect. In their

article "Applied Social Dialectology," published in "Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook
of the Science of Language and Society," Carolyn Temple and Donna Christian observe:
"...dialect prejudice is endemic in public life, widely tolerated, and institutionalized in social
enterprises that affect almost everyone, such as education and the media. There is limited
knowledge about and little regard for linguistic study showing that all varieties of a language
display systematicity and that the elevated social position of standard varieties has no scientific
linguistic basis."
Due to this kind of dialectic prejudice, Suzanne Romaine, in "Language in Society," notes:
"Many linguists now prefer the term variety or lect to avoid the
sometimes pejorative connotations that the term 'dialect' has."
STYLE
The style of a piece of writing is the way in which features of the language are
used to convey meaning, typically but not always within the constraints of more widely
accepted conventions of usage, grammar, and spelling.
An individual's writing style may be a very personal thing. Organizations that employ
writers or commission written work from individuals may require that writers conform to
a standardized style defined by the organization. This allows a consistent readability of
composite works produced by many authors, and promotes usability of, for example,
references to other cited works.
In many kinds of professional writing aiming for effective transfer of information,
adherence to a standardised style of writing helps readers make sense of what the
writer is presenting. Many standardised styles are documented in style guides. Some
styles are more widely used, others restricted to a particular journal
Register
Register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different

circumstances. Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body
language. You probably behave very differently chatting with a friend than you would at a
formal dinner party or during a job interview. These variations in formality, also called stylistic
variation, are known as registers in linguistics.
They are determined by such factors as social occasion, context, purpose, and audience.
Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms,
the use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace.
Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed.
Depending on grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate.
You don't even need to use an actual word to communicate effectively. A huff of exasperation
during a debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes.

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Jargon
Jargon refers to the specialized language of a professional or occupational group. Such

language is often meaningless to outsiders. American poet David Lehman has described jargon
as "the verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable; it gives an air of
novelty and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would seem superficial, stale,
frivolous, or false."
George Packer describes jargon in a similar vein in a 2016 article in the New Yorker magazine:
“Professional jargon—on Wall Street, in humanities departments, in government offices—can be

a fence raised to keep out the uninitiated and permit those within it to persist in the belief that
what they do is too hard, too complex, to be questioned. Jargon acts not only to euphemize but to
license, setting insiders against outsiders and giving the flimsiest notions a scientific aura.”
Pam Fitzpatrick, a senior research director at Gartner, a Stamford, Connecticut-based research

and advisory firm specializing in high tech, writing on LinkedIn, puts it more bluntly:
"Jargon is waste. Wasted breath, wasted energy. It absorbs time and space but does nothing to
further our goal of persuading people to help us solve complex problems."
In other words, jargon is a faux method of creating a sort of dialect that only those on this inside
group can understand. Jargon has social implications similar to dialect prejudice but in reverse: It
is a way of making those who understand this particular variety of language more erudite and
learned; those who are members of the group that understands the particular jargon are
considered smart, while those on the outside are simply not bright enough to comprehend this
kind of language.
19. Distinguish between word as a physical shape and word as an

abstract entity i.e. phonological and orthographic words and
lexemes.
Ans. One of the factors which make defining the notion of word fairly difficult even for linguists
is their ambiguity. Hence, depending on its context, the term ‘word’ may refer to different things.
Furthermore, words may occur in a great variety of manifestations . As pointed out by Katamba,
“the physical form which realises or represents a word in speech or writing” can be referred to
as “word-form”.
As mentioned above, words can be generally described as “building-blocks” and basic units of
language. Furthermore, they are endowed with a meaning which, however, is not always
predictable, especially not for foreign learners . Hence, as stressed by Katamba, even the use of
fairly simple words such as cat or chair requires “access to various types of information from the
word-store which we all carry around with us in the mental lexicon or dictionary that is tucked
away in the mind” .

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This knowledge refers to, among others, the orthographic, phonological, and grammatical
properties of the word and its meaning . Determining the meaning of a word is not easy at all due
to the arbitrariness between linguistic sign and its meaning . Thus, as pointed out by Katamba,
the meaning of a word is based to large part on the consensus of a given speech community
which uses the respective language .
However, as Carstairs-MCarthty, even these basic features of words do not apply to all “units of
language” . Thus, a proper definition of the tem ‘word” would have to include all possible
manifestations of words and as far as possible avoid ambiguity. For this purpose, Katamba
suggests, it is necessary to “distinguish between three different types of words”:
(i) word-from (i.e. a particular physical manifestation of one or more lexemes in speech or
writing); (ii) a vocabulary item (i.e. lexeme); and (iii) a unit of grammatical structure that has
certain morphological and syntactic properties.
This will happen in the next chapter. Furthermore, a look will be taken at words as abstract units
of thought.
The word from an orthographic point of view
As pointed out by Jackson and Amvela, in its usual and traditional sense, the term word is often
described as “a sequence of letters bounded by spaces” . This definition obviously puts the focus
on the representation of words in writing and thus on the word in an orthographic sense.
The definition of words as sequences of letters or characters separated by spaces is problematic

for the following reasons. First, as stressed by Jackson and Amvela, it does “not always
correspond to functional realities” . Thus, different (kinds of) spaces may have different values.
This means that the semantic unity between words separated by spaces may be stronger or
weaker. As expounded by Jackson and Amvela, in the phrase in ‘a new waste paper basket’ there
is a relatively strong semantic unit between ‘waste paper basket’ although, seen from a purely
orthographic point of view, this unity is made up of three separate words. Meanwhile, there is no
such a semantic unity between the word group ‘a new waste’ . Furthermore, Katamba points to
the fact that not necessarily all words “have a space on other side of them” . Hence, at least in
English, words may be written down in a variety of ways. Thus, for example, compound works
like wheelbarrow may be written either without a space between them, or as two separate units
connected with a hyphen or as two units separated by a space in between . Consequently, the
space between written words does not necessarily say something about whether they are
considered as single units by native speakers . As explained by Katamba, whether or not a
hyphen is used for compound words depends “on how transparent the compound nature of a
word is” . Hence, hyphens are used more often in the case of compounds which are rather new,
whereas “well-established words that are transparently compounded, e.g. schoolboy, are
normally written without a hyphen” .
In addition, there are also other word forms which are joined together, like they’re. As pointed
out by Fuster, these special words, like ‘s or ‘ll, which attached to other words, “are often
referred to as clitics” . Given this “flexibility in the way in which words are written down” and,

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furthermore, given the fact that the above definition does not apply to compounds and word
forms like they’re, “a definition based on writing traditions alone cannot be entirely satisfactory”
. As remarked by Matthews, this does not only apply to the English language which, for
example, has special rules concerning the orthographic form of compounds, but to languages in
general. Thus, “there is not single watertight criterion which will identify word boundaries in
whatever language” . For this reason, the above mentioned orthographic definition of the word
must be discarded.
Words from a phonological point of view
Another possibility consists in describing a word “in terms of phonological units: syllables and
ultimately letters or phonemes, considered as the primitives or minimal elements […] of the
secondary articulation of language” . This refers to the phonological word or, better, word-form ,
and thus to phonological realisation of words in speech.
As pointed out by Fuster, similarly to spaces in written languages, potential pauses might be seen
as separating words from each other. However, as it is not normal for speakers to pause between
words this criterion does not seem to work . In general, words in speech “are much harder to
isolate than words in writing” , because “they are not discrete entities that can be neatly picked
off one by one” . Nevertheless, they can be isolated by means of stress and phonotactic
properties .
Another, more plausible phonological criterion than pauses, would be stress. Stress, for example,
fulfils an important function in distinguishing compounds from noun phrases containing the
same words. Thus, for example, a bláck bóard and a bláckboard do obviously not refer to the
same thing, and it is stress which helps to distinguish them, for, as a general rule, compound
words are stressed on the first element. Stress furthermore serves to distinguish between content
words and function words. The term ‘content words’ refers to “the nouns, verbs, adjectives
which contain most of the referential (or cognitive meaning) of a sentence” The term ‘function
words’, on the other hand, refers to “prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, articles” etc., thus, on
words that “have a predominantly grammatical role” and do not carry meaning in themselves. In
English, only content words have main stress on one syllable which is more prominent than the
rest. As underscored by Katamba, the location of this main stress is fixed and therefore cannot be
“changed capriciously by individual speakers” .
20. Discuss the different types of bilingualism and its consequences

on the society.
Ans. Bilingualism (or more generally: Multilingualism) is the phenomenon of
speaking and understanding two or more languages. The term can refer to
individuals (individual bilingualism) as well as to an entire society (social
bilingualism).
The term can also refer to the corresponding scientific research which
studies the phenomenon itself.

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Bilingualism, multilingualism and polyglotism can all be used as synonyms

for the same phenomenon.
Language Learning - Categories

1. Simultaneous acquisition occurs when, for example, a child learns
several languages simultaneously within its social environment. Also
called Compound bilingual (amalgamated).
2. Successive acquisition means. that different languages are learned
at different stages during different phases of life. Called Coordinate
bilingual when the two languages are equally used / important
or Subordinate bilingual when one language (usually the
Mother/Native tongue) dominates the daily life.
3. Natural acquisition means that a language is learned without formal
instruction.
4. Guided acquisition means that the knowledge of a language is
acquired by means of instructions (e.g. learning at school).
5. Symmetric acquisition means that several languages
are equally mastered with a similar proficiency.
6. Asymmetric acquisition means that one language dominates the other.
This set of categories is somewhat arbitrary. A specific bilingual person is not

necessarily “completely” coordinated, compound or subordinate. Indeed, a bilingual can
be coordinated for certain parts of the linguistic system, at the level of syntax and
semantics, for example, but subordinate to the phonological level. It has a strong accent
in its L2, while having impeccable syntax and a rich lexicon.
Thus, an ideal coordinated bilingual would have two completely separate linguistic
systems and there would never be a mix of languages at any level. It should also be
noted that the organization of the linguistic system and thus the state of bilingualism of
a person can change depending on his or her experiences during life.
Early bilingualism - there are two types: simultaneous early bilingualism and consecutive (or
successive) early bilingualism.
Simultaneous early bilingualism refers to a child who learns two languages at the same time,
from birth. This generally produces a strong bilingualism, called additive bilingualism. This also
implies that the child's language development is bilingual.
Successive early bilingualism refers to a child who has already partially acquired a first language
and then learns a second language early in childhood (for example, when a child moves to an
environment where the dominant language is not his native language). This generally produces a

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strong bilingualism (or additive bilingualism), but the child must be given time to learn the
second language, because the second language is learned at the same time as the child learns to
speak. This implies that the language development of the child is partly bilingual.
Late bilingualism – refers to bilingualism when the second language is learned after the age of 6
or 7; especially when it is learned in adolescence or adulthood. Late bilingualism is a consecutive
bilingualism which occurs after the acquisition of the first language (after the childhood
language development period). This is what also distinguishes it from early bilingualism. With
the first language already acquired, the late bilingual uses their experience to learn the second
language.
Additive bilingualism and subtractive bilingualism – The term additive bilingualism refers to
the situation where a person has acquired the two languages in a balanced manner. It is a strong
bilingualism. Subtractive bilingualism refers to the situation where a person learns the second
language to the detriment of the first language, especially if the first language is a minority
language. In this case, mastery of the first language decreases, while mastery of the other
language (usually the dominant language) increases. These expressions and their associated
concepts were created by Wallace Lambert, the Canadian researcher who has been given the title
of “the father of bilingualism research”.
Passive bilingualism - refers to being able to understand a second language without being able
to speak it. Children who respond in a relevant way in English when they are addressed in
French could become passive bilinguals, as their mastery of oral expression in French decreases.
21. What do you mean by spread of English in India? Explain.

Ans. The British first arrived in India in the early 1600s and soon established trading posts in a
number of cities under the control of The East India Company. By 1765 the Company’s
influence had grown to such an extent that the British were effectively controlling most parts of
the country. This date is often taken as the start of what is referred to as The Raj — a period of
British rule in India that lasted until Independence in 1947.
Initially English was only taught to the local population through the work of Christian
missionaries — there were no official attempts to force the language on the masses. But by the
1700s, English had firmly established itself as the language of administration and many educated
Indians were demanding instruction in English as a means of social advancement. By 1857
universities had opened in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. English was increasingly accepted as
the language of government, of the social elite, and of the national press.
After Independence
After Independence, India became a nation state, and it was intended that English would
gradually be phased out as the language of administration. But there was no simple solution as to
which language should replace it. At first Hindi, the most widely spoken language, seemed the
obvious choice, but following violent protests in 1963 in the state of Tamil Nadu against the

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imposition of Hindi as a national language, opinion has remained divided. In a country with over
900 million people and more than a thousand languages, it is difficult to choose a single national
language, as mother tongue speakers of that language would automatically enjoy greater social
status and have easier access to positions of power and influence. Even Ghandi, a proponent of a
native variety as a national language, accepted that his message was most widely understood if
expressed in English. So, although English is not an indigenous language, it remains as an
‘Associate Language’ in India, alongside Hindi, the ‘Official Language of the Union of India’
and eighteen 'National Languages', such as Bengali, Gujurati and Urdu, that have a special status
in certain individual states.
English in India today
Despite continued pressure from nationalists, English remains at the heart of Indian society. It is
widely used in the media, in Higher Education and government and therefore remains a common
means of communication, both among the ruling classes, and between speakers of mutually
unintelligible languages. According to recent surveys, approximately 4% of the Indian
population use English. That figure might seem insignificant, but out of the total population this
represents 35 million speakers — the largest English-speaking community outside the USA and
the UK. In addition there are speakers of English in other parts of South Asia, such as Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, where English plays a similar role. English is virtually a mother
tongue for many educated South Asians, but for the vast majority it remains a second language.
This means there are speakers whose spoken English is heavily influenced by speech patterns of
their ethnic language, alongside those whose speech reveals nothing of their racial background
and some who are ranged somewhere in between.
Asian influence
There are a number of elements that characterise the more ‘extreme’ forms of South Asian
English. In terms of pronunciation, many speakers do not differentiate between the sounds <v>
and <w>. They might also replace <th>in words like think and this with a <t> and <d> sound, as
no Indian languages contain these consonants. Under the influence of traditional Hindi grammar,
speakers often use progressive tenses in statements, such as I am believing you or she is liking
music. Anyone who has experience of speech in the UK's Asian communities will also have
encountered the phenomenon of code-switching — mixing words, phrases or even whole
sentences from two different languages within the same conversation. The occasional or even
frequent use of a Hindi (or Urdu, Punjabi, Gujurati etc.) word or expression within an English
sentence can communicate a great sense of shared identity or solidarity with other speakers. This
characteristic feature of Asian speech has led commentators to coin popular terms, such
as Hinglish
22. Discuss the scope of negation and negation as a logical operation.

List with examples the different kinds of negation in English.

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Ans. “The action or logical operation of negating or making negative”.
In simpler terms, negation defines the polar opposition of affirmative, denies the existence or
vaguely – a refutation. This is also known as “Not”. Classical logic resembles negation with truth
function which takes truth to falsity and is perfectly capable of running the opposite operation. It
denies the truth of a sentence. It’s just the conversion of the affirmative sentence which converts
the simple affirmative sentence into negative.
Example
• I like to sing = I do not like to sing.
Rules of Negation:
By changing the auxiliary verb of the sentence into negative, we can apply Negation in a
sentence.
1. Negation in tense
1. Present Indefinite Tense Do = do not/ don’t, does = does not/doesn’t.
2. Present Continuous Tense Am = am not, is = is not/isn’t, are = are not, aren’t.
3. Present Perfect Tense Have = have not/haven’t, has = has not/hasn’t
Present Perfect Continuous

4. Has been = has not been, have been = have not been
tense
5. Past Indefinite tense Did = did not/didn’t
6. Past Continuous tense Was = was not/wasn’t, were = were not/ weren’t
7. Past Perfect Tense Had = had not/hadn’t
Past Perfect Continuous

8. Had been = had not been/hadn’t been
Tense
9. Future Indefinite Tense Shall = shall not, will = will not/won’t
10. Future Continuous tense Shall be = shall not be, will be = will not/won’t
Shall have = shall not have, will have = will not

11. Future Perfect Tense
have/won’t have

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Future Perfect Continuous Shall have been = shall not have been,
12.
Tense
will have been = will not have been/won’t have been
Examples:
• He drives the car = He does not drive the car

• Alex ate rice = Alex did not eat rice
2. Negation in Modal-auxiliary
Modal Modal in negative Modal Modal in negative
Can Can not/ can’t Shall Shall not
Could Could not/ couldn’t Should Should not/shouldn’t
May May not Will Will not/won’t
Might Might not/mightn’t would Would not/wouldn’t
Must Must not/mustn’t Ought to Ought not to
Need Need not/needn’t
Examples:
• Edward can swim= Edward cannot swim

• We must go there= We must not go there
3. Negation in Words
Some words such as ever, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, instead of never, nobody, no
one, nothing, nowhere, etc. represent the Negation.
Examples:
• I do not think he can ever reach within time.
Double Negative
Double negative on the other hand, simply defines the existence of two forms of negation in the
same sentence. Please, notice that a double negative can often result in an affirmation in the
English language (e.g., He hardly stops for small-talks). The rhetorical term for such a
phenomenon is ‘litotes’.

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Example:
• I can not find him nowhere.
Uses of Double Negative
Double Negative can be used in two ways. They are:
1. Using negative words
such as never, nobody, anyone, nothing, nowhere, etc
Example:
• He cannot go nowhere without informing me
2. Using prefix
Such as ir, un, non, pre, anti, il, im, etc.
Example:
• John is not uncontrollable by his family member though he is a special child.
In modern English, Double Negatives are highly avoidable as it is grammatically wrong. We

know we cannot use more than one negative word in a statement. It usually used in informal
conversation or speech and in songs’ lyrics as well. To form a correct sentence, we must avoid
using a double negative in a single sentence formally.
23. What is meant by Indianness in English? Explain.

Ans. India is known as the land of cultures and traditions and is one of the oldest civilization in
the world. Indian culture and tradition are rich and unique in their own way. In our country there
are many communities and sub-communities, each of them has their own culture, tradition,
religion, language and literature. Literature plays a very important role in the establishment and
growth of the society. Plots depicted in the fictional writings are inspired by the reality. So we
should not treat the stories just as stories, but as the reflection of the reality. In our country there
are many great authors who wrote about their land and people, for e.g. Mulkraj Anand, Raja Rao
and R.K.Narayana: the founding fathers of Indian English literature were mainly concerned with
the downtrodden of the society, Indian middle-class life and the expression of the traditional and
cultural ethos of India. The Indian authors have touched each and every aspect of Indian life. They
have portrayed the beautiful picture of India through their writings and because of it the culture,
tradition and values of our country got such a high recognition in the world context. The famous
American writer Mark Twain wrote about India that-“India is the cradle of the human race, the
birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend and the great-
grandmother of tradition.”1

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Indian authors have influenced an entire generation with their writings. Most of the writers are
multilingual. Kalidas, Kabir, Guru Nanak, etc each composed their songs and poems in more than
one language. Translation is the bridge between the literature of the past and the present generation.
Ideas and concepts like Indian philosophy, Indian literature, and Indian culture would have been
impossible in the absence of translation. Our rich mythologies, epics e.g. The Ramayana and The
Mahabharata have been translated into many languages and it helped the outsiders to understand
the Indian culture in a better way. At present no one is there who don’t know the story of
Ramayana, Mahabharata or Bhagvatgeeta. It’s a translation only which gave our epics such a wide
recognition in the world. Max Muller said about Upanishad that-“there is no book in the world
that is so thrilling, stirring and inspiring as the Upanishad”.
Literature always acted as a mirror to society. Ancient authors had portrayed the picture of an
ancient India through their writings. For e.g. Munshi Premchandra showed the actual Indian
society and the conditions that existed that time. The time when India was almost completely a
rural place. He showed the true pain and agony of the farmer and the poor. In Kafan, the poor
farmer family had no money to cremate the body of a dead woman. They asked for money from
the zamindar and other members of the society. However, they used the money to satisfy their
hunger. This story presents the grim reality of that time. He always tried to show what he observed
and lived in those days of India. We can read Munshi Premchand works to know how India was a
long time ago.
As with the passage of time our Indian society developed, we see a gradual development in our
culture and literature also. One of the important themes of our great Indian authors is the portrayal
of Indian common man and woman. The portrayal of the image of women by Indian authors is not
uniform. it differs from time to time, from novel to novel, and writer to writer. Overall three aspects
of women’s have been depicted by the authors. Firstly, of that time when they were exploited and
forced to obey the traditions and cultures of their society. The best example of it we can see in the
writings of Rabindra Nath Tagore. He wrote broadly on women. Some of the famous female
protagonists of his stories are Bimla, Binodini, Chandalika , Shyama etc. secondly, when their
identity is transforming, they began to raise their voice for their rights. Like in the poems of Kamla
Das, we always see a rebellion against male-dominated society. Through her works, she advocated
for the equal rights and liberty for women. Lastly through the writings of Kiran Desai, Jhumpa
Lehrai, Shashi Deshpande and Bharati Mukherjee we see a new avatar of a new woman who is
confident and makes her own decisions.
There is a well known saying that, if you want to study the culture and tradition of any period, you
should go through its literature. Another thing which catches the eyes of our great authors is our
Indian philosophy. It’s our Indian philosophy only that inspired the aliens to come and study our
culture and values. Sir Aurobindo explored the concept of Indian philosophy and made it popular
in the world.
24. Write short notes on any two of the following : Illustrate your
answers with examples.

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(a) Langue and Parole - Ferdinand de Saussure introduced terms that explain the different ways
in which we communicate.
Among the terms he introduced, he included “langue” and “parole.” First, let us establish that
these two terms comprise some of the basic elements of communication. They are types of
“building blocks” within language. As such, let us define language.
Language itself is a faculty of speech; an ability to speak is part of what makes humans unique.
We all possess the ability inherently.
Now, within language, there is langue, or the system and capacity of communication that we all
possess.
Parole is the actual action that we engage in when we speak. It is, essentially, speaking. Another
way of saying it: langue is the universal system, while parole is the pivotal agent that contributes
to the expansion of the system.
Langue is a composite of all the traits of a language; think of it as a big container that hosts all
the parts of language as we use it, particularly, the images and words that come to mind and the
sound-to-symbol connection that occurs when we speak. All of those stored images, words,
meanings, and sub-meanings comprise “langue.”
Parole is speaking. "Palabra," its meaning in Spanish, shares a similar meaning: the act of
activating langue through the use of speech. Parole is the enabler of the langue. Langue embraces
parole.
(b) Competence and performance - Chomsky separates competence and performance; he

describes 'competence' as an idealized capacity that is located as a psychological or mental
property or function and ‘performance’ as the production of actual utterances. In short,
competence involves “knowing” the language and performance involves “doing” something with
the language. The difficulty with this construct is that it is very difficult to assess competence
without assessing performance.
Noting the distinction between competence and performance is useful primarily because it allows
those studying a language to differentiate between a speech error and not knowing something
about the language. To understand this distinction, it is helpful to think about a time when you've
made some sort of error in your speech. For example, let's say you are a native speaker of
English and utter the following:
We swimmed in the ocean this weekend.
Is this error due to competence or performance? It is most likely that as a native speaker you are
aware how to conjugate irregular verbs in the past but your performance has let you down this
time. Linguists use the distinction between competence and performance to illustrate the
intuitive difference between accidentally saying swimmed and the fact that a child or non-

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proficient speaker of English may not know that the past tense of swim is swam and say
swimmed consistently.
(c) Indianization of English - Indianization of English as you see from the term means that
English has been Indianized or made suitable on terms of Indian usages and applicability…
The root of English in the Indian sub-continent can be traced back to the incident of 31st
December, 1600, when Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to a few merchants of London,
giving them a monopoly of trade with India. Initially English had to contend with the
competition of the Portuguese language which was widely used by all European traders in India.
Slowly but steadily, however, with the annexation of Indian princely states, English became the
language of education in India in 1835, and was made the official language of the then
government in 1837.
The Indian variety of English is significantly different from the native English varieties. In
choices of words, in imagery, and in the nuances of meaning, the communicative strategy of
Indian English newspapers have more or less an Indian flavor. Braj Kachru 1984, who has
considered the process of Indianization of English in detail, maintains that features of the English
language in India have been considerably influenced by the Indian socio-cultural norms that
stipulate rules by which word symbols are related to each other to transmit messages.
In some sense, Indianization started as a matter of convenience, but soon it took on its own life
and became an independent process with other primary purposes. One such purpose is ardently
pursued by the English newspapers in India and other South Asian nations: communicating in a
style and language that is easily understood by the growing reading public.
(d) Reduplication as a process of word formation - Reduplication is a process that takes place
when the root or stem is reduplicated and added to the existing one. The added morpheme might
or might not be further modified and on the basis of this division one can distinguish partial and
complete variants or reduplication. The latter of the two does not change the structure of the
reiterated word.
Examples found in the Indonesian language:
• kitab — 'book',
• kitab kitab - 'various books',
• anak — 'child',
• anak anak — 'various children'.
While these clearly show that the additional morpheme not only denotes 'various X' but also
suggests plural, conversely English girly-girly and goody-goody represent derivatives whose
meaning implies using irony or sarcasm.

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Partial reduplication, in turn, takes advantage of morphemes that have been modified to a degree.
This is where pseudomorphemes are introduced — such that have been modified in a way they
remain as sound clusters that no longer carry meaning and serve as a tool of expressing
stylisation or emotional involvement of the speaker: shillyshally, zig-zag. The presence of
pseudomorphemes is an indicative of the word being an outcome of reduplication rather than
compound-creation where meaningful morphemes are used.
(e) Aptitude and age as learner factors in second language Acquisition- Children who
acquire two languages from birth are called simultaneous bilinguals. In these cases, both
languages are spoken to the children by their parents or caregivers and they grow up knowing the
two languages. These children generally reach linguistic milestones at the same time as their
monolingual peers. Children who do not learn two languages from infancy, but learn one
language from birth, and another at some point during childhood, are referred to as sequential
bilinguals. People often assume that a sequential bilingual's first language is their most proficient
language, but this is not always the case. Over time and experience, a child's second language
may become his or her strongest. This is especially likely to happen if a child's first language is a
minority language spoken at home, and the child's second language is the majority language
learned at school or in the community before the age of five. Proficiency for both simultaneous
and sequential bilinguals is dependent upon the child's opportunities to engage in meaningful
conversations in a variety of contexts.
Often simultaneous bilinguals are more proficient in their languages than sequential bilinguals.
One argument for this is that simultaneous bilinguals develop more distinct representations of
their languages, especially with regards to phonological and semantic levels of processing.
Although child learners more often acquire native-like proficiency, older child and adult learners
often progress faster in the initial stages of learning. Older child and adult learners are quicker at
acquiring the initial grammar knowledge than child learners, however, with enough time and
exposure to the language, children surpass their older peers. Once surpassed, older learners often
display clear language deficiencies compared to child learners. This has been attributed to having
a solid grasp on the first language or mother tongue they were first immersed into. Having this
cognitive ability already developed can aid the process of learning a second language since there
is a better understanding of how language works. For this same reason interaction with family
and further development of the first language is encouraged along with positive reinforcement.
The exact language deficiencies that occur past a certain age are not unanimously agreed upon.
Some believe that only pronunciation is affected, while others believe other abilities are affected
as well. However, some differences that are generally agreed upon include older learners having
a noticeable accent, a smaller vocabulary, and making several linguistic errors.
(f) Quantifiers in English- A quantifier is a word that usually goes before a noun to express the
quantity of the object; for example, a little milk. Most quantifiers are followed by a noun, though
it is also possible to use them without the noun when it is clear what we are referring to. For
example,

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Do you want some milk? – Just a little. (It’s clear that I mean ‘a little milk’.)
There are quantifiers to describe large quantities (a lot, much, many), small quantities (a little, a
bit, a few) and undefined quantities (some, any). There are also quantifiers that express the idea
of a sufficient amount (enough, plenty).
There are some quantifiers that have a similar meaning but differ because one is used with
countable nouns and the other is used with uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are things that
we can count; for example, a table, two chairs. Uncountable nouns are things that we cannot
count and only have a singular form; for example, some furniture, some fruit.
Let’s start by looking at quantifiers that express large quantities.
Much, Many, A lot (of)
We use many, much, a lot (of) to refer to big quantities. We use ‘many’ with countable nouns
and ‘much’ with uncountable nouns, and we can use ‘a lot (of)’ with both countable and
uncountable nouns. In modern English it is very common to use ‘a lot (of)’ in affirmative
sentences instead of ‘many’ and ‘much’.
Here are some examples:
• There are many things to do today.

• We have a lot of time left, don’t worry.
• Many people take the train to work.
• Much Italian wine is sold abroad.
• She plays a lot of sport.
• When we want to emphasize a really big quantity we can add ‘so’ in front of ‘many’ and
‘much’. For example:
• There were so many passengers on the train, it was difficult to get off.
• She had so much work to do, she stayed at the office until midnight.
A Few, A Little, A Bit (of)
To talk about small quantities we can use ‘a few’ and ‘a little’. We use ‘a few’ with countable
nouns and ‘a little’ with uncountable nouns. It’s also possible to use ‘a bit’ with uncountable
nouns, but it is more informal.

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Here are some examples:
• We need a few coins for the car park.

• Would you like a little milk in your coffee?
• They ate a few biscuits with their tea.
• The engine needs a little oil.
When we want to refer to a small quantity with a negative sense, we use ‘few’ and ‘little’
without ‘a’. For example:
• Few trains arrive on time. (A small number of trains arrive on train which is a bad
thing.)
• Little attention is given to the problem of parking. (A small amount of attention is given
to this problem and it’s not good.)
(g) Derivational morphology - Derivational morphology is a type of word formation that

creates new lexemes, either by changing syntactic category or by adding substantial new
meaning (or both) to a free or bound base. Derivation may be contrasted with inflection on the
one hand or with compounding on the other. The distinctions between derivation and inflection
and between derivation and compounding, however, are not always clear-cut. New words may be
derived by a variety of formal means including affixation, reduplication, internal modification of
various sorts, subtraction, and conversion. Affixation is best attested cross-linguistically,
especially prefixation and suffixation. Reduplication is also widely found, with various internal
changes like ablaut and root and pattern derivation less common. Derived words may fit into a
number of semantic categories. For nouns, event and result, personal and participant, collective
and abstract noun are frequent. For verbs, causative and applicative categories are well-attested,
as are relational and qualitative derivations for adjectives. Languages frequently also have ways
of deriving negatives, relational words, and evaluatives. Most languages have derivation of some
sort, although there are languages that rely more heavily on compounding than on derivation to
build their lexical stock. A number of topics have dominated the theoretical literature on
derivation, including productivity (the extent to which new words can be created with a given
affix or morphological process), the principles that determine the ordering of affixes, and the
place of derivational morphology with respect to other components of the grammar. The study of
derivation has also been important in a number of psycholinguistic debates concerning the
perception and production of language.
(h) French borrowings in English - It is customary to divide the time in which

English was in contact with French into two periods,

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1) Anglo-Norman and
2) Central French.
The first period lasted from the invasion of 1066 to the loss of Normandy to
England under King John in 1204. After this there is little or no direct
influence of French on English but the language remained fashionable and
the practice of borrowing words from the continental language continued
well into the 15th century. The Central French period (during which influence
from the region around Paris dominated) can be taken to cease gradually
with the introduction of printing at the end of the 15th century and the
general resurgence in interest and status of English.
The Some few words pre-date the Norman conquest such as prud ‘proud’
and tur ‘tower’. The greatest influence set in the mid 13th century. The
number of borrowings runs into thousands. These are to be found in certain
spheres of life like politics and administration, cuisine, the judiciary, etc.
The difference between Anglo-Norman and Central French loans in English is

to be seen in famous pairs of words like catch and chase, both of which go
back originally to Latin captiare, which itself furnished English with the later
loan ‘capture’.
GERMANIC LOANWORDS IN FRENCH French contains a number of words

which are early borrowings from Germanic. In Central French these show /g-
/ (from an earlier /gw/) and in Anglo-Norman /w/. The word for war is the
best example; the Germanic root *war- is to found in Modern English aware
and beware.
The borrowing of words in the Middle English period is related to changes

with French itself. For instance an /s/ before /t/ was lost in French but many
loans in English were made before this took place, hence one has estate but
état, forest but forêt in Modern French. In the case of hostel and hotel, the
/s/ in the first word shows that it is an older borrowing from the same root,
cf. Modern French hôtel (the accented vowel in the French examples here
indicates that previously an /s/ followed the vowel).
In the course of time the difference between the two strands of French —
Norman and Central — became more and more diffuse. Certainly there is no
question nowadays of speakers being able intuitively to distinguish between
the two.
SPLIT IN ENGLISH VOCABULARY As a generalisation one can say that the

French loans are to be found on higher stylistic levels in English. With the

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later Central French borrowings this is obvious given the sectors of society
where the loans occurred (see next section). The general split is between
colloquial native words and more formal Romance terms and can be seen
clearly in word pairs like forgive and pardon. Other examples are begin :
commence; hearty : cordial; happiness : felicity; help : aid; hide : conceal;
meal : repast (only literary nowadays).
But for later English the etymological source of words is irrelevant and any
two words can form a pair distinguished on a colloquial — formal axis as one
can see in notice : perceive, both of Romance origin or even in the pair
present : gift where in fact the Romance term is by far and away the more
common in spoken English.
(i) Code Switching - In linguistics, code-switching or language alternation occurs when a

speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a
single conversation. Multilinguals, speakers of more than one language, sometimes use elements
of multiple languages when conversing with each other. Thus, code-switching is the use of more
than one linguistic variety in a manner consistent with the syntax and phonology of each variety.
The term "code-switching" is also used outside the field of linguistics. Some scholars of
literature use the term to describe literary styles that include elements from more than one
language, as in novels by Chinese-American, Anglo-Indian, or Latino writers. In popular usage,
code-switching is sometimes used to refer to relatively stable informal mixtures of two
languages, such as Spanglish, Taglish, or Hinglish. Both in popular usage and in sociolinguistic
study, the name code-switching is sometimes used to refer to switching among dialects, styles or
registers.
Code-switching is distinct from other language contact phenomena, such as borrowing, pidgins
and creoles, and loan translation (calques). Borrowing affects the lexicon, the words that make
up a language, while code-switching takes place in individual utterances. Speakers form and
establish a pidgin language when two or more speakers who do not speak a common language
form an intermediate, third language. On the other hand, speakers practice code-switching when
they are each fluent in both languages.
(j) Vowels of English - Vowel, in human speech, sound in which the flow of air from the lungs
passes through the mouth, which functions as a resonance chamber, with minimal obstruction
and without audible friction; e.g., the i in “fit,” and the a in “pack.” Although usually produced
with vibrating vocal cords, vowels may be pronounced without such vibration, resulting in a
voiceless, or whispered, sound. From the viewpoint of articulatory phonetics, vowels are
classified according to the position of the tongue and lips and, sometimes, according to whether
or not the air is released through the nose.
A high vowel (such as i in “machine” and u in “rule”) is pronounced with the tongue arched
toward the roof of the mouth. A low vowel (such as a in “father” or “had”) is produced with the
tongue relatively flat and low in the mouth and with the mouth open a little wider than for high

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vowels. Midvowels (such as e in “bed” and o in “pole”) have a tongue position between the
extremes of high and low.
High, middle, and low vowels are also classified according to a front-to-back dimension. A front
vowel is pronounced with the highest part of the tongue pushed forward in the mouth and
somewhat arched. The a in “had,” the e in “bed,” and the i in “fit” are front vowels. A back
vowel—e.g., the u in “rule” and the o in “pole”—is produced with the back part of the tongue
raised toward the soft palate
vowels can be divided into two main categories: diphthongs and monophthongs. Diphthongs are
gliding vowels in the articulation of which there is a continuous transition from one position to
another. Diphthongs are to be contrasted in this respect with so-called pure vowels, or
monophthongs—i.e., unchanging, or steady-state, vowels. Though they are single speech sounds,
diphthongs are usually represented, in a phonetic transcription of speech, by means of a pair of
characters indicating the initial and final configurations of the vocal tract. Many of the vowel
sounds in most dialects of English are diphthongs—e.g., the vowels of “out” and “ice,”
respectively.
(k) Latin borrowings in English - English is a Germanic language, with a grammar and a core
vocabulary inherited from Proto-Germanic. However, a significant portion of the English
vocabulary comes from Romance and Latinate sources. A portion of these borrowings come
directly from Latin, or through one of the Romance languages, particularly Anglo-Norman and
French, but some also from Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish; or from other languages (such as
Gothic, Frankish or Greek) into Latin and then into English. The influence of Latin in English,
therefore, is primarily lexical in nature, being confined mainly to words derived from Latin roots.
The Germanic tribes who would later give rise to the English language (the notional Angles,
Saxon and Jutes) traded and fought with the Latin speaking Roman Empire. Many words (some
originally from Greek) for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic
people via Latin even before the tribes reached Britain (what is known as the Continental or Zero
Period): anchor, butter, camp, cheese, chest, cook, copper, devil, dish, fork, gem, inch, kitchen,
mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pound (unit of weight), punt (boat), sack, wall, street , wine.
Cognates of virtually all of these English words exist in the other Germanic languages.
Christian missionaries coming to Britain in the 6th century and 7th century brought with them
Latin religious terms which entered the English language: abbot, altar, apostle, candle, clerk,
mass, minister, monk, nun, pope, priest, school, shrive. Some of these words are ultimately of
Greek origin, as much of the technical language of Christianity developed from the Greek of the
New Testament and the works of those Fathers of the Church who wrote in Greek.
During this time, the Catholic Church had great influence on the development and expansion of
the Old English language. Catholic monks mainly wrote or copied text in Latin, the prevalent
Medieval lingua franca of Europe. However, when monks occasionally wrote in the vernacular,
Latin words were translated by finding suitable Old English equivalents. Often, a Germanic word

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was adopted and given a new shade of meaning in the process. Such was the case with Old
English gōdspell ("gospel") for Latin Evangelium. Previously, the Old English word simply
meant "good news," but its meaning was extended in Old English to fit a religious context. The
same occurred for the Old Germanic pagan word blētsian, which meant "to sacrifice, consecrate
by shedding blood". It was adapted by Old English scribes and christened to become the word
bless. Similarly fullwiht (literally, "full-being") and the verb fullian came to mean "baptism" and
"to baptize" respectively, but probably originally referred to some kind of rite of passage.
(l) Blends - There are different ways of creating word blends. One way is to combine portions of
two other words to make a new one. These word fragments are called morphemes, the smallest
units of meaning in a language. The word "camcorder," for example," combines parts of
"camera" and "recorder." Word blends can also be created by joining a full word with a portion
of another word (called a splinter). For example, the word "motorcade" combines "motor" plus
a portion of "cavalcade."
Word blends can also be formed by overlapping or combining phonemes, which are parts of two
words that sound alike. One example of an overlapping word blend is "Spanglish," which is an
informal mix of spoken English and Spanish. Blends can also be formed through the omission of
phonemes. Geographers sometimes refer to "Eurasia," the landmass that combines Europe and
Asia. This blend is formed by taking the first syllable of "Europe" and adding it to the word
"Asia."
English is a dynamic language that is constantly evolving. Many of the words in the English
language are derived from ancient Latin and Greek or from other European languages such as
German or French. But starting in the 20th century, blended words began to emerge to describe
new technologies or cultural phenomena. For instance, as dining out became more popular, many
restaurants began serving a new weekend meal in the late morning. It was too late for breakfast
and too early for lunch, so someone decided to make a new word that described a meal that was a
little bit of both. Thus, "brunch" was born.
As new inventions changed the way people lived and worked, the practice of combining parts of
words to make new ones became popular. In the 1920s, as traveling by car became more
common, a new kind of hotel that catered to drivers emerged. These "motor hotels" quickly
proliferated and became known as "motels." In 1994, when a rail tunnel beneath the English
Channel opened, connecting France and Great Britain, it quickly became known as the
"Chunnel," a word blend of "Channel" and "tunnel."
(m) Conversational implicature - conversational implicature is an indirect or implicit speech

act: what is meant by a speaker's utterance that is not part of what is explicitly said. The term is
also known simply as implicature; it is the antonym (opposite) of explicature, which is an
explicitly communicated assumption.
"What a speaker intends to communicate is characteristically far richer than what she directly
expresses; linguistic meaning radically underdetermines the message conveyed and understood,"

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Conversational implicatures typically have a number of interesting properties, including

calculability, cancelability, nondetachability, and indeterminacy. These properties can be used to
investigate whether a putative implicature is correctly identified as such, although none of them
provides a fail-safe test. A further test, embedding, has also been prominent in work on
implicatures.
A number of phenomena that Grice treated as implicatures would now be treated by many as
pragmatic enrichment contributing to the proposition expressed. But Grice’s postulation of
implicatures was a crucial advance, both for its theoretical unification of apparently diverse types
of utterance content and for the attention it drew to pragmatic inference and the division of labor
between linguistic semantics and pragmatics in theorizing about verbal communication.
(n) Foregrounding - Foregrounding is a concept in literary studies concerning making a

linguistic utterance (word, clause, phrase, phoneme, etc.) stand out from the surrounding
linguistic context, from given literary traditions or from more general world knowledge. It is "the
'throwing into relief' of the linguistic sign against the background of the norms of ordinary
language." There are two main types of foregrounding: parallelism and deviation. Parallelism
can be described as unexpected regularity, while deviation can be seen as unexpected
irregularity. As the definition of foregrounding indicates, these are relative concepts. Something
can only be unexpectedly regular or irregular within a particular context. This context can be
relatively narrow, such as the immediate textual surroundings (referred to as a 'secondary norm')
or wider such as an entire genre (referred to as a 'primary norm'). Foregrounding can occur on all
levels of language (phonology, graphology, morphology, lexis, syntax, semantics and
pragmatics). It is generally used to highlight important parts of a text, to aid memorability and/or
to invite interpretation.
The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are
known. The technique of art is to make objects "unfamiliar," to make forms difficult, to increase
the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in
itself and must be prolonged." It took several decades before the Russian Formalists' work was
discovered in the West, but in the 1960 some British stylisticians, notably Geoffrey Leech and
Roger Fowler, established the notion of 'foregrounding' in the linguistically oriented analysis of
literature. Soon a plethora of studies investigated foregrounding features in a multitude of texts,
demonstrating its ubiquity in a large variety of literary traditions. These analyses were seen as
evidence that there was a special literary register, which was called, also after the Russian
Formalists, 'literariness'.
(o) Negation - Negation is a sine qua non of every human language, yet is absent from otherwise
complex systems of animal communication. While animal “languages” are essentially analog
systems, it is the digital nature of the natural language negative operator, represented in Stoic and
Fregean propositional logic as a one-place sentential connective toggling the truth value of
statements between T[rue] and F[alse] and applying recursively to its own output, that allows for
denial, contradiction, and other key properties of human linguistic systems.
The simple syntactic nature of logical negation belies the profoundly complex and subtle
expression of negation in natural language, as expressed in linguistically distinct categories and

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parts of speech (adverbs, verbs, copulas, quantifiers, affixes). As will be partly explored here, the
investigation of the form and meaning of negative expressions in English and other languages
and of the interaction of negation with other operators (including multiple iterations of negation
itself) is often far from simple, extending to scope ambiguities (Everybody didn’t leave),
negative incorporation into quantifiers and adverbs (nobody, never, few), neg-raising (I don’t
want to go = “I want not to go”), and the widespread occurrence of negative polarity items (any,
ever, lift a finger) whose distribution is subject to principles of syntax, semantics, and
pragmatics. At the core of the mental faculty of language, negation interacts in significant ways
with principles of morphology, syntax, logical form, and compositional semantics, as well as
with processes of language acquisition and sentence processing, whence the prominent role
played by work on negation in the development of logic, semantics, linguistic theory, cognition,
and psychoanalytic and literary theory.
By combining subject and predicate to form a proposition, this approach can be seen as offering
a more natural representation of ordinary language negation than the standard iterating operator
that applies to fully formed propositions. Cross-linguistically, the structural reflex of sentence-
scope negation may be a free-standing adverb, a bound inflectional form, or a verb.
(p) Backformation - In etymology, back-formation is the process of creating a new lexeme by

removing actual or supposed affixes.
For example, the noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb resurrect was then
back-formed hundreds of years later from it by removing the -ion suffix. This segmentation of
resurrection into resurrect + ion was possible because English had examples of Latinate words
in the form of verb and verb+-ion pairs, such as opine/opinion. These became the pattern for
many more such pairs, where a verb derived from a Latin supine stem and a noun ending in ion
entered the language together, such as insert/insertion, project/projection, etc.
Back-formation may be similar to the reanalyses or folk etymologies when it rests on an

erroneous understanding of the morphology of the longer word. For example, the singular noun
asset is a back-formation from the plural assets. However, assets was not originally a plural; it is
a loanword from Anglo-Norman asetz. The -s was reanalyzed as a plural suffix.
Back-formation is different from clipping – back-formation may change the word's class or
meaning, whereas clipping creates shortened words from longer words, but does not change the
class or meaning of the word.
Words can sometimes acquire new lexical categories without any derivational change in form.
That process is called conversion. Like back-formation, it can produce a new noun or a new
verb, but it involves no back-forming.
(q) Language and Style - The capacity for conceptualization possessed and developed by
languages is by no means the only purpose language serves. A person’s speech, supplemented by
facial expression and gesture when speaker and hearer are mutually in sight, indicates and is
intended to indicate a great deal more than factual information, inquiries, and requests. Similarly,
sign languages incorporate facial expressions and body language to add meaning and nuance.

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The fact that some of these other functions are performed by parts of a language usually
mastered later by foreign learners gives rise to misinterpretation and often makes foreign
speakers appear rude or insensitive when they are, in actuality, simply deploying fewer resources
in the language.
Within the range of the structural and lexical possibilities of a language, speakers (or senders) are
able to convey their emotional attitudes and feelings toward the person or persons they are
addressing (receivers) and toward the subject matter of what they are saying (sending). They are
also able to conceal such feelings as one form of linguistic deception, though this is usually a
harder task. These same resources are also exploited to arouse appropriate feelings and responses
in others, again independently of any factual content. This is the chosen field of the propagandist,
the preacher, the orator, the barrister (lawyer), and the advertiser. Spoken languages make use of
intonation and voice qualities in these different ways; a person can produce and recognize the
intonation and type of voice employed in coaxing, in pleading, in browbeating, in threatening, in
pleasure, and in anger, as well as those appropriate for matter-of-fact statements and the
exposition of details about which the speaker has little or no emotional involvement.
Written language is no less adapted to conveying more than just factual information, asking
factual questions, and giving instructions. Intonation and tone of voice are not easily
reproducible in orthographic systems, but part of the skill of novelists or reporters is to convey
these features of speech in their descriptions. Additionally, as the examples above show,
grammatical and lexical choices are available to the writer, and anyone who has written anything
to someone else knows the challenges of making words achieve precisely the purpose for which
they are intended.
These variations within a language or within any dialect of a language, may be referred to as
styles. Each time people communicate, they do so in one or another style, deliberately chosen
with the sort of considerations in mind that have just been mentioned, even though in speech the
choice may often be routine. Sometimes style, especially in literature, is contrasted with plain
everyday language. In using such plain unmarked types of language, however, one is no less
choosing a particular style, even though it is the most commonly used one and the most neutral
in that it conveys and arouses the least emotional involvement or personal feelings.
(r) Ethnography of Communication - The ethnography of communication (EOC), originally

called the ethnography of speaking, is the analysis of communication within the wider context
of the social and cultural practices and beliefs of the members of a particular culture or speech
community. It comes from ethnographic research It is a method of discourse analysis in
linguistics that draws on the anthropological field of ethnography. Unlike ethnography proper,
though, EOC takes into account both the communicative form, which may include but is not
limited to spoken language, and its function within the given culture.
General aims of this qualitative research method include being able to discern which
communication acts and/or codes are important to different groups, what types of meanings
groups apply to different communication events, and how group members learn these codes, in
order to provide insight into particular communities. This additional insight may be used to

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enhance communication with group members, make sense of group members’ decisions, and
distinguish groups from one another, among other things.
The term "ethnography of communication" is meant to be descriptive of the characteristics that

an approach towards language from an anthropological standpoint must take.
1) "investigate directly the use of language in contexts of situations so as to discern patterns

proper to speech activity" and
2) "take as context a community, investigating its communicative habits as a whole."
In other words, rather than divorcing linguistic form from its function, the analysis of a culture's
or community's communication, linguistic and otherwise, must occur with respect to the
sociocultural context of its use and the functions of the meanings conveyed. "If you are mainly
concerned with the way a certain speech event fits into a whole network of cultural beliefs and
practices, you will spend more time describing things that are external to the talk itself: who the
speakers are, where they are, what beliefs and customs are important in their lives."
(s) Ideology of Language Planning - Languages are far more than just media of
communication. They embody more subjective features such as values, ideals and attitudes that
imbue them with particular symbolic qualities and functions. They are then seen as emblems of
nationhood, cultural identity, progress, modernity, democracy, freedom, equality, pluralism,
socialism and many such ‘values’. These valuations become central elements in the ascription
and achievement of language status. Such attitudes and beliefs, when linked to other social
ideologies, can influence and constrain the development of language planning and policy (LPP).
For this reason language planning issues are rarely solely about language.
Ideologies are unconscious beliefs and assumptions that are ‘naturalized’ and thus
contribute to hegemony. They bring into play relationships of power that perpetuate
inequality and social injustice.
Language planning, together with the articulation and implementation of various language
policies, has come to play an increasingly significant role-in policy-making in both developed
and developing societies. Although it would appear axiomatic that the successful implementation
of a given language policy requires an understanding of and sensitivity to the socio-political
context in which the policy is to operate, an important component of this context has been
consistently overlooked in much of the language planning literature.’The ideological aspect
related to language-status planning is perhaps the most neglected area of language planning, in
spite of the fact that ideologies underlie all forms of status planning’.
(t) Cline of Bilingualism - Bilingualism is a common phenomenon in India. We are all

instinctively bilingual. A large proportion of the world's population is bilingual. A bilingual
speaking to the other bilingual chooses the language unconsciously or semi-consciously with no
extra time or effort. Language alternation has become significant in the Indian context in view of
the variety of language distribution throughout the country. The functional importance of
English, Hindi and other Indian languages varies from state to state and from person to person,

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and we have a "cline of bilingualism". The English language is used mostly in urban areas rather
than in the rural hinterland. Bilingual processes such as diglossia, code- mixing and code-
switching are the most commonly noticed instances of code alternation. The present work
focuses on these processes in the general context of bilingualism. For the purpose of survey the
native speakers of Hindi were chosen. There were two main steps in the investigation. First with
the help of questionnaire the interviews with 100 informants belonging to different strata of
society were conducted. Secondly the speech of 20 subjects with the help of tape-recorder was
recorded to ensure that the data obtained in the speech of the Hindi-English bilinguals was
natural and spontaneous. An overwhelming majority of them is Hindu who speaks Hindi as L1.
For the convenience of analysis and discussion the sociolinguistic constructs, the concepts of
"recurrent domains" and "situations" were employed. The questionnaire also sought information
regarding the speakers' socio-cultural profile, such as their linguistic background, status, age,
sex, medium of instruction and attitude to English, with a view to finding out correlations
between these and the subjects' language use. Each of the language used by a speaker is
associated with certain activities or social roles and varies with the change in topic, context, and
role relations of the participants.
(u) Derivational Affixes - A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is
formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from
the original. Affixes are lexical additions to the root of a word. The purpose is to either change
the meaning or class of a word (derivational) or to modify a word to indicate its grammatical
components and function
The word "derivational" relates to something having been placed under a category, group, or
classification. Hence, the affix is called derivational because the job of this particular lexical
addition is to change the word class of the original root by making a completely different word.
Derivational and inflectional affixes are added to nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Examples
of derivational affixes include:
For nouns: -ion, -ance, -ment, -ness
Example: kind- relates to categorizing (a kind of...)
while kindness- is a completely different word that means "a good nature". Notice how the
derivational affix changed the word "kind", an adjective, into kindness, which is a noun.
Derivational affixes that create verbs are often en-, be-, de-, em-, and -ify...also, -ize, -en and -
ate.
(v) Foregrounding Through Parallelism - Parallel constructions are those in which one
structure seems equivalent or parallel to another. Constructions can be said to be foregrounded if

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they introduce extra regularity into the language, that is, regularity which is over and above the
demands
of correctness. The following are instances of phonological over-regularity: rhyme, rhythm,
metre, alliteration (consonant harmony), assonance (vowel harmony).
Parallel constructions which occur in sequence and appear similar in structure usually indicate
similarity of meaning. 'They may, however, signal irony, where similarity of structure gives rise
to an expectation of similarity of rneaning In ironical use, this expectation is belied and the
meaning of the two structures, instead of being similar is. in fact, opposed.
I. Grammatical parallelism
Let us first consider grammatical structure. This may be at the level of words, phrases, clauses or
sentences. The following are examples:
a. 'The poor young man hesitated and procrastinated.' 'Hesitated' and 'procrastinated' have
roughly the same number of syllables. and are similar in meaning. These words are, thus, parallel
constructions.
Co-ordination of two constructions which are parallel helps to reinforce the neaning and give it
emphasis in the context.
b. 'As idle as a painted ship - The constructions 'a painted ship' and 'a painted ocean' are phrases
which are parallel to each other, in terms of the structure: to the extent of being almost identical.
They differ only in respect of one word in each of the phrases. The ertiphasis being placed on
'painted' brings out the unreality of the sibation. The words are also ironical in the context of the
poem, because a real ship on a real ocean is being compared to something which is painted.and
therefore unreal.
(w) The Origins of Language - The origin of language and its evolutionary emergence in the
human species have been subjects of speculation for several centuries. The topic is difficult to
study because of the lack of direct evidence. Consequently, scholars wishing to study the origins
of language must draw inferences from other kinds of evidence such as the fossil record,
archaeological evidence, contemporary language diversity, studies of language acquisition and
comparisons between human language and systems of communication existing among animals
(particularly other primates). Many argue that the origins of language probably relate closely to
the origins of modern human behavior, but there is little agreement about the implications and
directionality of this connection.
Nevertheless, recent insights in human evolution - more specifically our Pleistocene littoral
evolution help understand how human speech evolved: different biological preadaptations to
spoken language find their origin in our waterside past, such as our larger brain, voluntary
breathing (breath-hold diving for shellfish etc.) and suction feeding of soft-slippery seafoods.
Suction feeding explains why humans, as opposed to other hominoids, evolved hyoidal descent
(tongue-bone descended in the throat), closed tooth-rows (with incisiform canine teeth) and a
globular tongue perfectly fitting in our vaulted and smooth palate
(x) Cardinal Vowels - Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in
describing the sounds of languages. They are classified depending on the position of the tongue

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relative to the roof of the mouth, how far forward or back is the highest point of the tongue and
the position of the lips, either rounded or unrounded.
For instance, the vowel of the English word "feet" can be described with reference to cardinal
vowel 1, which is the cardinal vowel closest to it.
A cardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme position, either
front or back, high or low. Cardinal vowels are not vowels of any particular language, but a
measuring system. However, some languages contain vowel or vowels that are close to the
cardinal vowel(s).
Three of the cardinal vowels—[i], [ɑ] and [u]—have articulatory definitions. The vowel [i] is
produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible, with spread lips.
The vowel [u] is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible,
with protruded lips. This sound can be approximated by adopting the posture to whistle a very
low note, or to blow out a candle. And [ɑ] is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in
the mouth as possible.
The other vowels are 'auditorily equidistant' between these three 'corner vowels', at four degrees
of aperture or 'height': close (high tongue position), close-mid, open-mid, and open (low tongue
position).
These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define 8 reference points on a mixture
of articulatory and auditory criteria. These eight vowels are known as the eight 'primary cardinal
vowels', and vowels like these are common in the world's languages.
(y) Anaphora - In rhetoric, an anaphora is a rhetorical device that consists of repeating a

sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses, thereby lending them emphasis. In
contrast, an epistrophe (or epiphora) is repeating words at the clauses' ends. The combination of
anaphora and epistrophe results in symploce.
Functions
Other than the function of emphasizing ideas, the use of anaphora as a rhetorical device adds
rhythm to a word as well as making it more pleasurable to read and easier to remember.
Anaphora is repetition at the beginning of a sentence to create emphasis. Anaphora serves the
purpose of delivering an artistic effect to a passage. It is also used to appeal to the emotions of
the audience in order to persuade, inspire, motivate and encourage them.
(z) The Co-operative Principle - In social science generally and linguistics specifically, the
cooperative principle describes how people achieve effective conversational communication in
common social situations—that is, how listeners and speakers act cooperatively and mutually
accept one another to be understood in a particular way. As phrased by Paul Grice, who
introduced it in his pragmatic theory,

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Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted
purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Though phrased as a
prescriptive command, the principle is intended as a description of how people normally behave
in conversation. Jeffries and McIntyre describe Grice's maxims as "encapsulating the
assumptions that we prototypically hold when we engage in conversation".
The cooperative principle is divided into four maxims of conversation, called the Gricean
maxims. These four maxims describe specific rational principles observed by people who follow
the cooperative principle in pursuit of effective communication. Applying the Gricean maxims is
a way to explain the link between utterances and what is understood from them.
25. Discuss the salient points of Bloomfield's theory of structuralism.
Leonard Bloomfield wrote that Saussure had constructed the basis of the new linguistics.
For many American linguists, the beginning of their research was the study of indigenous
languages due to fact that they were unknown in their previous phases so, there weren’t
susceptible to diachronic investigation. This was precisely the fact that formed and
distinguished the American structuralism and its methods.
As those languages couldn’t be described with the categories that were established by
the traditional linguistics (noun, adjective, verb, etc.) researchers had to find new
categories and, at the same time, noticed the ‘weaknesses' of the old languages that were
based on the European ones. This conducted the American linguists to make studies that
were more advanced than those of their European colleagues. Like a result of this,
Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield became the two most important and influential
linguists of their time.
Sapir established the basis of the phonologic structuralism while Bloomfield left mark in
the study of morphology and syntax. However, both got separate to their respective
conceptions of language. Sapir is on the top of what is called ‘American mentalism’ that
is an interpretation of language which is strongly related to the mind. On the other hand,
Bloomfield was the master and creator of the ‘anti mentalism’ that conducts to the
dissociation of the signifiant and the signifié.
Although Bloomfield’s investigations have been of great importance for the American
linguistics, his most relevant work was the development of the American structuralism.

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The structural linguistics, also called descriptive linguistics, had its beginning in the USA
with the apparition of Leonard Bloomfield’s paper (1887-1949, Language) and the studies
of linguists such as Zelling Harris and Charles Hockett. The most notable aspects that
distinguish the American Structuralist school are:
• It was inspired in the empiricism. That means that it recognized experience as the
unique source of language, in this case, the results of language. This conducted a
descriptivist method that is based strictly in the facts that have been registered
(corpus) not in any other hypothetical possibility.
• It was related to the conductivism’s theory (behaviorism) of the time of Watson and
Skinner until the point of explaining the sign as the response of a intermediate
stimulus (S→R). For example, a person that is hungry can have two reactions if
there is an apple in front of him/her: get close and take the apple or ask for it using
the language. In the second case, besides the stimulus and response, there was
an intermediation of another stimulus (the verbal expression) and another
response (the comprehension of the request that finishes with the delivering of the
apple): S → S → R → R.
• It was thought that the structure of the language was upheld for two classes of
subsystems: centrals and peripheries. The first were concerned about the
grammatical system, the phonological system and the morphological systems
while the other was concerned about the phonetic and the semantic systems.
• It’s usually presented as a reaction against traditional grammar.
• American structural linguists based their descriptions on objectively observable
data, paying special attention to current speech.
American structuralists made claims for a scientific approach to language. Language

should be studied to know and to understand how language works. There is a desire to
make the study of language both scientific and autonomous. According to the American
structuralists, there could be no correctness apart from usage. For them, language should
be described as it is spoken.

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Grammar has to do with the way English is spoken, and not with how it 'should' be spoken,
differences in language practice should be accepted and different registers should be
established. American structuralists clearly differentiated synchronic description of
languages from diachronic studies. For them, it was important to define the stages of
description and to distinguish between descriptive and historical linguistics.
Every language must be described in and by itself. In this sense, there are no universal
categories. The concepts "noun" or "adjective" in English must be different from those in
French, since their real value does not lie in themselves but in their specific position within
the system. Every language should be considered as a system of relations. Every unit,
every element in this system has no value by itself, if isolated. Its meaning has to be
established in relation to all the other elements in the language.
The general types of devices that English has to express structural meaning are the use
of form-words (inflections and derivations), the use of function words (prepositions,
determiners, subordinators, etc.), the use of word order, and in some cases the use of
stress and intonation.
Considering phonology as the starting point of any investigation, Bloomfield claims that
"linguistic study must always start from the phonetic form and not from the meaning." And
probably for this reason phonology is the field where structuralists made more advances.
26. Distinguish between vowels and consonants by referring to their criteria of

classification.
There are five vowels and 21 consonants in English, right? Well, no.
Vowels and consonants are sounds, not letters. Depending on your accent and how thinly you
slice them, there are about 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
The difference between vowels and consonants
A vowel is a speech sound made with your mouth fairly open, the nucleus of a spoken syllable.

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A consonant is a sound made with your mouth fairly closed.
When we talk, consonants break up the stream of vowels (functioning as syllable onsets and
codas), so that we don’t sound like we’ve just been to the dentist for four fillings and the
anaesthetic hasn’t worn off yet.
Consonants require more precise articulation than vowels, which is why children find them
harder to learn, and often end up in speech therapy after having become so cross at not being
understood that they’ve started hitting people.
Only a few children with severe speech sound difficulties (often called dyspraxia or apraxia)
sometimes need therapy to help them produce vowel sounds correctly.
Most syllables contain a vowel, though vowel-like consonants can occasionally be syllables. And
to complicate matters, many English vowels are technically two or three vowels shmooshed
together.
Vowels and Consonants
Phonetically, it is easy to give definitions: a vowel is any sound with no audible noise produced
by constriction in the vocal tract, and consonant is a sound with audible noise produced by a
constriction.
However, this definition forces us to identify as vowels many sounds which function as
consonants in speech. For example, in the English word "yes", the initial [j] is phonetically a
vowel according to the definition above. In the phonological system of English, however, the [j]
is in a typical consonant position (compare "yes" with "mess", "less", "Tess" etc.). Similarly,
there are sounds which are phonetically consonants which under some circumstances do act as
syllable nuclei; a typical example would be the use of "syllabic [l]" in English "little" [lɪtl̩ ]
(cf. litter).
Contoid and Vocoid
A solution to this terminological difficulty, suggested by Pike, is to have two different

distinctions, one strictly phonetic and the other based on function, or phonological criteria.
For the phonetic distinction, Pike advocated using the words vocoid and contoid. A vocoid is
defined as a "central oral resonant". It's central because not a lateral sound, like [l]; oral because
air passes through the oral cavity; and resonant because there is no constriction, so all the sound
comes from the resonances in the oral tract resulting from the vibration of the vocal cords.
Everything which is not a vocoid is a contoid. Thus, [j] is a vocoid, [i] is a vocoid, [a] is a
vocoid, [w] is a vocoid, but [l] is not; it is a contoid, as are [p], [b], etc.
This leaves the terms "vowel" and "consonant" available to be used as phonological terms.
Generally, vowels are syllabic vocoids. Thus, of the vocoids above, [i] and [a] could be vowels,
but [j] and [w] would not, as they are never syllabic. Consonants are contoids which function as

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syllable margins, e.g. [p], [b], and sometimes [l] (in words like "lip", "lot", but not the final
segment in "little", where the [l] is syllabic).
This definition of vowels and consonants leaves two other possible classifications:
nonsyllabic vocoids, such as [j], [w] and [ɹ];
syllabic contoids, such as English syllabic [l̩ ] and syllabic [n̩], or the syllabic fricative [s̩ ]
in "s'pose", or e.g. syllabic [z̩] in Chinese 四 [sz̩] "four".
Classification by place and manner
Consonants and vowels are traditionally classified in two dimensions: place and manner of
articulation. Place of articulation refers to the location of the narrowest part of the vocal tract in
producing a sound. For example, for the consonant [b] the vocal tract is narrowest at the lips (in
fact, it could not possibly any narrower here!). In vowels, the narrowest part of the vocal tract is
usually in the middle of the mouth, in the region of the palate. "Manner of articulation" refers to
various other things, including whether the airflow is central or lateral, oral or nasal, retroflex or
non-retroflex, the phonation type, and the degree of stricture.
27. What is Intonation ? Describe the three tone groups in terms of their functions.
In linguistics, intonation is variation in spoken pitch when used, not for distinguishing words as
sememes (a concept known as tone), but, rather, for a range of other functions such as indicating
the attitudes and emotions of the speaker, signalling the difference between statements and
questions, and between different types of questions, focusing attention on important elements of
the spoken message and also helping to regulate conversational interaction.
Although intonation is primarily a matter of pitch variation, it is important to be aware that

functions attributed to intonation such as the expression of attitudes and emotions, or
highlighting aspects of grammatical structure, almost always involve concomitant variation in
other prosodic features.
Most transcription conventions have been devised for describing one particular accent or
language, and the specific conventions therefore need to be explained in the context of what is
being described. However, for general purposes the International Phonetic Alphabet offers the
two intonation marks shown in the box at the head of this article. Global rising and falling
intonation are marked with a diagonal arrow rising left-to-right [↗︎] and falling left-to-right [↘︎],
respectively.
In many descriptions of English, the following intonation patterns are distinguished:
• Rising Intonation means the pitch of the voice rises over time.
• Falling Intonation means that the pitch falls with time.
• Dipping or Fall-rise Intonation falls and then rises.
• Peaking or Rise-fall Intonation rises and then falls.

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Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. The three main patterns of
intonation in English are: falling intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.
Falling intonation
Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase
or a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions.
Where’s the nearest p↘︎ost-office?
What time does the film f↘︎inish?
We also use falling intonation when we say something definite, or when we want to be
very clear about something:
I think we are completely l↘︎ost.
OK, here’s the magaz↘︎ine you wanted.
Rising intonation
Rising intonation describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising
intonation is common in yes-no questions:
I hear the Health Centre is expanding. So, is that the new d ↗︎octor?
Are you th↗︎irsty?
Fall-rise intonation
Fall-rise intonation describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise
intonation at the end of statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when
we may have more to add:
I do↘︎n’t support any football team at the m↘︎om↗︎ent. (but I may change my mind in
future).
It rained every day in the firs↘︎t w↗︎eek.(but things improved after that).

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We use fall-rise intonation with questions, especially when we request information or

invite somebody to do or to have something. The intonation pattern makes the
questions sound more polite:
Is this your cam↘︎er↗︎a?
Would you like another co↘︎ff↗︎ee?
28. Define 'bilingualism'. Discuss its consequences for L1 and L2.
Bilingualism (or more generally: Multilingualism) is the phenomenon of

speaking and understanding two or more languages. The term can refer to
individuals (individual bilingualism) as well as to an entire society (social
bilingualism).
The term can also refer to the corresponding scientific research which
studies the phenomenon itself.
Bilingualism, multilingualism and polyglotism can all be used as synonyms
for the same phenomenon.
Language Learning - Categories

7. Simultaneous acquisition occurs when, for example, a child learns
several languages simultaneously within its social environment. Also
called Compound bilingual (amalgamated).
8. Successive acquisition means. that different languages are learned
at differentstages during different phases of life. Called Coordinate
bilingual when the two languages are equally used / important
or Subordinate bilingual when one language (usually the
Mother/Native tongue) dominates the daily life.
9. Natural acquisition means that a language is learned without formal
instruction.
10. Guided acquisition means that the knowledge of a language is
acquired by means of instructions (e.g. learning at school).
11. Symmetric acquisition means that several languages
are equally mastered with a similar proficiency.
12. Asymmetric acquisition means that one language dominates the
other.
This set of categories is somewhat arbitrary. A specific bilingual person is not

necessarily “completely” coordinated, compound or subordinate. Indeed, a bilingual can

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be coordinated for certain parts of the linguistic system, at the level of syntax and
semantics, for example, but subordinate to the phonological level. It has a strong accent
in its L2, while having impeccable syntax and a rich lexicon.
Thus, an ideal coordinated bilingual would have two completely separate linguistic
systems and there would never be a mix of languages at any level. It should also be
noted that the organization of the linguistic system and thus the state of bilingualism of
a person can change depending on his or her experiences during life.
Early bilingualism - there are two types: simultaneous early bilingualism and consecutive (or
successive) early bilingualism.
Simultaneous early bilingualism refers to a child who learns two languages at the same time,
from birth. This generally produces a strong bilingualism, called additive bilingualism. This also
implies that the child's language development is bilingual.
Successive early bilingualism refers to a child who has already partially acquired a first language
and then learns a second language early in childhood (for example, when a child moves to an
environment where the dominant language is not his native language). This generally produces a
strong bilingualism (or additive bilingualism), but the child must be given time to learn the
second language, because the second language is learned at the same time as the child learns to
speak. This implies that the language development of the child is partly bilingual.
Late bilingualism – refers to bilingualism when the second language is learned after the age of 6
or 7; especially when it is learned in adolescence or adulthood. Late bilingualism is a consecutive
bilingualism which occurs after the acquisition of the first language (after the childhood
language development period). This is what also distinguishes it from early bilingualism. With
the first language already acquired, the late bilingual uses their experience to learn the second
language.
Additive bilingualism and subtractive bilingualism – The term additive bilingualism refers to
the situation where a person has acquired the two languages in a balanced manner. It is a strong
bilingualism. Subtractive bilingualism refers to the situation where a person learns the second
language to the detriment of the first language, especially if the first language is a minority
language. In this case, mastery of the first language decreases, while mastery of the other
language (usually the dominant language) increases. These expressions and their associated
concepts were created by Wallace Lambert, the Canadian researcher who has been given the title
of “the father of bilingualism research”.
Passive bilingualism - refers to being able to understand a second language without being able
to speak it. Children who respond in a relevant way in English when they are addressed in
French could become passive bilinguals, as their mastery of oral expression in French decreases.
29. What do you understand by language Variation. Why does variation occur ? Give
examples of different types.

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Variation is demonstrated by linguistic differences in terms of sound (phonetics) and structure

(grammar). There might be only slight variations between forms of a language – such as minor
pronunciations of words or a slight changes of grammatical structure that do not inhibit
intergroup communication. Sometimes there are differences between the speech of men and
women, different social classes, and differences between age groups. People will identify some
of these features as marking the "best" or most "beautiful" form of the language, other features
will be considered nonstandard or undesireable. Some of these differences may impede
intelligibility and intergroup communication.
The study of language variation guides language development activities. For example, when
developing a writing system it is desireable for it to be useful and acceptable to the largest
number of speakers of the language. Therefore, it is important to identify the most unifying
features of the language.
SIL assessment specialists use quantitative and qualitative research methods for studying
language variation. Two important quantitative methods for studying language variation are
lexicostatistics and intelligibility tests. The lexicostatistical method involves eliciting commonly
used words from people in two or more different locations. The words are compared to identify
phonetic similarities and a percentage of similarity is computed. Intelligibility (how well a
speech variety is understood) is of two types: inherent and acquired. Inherent intelligibility is an
understanding that is unlearned and that is attributed to the (inherent) linguistic similarities (such
as sound systems and grammatical structures) that are shared by the two speech varieties. The
greater the inherent similarities shared between two varieties, the more likely that the speakers of
each will be able to understand the same literature. Acquired intelligibility, on the other hand, is
a level of comprehension of a speech variety achieved through learning.
Examples
• "Linguistic variation is central to the study of language use. In fact it is impossible to

study the language forms used in natural texts without being confronted with the issue of
linguistic variability. Variability is inherent in human language: a single speaker will use
different linguistic forms on different occasions, and different speakers of a language will
express the same meanings using different forms. Most of this variation is highly
systematic: speakers of a language make choices in pronunciation, morphology, word
choice, and grammar depending on a number of non-linguistic factors. These factors
include the speaker's purpose in communication, the relationship between speaker and
hearer, the production circumstances, and various demographic affiliations that a speaker
can have."
• Linguistic Variation and Sociolinguistic Variation

"There are two types of language variation: linguistic and sociolinguistic. With
linguistic variation, the alternation between elements is categorically constrained by the
linguistic context in which they occur. With sociolinguistic variation, speakers can
choose between elements in the same linguistic context and, hence the alternation is
probabilistic. Furthermore, the probability of one form being chosen over another is also
affected in a probabilistic way by a range of extra-linguistic factors [e.g. the degree of

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(in)formality of the topic under discussion, the social status of the speaker and of the
interlocutor, the setting in which communication takes place, etc.]"
• Dialectal Variation
"A dialect is variation in grammar and vocabulary in addition to sound variations. For
example, if one person utters the sentence 'John is a farmer' and another says the same
thing except pronounces the word farmer as 'fahmuh,' then the difference is one of accent.
But if one person says something like 'You should not do that' and another says 'Ya hadn't
oughta do that,' then this is a dialect difference because the variation is greater. The
extent of dialect differences is a continuum. Some dialects are extremely different and
others less so."
• Types of Variation
"[R]egional variation is only one of many possible types of differences among speakers
of the same language. For example, there are occupational dialects (the word bugs means
something quite different to a computer programmer and an exterminator), sexual dialects
(women are far more likely than men to call a new house adorable), and educational
dialects (the more education people have, the less likely they are to use double negatives).
There are dialects of age (teenagers have their own slang, and even the phonology of
older speakers is likely to differ from that of young speakers in the same geographical
region) and dialects of social context (we do not talk the same way to our intimate friends
as we do to new acquaintances, to the paperboy, or to our employer). . . . [R]egional
dialects are only one of many types of linguistic variation."
• Linguistic Variables
- "[T]he introduction of the quantitative approach to language description has revealed
important patterns of linguistic behaviour which were previously invisible. The concept
of a sociolinguistic variable has become central to the description of speech. A variable is
some point of usage for which two or more competing forms are available in a
community, with speakers showing interesting and significant differences in the
frequency with which they use one or another of these competing forms.
30. What is Morphology ? Distinguish between Inflectional and Derivational Morphology.
The process of forming a new word from an existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix,
such as un- or -ness. For example, unhappy and happiness derive from the root word happy.
It is differentiated from inflection, which is the modification of a word to form different

grammatical categories without changing its core meaning: determines, determining, and
determined are from the root determine.
Derivational patterns
Derivational morphology often involves the addition of a derivational suffix or other affix. Such
an affix usually applies to words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes them into

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words of another such category. For example, one effect of the English derivational suffix -ly is
to change an adjective into an adverb (slow → slowly).
Here are examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes:
• adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)

• adjective-to-verb: -en (weak → weaken)
• adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)
• adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)
• noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
• noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
• verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
• verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)
• verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → writer)
However, derivational affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they may change
merely the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix (write → re-write;
lord → over-lord) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix un- applies to
adjectives (healthy → unhealthy) and some verbs (do → undo) but rarely to nouns. A few
exceptions are the derivational prefixes en- and be-. En- (replaced by em- before labials) is
usually a transitive marker on verbs, but it can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form
transitive verbs: circle (verb) → encircle (verb) but rich (adj) → enrich (verb), large (adj) →
enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) → enrapture (verb), slave (noun) → enslave (verb).
When derivation occurs without any change to the word, such as in the conversion of the noun
breakfast into the verb to breakfast, it's known as conversion, or zero derivation.
Derivation that results in a noun may be called nominalization. It may involve the use of an affix
(such as with employ → employee), or it may occur via conversion (such as with the derivation
of the noun run from the verb to run). In contrast, a derivation resulting in a verb may be called
verbalization (such as from the noun butter to the verb to butter).
Derivation and inflection
Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation can produce a new word (a
distinct lexeme) but isn't required to change this, whereas inflection produces grammatical
variants of the same word.
Generally speaking, inflection applies in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of
speech (for example, nearly every English verb adds -s for the third person singular present
tense), while derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity
can be used with the adjectives modern and dense, but not with open or strong). However, it is
important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that being, morphemes
that have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er, is added to
an adjective, as in small-er, it acts as an inflection, but when added to a verb, as in cook-er, it
acts as a derivation. As mentioned above, a derivation can produce a new word (or new part of

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speech) but is not required to do so. For example, the derivation of the word "common" to
"uncommon" is a derivational morpheme but doesn't change the part of speech (adjective).
An important distinction between derivational and inflectional morphology lies in the

content/function of a listeme. Derivational morphology changes both the meaning and the
content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology doesn't change the meaning, but changes the
function.
31. Write a detailed note on the rise of American English. Give examples.
American English, as has already been observed, shows a high degree of uniformity. This is,
perhaps, largely due to the high degree of mobility that the Amencans enjoyed. It has been
remarked that it would be rare to find an American living in the place in which she was born, and
while this is an obvious exaggeration, it is nevertheless true that change of abode is distinctly
common. After the introduction of
railways in America, there has been a mushrookning of settlements in the frontier towns, and this
increased mobility worked against the evolving of a local standard. It also encouraged the mixing
of pop.ulation resulting in no fixed standards for a particular region. The introduction.of early
education in the colonies also forbade the introduction of an alien standard on to the American
people. Thus, the British were , denied to use one of their prime strategies in the American
Colonies. The system of
public education that was developed in America had a standardising influence on the English
spoken in America.
A second quality that is often attributed to American English is its archaism, the preservation of
old features of the language which have been long discarded in the parent country. The
preservation of 'r' in General American and the flat 'a' in 'fast', 'path'. etc. are two such that were
abandoned in England at the end of the eighteenth century. The pronunciation of 'either' or
'neither' is done with the vowel sound of
'teeth' or 'beneath' which, in turn, has been long replaced in England by the dipthongised sound
/ail. The use of 'gotten' instead of 'got' is another such example of archaism. Certain old semantic
forns are still retained. For example, the word 'mad' is still used in the Shakespearean sense of
'angry'; or the use of the adjective 'rare' for meat has still not replaced the more commonly used
British 'underdone'.
The American 'I guess', so often ridiculed in England, is as old as Chaucer and was still current
in English speech in the seventeenth century. It hasbeen perhaps the characteristic of all
transplanted languages that they result in a sort of arrested development, and it is a well-
recognised fact in cultural history that isolated communities tend to preserve old customs and
beliefs. Nevertheless, it would be extremely difficult to contend which language is the more
conservative one – English in America or English in England. In general, it is true that American
English has preserved certain grammatical features of English that has long gone out of vogue in
the Standard English of England. But it has also introduced innovations equally important.
It has been the basic feature of all colonial settlements that they have to contend with a world
that heavily taxes the existent resources of their language. They not only lack words for the many
new objects that they come across, but also have a dearth of vocabulary for the succession of

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new experiences that they undergo. Accordingly, in a colonial language, changes of vocabulary
take place almost from the moment the first settlers arrive. The change in language, with a view
to accommodate the new world-experience, is generally done in two ways: random borrowings
from a language that has ready-made words for the experiences, or coining of new terns with the
help of one's own existent vocabulary. In America, we see both the processes at work. When the
colonial settlers came from England to America, they had to come to terns with a completely
new topography, and thus had to coin new words to categorise it. Thus, came into use words like
'bluff, 'foothill', 'notch', 'gap', 'divlde', 'watershed', 'clearing', etc. It is to be noted that all these
words were English in origin, but when applied to a different world, changed their semantic
value. Then there were the many living and growing things that were peculiar to the New World.
The names of some of these, the colonists learned from the Indians: words like 'moose', 'racoon',
'skunk', 'opossum', 'chipmunk', etc.; others they formed by a descriptive process long familiar in
the language - 'mud hen', 'garter snake', 'bullfrog', 'potato bug', etc. Contact with the Indians
resulted in the influx of Smany Indian words pertaining to their way of life: 'wigwam',
'tomahawk', 'canoe', 'toboggan', 'moccasin', etc. The Americans had also devised a new forn of
government, which was distinct from the monarchical system in England. This new form of
administration and government required the introduction of new words like 'congressional',
'presidential', 'gubernatorial', 'congressman', etc. The expansion of the American frontier, finding
of new lands and the subsequent confrontation with the French colonists also resulted in the
enriching of the American language. Words like 'portage', 'chowder', 'cache', 'bureau', started
being used in the American language due to their contact with the French. Similarly, from the
Dutch they borrowed words like 'cookie', 'stoop , ctc., and from the Gernans, 'noodle',
'smearcase',
'sauerkraut', etc.
32. What is meant by structuralism, in the field of Linguistics? Explain the differences
between the approaches of Sapir and Bloomfield in this area.
Structuralism, in linguistics, any one of several schools of 20th-century linguistics committed to

the structuralist principle that a language is a self-contained relational structure, the elements of
which derive their existence and their value from their distribution and oppositions in texts or
discourse. But Saussure was a reluctant father whose seminal Cours de linguistique générale was
edited and posthumously published by two colleagues and a student who assiduously took notes
at his lectures. The peculiar nature of its composition has resulted in a work that is fraught with
contradictions and puzzling self-doubts cheek by jowl with superbly confident, dogmatic
assertions. Despite all the vagaries of its composition, Cours de linguistique générale is a hugely
influential work and has probably done more to establish linguistics as an independent discipline
than any other single book.
Although Saussure had a background in the historical study of language and had made
significant advances in the understanding of the Indo-European vowel system, he was unusually
critical of neogrammarian philology, which he accused of being overly absorbed in diachrony.
Saussure also criticized traditional grammarians for neglecting entire aspects of language and for
lacking overall perspective, but allowed that their method was fundamentally correct and that
they properly emphasized synchrony. Hence, whereas the discipline of historical linguistics that
grew up in the nineteenth century was almost wholly diachronic in its orientation, linguistics in

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the first half of the twentieth century—following the lead of Saussure—became a largely
synchronic enterprise. It was not long before European structuralism crossed the Atlantic to
become the predominant methodology of American linguistics.
The German-born American anthropologist Edward Sapir (1884–1939) was responsible for
many enduring concepts in linguistic research. Author of the landmark volume Language (1921),
Sapir emphasizes that language is tightly linked to culture. For Sapir, language is an acquired
function of culture rather than being biologically determined. This view is diametrically opposed
to that of the transformationalists, who believe that human beings possess a genetically
determined predisposition for language—including many of its most specific and distinguishing
features—that is already present at the moment of birth. Sapir is undoubtedly correct when he
points out that, sans society, an individual will never learn to talk in meaningful terms—that is,
to communicate ideas to other persons within a given community. This can easily be
demonstrated by observation of feral or mentally abused children and in children suffering from
autism or other psychological disorders that affect the acquisition and manipulation of language.
Similarly, infants who are born into one linguistic environment but are adopted into a completely
different linguistic environment will obviously not grow up speaking the language of their
biological parents. If there is any "hardwiring" of linguistic abilities, it occurs around puberty,
after which time it becomes increasingly difficult to attain full fluency in a second language or to
lose all ability in one's mother tongue. Sapir, of course, could not have foreseen the degree to
which the transformationalists would divorce language from its social and cultural matrix, but he
would undoubtedly have been horrified by this turn of events and would have regarded it as a
fallacious approach to language. While Sapir may not be around to point out the speciousness of
the transformationalists' so-called LAD, which stipulates hardwired language ability at birth, that
has been done ably by Jerome Bruner with his cognitive learning theory that builds on the
cultural-cognitive developmental model of the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky.
Although Leonard Bloomfield (1887–1949) was a contemporary and colleague of Sapir, and the
two are widely regarded as the founders of American structuralism, they were quite dissimilar in
temperament and outlook. Whereas Sapir was more dramatic and imaginative, Bloomfield
tended to be methodical and preferred as much as possible to rely strictly upon evidence in
formulating his positions. In 1914 he wrote Introduction to the Study of Language, which in later
editions was called simply Language (1933). Bloomfield was responsible for an enormously
influential synthesis that brought together three earlier traditions of language study (historical,
philological, and practical), and forged them into a coherent whole. He was fiercely determined
to establish linguistics as a science. In particular, he wished to distinguish linguistics from the
speculative philosophers who assumed that the structure of their own language embodied
universal forms of human thought or even the cosmic order. In addition to the speculative
philosophers, Bloomfield censured the grammarians of the old school tradition who strove to
apply logical standards to language, ignoring actual usage in favor of prescriptive rules.
Bloomfield was especially critical of those who took the features of Latin as the normative form
of human speech. He was much more favorably disposed toward the grammatical studies of the
ancient Indians because the latter were themselves excellent phoneticians who had also
developed an intelligent systematization of grammar and lexicon.

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In Europe, structuralism did not remain a monolithic linguistic monopoly. The Prague School is
a branch of structuralism, but with a difference. The members of this school hold language to be
a system of functionally related units and focus on the observation of linguistic realia at discrete
moments. They are interested in language change, not in maintaining a strict dichotomy of
langue and parole—a key tenet of Saussure—or of synchrony and diachrony. The starting point
of the Prague School is to clarify the function of the various elements of actual utterances. The
Prague School has made a lasting impact upon many areas of modern linguistics, particularly
with regard to the analysis of the sounds of language and their effect in literature.
Another controversial legacy of structuralism that continues to attract attention is the Sapir-
Whorf hypothesis concerning the relationship among language, thought, and culture developed
by Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941), who was also a student of Sapir and who based his
hypothesis on the approach of his mentor. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two main facets: (1)
linguistic determinism (the language one uses conditions the way one thinks), (2) linguistic
relativity (the complex of distinctions made in a given language are unique and not to be found
in any other language). Both of these facets are somewhat at odds with the Bloomfieldian notion
(broadly ascribed to by modern linguists) that all languages—like all people—are equal in their
ability to express whatever thoughts their speakers need or want to convey. Whorf did intensive
work on North American indigenous languages that have dramatically different grammatical and
lexical properties from Indo-European languages, so it is altogether comprehensible that his
intimate familiarity with their distinctive outlooks would lead him to develop the hypothesis that
he did. While the two main facets of the hypothesis would appear to be innocuous, commonsense
propositions, they are anathema to certain sectors of the modern political spectrum. Furthermore,
continuing the tinctorial theme, the strong form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that a given
language determines the thought and perception of its speakers) is seen by many to have been
refuted by the study of Brent Berlin and Paul Kay on basic color terms and their supposed
universality (1969). The conclusions of Berlin and Kay, however, have not gone un-challenged:
John A. Lucy and Richard Shweder have demonstrated significant behavioral differences in
regard to color perception on the part of speakers of different languages. In any event, the Sapir-
Whorf hypothesis should be easily testable by extensive investigation of the thought patterns of
individuals who are thoroughly bilingual (or multilingual) in markedly dissimilar languages.
Simply asking such individuals whether it is easier to think certain thoughts in a given language
than in another language, or whether it is impossible to think the thoughts of one language in
another language, should go far toward determining the validity of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
33. Discuss the Saussurean principles of sign-system.
Saussure examines the relationship between speech and the evolution of language, and
investigates language as a structured system of signs.Saussure defines linguistics as the study of
language, and as the study of the manifestations of human speech. He says that linguistics is also
concerned with the history of languages, and with the social or cultural influences that shape the
development of language.
Linguistics includes such fields of study as: phonology (the study of the sound patterns of
language), phonetics (the study of the production and perception of the sounds of speech),

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morphology (the study of word formation and structure), syntax (the study of grammar and
sentence structure), semantics (the study of meaning), pragmatics (the study of the purposes and
effects of uses of language), and language acquisition. Saussure draws a distinction between
language (langue) and the activity of speaking (parole). Speaking is an activity of the individual;
language is the social manifestation of speech. Language is a system of signs that evolves from
the activity of speech.
Language is a link between thought and sound, and is a means for thought to be expressed as
sound. Thoughts have to become ordered, and sounds have to be articulated, for language to
occur. Saussure says that language is really a borderland between thought and sound, where
thought and sound combine to provide communication. Spoken language includes the
communication of concepts by means of sound-images from the speaker to the listener.
Language is a product of the speaker’s communication of signs to the listener. Saussure says that
a linguistic sign is a combination of a concept and a sound-image. The concept is what is
signified, and the sound-image is the signifier. The combination of the signifier and the signified
is arbitrary; i.e., any sound-image can conceivably be used to signify a particular concept.
A sign can be altered by a change in the relationship between the signifier and the signified.
According to Saussure, changes in linguistic signs originate in changes in the social activity of
speech. Saussure says that linguistic signs are by nature linear, because they represent a span in a
single dimension. Auditory signifiers are linear, because they succeed each other or form a chain.
Visual signifiers, in contrast, may be grouped simultaneously in several dimensions.
Relations between linguistic signs can be either: syntagmatic (linear, sequential, or successive),
or associative (substitutive, or having indeterminate order). Saussure defines semiology as the
study of signs, and says that linguistics is a part of semiology. He maintains that written language
exists for the purpose of representing spoken language. A written word is an image of a vocal
sign. Saussure argues that language is a structured system of arbitrary signs. On the other hand,
symbols are not arbitrary. A symbol may be a signifier, but in contrast to a sign, a symbol is
never completely arbitrary. A symbol has a rational relationship with what is signified.
Linguistic signs may, to a varying extent, be changeable or unchangeable. Deterrents to linguistic

change include: the arbitrary nature of signs, the multiplicity of signs necessary to form a
language, and the complexity of the structure of language. Factors that promote change in
language include: individual variation in the use of language, and the extent to which language
can be influenced by social forces. Saussure distinguishes between synchronic (static) linguistics
and diachronic (evolutionary) linguistics. Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at a
particular point in time. Diachronic linguistics is the study of the history or evolution of
language.
According to Saussure, diachronic change originates in the social activity of speech. Changes
occur in individual patterns of speaking before becoming more widely accepted as a part of
language. Speaking is an activity which involves oral and auditory communication between
individuals. Language is the set of rules by which individuals are able to understand each
other.Saussure says that nothing enters written language without having been tested in spoken
language. Language is changed by the rearranging and reinterpreting of its units. A unit is a

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segment of the spoken chain that corresponds to a particular concept. Saussure explains that the
units of language can have a synchronic or diachronic arrangement.
Saussure’s investigation of structural linguistics gives us a clear and concise presentation of the
view that language can be described in terms of structural units. He explains that this structural
aspect means that language also represents a system of values. Linguistic value can be viewed as
a quality of the signified, the signifier, or the complete sign. The linguistic value of a word (a
signifier) comes from its property of standing for a concept (the signified). The value of the
signified comes from its relation to other concepts. The value of the complete sign comes from
the way in which it unites the signifier and the signified.
Thus, Saussure shows that the meaning or signification of signs is established by their relation to
each other. The relation of signs to each other forms the structure of language. Synchronic reality
is found in the structure of language at a given point in time. Diachronic reality is found in
changes of language over a period of time. Saussure views language as having an inner duality,
which is manifested by the interaction of the synchronic and diachronic, the syntagmatic and
associative, the signifier and signified.
34. Discuss Stress and Rythem in connected speech with suitable examples.
Stress pointed out that in words having more than one syllable, one of the syllables (sometimes
two) had to be stressed. You have to know which syllable (or syllables) should be stressed in a
word. In this unit we shall study the patterns of stress and rhythm in connected speech. In
Connected Speech we put words together to form phrases and sentences. For example, 'rice and
curd' is a phrase and 'I am a student' is a sentence. When we put words together to form phrases
and sentences in English, how do we say them? Do we give equal importance to all the words
that, form a phrase or a sentence? In other words, do we stress all the words in a phrase or
sentence? No, we don't. In a phrase or sentence (or in a longer piece of connected speech) we
stress some of the words
and leave the others unstressed. For example, in the phrase 'rice and curd' we stress the words
'rice' and 'curd' and leave the word 'and' unstressed. In the sentence 'I am a student' we stress only
the word 'student' and leave the other words unstressed.
We stress those words that are important for the meaning. Let us illustrate this. In the sentence ' I
love you' if the speaker wants to tell the person that he loves only the referred to person as 'you'
and no one else, he will stress the word 'you'. If, on the other hand, the speaker wants to state that
he (and
no one else) loves that person, he will stress the word '1 '. Look at the same sentence repeated
twice below.
1 love 'you' (The speaker loves that person 'referred to as 'you' and none else)
'I' love you (The speaker, and none else, loves the person referred to as 'you')
What if the meaning doesn't require any particular words in an utterance to be stressed? Then the
speaker will stress the content words in an utterance and leave the grammatical words
unstressed, e.g. I 'love you. Now what are content and grammatical words?

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Nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, question words and demonstratives are content
words, that is, they have independent meanings of their own, and articles, pronouns,
prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and conjunctions are grammatical words, that is, their main
function is to show the grammatical relations among words. A few examples are given below, in
which only the content words are stressed and the grammatical words are left unstressed. The
stressed words are marked with the vertical bar.
I 'gave him 'ten 'books.

I 'love my 'friends.
I 'love to 'live in 'Delhi.
There are 'ten 'boys and 'five 'girls in our 'class.
My 'son is a 'good 'driver.
I 'ate some 'rice and 'curd.
We have a Igrey 'cat in our 'house.
'Give me 'six 'eggs, 'please.
In the examples given above, most of the content words are monosyllabic. What happens when a
content word has more than one syllable? If a content word that has more than one syllable
occurs in a piece of connected speech, we stress only that syllable in it which we stress if we
were to say the word by itself. A few examples are given below in which the content words have
more than one syllable each.
Rhythm refers to the recurrence of an event at regular periods of time. The rhythm of English
speech depends on the stressed syllables occurring at regular intervals of time. This is easy in a
sentence like
'Go and 'post this 'card.
because in this sentence there is one stressed syllable, then one unstressed syllable, and then one
stressed syllable, and so on. Let us take another sentence.
The 'boy you 'met on 'Monday 'came to 'see you.
Once again, in this sentence, stressed syllables occur regularly, one after every weak syllable, but
there is a slight pause after 'Monday'. In the sentence that we use in our everyday speech, the
stressed syllables may not occur so regularly. Take the sentence
He is a pro'fessor of Mathe'matics at the Uni'versity of 'Delhi.
There are four stressed syllables (which have been marked). There are four unstressed syllables
before the first stressed syllable, four unstressed syllables between the first and the second
stressed syllables, five unstressed syllables between the second and the third stressed syllables,
and three unstressed syllables between the last two stressed syIlables. Given below is another
example.
'John's 'friend 'Ram / 'visited him on the o'ccasion of his 'birthday.

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In tlie sentence given above, four stressed syllables occur together without any unstressed
syllable between them but there is a slight pause after 'Ram'. Between the fourth and the fifth
stressed syllables, there are six unstressed syllables, and between the fifth and the sixth stressed
syllables, there are three unstressed syllables. How can we make the stressed syllables occur at
regular intervals of time, if they
don't occur regularly in an utterance, as the two sentences given above illustrate? When there are
too many unstressed syllables between two stressed syllables, we have to say them quickly and
use the reduced or weak forms of some of the words. In weak syllables the vowels generally
used are /a/, /I/ and /u/. Sometimes we also leave out certain sounds - don't pronounce
them at all.
35. What is the difference between literal vs figurative meanings ? Give suitable examples.
Literal and figurative are two words that we often see in relation to language and writing. In
language study, these words act as antonyms, i.e. they have the opposite meanings. Literal
language is saying exactly what you mean while figurative language is more elaborate and
uses literary techniques or figures of speech like hyperbole, personification, metaphors, etc. In this
article, we are going to look at the main difference between the literal and figurative language in
depth.
Literal Language
This is the type of language we speak most of the time. The words in a literal sentence, give out
their dictionary meaning. Literal language expresses thoughts and ideas in a clear and specific
manner. They do not deviate from the accepted meaning. Thus, it is easy to understand literal
language. This type of language is often used to deliver important information and is used in
writing scientific, technical and legal documents.
Figurative Language
Figurative language is a language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is
different from the literal interpretation. For example, look at the sentence ‘raining cats and
dogs’. This does not mean that cats and dogs are falling from the sky. This actually means that it’s
raining heavily.
Figurative language is more elaborate than literal language, and this type of writing is commonly
used in works of literature. A writer uses figures of speech like similes, metaphors,
personification, hyperbole, paradox, etc. to make the language more elaborate and figurative. Some
examples of figurative language and the figures of speech are given below.
Idiom (an expression that has a figurative meaning unrelated to the literal meaning of the
phrase.)
“She drowned her sorrows in alcohol.”

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Metaphor (a figure of speech used in comparison)
“He is the apple of her eye.”
Oxymoron (two words having opposite meanings are used together)
“She felt that it was time for this bittersweet relationship to end.”
Hyperbole (exaggeration)
“You scared me to death.”
Simile (compares two things)
“Her eyes were like the deep pools to her soul.”
Personification (giving human characteristics to a non-living thing)
“The old man waited for Death to come to him.”
Difference Between Literal Language and Figurative Language
Words
Literal language uses words that are in strict agreement with their original meanings.
Figurative language uses words or expressions with meanings that are different from the literal
interpretation.
Usage
Literal language is used in documents that contain direct information.(Examples; Legal,

technical documents)
Figurative language is commonly used in literature.
Language
Literal language is used in both spoken and written language.
Figurative language is rarely used in spoken language.
Perception
Literal language is often simple, direct and therefore, the readers find it easy to understand.

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Figurative language can be complex and bit difficult to understand.
Figures of speech
Literal language does not use figures of speech.
Figurative language uses figures of speech.
Manner
Literal language expresses ideas in a simple, specific manner.
Figurative language expresses ideas in a vague manner.
36. What is a 'Speech - Community' ? Why is it difficult to define ?
Speech community is a term in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology used to describe a

group of people who share the same language, speech characteristics, and ways of interpreting
communication. Speech communities may be large regions like an urban area with a common,
distinct accent or small units like families and friends. They help people define themselves as
individuals and community members and identify (or misidentify) others.
Speech and Identity
The concept of speech as a means of identifying with a community first emerged in

1960s academia alongside other new fields of research like ethnic and gender studies. Linguists
like John Gumperz pioneered research in how personal interaction can influence ways of
speaking and interpreting, while Noam Chomsky studied how people interpret language and
derive meaning from what they see and hear.
Types of Communities
Speech communities can be large or small, although linguists don't agree on how they're defined.
Some, like linguist Muriel Saville-Troike, argue that it's logical to assume that a shared language
like English, which is spoken throughout the world, is a speech community. But she
differentiates between "hard-shelled" communities, which tend to be insular and intimate, like a
family or religious sect, and "soft-shelled" communities where there is a lot of interaction.
But other linguists say a common language is too vague to be considered a true speech
community. The linguistic anthropologist Zdenek Salzmann describes it this way:
"People who speak the same language are not always members of the same speech community.
On the one hand, speakers of South Asian English in India and Pakistan share a language with
citizens of the U.S., but the respective varieties of English and the rules for speaking them are
sufficiently distinct to assign the two populations to different speech communities..."

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The concept of speech community plays a role in a number of social science, namely sociology,
anthropology, linguists, even psychology. People who study issues of migration and ethnic
identity use social community theory to study things like how immigrants assimilate into larger
societies, for instance. Academics who focus on racial, ethnic, sexual or gender issues apply
social community theory when they study issues of personal identity and politics. It also plays a
role in data collection. By being aware of how communities are defined, researchers can adjust
their subject pools in order to obtain representative sample populations.
37. Give an account of the different types of language planning with examples.
Language planning refers to various efforts by governments to create policies or plans around
issues of language. There are several different reasons why it might be necessary.
First, it often functions to maintain a sort of cultural integrity or identity. In Quebec, for example,
there is a significant concern about whether the local French culture can sustain its unique
identity without policies in place to emphasize the use of French and prevent English from taking
over. Greece, after it obtained its freedom from Turkish rule, attempted to purify its language and
return to a modernized form of classical Greek called Katharevousa as an assertion of cultural
identity and independence.
Philosophically, nations differ in their attitudes towards minorities and immigrants. Countries
which value diversity may encourage multilingualism while ones more concerned with
assimilation are likely to emphasize linguistic uniformity. This also may apply to regional
languages, dialects and traditions such as Basque, Catalan, and Gaelic ones where respecting
regional traditions must be balanced with issues of separate cultural traditions possibly leading to
political separatism.
Finally, one contemporary issue of language planning is the use of gender neutral language,
which has been seen as promoting gender equality.
Types of Language Planning
Language planning has been divided into three types:
Status planning
Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or dialect to functional domains

within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language.
Language status is distinct from, though intertwined with, language prestige and language
function. Language status is the given position (or standing) of a language against other
languages. A language garners status according to the fulfillment of four attributes, Their
respective frameworks differ slightly, but they emphasize four common attributes:
1. Language origin – whether a given language is indigenous or imported to the speech

community

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2. Degree of standardization – the extent of development of a formal set of norms that

define 'correct' usage
3. Juridical status
1. Sole official language
2. Joint official language
3. Regional official language
4. Promoted language – lacks official status on a national or regional level but is
promoted and sometimes used by public authorities for specific functions
5. Tolerated language – neither promoted nor proscribed; acknowledged but ignored
6. Proscribed language – discouraged by official sanction or restriction
4. Vitality – the ratio, or percent, of users of a language to another variable, such as the total
population. Kloss and Stewart both distinguish six classes of statistical distribution.
However, they draw the line between classes at different percentages. Together, origin,
degree of standardization, juridical status, and vitality express a language's status.
Corpus planning
Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in the forms of a language, whereby
planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the language. Corpus
planning activities often arise as the result of beliefs about the adequacy of the form of a
language to serve desired functions. Unlike status planning, which is mostly undertaken by
administrators and politicians, corpus planning is generally the work of individuals with greater
linguistic expertise. There are three traditionally recognized types of corpus planning:
graphization, standardization, and modernization.
Graphization
Graphization refers to development, selection and modification of scripts and orthographic

conventions for a language. The use of writing in a speech community can have lasting
sociocultural effects, which include easier transmission of material through generations,
communication with greater numbers of people, and a standard against which varieties of spoken
language are often compared.
Standardization
The process of standardization often involves one variety of a language taking precedence over
other social and regional dialects of a language. Another approach, where dialects are mutually
intelligible, is to introduce a poly-phonemic written form that is intended to represent all dialects
of a language adequately but with no standard spoken form. If one dialect is chosen, it comes to
be perceived as supra-dialectal and the 'best' form of the language.
Choosing the standard language has important social consequences, as it benefits the speakers
whose spoken and written dialect conforms closest to the chosen standard. The chosen standard
is generally spoken by the most powerful social group within society, and it is imposed upon
other groups as the form to emulate, making the standard norm necessary for socioeconomic
mobility.

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Modernization
Modernization occurs when a language needs to expand its resources to meet functions.
Modernization often occurs when a language undergoes a shift in status, such as when a country
gains independence from a colonial power or when there is a change in the language education
policy. The main force in modernization is the expansion of the lexicon, which allows the
language to discuss topics in modern semantic domains. Language planners generally develop
new lists and glossaries to describe new technical terms, but it is also necessary to ensure that the
new terms are consistently used by the appropriate sectors within society. While some languages,
such as Japanese and Hungarian, have experienced rapid lexical expansion to meet the demands
of modernization, other languages, such as Hindi and Arabic, have failed to do so. Such
expansion is aided by the use of new terms in textbooks and professional publications. Issues of
linguistic purism often play a significant role in lexical expansion, but technical vocabulary can
be effective within a language, regardless of whether it comes from the language's own process
of word formation or from extensive borrowing from another language.
Acquisition planning
Acquisition planning is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local

government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution
and literacy through education. Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental
organizations, but it is more commonly associated with government planning.
Acquisition planning is often integrated into a broader language planning process in which the
statuses of languages are evaluated, corpuses are revised and the changes are finally introduced
to society on a national, state or local level through education systems, ranging from primary
schools to universities. This process of change can entail an alteration in student textbook
formatting, a change in methods of teaching an official language, or the development of a
bilingual language program, only to name a few. For example, if a government chooses to raise
the status level of a certain language or change its level of prestige, it can establish a law which
requires teachers to teach only in this language or that textbooks are written using only this
language's script. This, in turn, would support the elevation of the language's status or could
increase its prestige. In this way, acquisition planning is often used to promote language
revitalization, which can change a language's status or reverse a language shift, or to promote
linguistic purism. In a case where a government revises a corpus, new dictionaries and
educational materials will need to be revised in schools in order to maintain effective language
acquisition.
38. Examine the `Indianness' of Indian English. How is it different from British/American
English ?
Indian English (IE) is a class of varieties of the English language spoken in India, and among
the Indian diaspora elsewhere in the world. English is used by the Indian government for some
communication as a supplement to Hindi, the country's "official language of the Union"
enshrined in the Constitution. English is an official language of 7 states and 5 Union Territories

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and also additional official language of 7 states and 1 Union Territory. English is also the sole
official language of the Judiciary of India, unless a state Governor or legislature mandates the
use of regional language, or the President has given approval for the use of regional languages in
courts. Indian English originated from British English but is used by more people.
English language public instruction began in India in the 1830s during the rule of the East India
Company (India was then, and is today, one of the most linguistically diverse regions of the
world). In 1835, English replaced Persian as the official language of the Company. Lord
Macaulay played a major role in introducing English and western concepts to education in India.
He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English
as the medium of instruction in all schools, and the training of English-speaking Indians as
teachers. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, primary, middle, and high-schools were opened in
many districts of British India, with most high-schools offering English language instruction in
some subjects. In 1857, just before the end of Company rule, universities modeled on the
University of London and using English as the medium of instruction were established in
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. During the British Raj, lasting from 1858 to 1947, English
language penetration increased throughout India. This was driven in part by the gradually
increasing hiring of Indians in the civil services. At the time of India's independence in 1947,
English was the only functional lingua franca in the country.
After Indian Independence in 1947, Hindi was declared the first official language, and attempts
were made to declare Hindi the sole national language of India. Due to protests from Tamil Nadu
and other non-Hindi-speaking states, it was decided to temporarily retain English for official
purposes until at least 1965. By the end of this period, however, opposition from non-Hindi
states was still too strong to have Hindi declared the sole language. With this in mind, the
English Language Amendment Bill declared English to be an associate language "until such time
as all non-Hindi States had agreed to its being dropped." This has not yet occurred, and it is still
widely used. For instance, it is the only reliable means of day-to-day communication between the
central government and the non-Hindi states.
The differences between Indian and British English
Indian English is a result of the British colonization of India which lasted for more than 200
years. Officially, Indians follow the rules of British English grammar but there are a lot of
differences in the way Indians speak English. A little over 10% of Indians speak English and
there is diversity among Indian English speakers due to cultural influences and the structure of
the education system.
Although English is the second-most spoken language in India, less than 0.05% of Indians
speak it as their first language. South Indians speak English differently than North Indians
because there is a huge cultural diversity in these parts of India. Over the years, Indian English
has evolved to include a lot of Indian slang words and puns which may not make sense to
foreigners.
Characteristics of British English

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By British English, we mean the standard English dialect that is spoken in the United Kingdom.
Compared to its written form, British English varies a lot in its spoken form in different regions.
The major dialects and accents can be classified into English English (English as spoken in
England), Welsh English, Ulster English in Northern Ireland, and Scottish English.
The phonological features of British English incorporate the glottal stop of the phoneme /t/. This
process is known as t-glottalization. Most Britons also practice a phenomenon that is known as
non-rhoticity (R-dropping) and intrusive R. We can distinguish Southern varieties of British
English from Northern varieties by noticing the diphthongization of long vowels.
How is American English different from British English/ Indian English?
Listed below are all the major differences between American English and British English:
• Vocabulary: The general everyday words used for certain objects differ in American
English and British English. (For example, while we go on a holiday, the Americans go
on a ‘vacation’.) Certain words can have entirely different meaning in both the nations.
• Collective Nouns: Americans mostly use collective nouns in singular form only while
British use either singular or plural depending on context.
• Auxiliary verbs: Auxiliary verbs (like ‘shall’, ‘must’, ‘may’, ‘can’t’, etc. are used
indicate the grammatical function, voice, modality, tense of the main verb used in a
sentence.
• Spelling rules: There are hundreds of common everyday words whose spellings differ in
American English and British English. For a complete list of these rules and affected
words, we recommend that you read our blog: Spelling Rules: American English vs.
Indian/ British English.
• Question Tags: Americans use question tags sparingly while question tags are more
commonly used in British English.
• Past tense verbs: The spelling and pronunciation of the past tense form of certain verbs
is different in American English and British English. For example, American English
version of the past tense form burn, dream and learn is ‘burnt’, ‘dreamt’ and ‘learnt’
while the British English version is ‘burned’, ‘dreamed’ and ‘learned’.
• Accent & Pronunciation: The pronunciation and accent are quite different for American
English and British English. The differences are primarily in the way the vowels are
pronounced or stressed.
Characteristics of Indian English
It is hard to make generalisations about Indian English, as it is so different in different

regions of the country. Telephone customer service agents, teachers, and English students of the
modern generation speak with a non-rhotic accent. However, r-colored vowels and rhoticity
similar to that of American English is gaining prominence because of the exposure to American
culture and economic ties with the United States.

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Indians who have English as their first language and watch a lot of U.S. TV or movies often
adopt an American accent. However, other Indian English speakers usually speak with a syllabic
rhythm that is similar to their native language.
Indian English vocabulary includes a lot of administrative, sociological, and political terms that
are unique to the culture of India. Some of these include swadeshi, dharna, eve-teasing, vote
bank, etc.
39. Explain and exemplify language variation in terms of Dialects , style and register.
Ans. In sociolinguistics, language variety—also called lect—is a general term for any distinctive
form of a language or linguistic expression. Linguists commonly use language variety (or simply
variety) as a cover term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language, including
dialect, register, jargon, and idiolect.
Background
To understand the meaning of language varieties, it's important to consider how lects differ
from standard English. Even what constitutes standard English is a topic of hot debate among
linguists.
Standard English is a controversial term for a form of the English language that is written and
spoken by educated users. For some linguists, standard English is a synonym
for good or correct English usage. Others use the term to refer to a specific
geographical dialect of English or a dialect favored by the most powerful and prestigious social
group.
Varieties of language develop for a number of reasons: differences can come about for
geographical reasons; people who live in different geographic areas often develop distinct
dialects—variations of standard English. Those who belong to a specific group, often academic
or professional, tend to adopt jargon that is known to and understood by only members of that
select group. Even individuals develop idiolects, their own specific ways of speaking.
Dialect
The word dialect—which contains "lect" within the term—derives from the Greek words dia-
meaning "across, between" and legein "speak." A dialect is a regional or social variety of
a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary. The term dialect is
often used to characterize a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the
language. Sarah Thomason of the Linguistic Society of America notes:
"All dialects start with the same system, and their partly independent histories leave different
parts of the parent system intact. This gives rise to some of the most persistent myths about
language, such as the claim that the people of Appalachia speak pure Elizabethan English."

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Certain dialects have gained negative connotations in the U.S. as well as in other countries.
Indeed, the term dialect prejudice refers to discrimination based on a person's dialect or way
of speaking. Dialect prejudice is a type of linguicism—discrimination based on dialect. In their
article "Applied Social Dialectology," published in "Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook
of the Science of Language and Society," Carolyn Temple and Donna Christian observe:
"...dialect prejudice is endemic in public life, widely tolerated, and institutionalized in social
enterprises that affect almost everyone, such as education and the media. There is limited
knowledge about and little regard for linguistic study showing that all varieties of a language
display systematicity and that the elevated social position of standard varieties has no scientific
linguistic basis."
Due to this kind of dialectic prejudice, Suzanne Romaine, in "Language in Society," notes:
"Many linguists now prefer the term variety or lect to avoid the
sometimes pejorative connotations that the term 'dialect' has."
STYLE
The style of a piece of writing is the way in which features of the language are used to
convey meaning, typically but not always within the constraints of more widely accepted
conventions of usage, grammar, and spelling.
An individual's writing style may be a very personal thing. Organizations that employ
writers or commission written work from individuals may require that writers conform to
a standardized style defined by the organization. This allows a consistent readability of
composite works produced by many authors, and promotes usability of, for example,
references to other cited works.
In many kinds of professional writing aiming for effective transfer of information,
adherence to a standardised style of writing helps readers make sense of what the
writer is presenting. Many standardised styles are documented in style guides. Some
styles are more widely used, others restricted to a particular journal
Register
Register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances.
Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body language. You probably
behave very differently chatting with a friend than you would at a formal dinner party or during a
job interview. These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are known as registers
in linguistics.
They are determined by such factors as social occasion, context, purpose, and audience.
Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms,
the use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace.
Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed.
Depending on grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate.

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You don't even need to use an actual word to communicate effectively. A huff of exasperation
during a debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes.
Jargon
Jargon refers to the specialized language of a professional or occupational group. Such language
is often meaningless to outsiders. American poet David Lehman has described jargon as "the
verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable; it gives an air of novelty
and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would seem superficial, stale, frivolous,
or false."
George Packer describes jargon in a similar vein in a 2016 article in the New Yorker magazine:
“Professional jargon—on Wall Street, in humanities departments, in government offices—can be

a fence raised to keep out the uninitiated and permit those within it to persist in the belief that
what they do is too hard, too complex, to be questioned. Jargon acts not only to euphemize but to
license, setting insiders against outsiders and giving the flimsiest notions a scientific aura.”
Pam Fitzpatrick, a senior research director at Gartner, a Stamford, Connecticut-based research

and advisory firm specializing in high tech, writing on LinkedIn, puts it more bluntly:
"Jargon is waste. Wasted breath, wasted energy. It absorbs time and space but does nothing to
further our goal of persuading people to help us solve complex problems."
In other words, jargon is a faux method of creating a sort of dialect that only those on this inside
group can understand. Jargon has social implications similar to dialect prejudice but in reverse: It
is a way of making those who understand this particular variety of language more erudite and
learned; those who are members of the group that understands the particular jargon are
considered smart, while those on the outside are simply not bright enough to comprehend this
kind of language.
40. How would you describe various Clause types and Sentence types.
clause is a group of related words; but unlike a phrase, a clause has a subject and verb. An
independent clause, along with having a subject and verb, expresses a complete thought and can
stand alone as a coherent sentence. In contrast, a subordinate or dependent clause does not
express a complete thought and therefore is not a sentence. A subordinate clause standing alone
is a common error known as a sentence fragment.
Independent clauses
He saw her. The Washingtons hurried home. Free speech has a price. Grammatically complete
statements like these are sentences and can stand alone. When they are part of longer sentences,
they are referred to as independent (or main) clauses.

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Two or more independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions ( and, but,
for, nor, or, so, and yet) or by using semicolons. The most important thing to remember is that an
independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence.
In the following example, the independent clause is a simple sentence.
Erica brushed her long, black hair.
Next, the coordinating conjunction and joins two independent clauses.
Fernando left, and Erica brushed her long, black hair.
Next, a semicolon joins two independent clauses.
Fernando left; Erica brushed her long, black hair.
All sentences must include at least one independent clause.
After she told Fernando to leave, Erica brushed her long, black hair.
In the previous sentence, the independent clause is preceded by a clause that can't stand alone:
After she told Fernando to leave.
Erica brushed her long, black hair while she waited for Fernando to leave.
Here, the independent clause is followed by a clause that can't stand alone: while she waited for
Fernando to leave.
Beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions
Any of the coordinating conjunctions ( and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet) can be used to join an
independent clause to another independent clause. Can you begin a sentence with one of these
conjunctions?
No one knew what to do. But everyone agreed that something should be done.
An old rule says that you shouldn't. But beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is
acceptable today. (Notice the preceding sentence, for example.) Sometimes beginning a sentence
this way creates exactly the effect you want. It separates the clause and yet draws attention to its
relationship with the previous clause.
Subordinate clauses
A subordinate clause has a subject and verb but, unlike an independent clause, cannot stand by
itself. It depends on something else in the sentence to express a complete thought, which is why
it's also called a dependent clause. Some subordinate clauses are introduced by relative

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pronouns ( who, whom, that, which, what, whose) and some by subordinating conjunctions (
although, because, if, unless, when, etc.). Subordinate clauses function in sentences as adjectives,
nouns, and adverbs.
Relative clauses
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and functions as an adjective.
In the following sentence, the relative pronoun that is the subject of its clause and won the
Pulitzer Prize is the predicate. This clause couldn't stand by itself. Its role in the complete
sentence is to modify novel, the subject of the independent clause.
The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn't sell well when it was first published.
In the next example , which is the relative pronoun that begins the subordinate clause. Celebrities
is the subject of the clause and attended is the verb. In the complete sentence, this clause
functions as an adjective describing ceremony.
The ceremony, which several celebrities attended, received widespread media coverage.
Note that in a relative clause, the relative pronoun is sometimes the subject of the clause, as in
the following sentence, and sometimes the object, as in the next sentence.
Arthur, who comes to the games every week, offered to be scorekeeper.
Who is the subject of the clause and comes to the games every week is the predicate. The clause
modifies Arthur.
In the following sentence , mothers is the subject of the clause, adored is the verb, and whom is
the direct object of adored. Again, the clause modifies Arthur.
Arthur, whom the team mothers adored, was asked to be scorekeeper.
Noun clauses
A noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence.
What I want for dinner is a hamburger. (subject of the verb is)

The host told us how he escaped. (direct object of the verb told)
A vacation is what I need most. (complement of the linking verb is)
Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to)
Pronoun case in subordinate clauses

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Who, whom, whoever, whomever. In deciding which case of who you should use in a clause,
remember this important rule: The case of the pronoun is governed by the role it plays in its own
clause, not by its relation to the rest of the sentence. Choosing the right case of pronoun can be
especially confusing because the pronoun may appear to have more than one function. Look at
the following sentence.
They gave the money to whoever presented the winning ticket.
At first, you may think whomever is correct rather than whoever, on the assumption that it is the
object of the preposition to. But in fact the entire clause, not whoever, is the object of the
preposition. Refer to the basic rule: The case should be based on the pronoun's role within its
own clause. In this clause, whoever is the subject of the verb presented.
A good way to determine the right pronoun case is to forget everything but the clause itself:
whoever presented the winning ticket is correct; whomever presented the winning ticket is not.
The following two sentences show how you must focus on the clause rather than the complete
sentence in choosing the right pronoun case.
We asked whomever we saw for a reaction to the play.
We asked whoever called us to call back later.
In each sentence the clause is the direct object of asked. But in the first sentence, whomever is
correct because within its clause, it is the object of saw. In the second sentence, whoever is
correct because it is the subject of called.
Adverbial clauses
Many subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Examples of these

conjunctions are because, unless, if, when, and although. What these conjunctions have in
common is that they make the clauses that follow them unable to stand alone. The clauses act as
adverbs, answering questions like how, when, where, why, to what extent, and under what
conditions.
When Mauna Loa began erupting and spewing lava into the air, we drove away as quickly as we
could.
In the preceding sentence , when is a subordinating conjunction introducing the adverbial clause.
The subject of the clause is Mauna Loa and the predicate is began erupting and spewing lava
into the air. This clause is dependent because it is an incomplete thought. What happened when
the volcano began erupting? The independent clause we drove away as quickly as we could
completes the thought. The adverbial clause answers the question “When did we drive?”
In the following sentence, because introduces the adverbial clause in which van is the subject
and needed the verb. This clause is an incomplete thought. What happened because the van

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
needed repairs? The independent clause The group of tourists decided to have lunch in the
village is necessary to complete the thought. Again, the subordinate clause as a whole acts as an
adverb, telling why the tourists decided to have lunch in the village.
Sentence structure refers to the physical nature of a sentence and how the elements of that
sentence are presented. Just like word choice, writers should strive to vary their sentence
structure to create rhythmic prose and keep their reader interested. Sentences that require a
variation often repeat subjects, lengths, or types.
Varying Sentence Type
One of the trickiest patterns to spot is that of repetitive sentence type. Just like subject and
length, overusing a sentence type can hinder a reader’s engagement with a text. There are four
types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Each sentence is
defined by the use of independent and dependent clauses, conjunctions, and subordinators.
• Simple sentences: A simple sentence is an independent clause with no conjunction or

dependent clause.
• Compound sentences: A compound sentence is two independent clauses joined by a
conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so).
• Complex sentences: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least
one dependent clause. The clauses in a complex sentence are combined with conjunctions
and subordinators, terms that help the dependent clauses relate to the independent clause.
Subordinators can refer to the subject (who, which), the sequence/time (since, while), or
the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
• Compound-complex sentences: A compound-complex sentence contains multiple
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. These sentences will contain both
conjunctions and subordinators.
41. Elaborate the factors that have bearing upon second language acquisition.
It is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language

acquisition is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. The field of
second-language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, but also receives
research attention from a variety of other disciplines, such
as psychology and education.
However there are other crucial factors influencing success that are largely beyond the control of
the learner. These factors can be broadly categorized as internal and external. It is their complex
interplay that determines the speed and facility with which the new language is learned.
Internal factors
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the
particular learning situation.

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• Age: Second language acquisition is influenced by the age of the learner. Children, who
already have solid literacy skills in their own language, seem to be in the best position to
acquire a new language efficiently. Motivated, older learners can be very successful too,
but usually struggle to achieve native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and intonation.
• Personality: Introverted or anxious learners usually make slower progress, particularly in
the development of oral skills. They are less likely to take advantage of opportunities to
speak, or to seek out such opportunities. More outgoing students will not worry about the
inevitability of making mistakes. They will take risks, and thus will give themselves
much more practice.
• Motivation (intrinsic): Intrinsic motivation has been found to correlate strongly with
educational achievement. Clearly, students who enjoy language learning and take pride in
their progress will do better than those who don't.
Extrinsic motivation is also a significant factor. ESL students, for example, who need to
learn English in order to take a place at an American university or to communicate with a
new English boy/girlfriend are likely to make greater efforts and thus greater progress.
• Experiences: Learners who have acquired general knowledge and experience are in a
stronger position to develop a new language than those who haven't. The student, for
example, who has already lived in 3 different countries and been exposed to various
languages and cultures has a stronger base for learning a further language than the student
who hasn't had such experiences.
• Cognition: In general, it seems that students with greater cognitive abilities (intelligence)
will make the faster progress. Some linguists believe that there is a specific, innate
language learning ability that is stronger in some students than in others.
• Native language: Students who are learning a second language which is from the same
language family as their first language have, in general, a much easier task than those
who aren't. So, for example, a Dutch child will learn English more quickly than a
Japanese child.
External factors
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning situation.
• Curriculum: For ESL students in particular it is important that the totality of their
educational experience is appropriate for their needs. Language learning is less likely to
place if students are fully submersed into the mainstream program without any extra
assistance or, conversely, not allowed to be part of the mainstream until they have
reached a certain level of language proficiency.
• Instruction: Clearly, some language teachers are better than others at providing
appropriate and effective learning experiences for the students in their classrooms. These
students will make faster progress.
The same applies to mainstream teachers in second language situations. The science
teacher, for example, who is aware that she too is responsible for the students' English
language development, and makes certain accommodations, will contribute to their
linguistic development.

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• Culture and status: There is some evidence that students in situations where their own
culture has a lower status than that of the culture in which they are learning the language
make slower progress.
• Motivation (extrinsic): Students who are given continuing, appropriate encouragment to
learn by their teachers and parents will generally fare better than those who aren't. For
example, students from families that place little importance on language learning are
likely to progress less quickly.
• Access to native speakers: The opportunity to interact with native speakers both within
and outside of the classroom is a significant advantage. Native speakers are linguistic
models and can provide appropriate feedback. Clearly, second-language learners who
have no extensive access to native speakers are likely to make slower progress,
particularly in the oral/aural aspects of language acquisition.
42. What tests would you use to identify a syntactic constituent ?
Tests for constituents are diagnostics used to identify sentence structure. There are numerous
tests for constituents that are commonly used to identify the constituents of English sentences. 5
of the most commonly used tests are listed next: 1) coordination (conjunction), 2) pro-form
substitution (replacement), 3) topicalization (fronting), 4) do-so-substitution, 5) one-substitution.
The order in which these 5 tests are listed here corresponds to the frequency of use, coordination
being the most frequently used of the 5 tests and RNR being the least frequently used. A general
word of caution is warranted when employing these tests, since they often deliver contradictory
results. The tests are merely rough-and-ready tools that grammarians employ to reveal clues
about syntactic structure. Some syntacticians even arrange the tests on a scale of reliability, with
less-reliable tests treated as useful to confirm constituency though not sufficient on their own.
Failing to pass a single test does not mean that the test string is not a constituent, and conversely,
passing a single test does not necessarily mean the test string is a constituent. It is best to apply
as many tests as possible to a given string in order to prove or to rule out its status as a
constituent.
Coordination
The coordination test assumes that only constituents can be coordinated, i.e., joined by means of
a coordinator such as and, or, or but: The next examples demonstrate that coordination identifies
individual words as constituents:
Drunks could put off the customers.
(a) [Drunks] and [bums] could put off the customers.
(b) Drunks [could] and [would] put off the customers.
(c) Drunks could [put off] and [drive away] the customers.

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(d) Drunks could put off the [customers] and [neighbors].
The square brackets mark the conjuncts of the coordinate structures. Based on these data, one
might assume that drunks, could, put off, and customers are constituents in the test sentence
because these strings can be coordinated with bums, would, drive away, and neighbors,
respectively.
Proform substitution (replacement)
Proform substitution, or replacement, involves replacing the test string with the appropriate
proform (e.g. pronoun, pro-verb, pro-adjective, etc.). Substitution normally involves using a
definite proform like it, he, there, here, etc. in place of a phrase or a clause. If such a change
yields a grammatical sentence where the general structure has not been altered, then the test
string is likely a constituent:
(a) They could put off the customers. (They = Drunks)
(b) Drunks could put them off. (them = the customers; note that shifting of them and off
has occurred here.)
(c) Drunks could do it. (do it = put off the customers)
These examples suggest that Drunks, the customers, and put off the customers in the test
sentence are constituents.
Topicalization (fronting)
Topicalization involves moving the test string to the front of the sentence. It is a simple
movement operation. Many instances of topicalization seem only marginally acceptable when
taken out of context. Hence to suggest a context, an instance of topicalization can be preceded by
...and and a modal adverb can be added as well (e.g. certainly):
(a) ...and the customers, drunks certainly could put off.
(b) ...and put off the customers, drunks certainly could.
These examples suggest that the customers and put off the customers are constituents in the test
sentence. Topicalization is like many of the other tests in that it identifies phrasal constituents
only.

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
Do-so-substitution
Do-so-substitution is a test that substitutes a form of do so (does so, did so, done so, doing so)
into the test sentence for the target string. This test is widely used to probe the structure of strings
containing verbs (because do is a verb). The test is limited in its applicability, though, precisely
because it is only applicable to strings containing verbs:
(a) Drunks could do so. (do so = put off the customers)
(b) Drunks do so. (do so ≠ could put off the customers)
The 'a' example suggests that put off the customers is a constituent in the test sentence, whereas
the b example fails to suggest that could put off the customers is a constituent, for do so cannot
include the meaning of the modal verb could.
One-substitution
The one-substitution test replaces the test string with the indefinite pronoun one or ones. If the
result is acceptable, then the test string is deemed a constituent. Since one is a type of pronoun,
one-substitution is only of value when probing the structure of noun phrases. In this regard, the
test sentence from above is expanded in order to better illustrate the manner in which one-
substitution is generally employed:
Drunks could put off the loyal customers around here who we rely on.
(a) Drunks could put off the loyal ones around here who we rely on. (ones = customers)
(b) Drunks could put off the ones around here who we rely on. (ones = loyal customers)
(c) Drunks could put off the loyal ones who we rely on. (ones = customers around here)
(d) Drunks could put off the ones who we rely on. (ones = loyal customers around here)
(e) Drunks could put off the loyal ones. (ones = customers around here who we rely on)
These examples suggest that customers, loyal customers, customers around here, loyal
customers around here, and customers around here who we rely on are constituents in the test
sentence. Some have pointed to a problem associated with the one-substitution in this area,
however. This problem is that it is impossible to produce a single constituent structure of the
noun phrase the loyal customers around here who we rely on that could simultaneous view all of
the indicated strings as constituents.
43. Distinguish between code-switching and code-mixing with suitable examples.

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
“Code” refers to language here. Both code mixing and code switching are only possible in case
of bilinguals (or multi-linguals), i.e. people who know at least two (or more than two)
languages.
Code mixing is simply mixing of two or more languages while communicating. Now, it is
common for a speaker who knows two or more languages to take one word or more than one
word from one language and introduce it while speaking another language.
If I know French as well as English, for example, there will be times when I will mix some
English words in my French sentences. That’s, in fact, very common. Languages have this kind
of affect on other languages. It is rare for Bilinguals to utter sentences that belong to purely one
language.
One or few words are generally borrowed. Sometimes, it is because the speaker remembers a
particular word in one language but, at that moment, isn’t able to use the parallel word in the
language he is using. This happens generally in speech. Writing, which is more formal and
careful presentation of speech, is generally free of code mixing and code switching (but it is still
possible when there is a special requirement, for example, when adding some special, humorous
effect, or in case it is an advertisement and marketing strategy etc.).
Code switching is similar to code mixing in that there is combination of two languages (in fact,
many use the two terms interchangeably), but there is a small difference. In a single conversation
if a language speaker who is speaking, for example, English switches to French (and again to
English, may be), it will be code switching.
Here, the speaker is not mixing just a few words of one language in between the other language.
He is speaking one language and then switching to another language. One sentence is spoken in
one language and the second in another and so on.
Sometimes, there may not be a sharp boundary. One phrase of a single sentence might be in one
language and the second in a different language. Note that in the latter case, the two phrases (one
in English and second in French, for example) will be consistent in tense, number, etc.
Also, please note that I have taken the example of English and French, but code mixing and code
switching is possible between all languages.
44. Examine the three ways by which change of meaning takes place.
Changes in word meanings (a process called semantic shift) happen for various reasons and in
various ways. Four common types of change are broadening, narrowing, amelioration, and
pejoration. (For more detailed discussions of these processes, click on the highlighted terms.)
• Broadening
Also known as generalization or extension, broadening is the process by which a word's

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
meaning becomes more inclusive than an earlier meaning. In Old English, for instance,
the word dog referred to just one particular breed, and thing meant a public assembly. In
contemporary English, of course, dog can refer to many different breeds, and thing can
refer to, well, anything.
• Narrowing
The opposite of broadening is narrowing (also called specialization or restriction), a type
of semantic change in which a word's meaning becomes less inclusive. For example, in
Middle English, deer could refer to any animal, and girl could mean a young person of
either sex. Today, those words have more specific meanings.
• Amelioration
Amelioration refers to the upgrading or rise in status of a word's meaning. For example,
meticulous once meant "fearful or timid," and sensitive meant simply "capable of using
one's senses."
• Pejoration
More common than amelioration is the downgrading or depreciation of a word's meaning,
a process called pejoration. The adjective silly, for instance, once meant "blessed" or
"innocent," officious meant "hard working," and aggravate meant to "increase the
weight" of something.
What's worth keeping in mind is that meanings don't change over night. Different meanings of
the same word often overlap, and new meanings can co-exist with older meanings for centuries.
In linguistic terms, polysemy is the rule, not the exception.
In recent years, the adverb literally has become exceptionally fuzzy. In fact, it has slipped into
the rare category of Janus words, joining terms like sanction, bolt, and fix that contain opposite
or contradictory meanings.
45. Discuss different types of code mixing, giving examples.
Code-mixing is the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech. Some
scholars use the terms "code-mixing" and "code-switching" interchangeably, especially in studies
of syntax, morphology, and other formal aspects of language. Others assume more specific
definitions of code-mixing, but these specific definitions may be different in different subfields
of linguistics, education theory, communications etc.
Code-mixing is similar to the use or creation of pidgins; but while a pidgin is created across
groups that do not share a common language, code-mixing may occur within a multilingual
setting where speakers share more than one language.
As code-switching
Some linguists use the terms code-mixing and code-switching more or less interchangeably.
Especially in formal studies of syntax, morphology, etc., both terms are used to refer to
utterances that draw from elements of two or more grammatical systems. These studies are often

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
interested in the alignment of elements from distinct systems, or on constraints that limit
switching.
Some work defines code-mixing as the placing or mixing of various linguistic units (affixes,
words, phrases, clauses) from two different grammatical systems within the same sentence and
speech context, while code-switching is the placing or mixing of units (words, phrases,
sentences) from two codes within the same speech context. The structural difference between
code-switching and code-mixing is the position of the altered elements—for code-switching, the
modification of the codes occurs intersententially, while for code-mixing, it occurs
intrasententially.
In other work the term code-switching emphasizes a multilingual speaker's movement from one
grammatical system to another, while the term code-mixing suggests a hybrid form, drawing
from distinct grammars. In other words, code-mixing emphasizes the formal aspects of language
structures or linguistic competence, while code-switching emphasizes linguistic performance.
While many linguists have worked to describe the difference between code-switching and
borrowing of words or phrases, the term code-mixing may be used to encompass both types of
language behavior.
In sociolinguistics
While linguists who are primarily interested in the structure or form of code-mixing may have
relatively little interest to separate code-mixing from code-switching, some sociolinguists have
gone to great lengths to differentiate the two phenomena. For these scholars, code-switching is
associated with particular pragmatic effects, discourse functions, or associations with group
identity. In this tradition, the terms code-mixing or language alternation are used to describe
more stable situations in which multiple languages are used without such pragmatic effects.
In language acquisition
In studies of bilingual language acquisition, code-mixing refers to a developmental stage during

which children mix elements of more than one language. Nearly all bilingual children go through
a period in which they move from one language to another without apparent discrimination. This
differs from code-switching, which is understood as the socially and grammatically appropriate
use of multiple varieties.
Beginning at the babbling stage, young children in bilingual or multilingual environments

produce utterances that combine elements of both (or all) of their developing languages. Some
linguists suggest that this code-mixing reflects a lack of control or ability to differentiate the
languages. Others argue that it is a product of limited vocabulary; very young children may know
a word in one language but not in another. More recent studies argue that this early code-mixing
is a demonstration of a developing ability to code-switch in socially appropriate ways.
For young bilingual children, code-mixing may be dependent on the linguistic context, cognitive
task demands, and interlocutor. Code-mixing may also function to fill gaps in their lexical

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
knowledge. Some forms of code-mixing by young children may indicate risk for language
impairment.
In psychology and psycholinguistics
In psychology and in psycholinguistics the label code-mixing is used in theories that draw on
studies of language alternation or code-switching to describe the cognitive structures underlying
bilingualism. During the 1950s and 1960s, psychologists and linguists treated bilingual speakers
as, in Grosjean's term, "two monolinguals in one person".This "fractional view" supposed that a
bilingual speaker carried two separate mental grammars that were more or less identical to the
mental grammars of monolinguals and that were ideally kept separate and used separately.
Studies since the 1970s, however, have shown that bilinguals regularly combine elements from
"separate" languages. These findings have led to studies of code-mixing in psychology and
psycholinguistics.
The practice of code-mixing, which draws from competence in two languages at the same time
suggests that these competences are not stored or processed separately. Code-mixing among
bilinguals is therefore studied in order to explore the mental structures underlying language
abilities.
In literature
The study of code-mixing in multilingual literature is relevant to an understanding of other
modes code-mixing including speech patterns. Literary code-mixing can provide
sociolinguistically important information on speech modes among distinct communities; it also
portrays postcolonial tensions, cultural, and emotional markers in speech.
46. Give an account of the process of standardization of language, with suitable examples
from English.
Language standardization is the process by which conventional forms of a language are

established and maintained.
Standardization may occur as a natural development of a language in a speech community or as

an effort by members of a community to impose one dialect or variety as a standard.
The term re-standardization refers to the ways in which a language may be reshaped by its
speakers and writers.
Observation
"The interaction of power, language, and reflections on language inextricably bound up with one
another in human history, largely defines language standardization." "English, of course,
developed a standard variety by relatively 'natural' means, over the centuries, out of a kind of
consensus, due to various social factors. For many newer countries, though, the development of a
standard language has had to take place fairly rapidly, and government intervention has therefore

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
been necessary. Standardization, it is argued, is necessary in order to facilitate communications,

to make possible the establishment of an agreed orthography, and to provide a uniform form for
school books. (It is, of course, an open question as to how much, if any, standardization is really
required. It can be argued quite reasonably that there is no real point in standardizing to the
extent where, as is often the case in English-speaking communities, children spend many hours
learning to spell in an exactly uniform manner, where any spelling mistake is the subject of
opprobrium or ridicule, and where derivations from the standard are interpreted as
incontrovertible evidence of ignorance.)"
An Example of Standardization and Divergence: Latin
"For one important example of the push/pull between divergence and standardization--and
between vernacular language and writing--I'll summarize the Literacy Story... about
Charlemagne, Alcuin, and Latin. Latin didn't diverge much till the end of the Roman empire in
the fifth century, but then as it lived on as the spoken language throughout Europe, it began to
diverge somewhat into multiple 'Latins.' But when Charlemagne conquered his huge kingdom in
800, he brought in Alcuin from England. Alcuin brought in 'good Latin' because it came from
books; it didn't have all the 'problems' that came from a language being spoken as a native
tongue. Charlemagne mandated it for his whole empire.
The Creation and Enforcement of Language Standards
"Standardization is concerned with linguistic forms (corpus planning, i.e. selection and
codification) as well as the social and communicative functions of language (status planning, i.e.
implementation and elaboration). In addition, standard languages are also discursive projects,
and standardization processes are typically accompanied by the development of specific
discourse practices. These discourses emphasize the desirability of uniformity and correctness in
language use, the primacy of writing and the very idea of a national language as the only
legitimate language of the speech community..."
Standard English (SE, also standardized English) refers to the dialect of English
language that is used as the national norm—the standard language—in an English-
speaking country, especially as the language for public and formal usage. In England
and Wales, the term standard English is associated with British English, the Received
Pronunciation accent, and the United Kingdom Standard English (UKSE) grammar and
vocabulary. In Scotland, the standard dialect is Scottish Standard English; in the United
States, General American is the standard variety spoken in that country; and in
Australia the national standard is called General Australian English.
Although a standard English is generally the most formal version of the language, a
range of registers exists within any standardized English, as is often seen when
comparing a newspaper article with an academic paper, for example. A distinction also
may be drawn between spoken and written usage. Spoken dialects are looser than their
written counterparts, and quicker to accept new grammatical forms and vocabulary. The
various geographical varieties form a generally accepted set of rules, often those
established by grammarians of the 18th century.

CLASSIC TUTORIALS
As the result of colonisation and historical migrations of English-speaking populations,

and the predominant use of English as the international language of trade and
commerce (a lingua franca), English has also become the most widely used second
language. In countries where English is neither a native language nor widely spoken, a
non-native variant (typically English English or North American English) might be
considered "standard" for teaching purposes. In some areas a pidgin or creole
language, blends English with one or more native languages.


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K 68 FIRST FLOOR WEST PATEL NAGAR NEW DELHI 08

MEG FIRST YEAR SHORT NOTES

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

2. What individualizes the portraits of the characters in the ‘Prologue’ to The

Motley spectacle presented in "The Prologue"

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

3. Discuss Chaucer’s handling of the fable in ‘The Nun’s Priest’s Tale’.

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

Similarly, the widow's humility contrasts with Chaunticleer's haughtiness. Roosters

Chaunticleer is superior in other ways to his unassuming owner. Not only is he a

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

4. Comment on the use of Speech, dialogue reflection and narration in NPT.

5. Compare and contrast "The Epithalamion" and "The Prothalamion".

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

Ans. Spencer's Epithalamion and Prothalamion both highlight the theme of

Both the Epithalamion and Prothalamion highlight the importance of nymphs to

Her forehead yvory white,

Her cheekes lyke apples which the sun hath rudded,

Her lips lyke cherryes charming men to byte,

Her brest like to a bowle of creame uncrudded,

Her paps lyke lyllies budded,

Her snowie necke lyke to a marble towre,

And all her body like a pallace fayre,

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

Interestingly, the Prothalamion chooses not to focus on male (or female)

That we may raise a large posterity,

6. Discuss "Mac Flecknoe" as a mock-heroic poem.

Mac Flecknoe is Dryden's mock-heroic fantasy in choosing to satirize Shadwell by

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

is raised to an unsought dignity that he cannot sustain. It is a make-believe dignity,

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

The unfortunate Shadwell is compared in turn to Arion, to "young Ascanius

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

Mac Flecknoe is full of mock splendor, an outrageous blending together of various

7. An epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot Popes self dramatization in the poem?

Autobiographical part one of the three divisions of the poem:-

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

8. Comment on Samuel Jhonson’s opinion about “Dryden’s compositions are

Ans. The occasional poet is circumscribed by the narrowness of his subject.

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

Occasional compositions may however secure to a writer the praise both of

He, tossed by fate,

9. Discuss " Kubla Khan" as an allegorical poem.

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

10. Critically analysis the poem SAILING TO BYZANTIUM

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

11. Attempt a critical appreciation of "The Blessed Damozel".

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

13. Discuss briefly Shelley of a romantic?

Shelley a romantic poet:-

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

14. Critical comment on The triumph of life as an Incomplete poem in triplets.

BY -RAHUL SHARMA: PURSUING PHD ENGLISH, M.PHIL (ENG) ,MA

A romantic and humanitarian poet who believed in liberty and love:-

Poetry as “an expression of imagination:-

The title of the poem suggests its theme: