Roman Household Religion for a Roman Persona

Domina Marcia Dulcitia, OL, OP, OR, Trimaris

Gulf Wars XXX, Monday 03/14/2022, 1:00 - 3:00 PM in Early Period Life

“Effer aquam et molli cinge haec altaria vitta

verbenasque adole pinguis et mascula tura,
coniugis ut magicis sanos avertere sacris
experiar sensus; nihil hic nisi carmina desunt.”
“Bring out water and wind soft wool round this altar;
and burn rich herbs and male frankincense,
that I may try with magic rites to turn to fire my lover’s coldness of mood.
Naught is lacking here save songs.”
Virgil, Eclogues, VIII, 64-67
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The Primary Principles of Roman Religion 3

The Animus, The Numina, The Roman Gods, & The Afterlife 4
The Animus 4
The Numina 4
The Gods 5
Dii Familiares: 6
Dii Consentes: 7
Dii Indigetes: 8
Dii Novensiles: 8
Dii Inferi: 8
The Afterlife 9
Correct Conduct Towards the Gods: Domestic Prayer Rituals 10
“Do ut des.” 11
The Domestic Ritual of Sacrifice 11
Praeparationis (Preparations): 11
Praefatio (Formula of announcement): 12
Precationis (Prayers): 13
Examples of prayers from the plays of Plautus: 14
Sacrificium: 16
Immolatio (giving to the gods by fire ): 17
Votiva (Votive Offerings): 17
Profanatio (Defiling the Remainder): 18
Epulum (The Feast): 18
Referencing the Gods in Everyday Actions 18
Assorted religious expressions from the plays of Plautus: 19
Religious Clothing & Accessories 20
Fasciae & Toga Praetextae 22
Young Men, the Liberalia & the Toga Virilis 22
Nuptiae 23
Vittae & Infulae 24
The Wearing of Amulets: 25
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Bulla Praetexta 25
Lunula 25
Oculus Malus & Fascinum 26
Tintinnabula 27
Manus Fica 27
Rota Fortunae 27
Gorgoneion 28
Hercules Knot 28
Vestiga Pedis 28
Pendants of the gods 28
Lamellae & Amulet Cases 29
Crepundia 29
Sources: 29

Cover image:
‘Roman Woman Lighting a Lamp by the Home Altar’ , 1911.
Stephan Wladislawowitsch Bakalowicz (Polish, 1857–1947)
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The Primary Principles of Roman Religion

According to John Scheid, author of ‘An Introduction to Roman Religion’, these are the primary
principles of Roman religion:

● No revelations, no dogma, and no orthodoxy - the central requirement was “orthopraxis”.

Orthodoxy, means “correct teaching” or “correct doctrine.” If someone is orthodox, it means
that s/he believes correctly. Orthopraxy means correct conduct, both ethical and liturgical,
as opposed to faith or belief.
● It was a ritualistic religion, and therefore strictly traditionalist. However, openness to new
gods and rituals was part of that tradition.
● Faith, or belief, were not required for participation in the rituals. Participation in the rituals
was required by the community.
● There was no religious moral code. The Romans employed the same ethical code to all
social and personal relationships and situations.
● There was no initiation ceremony, and no formal teaching. Religious duties were imposed
upon individuals based on their birth, adoption, citizenship, social status, and membership
in various overlapping communities.
● Religious practice was linked to the community, rather than to the individual or individual
beliefs. There was no such thing as “THE Roman religion”. There were as many “Roman
religions” as there were social groups: your city, your sub-district of your city (wards &
quarters), your legion and unit, your college (for public servants or artisans), your social
class, your family, etc.
● The focus of the religion was the earthly well-being of the community, rather than the
salvation of the individual and/or his/her immortal soul. The gods did provide aid to
individuals, but primarily as members of the community.
● The gods worshiped varied according to the community - they were considered members
of the same community as their worshippers.
● Therefore, there was a religious aspect to every communal action or gathering, and a
communal aspect to every religious action.
● There was no singular authority or leader, even at the highest level. Religious authority was
always shared. Roman priests were administrative officials rather than mediators between
men and gods.
● There was no recognized founder of the Roman religion, although Rome’s legendary second
king, Numa Pompilius, is credited with founding many of Rome’s most important religious
and political institutions, such as the Roman calendar, Vestal Virgins, the cult of Mars, the
cult of Jupiter, the cult of Romulus, and the office of pontifex maximus.
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The Animus, The Numina, The Roman Gods, & The Afterlife

The gods touched every part of Roman life and ruled over all aspects of human affairs, from
marriage to childbirth, from illness to death, and everything in between. Janus watched over the
doorways and the beginnings and endings of things. There were gods to help with household
chores, gods to assist in the running of a farm, and gods to assist with the running of a business.
The dii familiares (the household gods), watched over the survival and success of the family.

From the beginning, the Romans did what they were best at – they borrowed from their ancestors,
friends, neighbors, and enemies. The Romans did not have a native creation myth 1. The cosmos
simply exists, and therefore so do the divine powers that ensure that night follows day, that spring
follows winter, and that life continues. The unshakable belief in the existence of these powers is
the foundation of Roman religion 2.

The Animus

The Romans called these powers the animus. The animus was the consciousness and spirit of all
living things; the spark that gave them life 3. The cosmos was the origin and ultimate source of the
animus.

The Numina

In the earliest days, the Roman gods were not anthropomorphized beings with a human form;
they were faceless, formless manifestations of the divine known to us as “numina. 4” The word
numen (the singular form of numina) is the passive form of the verb “nuo” meaning, “to nod (the
head)”. “Numen” came to mean the product or expression of a divine power – but not the
power itself. It’s not a “god” as we think of them today, but more of a “divine presence” 5.

Imagine that you walk into an empty room and sit in a chair - the chair is still warm
from its prior occupant. You cannot see who was here, but you can sense their
warmth and energy. You might be able to smell a hint of their perfume. You know that
someone was there just moments before you. You might even recognize who it was!
Now imagine this on a much larger scale. *THIS* is what is meant by numina, the
presence of the gods.

1 J. Sebesta 1994, 6.
2 Young 2002, 27.
3 Young 2002, 27.
4 Fishwisk 1969, 361.
5 Bailey 1907, 12.
 5

But, a numen is not just the energy that a god or goddess passively leaves behind; it is the
power that extends *FROM* the gods. It is the power through which the gods act or use
their influence 6.

The numina were everywhere - in the earth, the sky, the flowers, the water, the trees, the animals,
the rocks… they ALL had numina. Each village, each house, and each family had a numen who aided
them. There were numen who helped with the growing of crops, and numen who helped make
pottery 7. Most numen were friendly, or at least neutral, forces whose favor could be secured with
prayers and simple offerings. Some numina were hostile and needed bribes to prevent their
interference 8.

Capitoline Triad at the Rodolfo Lanciani Archaeological Museum. Jupiter, King of the
gods, sits in the middle with his wife and queen, Juno, on his left and his daughter,
Minerva, to his right. Dated to the 2nd century CE.

The Gods
Through their contact with the Etruscans and Greeks, the Roman numina gradually took on human
forms and were given distinct names and personalities. As the Roman city-state began assimilating
conquered peoples, they assimilated their religions too 9. Many of the primary gods and goddesses

6 Fishwisk 1969, 361.

7 Bailey 1907, 13.
8 Bailey 1907, 14.
9 J. Rupke 2007, 4.
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of the Roman pantheon were introduced at this time: such as Minerva from the Etruscans, Ceres
from the Latins and Sabellians, Castor and Pollux from the Tusculum, and the Greek pantheon 10.

While the Romanized versions kept the physical appearances of their origins, as well as aspects of
their personalities, many of their familial relationships, and some of their legends, the Roman
versions often adopted new, Roman names and merged their original qualities with the concept,
and limitations, of the numen 11. This is why you cannot simply say that the Roman gods are direct
copies of the Greek gods. They have many similarities, but they also have many subtle differences
as well.

The Roman gods were not all-powerful, supernatural beings. The Roman gods could not simply act
on a whim and overpower the principles of the cosmos because they wanted to! They were
themselves bound by the principles of the cosmos because they are both part of the cosmos and
come from it. Their numen were used to maintain the natural order of the cosmos, and each numen
was unique to the god or goddess who embodied it.

Each of the gods had a precise function (sovereignty, technology, warrior violence, plant growth,
etc.) and exercised this in a wide variety of fields. For example, the fundamental nature of Mars is
to be the violent defender of individuals or groups of people. Mars could be equally asked to
defend the city of Rome, the Roman people, a single household, or an individual. There was
nothing to prevent him from defending people against an aggressive disease, but that did not
make him a god of healing. He was simply a violent defender of people. So, it is perfectly logical
that Roman deities are almost never invoked on their own. Very rarely does one come across a
ritual or sanctuary in which only a single deity is invoked in isolation. In the functional polytheism
of the Romans, the gods stand side by side and collaborate with one another 12.

Dii Familiares:

Domestic worship primarily centered around the Dii Familiaris. The Dii Familiaris are the gods of
the household, or family cult. This private form of worship is much more characteristically Roman
than the public religious activities. In fact, this household worship was so important to the
Romans that the system of household worship served as the model for several practices
introduced as part of the official state religion, including the adoption of the imperial cult in which
the Roman emperors and empresses were interpreted as the pater famillias and mater familias of
all the Romans and their Genius and Iuno honored accordingly. (It is important to note that the
Romans did not consider the emperor a god while he was alive, but as the pater familias his Genius
was worthy of rites. Most Christians did not understand the distinction and regarded the honoring

10 J. Rupke 2007, 4.
11 J. Rupke 2007, 5.
12 Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion 2003.
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of the imperial Genius as tantamount to worshiping a “living god” and, therefore, an offense to
their religious beliefs.)

● *Vesta – the goddess of the hearth, home, and family. Vesta is also part of the Dii Consentes.
● The Penates – from the Latin word “penus” (“larder”). These were the guardian spirits of
the family’s hearth and larder, where food and drink were
stored and prepared. If the family moves to a new home, their
Penates will go with them. The Penates were so strongly
associated with the Roman concept of home that sometimes
the word “penates” was used to refer to the house itself.
● Lares Familiars – the native gods of the land where the
family lives. There were many kinds of Lares, such as those
who protected cities, but the Lares Familiars watched over
the family. They are always depicted as a young, beardless
man with curly hair wearing a short, belted, and typically
very old-fashioned style of tunic, with his mantle hanging
around his waist and high, open-toed boots 13. They are
commonly depicted in lararia.
● The Genius and Iuno – In this context, the Genius referred
Detail of a painted lararium
to the guardian spirit of the Pater familias, which was depicting a Lar Familiar from
venerated on a regular basis, but could also refer to the Pompeii. 1st century CE - Naples,
Genius or Iuno of any member of the family. (The term National Architectural Museum
“Iuno” (Juno) was used to refer to the guardian spirit of a
female during the early Imperial period.) During the Imperial period, the Genius of the
Emperor became the subject of wide-spread public veneration because the continued good
health of the Emperor was synonymous with the safety and health of the Empire and all the
people within it.
● Dii Manes – the spirits of deceased family members. When the deceased receive offerings,
they are able to ascend from the Underworld to protect their family.
● The multitude of domestic gods and goddesses worshiped by family members

Dii Consentes:

The Dii Consentes are the 12 principal gods and goddesses of the Roman public religion, whose
statues stood in the Forum. These are the gods and goddesses that spring to mind whenever
Roman religion or mythology are mentioned in the modern world. The number 12 was taken from
the Etruscans who also worshiped a pantheon of 12 gods. The Dii Consentes, however, were more
strongly associated with the Greek Olympian gods than the Etruscan ones. The Dii Consentes are
led by the Capitoline Triad of Iuppiter, Iuno, and Minerva.

13 Sofroniew 2016, 35.

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● Iuppiter - or Jupiter, King of the gods; god of the sky, thunder, & justice
● Iuno - or Juno, Queen of the gods & the heavens; goddess of women, marriage, &
motherhood
● Minerva - goddess of wisdom, crafts, & strategy in battle
● *Vesta - goddess of the hearth & the Roman state
● Ceres - goddess of fertility, agriculture, nature, & the seasons
● Diana - goddess of the hunt, the moon, virginity, & childbirth, twin sister of Apollo
● Venus - goddess of love, beauty, desire, & fertility
● Mars - warrior god of honor, valor, & fertility; father of Romulus, the founder of Rome
● Mercurius - or Mercury, messenger of the gods; god of commerce, speed, thieves, & trade
● Neptunus - or Neptune, god of the sea, earthquakes, & horses
● Volcanus - or Vulcan, god of the forge, fire, & blacksmiths
● Apollo - god of light, healing, music, poetry, prophecy, archery, & truth

Dii Indigetes:

The Dii Indigetes are a diverse collection of patrons or guardians of various places (such as river
gods or the patron goddess of a city), deified heroes (such as Aeneas), and abstract deities (such as
Fortuna, Pax, and Iustitia). In Roman iconography, the protective spirit of a place is often depicted
as a snake.

Dii Novensiles:

The Dii Novensiles were the various foreign deities encountered by the Romans. The Romans
wished to bring consistent good favor upon themselves, their families, and their state, and were
unwilling to risk offending any native gods when in their lands or dealing with their people. They
were happy to pay homage and sacrifice to someone else’s gods as well as their own. To achieve
victory in war, the Romans often asked the favor of their enemy’s gods, and even offered them
greater sacrifices than those offered by their own people. As a result, many of these foreign gods
and religions were imported wholesale into the Roman empire and allowed to establish temples in
Rome. Among the numerous Dii Novensiles were Apollo and Ceres (adopted early enough to
become part of the Dii Consentes), Bacchus, Sol Invictus, Isis, Serapis, Magna Mater, Attis, Mithras,
and many others.

Dii Inferi:

The Dii Inferi were the gods of the Underworld. The Underworld was the home for the Manes (the
spirits of the dead), though the concept of an afterlife was variable. The god and goddess who rule
the Underworld are Dis Pater/Pluto and Proserpina. There was also an evil version of the Manes,
called the Lemures or Larvae. These were the souls of the discontented dead who caused mischief
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and harm to the living. Throughout the course of the year there were several festivals intended to
scare away the Lemures and avert their wrath

The Afterlife

Just as the Romans did not have a native myth about the creation of the world, they didn’t have a
native myth or belief about what happens to the soul after death either. In the Greek afterlife the
soul met with three judges who evaluated your qualities in life and chose the appropriate afterlife
for you: good souls were sent to Elysium, souls deserving punishment were sent to Tartarus, and
those deserving neither punishment nor reward were sent to the Asphodel Fields where you forgot
all the memories of your former life. Roman *literary* tradition, as exemplified by the “Aeneid”
borrowed heavily from this Greek tradition, but this does not appear to reflect actual Roman
beliefs.

Most Romans did appear to believe in a “heaven”, but it was not a place of reward for pious
believers or the virtuous. “Heaven” was the place where the gods lived and one needed to either
be a god, or become a god, to go there. Deification was reserved for those who protected or
assisted the fatherland, or increased its greatness in some way, such as the emperors and some
empresses 14.

For the most part, the purpose of Roman prayers and religious ceremonies was to ensure health,
safety, success, and prosperity in this world, rather than to secure a good result in the afterlife.
There was such a wide variety of beliefs about the afterlife, or lack thereof, that the only
commonality among all Romans was that, sooner or later, death was inevitable. Beyond that, an
individual Roman’s beliefs appear to have been influenced by their personal philosophy and/or
membership in various religious cults.

Many Romans simply believed that there was no afterlife at all, or if an afterlife existed, it was
simply a neutral state for most people. The Epicurians, for example, simply believed that life was
merely a random convergence of atoms and that death was simply the dispersion of those atoms.
In fact, Julius Caesar, while serving as pontifex maximus - the high priest and most important
religious position in Rome, stated that “Death is not a torment but a relief from suffering: it is
the end of all human misfortune, beyond which there is no place for grief, or joy. 15”

The Stoics, on the other hand, believed that the soul existed as a separate entity which survived
after the death of the body. What happened next, however, was a bit hazy. Various cults founded
around new and old gods offered a wide variety of visions of what happened to the soul after the
death of the body. Some, like the cult of Bacchus and the cult surrounding Ceres, Proserpina, and
Pluto, believed in a version of reincarnation. Other cults, such as the Isiac, which focused on Isis,

14 Beard, Religions of Rome 2, 220-221.

15 A. Kamm The Romans: An Introduction, 98.
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her husband Osiris, and their son Horus, promised resurrection after death and a blessed afterlife.
Still others, like the Orphic cult imported from Greece focused on living an ascetic lifestyle in order
to reach Elysium after death and avoid punishment.

Correct Conduct Towards the Gods: Domestic Prayer Rituals

When a Roman invoked the aid of a god or goddess, s/he was asking the deity to project his/her
special numen so that the task will go well. Not acknowledging the gods risked having the gods
withhold their numina from your work and dooming your efforts to failure 16. Conversely, if the
associated numen was a negative one, they might try to bribe the numina into leaving their
project alone, or at least ignoring it 17.

A wise Roman never relied only on a single god for everything, though s/he might have a special
affinity for a particular god or goddess. Calling on the aid of one god or goddess for everything not
only asked them to work outside their numen, it risked offending all the other gods and being
unable to benefit from their numina 18.

A contemporary lararium dedicated to Vesta (on the left) and Fortuna (on the right). Source:
http://romanpagan.blogspot.com/2015/02/contemporary-shrines.html

16 Warrior 2006, 7.
17 Nova Roma: Roman Religion - Numen 2010
18 Nova Roma: Roman Religion - Numen 2010.
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“Do ut des.”

A Roman citizen’s relationship with his or her gods was reciprocal. It was expressed in
Latin as “do ut des” (‘I give so that you may give’). It was understood that if you approached the
gods in the correct way, asked them for a favor, and fulfilled your end of the bargain, they would
regard you favorably and might grant your request. Since the gods had human emotions, they
could be kind, generous, protective, and caring to those who pleased them. Or they could be
jealous, petty, and vindictive to those who did not. The gods could choose to interfere, for good or
ill, in the lives of mortals at any time. It was purely common sense to propitiate them daily 19.

Most rituals practiced in the home were centered on the family hearth, where Vesta lived. This
could be the literal kitchen hearth, or in better homes it was the ritual fire on the altar placed in
front of the lararium. The altar, or hearth, was adorned with garlands on the named days of each
month (the Kalends, Nones, and Ides), and on other days of special importance to the State and/or
to the family. It was here that the Lares familiares received daily offerings, and it was also here
that the owner of a house or estate offered reverence upon arriving home after a journey or
absence, before attending to any other business 20.

Prayer by itself was not enough – it HAD to be accompanied by a tangible gift (sacrifice) or
the promise of one to come (votive offering).

The Domestic Ritual of Sacrifice

1. Praeparationis (Preparations)
2. Praefatio (Formula of announcement)
3. Precationis (Prayers)
4. Sacrificium (Sacrifice):
a. Immolatio (giving to the gods by fire )
b. Votiva (votive offerings)
5. Profanatio (Defiling)
6. Epulum (Feast)

Praeparationis (Preparations):

Preparations for Roman rituals could be as simple, or as extensive, as desired. At a minimum, the
preparations would involve cleaning and preparing the family or private lararium by dusting it
and placing the desired statues of the gods inside or on the altar. Flowers and garlands of wool
could be used to decorate the space, or they might need to be cleared away after previous prayers.
The sacrificial elements needed to be prepared and placed near the altar as well. Incense would

19 Sofroniew 2016, 3-4.

20 Schultz, Women’s Religious Activity in the Roman Republic 2006, 123.

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need to be ground and ready to sprinkle on the brazier. Foods and liquids would need to be
brought from the kitchen or storehouse. The incense brazier also needed to be lit, as did the fire on
the altar.

Preparations also included careful planning of the prayer or prayers that were going to be made.
Roman prayers, whether public or private, were said aloud. They were highly formulaic -
employing both an established template and the repetition of adaptable stock phrases to create
prayers to cover every facet of human need. The Romans regarded the power of the spoken word
as the most essential element of their religious rituals 21. Celebrants had to take great care over the
names of the deities they invoked, and of those who were to be beneficiaries of the ritual. They
also had to take great care in the formulation of exactly what they wanted, and exactly what they
were prepared to give in exchange. Prayers could not be corrected or repeated if a mistake was
made; once spoken, they produced their effect, for better or for worse. That is why celebrants
almost always read their complicated prayers out of books or had them quietly dictated by an
assistant who read them from the book. Less formal, more personal prayers might be read off a
wax tablet or scrap of paper 22.

Final preparations included preparing yourself for the ritual. Ideally the individual offering
prayers was freshly bathed and dressed in clean clothing. At minimum, a pious Roman made sure
that their hands and face were clean and that they performed the Lustratio (purification by
water) before approaching the altar. The Lustratio consisted of dipping the fingers of both hands
in a bowl of clean water while reciting “Haed aqua impuitates a copore velut plumbo ad aurum
mutando euat” (May this water cast out all impurities from my substance as from lead to gold).
Then the hands were brought to the head while reciting “Purga mentem” (purify my mind);
running the hands down the sides of the body while reciting “Purga corpus” (purify my body); and
placing the hands over the heart while reciting “Purga animum. Ita est!” (Purify my heart. It is so!).

Praefatio (Formula of announcement):

The Praefatio serves as a sort of introductory ceremony in two parts. During the first part of the
Praefatio the main celebrant appoints each of his/her assistants, if any are needed, and they
formally agree to take part in the ritual. During the second part, an initial sacrifice of incense,
wine, and possibly a small piece of bread or portion of grain, is made to certain gods as a way of
asking them to witness the ritual and gaining their permission to proceed. Consent is extremely
important in Roman religious rituals and nothing can proceed without the willing consent of all
involved. This even included the consent of any animal sacrifices, who had to show their consent
by the lowering of their heads prior to having their throat cut. Any manifestation of fear or panic

21 Bodel 2008
22 Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion 2003
 13
on the part of the animal victim was forbidden and considered an unfavorable omen if it
occurred 23.

The first god invoked in the Praefatio was Ianus (Janus), the god of doorways and beginnings -
“Pater Ianus, in offering thymiama vobis oro bonam preces, ut vos propitius esto ad me et liberos
meos, ut domus mea et domum meam.” (Father Janus, in offering this incense to you I pray good
prayers, so that you may be propitious to me and my children, to my house and to my household.)
This prayer was accompanied by the sprinkling of incense onto the brazier.

The second god invoked was Iupiter (Jupiter), the king of the gods - “Iovis, in hoc vinum ad vos oro
bonam orationes, ut vos ut propitius esto mihi et liberos meos, et domum meam et ad domum meam.”
(Jupiter, in offering this wine to you I pray good prayers, so that you may be propitious to me and
my children, to my house and to my household.) This prayer was accompanied by the sprinkling of
a little wine into the fire.

The third god, or gods, to be invoked were those to whom your prayers are directed - “__________, In
sacrificium istum lac tibi orem bonam orationes, ut vos potest esse propitius ad me et liberos meos, ut
domus mea et domum meam.” (__________, in offering this milk to you I pray good prayers, so that
you may be propitious to me and my children, to my house and to my household.) This prayer was
accompanied by the sprinkling of a little milk into the fire.

And lastly, Vesta, the goddess of fire, was invoked as it was through her fire that the offerings
were able to reach the gods: “Mater Vesta, ut faciam tibi thymiama ad vos et orate cum bonis
orationibus, quod erit respicere benigne et benigne in filios nostros et super nos in domos nostras et
domos nostras.” (Mother Vesta, I make this offering of incense to You and pray with good prayers
that You will look kindly and favorably upon our children and upon us, on our homes and on our
households.) This prayer was accompanied by sprinkling more incense onto the brazier.

Precationis (Prayers):

The main source of information for Roman domestic prayers is M. Porcius Cato the Elder’s book
‘De Agricultura’, which is a farming manual written about 160 BCE. The book gives advice on a
wide range of topics connected with farm management, from where to buy the best farming
equipment to how to plant various kinds of crops, and from how to make garum (fish-sauce) to
what the terms of a contract ought to be. Included among all the other advice are all the prayers
and rituals that should be performed, when they should be performed, who should perform them,
and how. Using the prayers and instructions from Cato, along with other literary sources such as
works by Cicero, Vergil, Livy, Plautus, Pliny, and others, we can reconstruct reasonable
approximations of Roman prayers and rituals from the late Republic and early Empire periods.

23 Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion, 2003.

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The two most basic Roman prayers are:

● Do ut des – “I give so that you might give 24.”

● [god’s name}, te hoc ferto obmovendo bonas preces precor, uti sies volens
propitius mihi liberisque meis domo familiaeque meae mactus hoc ferto. –
“[god’s name], in making this offering to you, I pray with good prayers that
you watch over me and all my household; may this offering be a comfort to you 25.”

Examples of prayers from the plays of Plautus:

● ‘Curculio’, 125 - “Venus, de paulo paululum hoc tibi dabo... libenter.” (Venus, of the little I
have I give you a very little... willingly)

● ‘Mercator’, 678-680 - “Apollo, quaeso te, ut des pacem propitius, salutem et sanitatem
nostrae familiae, meoque ut parcas gnato pace propitius.” (Apollo, I beseech you,
graciously grant peace, safety and sound health to our family, and spare my son by
your gracious favour)

● ‘Mercator’, 834-5 - “Di Penates meium parentum, familiai Lar pater, vobis mando, meum
parentum rem bene ut tutemini.” (Divine Penates of my parents, Lar father of the family,
I commend to you the good fortune of my parents, (and) that you guard them well)

● ‘Miles Gloriosus’, 1228-30 - “Veneri pol habeu gratiam, eandemque et oro et quaeso, ut eius
mihi sit copia quem amo quemque expetesso benignusque erga me ut siet, quod cupiam ne
gravitur.” (I offer thanks to Venus, and beg and entreat her that I may win the man I
love and long for, and that he may be gracious to me, and not grudge me my desire)

● ‘Persa’, 251-6 - “Iovi opulento, incluto, Ope gnato, supreme, valido, viripotenti, Opes, spes
bonas, copias commodanti; lubens disque omnibus ago gratias vitulorque merito, quia meo
amico amiciter hanc copiam danunt, argenti mutui ut ei egenti optem adferam.” (O Jove,
opulent, glorious son of Ops, deity supreme, powerful and mighty, bestower of
wealth, good hopes and bounty, gladly I give you thanks and duly offer praise also
that all the gods kindly bestow this generous benefit by enabling me to help my
friend in his need with an opulent loan.)

● ‘Persa’, 753-6 - “Hostibus victis, civibus salvis, re placida, pacibus perfectis, bello exstincto, re
bene gesta, integro exercitu et praesidis, cum bene nos, Iuppiter, iuvisti, dique alii omnes
caelipotentes, eas vobis habeo grates atque ago, quia probe sum ultus meum inimicum.” (Now
our foes are beaten and our citizens safe, our state at peace, peace assured, and the
war brought to a triumphant conclusion, with our army and garrisons intact, I thank

24 Nova Roma: Roman Religion - Numen 2010

25 Nova Roman: Religio Romana - Cato’s ‘De Agriculture’: Offering to Ceres, Janus, Jupiter, and Juno 2010.
 15
you, Iuppiter, for your kindly aid, and all the other divine powers of heaven, that I am
avenged on my enemy.)

● ‘Rodens’, 231-2 - “Spes Bona, obsecro, subventa mihi, exime ex hoc miseram metu.” (Good
Hope, please hear and aid me, and help me out of my misfortune)

● ‘Rodens’, 906-910 - “Neptuno has ago gratias meo patrono, qui salsis locis incolit piscolentis,
quom me ex suis locis pulchre ornatum expedivit, reducem et tempulis, plurima praeda
onustum salute horiae.” (Thanks be to Neptune my patron, who dwells in the fish-
teeming salt sea, for speeding me homeward from his sacred abode, well laden and
in a good hour.)

● ‘Stichus’, 402-5 - “Quom bene re gesta salvos convortor domum Neptuno grates habeo et
Tempestatibus; simul Mercurio, qui me in mercimoniis iuvit lucrisque quadruplicavit rem
meam!” (Thanks be to Neptunus and the Tempestates, for returning me safe home
again, my venture a success! And also to Mercurius, who helped me in my mercantile
affairs and quadrupled my fortune with profit!)

● ‘Trinummus’, 39-41 - “Larem corona nostrum decor(o)... venerare ut nobis haec habitatio
bona fausta felix fortunataque evenat.” (I adorn our Lar with a garland, so that we and
our house may have good fortune, happiness and prosperity)

“A family prays for protection before the shrine of its household gods.” Source:
https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia_of_history/R/Rome_early_history.html
 16

Ritual Gestures:

Adoratio - To perform the Adoratio, the right index and right

thumb are brought together in a circle, and then are brought to
the lips where they are touched with a kiss; then the right arm is
extended forward as in a greeting and/or touches the sacred
image. Romans customarily made the Adoratio toward the
statues of the deities housed in the temples as they pass by.

Marcus Minucius Felix (died c.250 CE) - from Octavius, II:

"Caecilius simulacro Serapidis denotato, ut vulgus superstitiosus
solet, manum ori admovens osculu, labiis pressit." ("Caecilius,
observing an image of Serapis, raised his hand to his mouth, as is
the custom of the superstitious common people, and pressed a kiss
on it with his lips.")

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (c.80-70 – after c.15 BCE), in De Architectura: “Similiter si circum vias publicas
erunt aedificia deorum, ita constituantur, uti praetereuntes possint respicere et in conspectu salutationes
facere.” (“Likewise, if the edifices of the gods are about the public thoroughfares, they are to be so arranged
that the passers-by can look aside, and make their reverence in full view.”)

Capite Velato (with the head covered) - The phrase “capite velato” (“with covered head”) is found often in
Roman religious contexts. The officiant and worshippers covered their heads with a fold of the toga or
palla as an act of piety during Roman-style rites, as opposed to those rites performed in the “Greek style”,
or “capite aperto” (“with a bare head”).

Supplicatio (Supplication – Arms Outstretched) - The use of gestures, such as extending the hands to the
heavens when addressing gods of the sky, to the earth when addressing gods of the underworld, or even to
an altar or icon when addressing a particular deity or deities represented there, appears to have been
customary practice in Roman religion.

Sacrificium:

“Sacrificium” means to make an object the exclusive property of the gods 26. To the modern mind,
the term “sacrifice” conjures up images of the ritual execution of animals, and sometimes humans,
but Roman sacrifices more frequently took the form of wine, milk, honey, olive oil, bread, fruit,
vegetables, nuts, herbs, flowers, and especially incense 27. Historical sources frequently record that
a sacrifice should be made, but do not always tell us what should be offered to the gods 28.

The object of the sacrifice was not to cause deprivation by giving something up, but to share things
with the gods that would please them. Only a small part of the items being sacrifice were
transmitted to the gods. The rest was reclaimed for human use as part of the ritual of sacrifice and

26 Scheid, Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors 2007, 263.

27 Scheid, Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors 2007, 263-4.
28 Schultz, Women’s Religious Activity in the Roman Republic 2006, 134.
 17
then enjoyed by the celebrants. Even animal sacrifices did not typically waste meat since the
Roman gods, conveniently, preferred to receive the bones and innards - the parts that mortals
usually do not care to eat 29.

There was one exception to this sharing of the food between the gods and men - Sacrifices offered
to the deities of the underworld were completely incinerated because the living cannot share a
meal with the dead 30.

Another important note for modern reenactors is that, at a public blood sacrifice (the ritual
slaughter of a living creature), the officiant did not usually take part in the actual slaughter.
Specially trained professionals did the slaughtering – the popa who stunned the animal, and the
victimarius who killed it. Domestic blood sacrifices could either hire these professionals, or have
the same roles filled by slaves or other members of the household.

Immolatio (giving to the gods by fire ):

As discussed above, only a small amount of the food or drink available was actually sent to the
gods through the act of burning it in the fire on the altar. A small piece of bread, part of a piece of
fruit or a single cherry, a sprinkling of wine or milk, or a pinch of herbs was enough to satisfy
them. The first act at this point in the ritual was to offer whatever you had promised to the god or
gods you were praying to.

The Immolatio was then concluded by offering a bit of milk to Vesta and thanking her for her
assistance with the words - “Vesta, ut confortamini per hoc libaturam, ut vos honored hoc partis
lac.” (Vesta, may you be strengthened by this libation, may you be honored by this small portion of
milk.)

Votiva (Votive Offerings):

Votive offerings come from the Latin verb “votum” (‘vow’). A votive offering is physical proof of a
pledge made to a god. Votive offerings usually took the form of a small sculpture, plaque, or relief
made in terracotta, wood, bronze, or marble. They were representations, in miniature, of the
actual item, such as a miniature sheep substituting for an actual sheep, or an image of a goddess
accepting a sacrifice as a promise to make a sacrifice later. Typically, the votive offering was a
pledge for a future action. For example, a poor farmer might appeal to Ceres for a bountiful
harvest and present a terracotta figurine of a brace of oxen. He cannot afford to sacrifice his oxen
because he needs them to work his fields, but perhaps the goddess might accept this token with a

29 .Sofroniew 2016, 4-5.

30 Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion 2003
 18
promise to make such a sacrifice someday, when he can afford it 31. If she keeps up her side of the
bargain, of course!

There was also another kind of votive offering that was more commonly found in the large, public
temples associated with healing gods and goddesses such as Apollo, Bona Dea, Carna, Febris, or
Vediovus. These votives were miniature depictions of the organ, body part, or type of injury that
needed healing and the intervention of the gods. Someone going deaf might present a set of ears,
while someone with a broken leg might present a miniature leg. Internal organs, such as the heart
and liver, were also common, as were sexual organs (for those suffering from impotence or
infertility).

Votive offerings were typically placed within the temple or lararium itself, accompanied by
prayers similar to those used for Immolatio. Unlike the offerings of food and drink, however,
votive offerings would not be removed until they were redeemed by the actual offering, or in the
case of an appeal for healing, until the patient either recovered or died.

Profanatio (Defiling the Remainder):

Unless the food or drink being offered to the gods was given to the dead or a god of the
underworld, only a small portion of it was actually burnt in the fire. Offerings for the dead were
burned in their entirety because the living and the dead cannot feast at the same table. This meant
that, having been presented to the gods as part of the prayer ritual, the food now must be
reclaimed from the gods before it can be eaten by mere mortals. Reclaiming food and drink for
human use is easy however, it must simply be defiled by being touched by human hands!

Epulum (The Feast):

Carry the leftovers away from the altar and enjoy the feast!

Referencing the Gods in Everyday Actions

While it’s impossible to know for sure, it appears from the dialogue of their extant plays that
Romans sprinkled their daily speech with references to the gods. We do much the same, even in
the 21st century. How often do you hear (or say): “you’re in my thoughts and prayers”, “have a
blessed day”, “bless you”, “thank God!”, or even “damn it!”? The Romans were not that different
from us. Learning a few of these expressions by heart and using them appropriately when in
persona would be a great way to incorporate a more authentic religious and cultural veneer to
your reenactment. Plautus, or Titus Maccius Plautus (254 -184 BCE) was a Roman playwright

31 Sofroniew 2016, 5-7.

 19
known as the originator of the Palliata comoedia genre. The dialogues of his plays are a treasure
trove of conversational quotes.

Assorted religious expressions from the plays of Plautus:

● Amphitruo, 667 - Mare, Terra, Caelum, di vostram fidem (obsecro)! (Sea, Earth, Heaven!
Gods, (I entreat) your faith!

● Asinaria, 644 - Facias ipse quod faciamus nobi suades. (“Practice yourself what you
preach.”)

● Aulularia, 183 - Di te ament (may the gods love you)

● Bacchides, 1:2:36 - Separate uidem animus: quo eveniat, diis in manu est. (“The mind is
hopeful: success is in god’s hands.”)

● Bacchides, IV:7:18 - Quem di diligent, adolescens moritur, dum valet, sentit, sapit. (“He
whom the gods protect: in youth is dying while he is in health, and has his senses and
judgement sound.” AKA “He whom the gods love dies young”)

● Captiva, 138 - Di te bene ament (may the gods love you well)

● Cistellaria, 663 - Di, obsecro vostram fidem (Gods, keep faith, I beg you)

● Curculio, 89 - A threshold libation - Bibite, festivae fores; potate, fite mihi volentes propitiae
(drink, doors of festivity, drink, and be inclined to favor me)

● Curculio, I:3:32 - Nulli est homini perpetuum bonum. (“No blessing lasts forever.”)

● Mercator, 865, Prayer To the roadside lares - Invoco vos, Lares viales, ut me bene tutetis (I
call upon you, Lares of the roadside, that you protect me well)

● Persa, 775 - Bene omnibus nobis (to the health of us all)

● Persa, 776 - Bene ei qui invidet mi et ei qui hoc gaudet (to the health of him who envies
me, and of him who rejoices with me)

● Poenulus, 967 - Pro di immortales, obsecro vostram fidem! (By the immortal gods, I
beseech your faith!)

● Pseudolus, 121 - Id te Iuppiter prohibessit! (May Jupiter prevent it [from happening] to

you!)

● Pseudolus, 121 - Di te mihi semper servent (The gods keep you and me always)

● Pseudolus, 171 - Ita di deaque faxint (the gods and goddesses be with you)
 20
● Rudens, 257-8 - Prayer at an unknown shrine - Quisquis est deus, veneror ut nos ex hac
acrumna eximat (Whoever this god be, I entreat that we be rescued from this
wretchedness)

● Rudens, IV:7:3 - Si sapias, sapias: habeus quod di dant boni. (“If you are wise, be wise;
keep what goods the gods provide you.”)

● Trinummus, 1077 - Di me salvom et servatum volunt (May the gods wish me safe and
sound)

● Trinummus, I:2:25 - Habeus ut nactus; nota mala re optima’st. (“Keep what you’ve got; the
evil that we know is best.”)

Religious Clothing & Accessories

Romans also firmly believed that one’s outward appearance, which was presented for public
judgment, was a guide to the personal attitudes and habits that could not be seen – You are what
you wear, and you wear what you are. While most of the clothing and accessories that we are
familiar with were dictated more by law and/or the social/economic/political status of the
individual, there were a few garments and accessories that had religious significance. This does
not include, of course, the clothing worn by priests, priestesses, and other religious figures, such as
the Vestal Virgins. It would be safe to assume that all of their official attire, at least, has religious
significance. The following discussion is specifically about clothing items that were, or might be,
worn by ordinary citizens.

Wool was believed to contain animus because it is made from a living animal and is therefore
associated with life, health, strength, and a correct relationship with the gods. It was well known
that rubbing wool with a piece of amber produced static electricity, which was seen as miniature
versions of lightning in the heavens. The cosmos was the ultimate source of the animus – “wooly”
looking clouds that flashed with lightning brought the liquefied essence of animus (rain) to the
earth. This ability to produce static electricity proved that wool also contained animus and was
therefore sacred; as was every step of its preparation and use.

As stated earlier, the Romans built their beliefs upon the knowledge and beliefs of those who had
come before them. The Sumerians had discovered that a cone-shaped shadow falls over the earth
during a lunar eclipse and then likened it to the cone-shaped bundle of thread on a spinner’s
spindle. The (supposed) whirling motion of the moon, sun, and stars, which gathered in the
animus to the earth, was reflected in the whirling motion of spinning, which gathers in the loose
wool fibers to create thread.

Each sphere in the cosmos was thought to be connected to the others by the thread of the animus
which was spun by the three goddesses of fate, who the Romans knew as the “Parcae”. Nona spun
 21
the thread of life from her distaff onto her spindle on the day a child was born. Decima measured
the thread of each life with her rod on their dies lustricus – the day on which the child’s name was
chosen. Morta cut the thread of life and chose the manner of their death. She also visited them in
their dreams with warnings about the kind of death they would endure. Hence the common
Mediterranean metaphor that when wearing wool you are “wearing your fate”.

The Three Fates sculpture by Gottfried Schadow, 1790 - part of the tombstone for Count Alexander von der
Mark, in the Old National Gallery, Berlin. Image by Andreas Praefcke.

It is no surprise, therefore, that the ceremonial garments of Roman citizens would have been made
entirely of wool, as were the garments worn by priests and priestesses. People’s daily clothing
however, could be made of other fibers, either on their own or in blends with wool. The second
most commonly used fiber in the Roman Republic and Empire was linen.

The Romans had an uneasy relationship with linen. Linen is made by leaving the plants to rot for a
period of time before the fibers can be processed. Human corpses were wrapped in linen prior to
burial or cremation. Linen was commonly used by priests in many foreign cults for both clothing
and as a veil for sacred things. The tale of Thelyphron, for example, tells of an Egyptian prophet,
dressed in linen, who brought a corpse back to life. The worshippers of Isis dressed in linen, as did
Jewish prophets. Many of the followers of these foreign cults considered wool to be unclean. As a
result, linen was believed to be invested with harmful numina and was generally taboo during
religious rites. The Roman heralds who were entrusted with delivering messages, declaring war,
and making treaties were not allowed to wear linen garments while carrying out their duties 32.

32 E. Brooks, Holy Threads, 18-19.

 22
Fasciae & Toga Praetextae

An individual’s anima lived inside their head. When a child was born, this spiritual entity popped
into existence and accompanied the child throughout his/her lifetime. This guardian spirit, similar
to the modern concept of a “guardian angel” or a “soul”, was called the Genius for males or the Iuno
for females 33. Babies have a newly “born” anima which needs special protection and nurturing
until it could become strong. The anima received this protection from the swaddling bands used to
wrap the infant, and from the amulets hung around their necks from birth (the bulla for boys and
the lunula for girls, as well as the crepundia - see the discussions under “Amulets” below for more
about these items.)

Babies were wrapped in undyed linen and swaddled with woolen bands, called fasciae, for their
first 40-60 days of life. The fasciae were frequently dyed red or purple for extra protective
qualities, if the family could afford it. Afterward they would be dressed in linen loincloths and
simple tunics until they were able to walk on their own at around the age of 2-3 years old. As soon
as they could walk, they donned their first tiny toga praetexta which, with its wide purple border,
not only marked them as the offspring of freeborn Roman citizens but also offered magical
protection for their growing anima plus physical and legal protections for their bodies and minds.

The border on the toga praetexta served as both a magical charm to protect the wearer from back
luck and evil influences and as a physical indicator of an “innocent.” The word “praetexta” means
“first woven” and it is thought that the border was the first part of the toga to be woven. The
reddish or purple border served as extra protection against bad luck and evil influences. The
Greeks and Romans viewed purple as one of the many shades of red, and red, naturally, was
associated with blood. Garments dyed red or purple were often used for special protection, and
the traditional red of a soldier’s cloak or the purple toga of the emperor contained elements of
protective significance 34. A passage in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae describing the birth of the
future Emperor Clodius Albinus mentions that the baby was first wrapped in white linen cloth,
and because the red-colored bandages traditionally used in that family to swaddle babies had
been washed and were not yet dry, the child was wrapped in his mother’s purple fascea (breast-
band) instead. The praetexta border also had another, worldlier, significance as well – the author
Festus noted that obscene, impure, and harmful words were not to be uttered in the presence clad
in a toga praetexta. The purple border acted not only as a magical charm, it acted as a symbol of
the child’s innocence and protected status.

Young Men, the Liberalia & the Toga Virilis

Sometime between the ages of 14 and 17, depending on the boy’s physical maturity and with the
permission of his father or guardian, Roman boys participated in the Roman festival of Liberalia.

33 J. Sebesta 1994, 9.
34 J. Sebesta 1994, 7.
 23
The ceremonies of the Liberalia marked their transition from boyhood to manhood - as long as
they were the sons of freeborn Roman citizens, of course. At the start of the celebration, the boys
took off the bulla praetexta that they had worn from babyhood and placed it in the family lararium,
offering it up as a gift to the family Lares. Inside the bulla were not only the charms and trinkets
that had been placed there by his parents, but also the stubble from the boy’s first shave. At the
end of the festivities, his mother or female guardian would retrieve the bulla from the altar and
store it safely away.

During the festivities, the son would go into an inner room for a private ceremony where he would
remove the tunica and toga praetexta, with its wide purple border that had marked him as a child.
He would then put on a white tunic made of wool that had been spun and woven by his mother’s
own hands. Then, with his father’s help, he would don the plain white toga virilis (man’s toga) for
the first time. Afterward, his family and friends would accompany the newly adult male to the
Capitoline and Forum, or local public temples, to make sacrifices to the gods. Afterward they
would go to the records office where he would be officially registered as a full Roman citizen. Then
they would all return to the house where the day ended with a dinner party given by the
Paterfamilias in honor of the new Roman citizen.

Nuptiae

For girls the coming of age ceremony was her marriage, or Nuptiae. Girls offered their toga
praetexta to Fortuna, the goddess of Virginal Fortune, and hung her lunula on the family altar. Her
ceremony involved symbolically releasing her from membership in her father’s family and binding
herself to a new fate as she joined her husband’s family. As children, Roman girls traditionally
wore their hair combed, braided, and tied with a single woolen band, or vitta, for protection. The
night before her marriage a Roman girl took extra precautions and slept with her head, and
therefore her Iuno, covered in a yellow-red woolen hairnet she had made herself. The yellow-red
color, called luteum, was described by Pliny as the color of an egg yolk – an obvious connection
between the food of the growing chick and the anima that would sustain and produce future
children. In addition to the luteum-colored hairnet, the bride slept in an undyed wool tunic that
she had spun, woven, and sewn by herself.

On the day of her wedding, the bride dedicated the hairnet to the Lares of her father’s family and
then had her hair done in the style called sena crines (six tresses). Attendants use a special spear,
the curved hasta caelibaris (which had been used to kill a gladiator for extra luck!) to part her hair
into six locks. The locks of hair were then twisted back and formed into a knot on the back of the
head. The ritual act of parting her hair with a spear that had been in contact with the dead both
invoked the ancient beginnings of the Roman kingdom and ritually bound her fate to her new
family while activating the fertility of her Iuno. Over this hairstyle, she would wear a garland of
flowers, which were a symbol of fertility.
 24
On her wedding day, the bride tied her white, undyed-wool tunica recta (tunic with sewn
shoulders) below the breast with a special belt made from the fleece of an ewe using a square
knot, which the Romans called the “Hercules knot.” A difficult knot to untie, it was also a symbol of
fertility since Hercules was believed to have fathered 70 children. She wore yellow felt shoes on
her feet, which are believed to have been made of wool felt because contact with leather (the skin
of dead animals) would pollute her. Over everything she wore a flammeum – the golden yellow
wool palla worn over her head and covering much of her body.

As the bride walked in procession to the groom’s house, an attendant bearing a decorated distaff
and spindle, complete with thread, accompanied her. Another attendant carried a basket of wool,
called a talasio. When she arrived at the groom’s house, the bride’s first act was to anoint the
doorposts with the fat of a pig and decorate them with wool vittae. In doing so, she promises her
skill in woolworking to her new family. During the wedding ceremony itself, she sits on a
sheepskin, which publicly affirms her lanificium – her readiness to provide her skill in spinning,
weaving, and sewing to the use of her new family.

Vittae & Infulae

The earliest mentions of vittae & infulae are by Virgil (Aen. 2.168), Ovid (Rem. Am. 386), and
Lucretius (1.87). They pointed out specific head ornaments that identified Roman upper-class
women, and priests & priestesses of the Roman cults. The vitta is described as a “woolen band”,
similar to a wool hair ribbon, that was a traditional hairstyle accessory of the Roman matrona
(wife of a Roman citizen) and was worn for the protection of her Iuno. Most modern authors
interpret the vittae of non-priestesses as woolen fillets worn round the head, with the ends often
left hanging down at the back. It’s further speculated that the vitta of a married woman was a
double band, while that worn by an unmarried girl was a single band. Vittae are typically only seen
in art depicting the Vestal Virgins, other priestesses, and women engaged in performing a
sacrifice. The elaborate hairstyles favored by Roman women in the Late Republic and Empire
periods rarely have any place for the vitta, so it’s possible that they fell out of common use.
Artwork depicting the vitta nearly always shows it as an integral part of the hairstyle however, so
it’s also possible that the vitta was still present in the later eras, but simply not as visible. It’s also
possible that they were only worn in the later eras when participating in religious ceremonies 35.

The infula was a fillet (band worn around the head) made of wool. The descriptions provided by
Roman authors are somewhat confusing and appear to contradict each other. What does appear to
be consistent is that the Vestal Virgins and some other priestesses wore infulae; that the infulae
encircled the head like a diadem; that they were made of wool; and that they were red and white
in color 36.

35 E. Brooks, Nice Women Don’t Wear Togas, 23-25.

36 E. Brooks, Nice Women Don’t Wear Togas, 23-25.
 25
The Wearing of Amulets:

Romans of all social and economic levels wore a wide variety of

amulets. Amulets could be custom made of the finest materials, or
purchased from hawkers on the street. Among the best-selling
amulets at all levels were those thought to protect babies and
young children.

Bulla Praetexta

A bulla praetexta was a locket-, or pouch-like amulet worn by male

children. The term “bulla” means “bubble” and describes the
rounded shape of the pendant. The purpose of the pendant was to
hold a collection of amulets and charms to protect the wearer
from all forms of misfortune and illness. The charms could consist
of small metal amulets, stones believed to have special properties,
herbs, and even incantations written on coiled up strips of paper. Gold necklace with bulla, from
Ostia. Augustan age. Museo
Male babies were presented with their bulla as part of their dies Gergoriano Etrusco - Vatican
Museums. Public domain image
lustricus, which was performed nine days after birth. The dies on Wikipedia.
lustricus (“day of purification”) was a ceremony during which
babies were given their names and officially became part of the
familia by having their name recorded in the family chronicle. Rich
boys wore bullas made of gold, middle class boys wore bronze
bullas, and lower-class boys wore one fashioned of leather or cloth.
When a boy reached adulthood at about 17 years old, he would
take off his bulla and toga praetexta of childhood to don the toga
pura worn by adult men. The bulla would be presented to the
family lares in a ritual of thanks before being carefully saved.
Should the man be awarded any special honors, he would wear the
bulla again. For example, if he became a great general and was
awarded the honor of a triumph, he would wear the bulla during Necklace with gold lunula and
the ceremonial parades to protect him from the jealousy of men or agate beads. 1st century CE.
gods. Walters Art Museum. Public
domain image from Wikipedia.

Lunula

The lunula was a crescent-moon shaped pendant worn by girls and presented to them during their
dies lustrica eight days after birth. Girls wore their lunula until the eve of their wedding day, when
she would set it aside along with her other childhood things. The lunula was believed to invoke the
special protection of the goddess Diana, goddess of the moon and the hunt. More importantly,
Diana was a Roman maiden goddess, having sworn a vow of chastity. Many of the myths about
 26
Diana involve the protection of her virginal status, making her a powerful protector for the purity
of a young Roman girl.

Oculus Malus & Fascinum

Adult Romans also wore amulets for luck and protection. Roman believed that there was a
malignant force in the world called the oculus malus (Evil Eye) that brought bad luck, poor health,
and misfortune to its victims. The original source of the Oculus Malus is not clear, but it was
attracted to vulnerable people, animals, and objects. People could cast the Oculus Malus
unknowingly, though it is thought envy and jealousy played a role in this. Certain behaviors, like
boastfulness or the excessive display of riches were known to attract the Oculus Malus, but so
could factors that you had no control over, such as beauty, intelligence, happy relationships, or
good health.

The Oculus Malus could be defeated

with enough positive power, but it was
much easier to simply deflect its gaze
away from the intended victim. A
relatively common theme in Roman art
depicts the “all-suffering Eye”
surrounded, and under attack, by its
enemies. The “enemies” of the Oculus
Malus include dangerous animals (dogs,
snakes, scorpions, ravens, leopards,
etc.), human weapons (swords, tridents,
etc.), and unusual images that typically
include a dwarf or beast with an
oversized erect penis urinating or
ejaculating into the Eye. The phallic
Roman mosaic from Antiochia depicting a dwarf whose monstrous
image appears to have been the
phalus has a mind of its own and joins the fight against the Oculus Malus. strongest, and most commonly depicted
(Public domain image)
weapon – the idea being that that the
image was so bizarre that it immediately
drew the Eye’s gaze, and the act of urinating or ejaculating into the Eye blinded it, preventing it
from causing harm with its gaze. This image became known as a “fascinum”, referring to their
function of fascinating the Oculus Malus.

Phallic images appear on almost everything in the Roman world. You find them carved or painted
on the outsides of buildings above doorways and windows on private homes, public buildings, and
even forts and fortresses all over the Roman Empire. You find them on stone markers at
crossroads. You can even find them on the barbarian’s side of Hadrian’s Wall. They were put there
to protect the people on the inside from supernatural dangers on the outside.
 27
Phallic images were also commonly worn as jewelry and amulets by both people and animals.
These jewelry items were intended to be worn prominently, and to be bright, shiny, and flashy – to
ensnare the gaze of the Oculus Malus! Rings were popular and extant rings can be found all over
the Roman Empire in sizes from large adult rings to tiny rings meant for children. Phallic pendants
were also extremely popular and could be made from gold or carved
stone for the rich, or copper alloy for Romans of more modest
means.

Tintinnabula

One of the most bizarre (to modern eyes) forms of phallic amulet
was the “Tintinnabula”. A tintinnabula was a sort of phallic wind-
chime consisting of a large, often zoomorphic phallus (with animal
legs, wings, and a tail) supporting several chains with small bells at
the ends. There were many variations on this theme - sometimes
the central figure was not only zoomorphic, but also polyphallic
(multiple penises). Sometimes a winged penis was ridden by a
naked woman, sometimes it was a figure of the god Mercury,
sporting a huge erect penis and wearing a hat with four penises on
it. These wind-chimes appear to have been hung up in windows, Tintinnabula of a woman
used as door-chimes for shops, hung in the doorway of a carriage or riding a fascinus. From the
Wellcome Collection. Public
sedan chair, or hung in the garden – anyplace you might want a bit of domain image from
extra protection. Wikipedia.

Manus Fica

Another common amulet against the Oculus Malus as the Manus Fica, or “fig hand” – making a fist
with the thumb tucked between the forefinger and middle finger. The physical gesture was a
deliberate imitation of the female genitalia. This gesture was used for protection and was
specifically used by the Pater familias during the Lemuria to ward off evil spirits and drive them
from the household. Quite often the Mano Fico was combined with the phallus into a single amulet,
the fist-and-phallus, for a doubly powerful charm. These dual amulets were especially popular
among soldiers.

Rota Fortunae

The Rota Fortunae (“wheel of Fortune”) was another common amulet. The wheel is the symbol of
the goddess Fortuna, who spins her wheel at random causing some people to suffer great
misfortune while others have great success. The hope, of course, was that by wearing her symbol
you would Fortuna would favor you and your time at the bottom of the wheel would be mild and
brief.
 28
Gorgoneion

The Gorgoneion, or Gorgon head/head of Medusa, was a very common image of protection. The
gaze of the Medusa was supposed to instill such terror upon those who encountered it that they
were turned to stone. This made the gorgoneion a particularly powerful protective charm and it
was commonly used on helmets, armor, doors and entryways, and, of course, jewelry.

Hercules Knot

The Knot of Hercules is

also called the love
knot, marriage knot,
reef knot, and square
knot. It is a very strong
knot made by
entwining two ropes.
Although it originated Carved garnet and gold Hercules Knot necklace displayed in the Berlin Art Museum.
230-210 BCE. Public domain image from Wikipedia.
in Egypt as a charm for
healing, it became very
commonly used by Romans as a love token and protective amulet. Hercules was considered the
guardian of marriage and the use of this knot was used as part of the Roman wedding ritual. The
bride (and married women) tied their girdles with this knot so that only her husband could untie
it. It is thought that the knot referred to Hercules obtaining the legendary girdle worn by the
Queen of the Amazons as an emblem of her dignity. Regardless, this knot was commonly used to
tie the girdles of respectable matronas as well as appearing frequently in jewelry and other
decorations as a symbol of marriage, love, and fidelity.

Vestiga Pedis

The Vestiga Pedis (“go and return” was a lucky charm favored by Roman travelers and legionaries.
Typically, the pendant featured two sets of footprints facing in opposite directions with the charm
“TVVM ITER ROMANE INCIPE SED MEMENTO AD TVOS REDIRE” (“Roman, start your journey, but
remember to beck to yours.”).

Pendants of the gods

Amulets bearing the likeness of the gods, and/or totems or symbols representing them, were
extremely common. Nearly every god or goddess from the Roman empire would have been
available from jewelers and street vendors. These amulets were intended to pay homage to the
particular god or goddess depicted and curry favor with them.
 29
Lamellae & Amulet Cases

Lamellae are small, very thin metal plates made of either gold or a lead alloy that are inscribed
with a magical charm. Once the inscription is complete, the lamela is rolled up and inserted into an
amulet case - a hollow metal cylinder which is sealed at both ends and suspended on a cord or
chain by two or three loops arranged along one of the long sides. This is then worn about the neck.
It is thought, based on the texts of the extant examples, that these were not worn for long periods
of time but were for very specific uses - such as for the protection of a specific woman during
childbirth. She would not wear the amulet except while in labor, or perhaps late in her pregnancy.

Crepundia

Crepundia are groups of various amulets, typically attached to chains similar to a modern charm
bracelet. The word “crepare) means “to rattle” and refers to the metal charms jingling against each
other. Crepundia were typically one of a Roman baby’s first “toys” as well as an important item for
protection as the jingling strings were often used to try to calm fussing babies. Crepundia were
individually made for the family, and sometimes for each child. A lost, stolen, or abandoned child
could often be identified by the crepundia it wore.

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