Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

Potential and prospective implementation of carbon nanotubes on

next generation aircraft and space vehicles: A review of current and
expected applications in aerospace sciences
Omid Gohardani a,n, Maialen Chapartegui Elola b, Cristina Elizetxea b
a
Springs of Dreams Corporation, 340 East 1st Street, No. 8, Tustin, California 92781, United States of America
b
Tecnalia, Parque Tecnológico de San Sebastián, Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2, E-20009 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Carbon nanotubes have instigated the interest of many different scientific fields since their authenticated
Received 2 January 2014 introduction, more than two decades ago. Particularly in aerospace applications, the potential implemen-
Received in revised form tations of these advanced materials have been predicted to have a large impact on future aircraft and space
21 May 2014
vehicles, mainly due to their distinct features, which include superior mechanical, thermal and electrical
Accepted 22 May 2014
properties. This article provides the very first consolidated review of the imminent prospects of utilizing
Available online 9 July 2014
carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles in aerospace sciences, based on their recent implementations and
Keywords: predicted future applications. Explicitly, expected carbon nanotube employment in aeronautics and
Aerospace nanotechnology astronautics are identified for commercial aircraft, military aircraft, rotorcraft, unmanned aerial vehicles,
Next generation aircraft/spacecraft
satellites, and space launch vehicles. Attention is devoted to future utilization of carbon nanotubes, which
Future aerospace materials
may comprise hydrogen storage encapsulation, composite material implementation, lightning protection
Aerospace nanomaterials
Carbon nanotube aircraft for aircraft, aircraft icing mitigation, reduced weight of airframes/satellites, and alleviation of challenges
Space elevator related to future space launch. This study further sheds light onto recent actualized implementations of
carbon nanotubes in aerospace applications, as well as current and prospective challenges related to their
usage in aerospace sciences, encompassing health and safety hazards, large scale manufacturing,
achievement of optimum properties, recycling, and environmental impacts.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2. A brief introduction to CNTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.1. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2. Synthesis of CNTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3. Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4. Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5. Modeling of CNTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3. Timeline of CNT milestones in aerospace applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4. Potential roles of CNTs in aeronautics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2. CNTs and commercial aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1. Airframe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.2. Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.3. Aircraft icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.4. Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.5. Lightning protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.6. Electromagnetic interference shielding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2.7. Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: omid.gohardani@springsofdreams.org (O. Gohardani).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2014.05.002
0376-0421/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68 43

4.2.8. Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.CNTs and military aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.1. Stealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.2. Aircraft icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4. Morphing aircraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5. CNTs and rotorcraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5.1. Structural damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5.2. Structural monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.5.3. Icing on rotorcraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6. CNTs in UAV and MAV applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6.1. Electric UAVs and CNTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6.2. Mitigation of aircraft icing related to UAVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5. Potential roles of CNTs in astronautics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.1. The space elevator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.1. Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.2. Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2. Space propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3. Satellites and spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6. Recent developments of CNT implementation in aerospace applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1. A glimpse of actualized CNT implementation in aerospace applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2. A selection of patents featuring CNT implementation in aerospace applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7. Challenges related to CNT implementation in aerospace applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.1. Large scale production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2. Adequate quality at a low cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.3. Achievement of optimized properties upon CNT implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.4. Health and safety concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.5. Recycling and environmental inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9. Future outlooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

1. Introduction
The interest for applications of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has
since their scientific introduction progressively increased due to
the superior features that these materials exhibit. The potential
applications of CNTs have augmented by a manifold in different
scientific disciplines, such as in energy storage [1,2], mechanical
systems [3], sensing [4], biological applications [5–7], and field
emission [8–10]. As aerospace engineering is considered to be one
the forefront disciplines of the future, it is natural that these
materials will play a game-changing role for this specific industry.
With the retirement of the Space Shuttle [11,12] and introduction
of composite materials to a larger extent on current and future
commercial aircraft such as Boeing 787 [13] and Airbus A380 [14],
the potential implementations of CNTs and benefits thereof, for
both the aeronautical and the aerospace industry are evident. For
this purpose, this article seeks to identify the potential usage of
CNTs in aerospace applications and identify their prospective
implementations. In 1950s, the need for composite materials with
superior mechanical properties was a driving stimulus into carbon
fiber research [15], which eventually led to progress in carbon
whisker and single crystal graphite research [16,17]. The emerging
challenges of crack propagation and encountered fiber defects
however called for alternative solutions for obtaining ultra-high
modulus fibers. One approach towards this goal was the employ-
ment of controlled synthesis of carbon fibers by utilizing a
catalytic chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [18]. The progress in
polymer-based carbon fiber research was initially carried out on
microscale filaments [19] and consequently led to experimental
identification of CNTs using transmission electron microscopy [20].
In the present study, a literature excursion on CNTs clearly
indicates that the number of scientific publications on this topic
has increased considerably since the year 2000, as shown in Fig. 1.
This trend is likely to continue to increase as scientists unravel the
applications and characteristics of CNTs in different scientific
fields. In this context, an interesting remark is that the number
of articles containing the keyword aerospace has increased from
less than 0.25% to 1.8% in 2013. These figures are hence indicative
of a continued bright prospect of CNT usage in aerospace sciences,
while also accounting for their relative limited current implemen-
tations. Equally, it is apparent that there is a distinct difference in
the number of publications pertaining to CNTs solely with the
keyword “aircraft” versus “aerospace”, as shown in Fig. 1.
More detailed historical insight into carbon fibers and CNTs has
been outlined by other researchers [21–23], where in-depth
specifications are presented related to these materials. Due to
the extremely large number of research efforts carried out in the
field of nanotechnology and particularly related to CNTs, it is
beyond the scope of this article to cover all studies with potential
applications of these materials. A literature excursion related to
applications of CNTs in aerospace engineering often results in
scientific articles where profound research studies in the field of
material sciences are presented. In light of this statement, a
limited number of articles are identified that focus solely on the
potential applications of CNTs in aeronautics and astronautics.
Granted, the multi-disciplinary aspect of this topic has rendered
authoring of a multi-faceted review of this topic, a challenging
task. The purpose of this article is therefore to explore the
aforementioned realms and provide identified prospects of CNT
applications within aerospace sciences departing from solely a
material science perspective. Hence, this review article endeavors
to provide an overview of the topics necessary for understanding
the concepts associated with CNT implementation in aerospace
sciences, in conjunction with references where more detailed
44 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68

Nomenclature CVD chemical vapor deposition

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
ηB battery efficiency DoD US Department of Defense
tE flight endurance time DSWSAM dynamic and static wettability scheme for advanced
ξðdÞ probability distribution of nanotubes materials
ϕ wrapping angle EEDS electroexpulsive deicing systems
ρ density EHS environmental health and safety
ϱ electrical resistivity EFM embedded fiber method
ψ ðdÞ arbitrary nanotube volume distribution EME electromagnetic energy
s electrical conductivity EMI electromagnetic interference
sB tensile strength ETMS enhanced traffic management system
C^ h chiral vector EP electric propulsion
ℓ length ERA environmentally responsible aviation
a length of the unit vector EU European Union
aC  C C–C bond length FAA Federal Aviation Administration
d diameter of nanotube FEA finite element analysis
dt diameter of nanotube GEO geostationary earth orbit
dr detected distance by radar ICT information and communication technology
k thermal conductivity ILS interlaminar shear strength
ℓ integer LEO low earth orbit
m integer LGG light gas gun
n integer LNG liquid natural gas
t nanotube outer layer thickness MAV micro air/aerial vehicle
AR aspect ratio MGS Mars global surveyor
CD drag coefficient MHD magneto-hydrodynamics
CL lift coefficient MMOD micrometeoroid/orbital debris
E, E~ Young's modulus nanoFET nanoparticle field extraction thruster
E11 elastic modulus in the principal material direction NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Em matrix modulus NAV nano aerial vehicles
EB nominal stored battery energy NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
ENT nanotube modulus NTIS National Technical Information Service
LNT circumference of a nanotube MMOD micrometeoroids and orbital debris
P1 received power with the material present MWCNT multi-walled carbon nanotube
P2 received power with the material absent OEW operating empty weight
S wingplan form area PMCs polymer matrix composites
SE shielding effectiveness PSC preferred system concept
T temperature RAM radar absorbing material
V NT total volume fraction of tubes in the composite RCS radar cross section
WB battery weight RHC resistive heating coating
WS structure weight RLV reusable launch vehicle
W Total total weight ROA remotely operated aircraft
AFRL Air Force Material Laboratory RPV remoted piloted vehicle
AO atomic oxygen SFC specific fuel consumption
BADA base of aircraft data SWCNT single-walled carbon nanotube
BWB blended wing body TRIPS thermal, radiation and impact protective shields
CFRP carbon fiber reinforced polymer UAV uninhabited aerial vehicle/unmanned aerial vehicle
CGE CNP/glassfiber/epoxy UAS unmanned air systems
CNFs carbon nanofibers UHMWPE epoxy and ultra-high molecular weight
CNFP carbon nanofiber paper polyethylene
CNP carbon nanotube paper UV ultraviolet
CNS carbon nanostructures VGCNF vapor grown carbon nanofiber
CNTs carbon nanotubes VUV vacuum ultraviolet
CNRP carbon nanotube reinforced polymer

descriptions from a material science perspective are presented.
Fig. 2 outlines the covered topics in this review article.
2. A brief introduction to CNTs
Due to the numerous beneficial applications of CNTs in various
scientific fields, the spectrum of the published literature regarding
these materials has examined many of their characteristics in
terms of atomic structure and morphology, processing, character-
ization, mechanics, and other chemical/physical properties in
several books and review articles [24–38]. In this section, a brief
overview is provided related to the characteristics of CNTs.
2.1. Classification
CNTs are commonly classified into two categories, termed
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi-walled carbon
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68 45

Number of publications
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
2.00%

Percentage of publications with the keywords "aircraft"

1.80%

and "aerospace" from total CNT publications

1.60%

1.40%

1.20%
CNT
1.00% CNT and aerospace
CNT and aircraft
0.80%

0.60%

0.40%

0.20%

0.00%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year
Fig. 1. Carbon nanotube publications with the keywords aerospace and aircraft, between the years 2000 and 2013. The compiled data is based on the following databases:
Compendex, Inspec, the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), and Referex.

nanotubes (MWCNTs), with the former comprising a single sheet of

graphite, rolled into a cylindrical tube [39]. For MWCNTs, a
perspective normal to the tube axis exhibits a family of concentric
tubes. The conductivity of SWCNTs is based on the direction of the
roll pertaining to the graphite sheet and the tube structure,
determined by the two integers (n,m). The chiral vector C^ h
analogous to a twist vector, in this context is defined as [15,23]

C^ h ¼ na^ 1 þma^ 2  ðn; mÞ ð1Þ

Depending on the values of the integers m and n, the nanotube is

considered to have a structure of
8
< Armchair; n ¼ m
>
Zigzag; m¼0 ð2Þ
>
:
Chiral other n and m values than above

The chiral tubes further have a wrapping angle ϕ A ½01; 301. Fig. 3
exhibits the hexagonal lattice and the chirality of CNTs.
The circumference of a nanotube is given by [41]
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
L ¼ jC^ h j ¼ a n2 þ m2 þ nm ð3Þ

with jmj A ½0; n and the length of the unit vector

pffiffiffi
a ¼ aC  C 3 ð4Þ
Fig. 2. An overview of the examined topics related to aerospace applications
with aC  C being the C–C bond length. Expressed in Eqs. (3) and of CNTs.
(4), the diameter of a nanotube is given by
L a pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi It is noteworthy to mention that carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are
dt ¼ ¼ n2 þ m2 þnm ð5Þ
π π structurally similar to MWCNTs, having a length to diameter ratio
Utilizing Eq. (5) the chiral indices in accordance with Eq. (6) [42] exceeding 100. They are however in general longer and distin-
are guished from CNTs based on the graphene plane alignment [43].
8 If the graphene plane and fiber axis are parallel, the structure is
> 
am
>
> ; n¼m considered to be a CNT and when such alignment does not occur, it
>
> π
>
< pffiffiffi
>

3am
is defined as a CNF [44]. An extensive review on CNTs that covers
dt ¼ ; m¼0 ð6Þ their synthesis, growth mechanism, optical properties, electrical
>
> π
> pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi transport, vibrational properties, mechanical properties, and ther-
>
>
>
> a m2 þ mn þ n2 mal properties is presented by Popov [29]. The following sections
: ; m a 0; n a 0
π briefly cover some of the mentioned properties.
46 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
a1
a2
Ch
Fig. 3. Graphene sheet, lattice vectors and the roll-up vector C^ h .
Source: Adapted from [40]
2.2. Synthesis of CNTs
The method of arc-discharge has been utilized prior to
MWCNTs and SWCNTs, in carbon fiber and production of full-
erenes [29]. This method further led to the discovery of MWCNTs
in soot by Iijima [45]. For synthesis of SWCNTs, metal catalysts
were utilized in an arc-discharge briefly thereafter [46,47]. Other
methods of interest are laser-ablation, utilized by Thess et al. [48]
and catalytic growth of nanotubes by chemical vapor decomposi-
tion (CVD), first employed by Yacamán and others [49].
2.3. Manufacturing
Products featuring CNTs at the present have these implemented
either dispersed in powder form or deposited as thin films.
However, for commercialization of these products, it is crucial that
such implementation is carried out in conjunction with existing
manufacturing methods [50]. It can be established that the optimal
values attained for CNTs are yet to be realized. Nonetheless, due to
the wide research efforts conducted on these materials, advances in
their manufacturing are constantly improving. Wang et al. [51]
recently reported CNT composites with unprecedented multifunc-
tionalities, including record high strength (3.8 GPa), high Young's
modulus E¼293 GPa, electrical conductivity s ¼ 1230 S cm  1 , and
thermal conductivity k ¼ 41 W m  1 K  1 . These values were
attained by employing a long length, high volume fraction, good
alignment, in conjunction with reduced waviness of the CNTs and a
novel-processing approach feasible for a large-scale industrial
production.
2.4. Properties
Typical values on the diameters of SWCNTs are on the
order 0.8–2 nm, while the corresponding values for MWCNTs are
5–20 nm. Nonetheless, diameter values exceeding 100 nm have
also been reported for MWCNTs [50]. Table 1 provides a compar-
ison between the different properties of SWCNTs and MWCNTs.
2.5. Modeling of CNTs
The modeling of CNTs has been an important parameter for
further understanding of their potential applications in different
disciplines and inherent properties. This process has been imple-
mented by emphasis on factors such as growth [58,59], structural
mechanics [60], finite element analysis (FEA) [42,61–66], and
electron field growth [67]. A comprehensive review of computa-
tional modeling related to thermo-mechanical and transport
Table 1
Comparison of density ρ, nanotube diameter dt, aspect ratio AR, thermal conduc-
~ related
tivity k, electrical resistivity ϱ, tensile strength sB , and Young's modulus E,
to SWCNTs and MWCNTs.
(n, 0) Sources: [3,52–57].
Property Unit SWCNTs MWCNTs
3
ρ gm  1:3  1:75
dt nm 0.6–0.8 5–50
AR – 100–10,000 100–10,000
k W ðmKÞ  1 3000–6000 3000–6000
ϱ Ωm 1  10  3  1  10  4 2  10  3  1  10  4
smax GPa 50–500 10–600
(n, n) E~ GPa 1500 1000
properties of CNTs has been carried out by Rafii-Tabar [68] and
recently, Spanos et al. [69] presented an enhancement of the
physical properties of nanocomposites by usage of finite-element
analysis (FEA), in conjunction with the embedded fiber method
(EFM) and Monte Carlo simulation.
3. Timeline of CNT milestones in aerospace applications
Fig. 4 depicts an overview of milestone events on the axis of
time, related to CNT implementation in aerospace sciences. Due to
the myriad of the literature related to CNTs, it should be stated
that although the time axis outlines the year 1991 as the discovery
year of CNTs, extensive research efforts and observations of full-
erenes were actualized prior to this date [20,70–73]. The first
nano-sized carbon filaments of tubular nature were highlighted as
early as in 1952 [74], but this publication was not available in
English until years later. The attribution of CNTs to the discovery
year of 1991 has further attracted considerable attention to itself
within the fields of material sciences and chemistry, on account of
existing evidence of CNTs preceding this date [75]. Nonetheless,
due to the scientific impact of the article published by Iijima in
1991 [45] and its novelty and dissemination to the entire scientific
community across different engineering disciplines, this year is
considered to be the birth year of MWCNTs and has hence been
stipulated as the commencement year of the CNTs era in aerospace
sciences. One of the most comprehensive roadmaps for future
applications of nanomaterials and in particular CNTs was pub-
lished by NASA in 2010 [76]. According to this roadmap, the
potential benefits of utilizing CNTs in aerospace applications
consist of reduced vehicle mass, improved functionality and
durability, enhanced damage tolerance, improved self-healing
characteristics, enhanced thermal protection, and control. In terms
of energy, CNTs may be utilized for enhanced energy generation
and energy distribution. Some of the presented challenges for
usage of CNTs in aerospace applications include large-scale pro-
duction methods of CNTs, uniform dispersion of CNTs in composite
materials, alignment and adhesion issues associated with CNTs in
reinforced polymers, a complete understanding of their toxicity,
and production of CNTs that are rice in volume and have a
uniform size.
4. Potential roles of CNTs in aeronautics
4.1. Introduction
Next generation aircraft, rotorcraft, unmanned aerial vehicles,
and missiles will have stricter requirements in terms of light-
weight, visual and thermal signature, increased speed, and man-
euverability. These requirements, however, incite a need for
advanced materials and systems that can incorporate these
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68 47

U.S. Army will utilize

CNTs for
Nanocomp Technologies,
Nobel Prize in manufacturing of
declares that the
Chemistry is TM stronger helicopter
EMSHIELD - a CNT sheet
awarded for blades
material will be used on
discovery of
NASA’s Juno spacecraft 2013
Discovery of MWCNTs fullerenes
during its Jupiter mission, in
1991 1996 order to protect the vehicle
from electrostatic discharge
2013

1990 2000 2010 2020

2011
Lockheed Martin
announces that the
1993 F-35 Lightning II will
Discovery of SWCNTs 2008 2008
be the first mass-
Unidym, Inc. NASA develops a
produced aircraft to
announces the CNT based chemical
integrate a thermoset
maiden flight of an sensing platform for
epoxy reinforced by
aircraft using CNTs in-situ chemical
CNTs for non-load
for increased analysis in space and
bearing airframe
fuselage strength terrestrial applications
components

Fig. 4. Milestones of CNTs and their application in aerospace sciences.

functionalities. CNTs are ideal candidates to meet these demands,
as they can be incorporated in different technologies. The study by
Schilthuizen and Simonis [77] identifies a number of key technol-
ogies for the application of nanotechonolgy in aeronautics. In
particular, it brings emphasis to nanotechnology usage in informa-
tion and communication technology (ICT), remote and unmanned
guidance and power, as prospective operational areas in aeronau-
tics. While this study encapsulates the entire spectrum of nano-
technology, solely the aspects related to CNTs and some possible
application areas thereof will be highlighted in this section. In
particular, this section examines weight reduction by replacement
of current airframe materials and wiring which results in the
reduction of fuel consumption. In addition, the potential benefits
of CNT implementation for aircraft icing, aircraft lightning protec-
tion, propulsion systems, and safety aspects are discussed.
4.2. CNTs and commercial aircraft
Given that nanomechanics is an important field for the devel-
opment of aeronautics and aerospace industry [78], the advan-
tages of utilizing CNTs in aerospace applications stem from the
exceptional properties that these materials offer, which include
superior strength-to-weight ratio [79], mechanical, electrical, and
thermal properties. For both commercial and military aircraft and
space vehicles of the future, the weight of the vehicle will play a
significant role, as it directly affects the cost of operation. The
challenge that the aerospace industry constantly faces is introduc-
tion of a light aircraft or spacecraft, without sacrificial structural
integrity. A recent study carried out by Gohardani et al. [80]
identified total weight and propulsive power as the two dominant
factors that most likely will impact future commercial aircraft,
employing distributed propulsion technology. In addition, in con-
junction with Gohardani's first proposed official definition for
distributed propulsion technology in subsonic fixed wing aircraft
[81,82], materials with CNT implementation are deemed to be
crucial for future designs in the aerospace industry. Table 2
provides an overview of the properties of CNTs in comparison
with traditional aerospace materials.
4.2.1. Airframe
Nanocomposites have been a subject of many research endea-
vors in different scientific fields including aeronautics, due to their
combination of a large surface area for a given volume [84] and
reinforcing effects stemming from their high aspect ratio. The
dispersion of nanoparticles and their adhesion at the particle–
matrix interface are in this framework of crucial importance with
immediate adverse effects on the mechanical properties [85]. The
different properties of polymer matrix nanocomposites have been
extensively reviewed in a number of review articles [3,57,86–91].
Simulation studies related to commercial aircraft by O'Donnell
[92] and colleagues [93,94] have been among the few studies in
which the influence of CNTs on commercial aircraft has been
explored in the “heavy” aircraft category, with classification of
heavy, in accordance with the definition provided by the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA). In this study conducted by
48 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68

Table 2
A comparison of CNT properties with traditional aerospace materials. The symbols ð†Þ and ð‡Þ refer to theoretical and measured values respectively.
Source: [83].

Material Specific gravity Yield strength Elastic modulus Thermal conductivity Electrical resistivity Normalized
strength-to-mass ratio
(g cm  3) (GPa) (GPa) (W m  1 K  1) (μΩ  cm)

SWCNT† 1.4 65 1000  6000 30–100 225

SWCNT ‡ 1.4 1.8 80 150 150 7
Conventional carbon fiber, M55J 2.2 4 550 70 800 9
IM7 carbon composites 1.6 2.1 152 30 2000 7
Titanium 4.5 0.9 103 12 127 1
Aluminum 2.7 0.5 69 180 4.3 1

O'Donnell et al. [94], a carbon nanotube reinforced polymer
(CNRP) was utilized as the primary airframe material on four
conceptual aircraft structures, namely the Boeing 747-400, Boeing
757-200, Airbus A320, and Embraer E145. The simulation was
carried out upon replacing the conventional aluminum material
primarily accounting for the structural material, with the same
volume of CNRP. The nanotubes chosen for this simulation were
70% by volume SWCNTs. The flight profiles and fuel consumption
savings in the study were further actualized by employing Euro
Control's Base of Aircraft Data (BADA) and the Enhanced Traffic
Management System (ETMS). The ensuing reduction in take-off
mass as a result of interchanging the aluminum material to CNRP
presented an average 14.1% weight reduction, with a correspond-
ing 13.2% range increase and 9.8% decrease in fuel consumption.
Although the authors of this study indicate that such replacement
of conventional aluminum materials for the aforementioned air-
craft types is not feasible for current fleet of aircraft, this simula-
tion provides an insight into the savings that a CNRP
implementation can entail. CNTs can further be utilized on existing
airframes and enhance bonded repair of aircraft aluminum struc-
tures [95] and tailor the galvanic corrosion behavior. Other studies
indicate that conductive epoxy adhesives based on MWCNTs bond
on metal substrates, with a contact resistance, several order of
magnitudes higher than the adhesive resistance [96]. The elastic
modulus
of a nanocomposite can be expressed in terms of the constituent
properties of the polymer matrix and the nanotube reinforce-
ment [97]
0 0 1 10 0 1 11
  ENT  d ENT

d
B ℓ B C CB B Em 4t C C
E11 ¼ Em B B Em 4t C CB B C C
@1 þ 2 d @ENT ℓ AV NT A@1  @ENT ℓ AV NT A :
 
Em 4t Em 4t
Upon modeling the composite elastic properties, the volume
distribution of nanotubes per unit length can be defined as
d ξðdÞ
2
ψ ðdÞ ¼ R 1
fd ξðdÞg dðdÞ
2
0
Specifically for aerospace grade carbon/epoxy laminates, the
modification of interfaces by using CNT forests has shown an
improvement of the interlaminar fracture toughness for Mode
I/Mode II with a factor ranging between 1.5 and 3 [98]. Veedu et al.
[99] studied a 3D composite with nanotube implementation for
enhanced composite performance of interlaminar fracture tough-
ness, hardness, delamination resistance, in-plane mechanical
properties, damping, thermoelastic behaviour, and thermal and
electrical conductivities. This approach exhibited an exemplary
instance of the multifunctionality that can be achieved in compo-
site structures by usage of CNTs. The application of vertically
aligned CNTs as reinforcement to aerostructures has also been
implemented by Guzman de Villoria et al. [100], where the
reinforcement is attributed to a fiber-stitching mechanism. Within
the context of vapor grown carbon nanofiber (VGCNF) and poly-
mer composites, lower values on mechanical properties are
encountered in comparison for these materials in relation to the
corresponding CNTs/polymer composites. A reasoning behind the
better performance of CNTs is attributed to their intrinsic superior
mechanical properties.
One of the contexts in which CNTs have great prospects is their
usage in multifunctional composite materials. According to Gibson
[101] such materials have multiple structural functions and inte-
grated structural functions comprising mechanical properties such
as fracture toughness, damping, strength and stiffness, and non-
structural functions, such as sensing and actuation, electrical
and/or thermal conductivity, energy harvesting/storage, electro-
magnetic interference (EMI) shielding, recyclability and biode-
gradability, and self-healing capability. The usage of composite
materials has largely contributed to the achievement of multiple
structural functions, where nanoreinforcements by SWCNT and
MWCNT can significantly improve the characteristics of the
composite material. A growing prospective area which substan-
tially has exhibited evidence of favorable multiple structural
functions is related to hybrid multi-scale composites, which
feature both micron scale fiber reinforcements and nanoscale
reinforcements. For conventional composite laminates, the matrix
resin regions act as weak links and hence are reasons for concern.
Nonetheless, reinforcement of the interlaminar regions can be
actualized by utilizing vertically CNT aligned forests [102–105].
4.2.2. Wiring
One of the potential areas where a weight reduction and
reduced fuel consumption can be obtained in aeronautics is the
ð7Þ replacement of current copper wiring, which is significantly
heavier than wires made of CNTs [106–108]. A commercial airliner
such as Boeing 747 has about 135 miles of copper wiring [109],
which represents a weight of 4000 lbs [76]. According to scientists
at TE Connectivity, a cable made of CNTs called 1553B can result in
ð8Þ
a 69% weight saving [110]. In addition such replacement would
entail that premature failures and overheating caused by vibration
fatigue, oxidization and corrosion of the copper wires can be
avoided. Data cables with CNTs are among the leading technolo-
gies that will be crucial for usage on the 2025 baseline vehicle and
the 2025 preferred system concept (PSC) vehicles, intended for
both passengers and cargo. Northrop Grumman undertook a N þ2
advanced vehicle study, as a part of environmentally responsible
aviation (ERA), under contract with NASA in order to adequately
identify an aircraft configuration that meets the target levels
described in Table 3, while maintaining present safety levels. In
accordance with this study, an augmentation in energy efficiency
for future aircraft will result in increased range and performance,
reduction in operating costs and pollution, and less dependence
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
on fossil fuels [111]. Fig. 5 depicts the 2025 concepts for the
passenger and cargo aircraft. Among the identified technologies
that can contribute to further enhancement of the fuel burn
reduction, CNT data cables account for 0.1% and 0.2% of this
metric for the Cargo PSC and Passenger PSC, respectively.
According to the study, the development risk for these cables in
2025 is moderate.
4.2.3. Aircraft icing
One of the disciplines within aeronautics in which realization
of CNT employment will be conducive is the field of aircraft icing.
This phenomenon develops upon existence of water droplets
below freezing temperatures, or super-cooled droplets, in the
atmosphere that impinge on the surfaces of an aircraft during
flight [112]. The nature of the icing that occurs is dependent upon
the density of liquid water per unit cubic meter, or the liquid water
content, droplet size, and temperature among other factors. The
adverse effects of aircraft icing on fixed-wing aircraft are reduction
of lift and stall angle of attack, and an increase in profile drag [113].
Ice accretion on wing and tail surfaces during take-off can, more-
over, result in control and stability problems. Additionally, ice
accretion on propulsion system components can contribute to
Table 3
The set objectives for the N þ2 advanced vehicle study as a part of environmentally
responsible aviation (ERA). The symbol (†) refers to a balanced field length of
10,500 ft maximum which is used in the study, in order to ensure realism.
Source: [111].
Target area Set target
Noise 42 dB below Stage 4
LTO NOx emissions 75% below CAEP 6
Aircraft fuel burn 50% reduction compared to 1998 technology
Takeoff and landing distances No specific goal † the shear test units, shown in Fig. 6. Nominally a similar perfor-
Fig. 5. The 2025 concepts for the passenger (a) and cargo aircraft (b).
Source: [111].
49
reduced propulsion efficiency and increased drag. The search for
icephobic external surface materials in aircraft icing applications
has been ongoing since the early days of aviation [114]. To
investigate the utilization of CNTs in aircraft icing applications,
Gohardani examined a set of aerospace materials based on their
material properties [115], rain erosion characteristics [116,117],
static and dynamic wettability [118,119], and ice adhesion [120]. As
a result of these studies [121], the wettability of materials
reinforced with CNTs for potential utilization within the aerospace
industry was characterized by the dynamic and static wettability
scheme for advanced materials (DSWSAM), in which a decision
matrix was developed that discriminated between hydrophobic
and hydrophilic surfaces based on their static and dynamic
wettability properties [122]. The pertinent details of ice adhesion
to the aforementioned composite materials reinforced with CNTs
were investigated by Gohardani and Hammond [120] by means of
impact ice produced inside an icing tunnel. The ice adhesion tests
on the candidate specimens were performed in two different
surface conditions. The pristine and eroded states of the material
specimens were used in order to examine the effect of erosion on
the accretion and adhesion characteristics of the considered
materials. The eroded state represented an aged airframe that
had been subjected to sand/rain erosion during its service life as a
commercial airliner and was obtained by wet blasting of the
specimens with alumina, resulting in either a percentage increase
or decrease, in comparison to the inherent surface roughness. The
general trend observed in this study indicated that the eroded
samples in large exhibited higher ice adhesion strengths in
comparison to the pristine counterparts. The higher values were
associated with a higher pitting of the eroded surface, to which the
formed impact ice easily could adhere, hence requiring a higher
shear force to detach the ice from the surface upon employment of
mance in terms of the ice shear strength was reported upon
50 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
D B A based jet fuels for aviation. The usage of such fuels will contribute
E climate [129], a key component of the US Aviation Greenhouse Gas
C F
G rear of the fuselage will be used on the blended wing body (BWB)
Fig. 6. The employed ice shear strength unit at Cranfield University, United
Kingdom, prior to ice shedding (a) and after engagement of the plunger (b). The
following notations have been utilized in the figure: (A) specimen, (B) accreted ice
on the specimen surface, (C) air supply tube, (D) inflatable rubber tube,
(E) specimen shield, (F) specimen bar, and (G) plunger.
Sources: [120,121].
comparison of the pristine samples with the CNT reinforced
samples [120].
For deicing applications, a recent study by Chu et al. [123]
employed a synthesizing method of meso/macropore carbon
nanotube paper (CNP) with a self-heating composite base on the
CNP. The composite in this study exhibited excellent electric
heating properties at ambient temperatures T A ½  22; 151C, and
a wind speed of 14 m s  1, with deicing times in the range of 220–
450 s. Moreover, it was concluded that the CNP/glassfiber/epoxy
(CGE) composite, based on its excellent conductivity (64.9 S
cm  1), and electric heating and resistance stability performance,
is highly efficient for deicing purposes. In a similar study con-
ducted by Zhao et al. [124], functionalized MWCNT sheets were
anchored onto carboxyl, by means of a photochemical reaction,
with the objective to produce a nanohybrid sheet with enhanced
transport properties. Upon integration of this sheet into a Kevlar/
epoxy sandwich construction by the resin infusion method, the
steady-state value of the sample temperature was obtained within
13 s, at a power density consumption level of 0.58 W/in2. This
result, in conjunction with the ensued stable reversibility of the
laminate, following a number of heating cycles, rendered the
structure feasible for de-icing applications.
4.2.4. Propulsion
For propulsion applications, CNTs are identified as propellant
additives for next-generation chemical propulsion systems. Accord-
ing to Law [125,126], the benefits of utilizing nanoparticles consist
of the potential to eliminate agglomeration encountered for larger
particles, earlier ignition, higher total heat release rate, and further
extension of the burning rate for functionalized/catalytic particles.
The usage of nanocomposites for gas turbines and more explicitly
erosion-resistant coated compressor airfoils has recently been
explored by US Department of Energy [127]. The potential benefits
of this study consisted of reduced carbon emissions due to higher
compressor efficiencies, increased engine power and extended
engine lifetime. One of the disciplines that have attracted the
attention of both researchers and the general public during recent
years is the usage of alternative fuels for aerospace applications. In
particular, the introduction of synthetic jet-fuels, liquid natural gas
(LNG) and hydrogen as alternatives to the conventional utilized jet
fuel is of particular interest [128]. The usage of sustainable alter-
native jet fuels is beneficial due to the challenges related to cost,
environment, and natural depletion associated with petroleum
to reduced emission levels that impact surface air quality and global
Emissions Reduction Plan. The development of electric motors and
generators has been in the forefront of science for quite some time
and explicitly applicable to electric aircraft, electric automobiles,
wind turbines, and biomedical microdevices [130]. In this frame-
work, CNTs and superparamagnetic nanoparticle magnetic core
materials will replace the existing copper and iron materials in
current motors and hence meet the requirements of next genera-
tion motors in terms of power efficiency and light weight. For
aircraft, turboelectric generators at the wing tips and fans across the
aircraft [80–82,131,132]. The role of CNTs for future turboelectric
aircraft will be placed on the usage of carbon electric motors, with
efficiencies in the proximity of those with copper. The rationale for
utilizing small-diameter motors stems from their high magnetic
field intensity and the produced force in relation to size. Additional
benefits with such motors will be that their implementation
eliminates eddy current related losses in the iron cores. According
to Ruff et al. [130], the development of next generation motors will
require re-engineering of electromagnetic design of the motor and a
fundamental research pertaining to nanoscale material develop-
ment. The goal for next generation motors is to reduce the weight of
existing generators, actuators and the entire motor by at least 50%.
Hydrogen is one of the alternative fuels that has gained
attention due to its abundance, renewable feature and positive
impact on environment, as its combustion solely produces heat
and water vapor. In aeronautics, hydrogen has been investigated as
a fuel in aviation since 1918 [133] and as cryogenic liquid hydrogen
(LH2), in aircraft such as the B-57 [134] and the Tupolev Tu-155
[135]. Recently, a study conducted by Verstraete [136] investigated
the potential that hydrogen offers as fuel for long-range transport
aircraft at current and future technology levels. It is identified that
hydrogen potentially can reduce energy utilization of long-range
transport aircraft by  11%, in conjunction with smaller wing area
and wing span, as the wing size is not restricted by its fuel storage
capacity. Further, it is identified that hydrogen-fuelled aircraft are
more sensitive to a possible reduction in operating empty weight
(OEW) and 20% less sensitive to engine thrust specific fuel
consumption (SFC) improvements. Pertaining to hydrogen and
CNTs, the work of Dillon et al. [1] exhibited a high reversible
hydrogen storage capacity of SWCNTs and contributed to
increased interest related to the application of CNT usage in
hydrogen storage. A recent review by Oriňáková and Oriňák [137]
recognizes that the hydrogen property of CNTs can be enhanced by
purification/functionalization, preparation of carbon materials in
different geometrical forms, dense alignment of nanotubes,
mechanical ball milling, and creation of defects.
4.2.5. Lightning protection
The more frequent usage of composite materials in aerospace
applications offers numerous cost-effective advantages such as
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
increased fuel efficiency, reduction of acoustic emissions and
pollutants [138]. Equally, such alterations present new challenges
due to the change of material characteristics. One of the areas
susceptible to such challenge is the lightning strike threat to
aircraft. For commercial airliners, the statistical in-flight analysis
indicates that an aircraft is subject to a lightning strike in the range
of 1000–10,000 flight hours, which can be approximated to one
lightning annually [139,140]. Upon lightning strike on an unpro-
tected surface, electricity with current levels up to 200,000 A
traverses the path of least resistance [141]. The potential inflicted
damage on an aircraft structure may comprise resistive-heating,
acoustic shock, ignition of vapors in the fuel tanks, arcing and
sparking at joints, and melting or burning at the lightning
attachment points [142,143]. In this context, conventional metallic
airframes, such as those made with aluminum, are highly con-
ductive, but current composite material airframes such as those
featuring carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs) exhibit lower
electrical conductivity. The dielectric feature of the polymer
matrix composite implies that the overall conductivity of the
composite laminate is greatly reduced, despite the presence of
carbon fibers which are highly conductive [138]. Fig. 7 and Table 4
exhibit an aircraft's lightning zones as defined by SAE Aerospace
Recommended Practices 5414 [144,145]. The article by Sweers
et al. [144] identifies that despite the prevalent lightning activity at
the altitude of 5000–15,000 feet (1524–4572 m), most lightning
strikes occur on jet aircraft while in clouds during the climb and
descent flight phases. In addition the authors identify that aircraft
traversing high incidence lightning activity areas are more suscep-
tible to lightning strikes in comparison to long-haul aircraft which
operate in more benign lightning environments. The potential use
of CNTs and CNFs in particular related to aircraft lightning
applications has been evident as these nano-fillers are able to
alter non-conducting polymers into conductive materials. Despite
applications of the identified materials, in photovoltaic devices
[146,147] and electromagnetic interference shielding (EMI) [148],
Gou and coworkers [141] identified a lack of adequate level of
attained electrical conductivity for lightning strike protection,
heavy re-agglomeration levels of CNTs and CNFs at high viscosity
of the polymer resin, and a limitation in increased conductivity
beyond the percolation threshold, originating in the absence of
effecting connection between the nano-fillers. To address these
issues, Gou et al. introduced nickel nanostrands for bridging
individual CNFs and for modifying the electrical pathway within
the carbon nanofiber papers (CNFPs). Studies have also been
undertaken by other researchers where CNTs have been utilized
for lightning strike protection [149]. A recent review conducted by
Gagné and Therriault provides a more detailed insight into aircraft
lightning strike protection measures related to composite materi-
als [150]. Apart from CNTs, buckypaper which is generally defined
as a macroscopic assembly of entangled CNTs [151] can be utilized
for purposes of high-current carrying capacity upon lightning
strikes on an aircraft and for protection of electric circuits and
devices onboard aircraft [152].
4.2.6. Electromagnetic interference shielding
The demand for electromagnetic interference shielding (EMI) is
an important factor specifically related to radio frequency radia-
tion sources and electronics of reliable nature [153]. Equally, the
shielding of electronics should be carried out at an adequate level,
since under-shielding can result in product failure and over-
shielding ensues in increased weight and complexity, in addition
to an increased material cost [154]. Polymer matrix composites
(PMCs) are common materials which have been well established in
many diverse applications, including electronics of aircraft.
Hitherto, light weight, simple processability and manufacturing
51
has motivated the usage of these materials. To date, numerous
materials have been utilized as fillers of PMCs [52]. Subsequent to
the introduction of CNTs, the latter have attracted considerable
attention due to their high level of conductivity. The different
approaches utilized for EMI shielding consist of reflection, absorp-
tion and internal reflections [153,155]. In this context a material's
ability to attenuate EMI is given by its corresponding shielding
effectiveness SE [156]
 
P1
SE ¼ 10 log ð9Þ
P2
where P1 denotes the received power with the material present
and P2 represents the received power with the material absent.
A higher value on SE is indicative of an enhanced attenuation.
Studies conducted by Yang et al. [157,158] indicate that EMI SE
values of MWCNTs and polystyrene were considerably higher than
those of VGCNFs. For aerospace applications, a study carried out by
Mehdipour et al. [159] identified that high SE values can be
attained despite a moderate ð o 10%Þ loading of MWCNTs in an
epoxy resin. More recently, Kumar et al. [160] carried out a study
in the X-band (8.2-GHz) frequency region, reporting a value of
163 dB cm3 g  1 for MWCNTs decorated carbon foam of thickness
2.75 mm. Such EMI shielding materials are crucial in the afore-
mentioned frequency band, in order to mitigate hazards of space
radiation to humans and space vehicles [161]. Immediate applica-
tions of CNTs in space applications can be beneficial for onboard
computer screens operating close to other electronic equipment at
the International Space Station and in forthcoming space explora-
tion missions [162]. Future missions will require that computer
screens onboard the space vehicles have coatings with at least 90%
transmittance and a SE  40 dB.
4.2.7. Sensing
One of the future applications of CNTs is to passively collect
component diagnostic data and to supply signals that prevent and
control component failures. In addition, these signals can be used
for optimization of the operating configurations of the component
[163]. Self-sensing is hence an important feature that will be
important for future aircraft and spacecraft [164,165]. In this
context, sensing refers to the measurement of electrical resistance
at the surface under flexure [166]. In aviation, condition monitor-
ing of fastened joints can be achieved by utilizing through-
thickness stress sensing [167]. For damage detection purposes,
several studies [168,169] have been conducted based on the
assumption that inflicted damage increases the resistivity result-
ing from the fiber direction and causes the conduction path
geometry to be changed. Sensing is in this framework explored
through the ability of CNTs to mechanically deform, real-time
strain monitoring by means of changes in conductivity [170],
employment of ordered CNTs for aerospace materials [171], CNT
dispersion [172–174], modeling, and response [175].
4.2.8. Safety
The prospective benefits of CNT usage with their superior
mechanical, electrical and thermal properties often overshadow
the potential health hazards that should be considered in parti-
cular due to the industrial scale manufacturing of these materials.
In the context of this discussion, the similarity to carcinogenic
forms of asbestos can be identified, based on the shape and
dimension of the carbon fibers and the fact that iron is retained
in the nanofibers during the manufacturing process [176]. It is
noteworthy that future implementation of CNTs in particular for
manned air and space vehicles should be considered solely on the
basis that full health impact assessment and studies are conducted
on the possible implications that such implementation might have
on the health of the passengers and crew. Such implementation
52 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
Fig. 7. Aircraft lightning zones, where Zone 1 is indicative of the prospective area to be influenced by the initial attachment of a lightning strike. In addition, Zones 2
and 3 designate a swept/moving attachment and an area which may experience non-attached conducted currents of a lightning strike.
Table 4
Aircraft lightning zones as designated by SAE aerospace
recommended practices 5414.
Sources: [145,144].
Zone Description
1A First return stroke zone
1B First return stroke zone with a long hang on
1C Transition zone for first return stroke
2A Swept stroke zone
2B Swept stroke zone with long hang on
3 Strike locations other than Zones 1 and 2
will most likely solely take place, following a rigorous certification
process, in which the aforementioned factors have been accounted
for. This specific certification process is further one of the reasons
due to which a rapid implementation of CNTs in aeronautics and in
particular commercial aircraft has not yet been actualized. The
motivation behind this delay is that manufacturers seek to ensure
that the health and safety of personnel, staff and passengers are
not comprised upon implementation of these advanced materials,
despite their numerous benefits.
4.3. CNTs and military aircraft
With further development of military aircraft of the future,
extending to sixth-generation aircraft and beyond, new scientific
requirements are imposed on stealth characteristics, material
properties, performance in hazardous environments, and the
absence of pilots onboard future aircraft. According to Froning
and Czysz [177], a part of the envisioned concept for US Air Force
(USAF) for the years 2025 and 2050 includes magneto-hydro-
dynamics (MHD) airbreathing propulsion, aneutronic fusion pro-
pulsion, augmentation of MHD and fusion power with power from
the zero-point energies of the quantum vacuum, and augmenta-
tion of vehicle jet propulsion with field propulsion to increase
vehicle ΔV by a factor two. In order to achieve these revolutionary
technologies and extend the operations of the USAF to cislunar
space, significant importance is placed on high-strength airframe
Aircraft Lightning Zones
Zone 1A
Zone 1B
Zone 1C
Zone 2A
Zone 2B
Zone 3 (Direct attachment)
Zone 3 (Conducted)
and light-weight structures. Hence, CNTs are deemed to be
appropriate candidates for such implementation. This section
explores the importance of CNTs for military aircraft and other
prospective areas of CNT applications. One of the very few studies
that have covered the usage of CNTs for military applications is
conducted by Schrand and Benson Tolle [178], where the authors
identify that different properties of carbon atoms render them
attractive for military platforms. It is further identified that the
role of CNTs in military applications consists of coating, integrated
constituents of active materials and as reinforcements in structural
materials. For military applications, the usage of CNTs in multi-
functional nanocoatings in aerospace applications will contribute
to safer materials for corrosion sensing and enhanced protection
by means of sensing capabilities for mechanical damage on the
skin of the aircraft [179]. A relevant study conducted by Glenn
[180] assessed some of the potential risks of utilizing nanotech-
nology, including CNTs in military applications. While it is difficult
to pin-point specific risks associated with the implementation of
CNTs in military applications, the potential impacts of nanotech-
nology research until the year 2025 are outlined in Glenn's study.
In addition, this study examines the different aspects of nano-
technology related to health hazards and environmental pollution.
4.3.1. Stealth
In many military applications the stealth technology is crucial
for survival of the system, where stealth endeavors to make the
system less detectable by radar. In this context, a measure of the
stealth performance is represented by the radar cross section
(RCS), which should be minimized, given the fact that the detected
distance by a radar dr p ðRCSÞ1=4 [181]. RCS can be described as the
strength of the radar signal that is backscattered from an object for
an incident electromagnetic wave and a measure of the amount of
reflected electromagnetic wave from an incident electromagnetic
wave [182]. The RCS can be minimized by utilizing different
approaches such as modification of the external features of the
target, utilizing radar absorbing materials [183] and radar absorb-
ing structures. While the first two methods have caveats in terms
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68 53

of increased RCS in other regions of the target and increased
weight and thickness, CNTs can be utilized as constituents in radar
absorbing structures, in order to achieve stealth characteristics. An
example of such radar absorbing structure with CNTs was inves-
tigated by Kim and Lee [182], in which a nanocomposite composed
of E-glass fabric, epoxy resin and CNTs was adhesively bonded to
the external surface of a sandwich construction in order to absorb
electromagnetic waves. In this study, the utilized composite
sandwich construction exhibited absorption of incident electro-
magnetic waves up to 90% in the X-band frequency and further
provided approximately three times the peel strength in compar-
ison to the corresponding aluminum foil.
to be of crucial importance, as it provides almost twice the level of
damping.
4.5.2. Structural monitoring
The structural monitoring and self-sensing will be a new
feature which adds to the multi-functionality roles of next gen-
eration rotorcraft such as quadrotor aerial vehicles [194–196].
Particularly in this context, damage detection may be of great
importance and can prevent catastrophic incidents or accidents.
Specifically for CNTs implemented in polymer composites, a model
developed by Bakis and Wang [192] indicates that the usage of
external tuned-resonance circuitry contributes to an increased
sensitivity upon crack detection.

4.3.2. Aircraft icing

4.5.3. Icing on rotorcraft
For military aircraft, the problem of icing ensues in a number of
The icing treat aspect to military aircraft has been assessed
challenges which may hinder safe flight operations, such as
both prior to and during flight by US Army aviators, in an extensive
obscuring the view of the pilot during missions and contributing
report by Peck et al. [197]. In this report, it is established that an
to unreliable instrument readings. In addition, the aerodynamic
asymmetrical ice shedding from helicopter's rotor blades can
penalties due to ice accumulation on the control surfaces result in
result in severe vibrations, occurrence of foreign object damage
increased drag and a reduction of lift which consequently affects
and forced emergency landings. Other operational concerns
the increase in fuel consumption. Similar to the case of commercial
related to planned flight profiles for military aircraft during icing
aircraft, the usage of CNTs will be beneficial in order to remedy ice
are rerouting, delays and ultimately mission cancelations.
adhesion on military aircraft.
The usage of CNTs on rotorcraft can potentially hinder ice
accumulation and alleviate the aforementioned complexities
4.4. Morphing aircraft which ensue from icing.

Within aeronautics the term morphing aircraft is usually
utilized for air vehicles and components thereof able to adapt to
planned and unplanned missions. Although the general notion
regarding this topic is that morphing requires exotic and complex
materials, this statement is dismissed by Weisshaar [184]. The
definition of a morphing aircraft according to NASA's Morphing
Project is an efficient, multi-point adaptability that includes
macro, micro, structural and/or fluidic approach [185,186]. The
definition of a morphing aircraft is however according to Defense
Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) an air vehicle capable
of substantial alteration of its state according to mission environ-
ments, with crucial emphasis placed on reconfiguration [187]. The
morphing aircraft subject has been explored in numerous research
studies [188–190]. Interestingly, in this emerging aerospace tech-
nology, CNTs are usually mentioned as envisaged materials to be
utilized on such aircraft. The benefits of employing morphing
structures on the wings of an aircraft would provide the possibility
of adaption, i.e. instantaneous unfurling, bending and reshaping,
based on experienced changes in pressure, temperature, and
finally exposure to magnetic and electric fields [191]. Fig. 8 depicts
NASA's morphing aircraft concept.
4.6. CNTs in UAV and MAV applications
In the world of aeronautics, a distinct level of fascination has
always been associated with large flying machines. Yet, birds,
flying insects and other types of animal flight, commonly with
sizes smaller than aircraft, continue to serve as inspirational
sources to flight. With the introduction of uninhabited aerial
vehicles/unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), remotely operated air-
craft (ROA) or remoted piloted vehicles (RPVs), an aircraft can be
tailored to meet the demands of the designed mission, without
consideration to safety of the pilot, as the pilot no longer is
onboard the aircraft. Despite the fact that UAVs are intended for
different missions [198], future UAVs are being designed to operate
in different roles, including remote sensing activities [199], mar-
itime surveillance [200], aerial surveillance [201,202], transporta-
tion [203], scientific research [204], search and rescue operations

4.5. CNTs and rotorcraft

4.5.1. Structural damping

One of the potential applications which may be beneficial for
the implementation of CNTs on future helicopters and rotorcraft is
intended for structural damping purposes. Studies carried out by
Bakis and Wang [192] and Liu et al. [193] based on multiscale
micromechanics/molecular dynamics models of CNTs embedded
in polymer resins indicate that the interfacial shear strength is
approximately 25 times the value of non-functionalized CNTs,
when  1% of the carbon atoms in CNTs are covalently bonded to
the epoxy resin. In addition, these studies point out that CNT
functionalization can based on the interfacial shear strength and
operational stress range for the chosen matrix material, either Fig. 8. NASA's morphing airplane concept, enabling changing inflight configura-
enhance or reduce the damping of the composite. The alignment tions for optimum flight performance.
of the CNTs with respect to the loading direction is further shown Source: NASA Dryden Flight Research Center.
54 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
[205], military applications [82,206–209], conservation of nature
[210,211], and fire detection [212–214]. Recent advancements in
electronics have also sparked the interest for smaller unmanned
vehicles, namely micro air/aerial vehicles (MAVs). UAVs and MAVs
are suitable platforms for the implementation of CNTs, as they do
not compromise the safety of the pilot. Until now UAVs have not
been designed for prolonged flight hours and hence many aspects
such as ice protection systems are often not featured on these
vehicles. The implementation of CNTs on UAVs will therefore be a
game changing strategy and alter the usage platforms of these
vehicles. Some of the benefits that CNT implementation may bring
for UAVs include reduced weight, longer operational hours, and
sustainability to icing conditions during flight. In a recent report
produced for the United States Air Force (USAF) Aerospace
Management Systems Division by US Department of Transporta-
tion [215], the Department of Defense (DoD) expects its inventory
of unmanned air systems (UAS) to grow to 14,000 by the year
2035. The number of UAS for the federal agency is by this time
predicted to increase to 10,000 from the current number of a few
hundreds. These nano, micro and small UAVs are all in need of
further optimization related to reduced weight and enhanced
performance, exhibiting the future prospects of CNT
implementation.
4.6.1. Electric UAVs and CNTs
Specifically for electric UAVs, the implementation of CNTs
contributes to a longer endurance time for the vehicle due to a
lower weight and extended battery energy. The flight endurance
time of such vehicle is described by [216,217]
( )" #1=2
ηB EB ρSC 3L
tE ¼ ηp : ð10Þ
ðW S þW B þ W PR þ W PL Þ3=2 2C 2D
In Eq. (10), EB denotes the nominal stored battery energy and ηB is
an efficiency factor which incorporates the influence of factors
such as current draw rate, temperature and auxiliary parameters
on the available energy, which can be extracted from the battery.
The parameters W S , WB, W PR , and WPL denote the weight of the
aircraft structure, battery, propulsion system, and payload system,
respectively. In addition, the aerodynamic parameters of the
equation are the following: ρ denoting the air density, S is the
wingplan form area, lift and drag coefficients are CL and CD, and
ultimately ηP is the propeller efficiency. The ηB EB product, in
Eq. (10), denotes the available energy. In order to obtain a
comparison basis for a multifunctional structure-battery material,
Thomas and Qidwai [218] considered the normalized changes in
endurance with changes in energy, structure and battery weight,
shown in the following equation:
 
Δt E ΔηB EB 3 ΔW S þ ΔW B
¼  ð11Þ
tE ηB EB 2 W Total
This equation indicates that the flight endurance time is increased
by 1.5 times more, if the weight of the vehicle is reduced contra if
the battery energy is increased [218]. Hence, the implementation
of CNTs can address both of these parameters, i.e. reduction of the
weight of the vehicle while increasing the battery energy, con-
tributing to an extended flight duration time. Granted, such
implementation in both the structure of the aircraft and its battery
will considerably increase the flight endurance time. As reported
by Fu et al. [219], the usage of aligned CNT sheets can also facilitate
a stable cycling performance for the battery construction.
4.6.2. Mitigation of aircraft icing related to UAVs
Similar to the case for manned aircraft, icing is a hazard to UAVs
and can occur on various locations of the flying vehicle, compris-
ing but not limited to its wings, engine inlets, rotary blades, and
tail sections. Increased costs associated with integration of anti-
icing systems in conjunction with their weight penalty and
increased power consumption have thus far served as motivators
for not implementing these systems in UAV applications, yielding
operational restrictions associated with potential missions or in
many cases mission aborts. For UAVs, the need for icing protection
systems has recently been recognized due to the fact that these
vehicles exhibit a lower climb rate than other military, rotary- and
fixed-wing aircraft. Hence, accretion of an ice layer is more prone
to destabilize these vehicles in comparison to the aforementioned
aircraft [220]. Another aspect that renders the avoidance of icing
difficult for UAVs is the fact that despite their operation at higher
altitudes than where icing conditions commonly occur, UAVs need
to ascend and descend in icing conditions with a rate of descend
slower than their rate of ascend. Therefore, it follows that these
vehicles are exposed to icing conditions during extended time
periods [197]. Despite innovations such as the weeping wing
concept utilized on UAVs such as the Predator RQ 1-B aircraft
[221], which is a system that continuously pumps a film of deicing
fluid onto the wing [197], and the electroexpulsive deicing systems
(EEDS) [222] which pulverizes ice into small particles and removes
layers of ice as thin as frost or as thick as an inch of glaze, CNTs
may provide additional benefits for tackling the challenges with
aircraft icing. In order to expand the mission envelope and the
operational usability of UAVs, Battelle [223] recently developed a
Resistive Heating Coating (RHC) technology which alleviates the
aforementioned issues by means of a lightweight coating system
applicable as a spray-on system to areas where ice formation
mitigation is desired. The hindrance of ice formation and its
shedding is actualized by a stack of coatings, in which the
dispersion level of CNTs in juxtaposition with the barrier coating
and paint layers allows for a very high conductivity, upon using
electrical current, ensuing in a heated surface. This technology
demonstrates many advantages in comparison to existing tradi-
tional icing systems. Firstly, it operates at lower power densities in
line with the limited available power for UAVs. Secondly, the
appliance of this coating is accomplished by traditional coating
application methods in aerospace sciences, facilitating the retro-
fitting of this system onto existing airframes. Finally, this technol-
ogy perpetuates the aerodynamic performance of the surface,
which often is a convoluted challenge. The RHC technology has
been assessed based on system requirements, integration and
coating compatibility, and power analysis by Battelle and Air Force
Material Laboratory (AFRL) in Dayton, OH, USA. Fig. 9 depicts an
airfoil with the RHS technology employed.
5. Potential roles of CNTs in astronautics
Immediately since the discovery of CNTs, it was predicted that
their role in aerospace engineering would be significant. For
astronautical applications, the implementation of CNRP can serve
for radiation protection, static discharge, and in heat dissipation on
coatings [224]. In common for aerospace applications are the
advantages of utilizing a high strength lightweight structures
[225] and that CNTs can be used in heat engine components
[224]. The importance of potential roles of CNTs in aerospace
applications have been embraced by National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), and particularly NASA Ames
Research Center [226] and Johnson Space Center [227,228].
A number of NASA projects have considered the usage of CNTs
which will be briefly presented herein. For the Thermal, Radiation
and Impact Protective Shields (TRIPS) concept, intended as a
multipurpose approach against the triple threats of aeroheating
during atmospheric entry, radiation (solar and galactic cosmic
rays) and Micrometeoroid/Orbital Debris (MMOD) strikes, the high
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
Fig. 9. The RHS technology employed by Battelle on a wing section exposed to icing
conditions. The wing's right-hand side is ice free following the usage of Battelle's
anti-icing system. Reprinted with kind permission of Battelle.org [223].
strength and impact resistance of CNTs will be utilized as a third
element of multi-functionality, namely MMOD impact protec-
tion [229,230]. Challenges with manufacturing technologies for
nanoelectronics and MEMS devices for advanced computing and
sensing applications can further be facilitated by utilizing models
and simulation of the fabrication processes involved [231]. For
high resolution in-space in situ imaging and sensing applications,
nanopatterning and nanomaterial's synthesis can be combined in
order to produce a large-scale fabrication of wear-resistant CNT
probe tips [232]. Other beneficial usage of CNTs may consist of
enhanced conductivity of currents [233], ensuing in high-
performance computing for future autonomous spacecraft while
operating in space environments characterized by high radiation
and thermal insulation [234]. As the distance grows farther away
from Earth in future space missions, the regeneration of life
support materials will become a crucial element. The usage of
SWCNTs can therefore significantly increase the catalytic efficiency
of life support systems during forthcoming space missions and
decrease the mass and energy requirements thereof [235].
5.1. The space elevator
5.1.1. Motivation
One of the technologies which have generated a great interest
for the implementation of CNTs in space application is their usage
in a suggested space elevator concept. This idea was initially
envisioned in 1895 by Tsiolkovsky [236] and further technically
invented by Artsutanov [237] and independently by Pearson [238].
A skyhook concept was further proposed in 1966 by Isaacs and his
colleagues [239]. Following the technical description of the space
elevator, this concept was extended to lunar applications by its
originators [240,241]. The introduction of CNTs served as a turning
point for the space elevator concept. The superior characteristics of
CNTs implied that numerous scientific publications were pub-
lished about the space elevator concept with the pivot point
placed on CNTs [242–252]. The space elevator concept has sparked
the interest of both scientists and the younger generation into
space exploration. With the introduction of this idea in the
science-fiction literature by Clarke [253] and Sheffield [254] with
progressing advancements in material science, the space elevator
has ever since, often been a recognized concept for space travel.
Currently, a myriad of scientific publications exist related to the
space elevator [255–258] its stability [259,260], dynamics
[261,262], radiation shielding [263], role of defects [251], design
[242], different configuration scenarios [264], and space explora-
tion policy [265,249]. In light of the vast literature related to this
55
concept, only selected aspects pertaining to CNT usage with the
space elevator concept will be accentuated herein.
5.1.2. Concept
The space elevator is in essence a physical connection from the
surface of the Earth to a Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) located
approximately at an altitude of 36,000 km. The motivation behind
utilizing the space elevator stems from the high costs associated
with placement of small payloads into Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
Other motivating factors are the intricate nature of current space
operations, their associated risks and the fact that it is virtually
impossible to bring back equipment from space to Earth apart
from the usage of a reusable launch vehicle (RLV). The benefits of
utilizing a space elevator following its construction rests in its
inexpensive and rapid nature of possible cargo launches [266]. For
the purpose of supporting itself on the ground, the cross-sectional
area on the ground needs to be 2–10 times larger than at GEO [238].
According to Bolonkin [267] there are various space elevator designs.
Apart from the cable, the majority of these include a base station, a
counter weight of massive nature in GEO, and climbers. If the base
station is positioned on a large ocean-going vessel it is referred to as
a mobile base station. Stationary base stations are further placed on
high-altitude locations on Earth. The payload is deployed to space,
through the usage of climbers propelled by for instance power
beaming. The orbital altitude is moreover attained by using another
cable lowered from GEO to Earth.
The technological challenges with the space elevator, consisting
of susceptibility to lightning strikes, potential meteorite damages,
LEO cable impacts, atomic oxygen damage, and microscale defects
[242,246], have inspired researchers to alternate their solutions to
the space tether. One such solution is a free-standing core
structure, with pneumatically inflated sections which enable
active control for support of the structure and its balance against
external disturbances [268]. The role of CNTs can be of crucial
importance for realization of the space elevator arrangement,
given that they comprise the physical cable material, on which
magnetic levitating vehicles can travel, for placement of cargo and
crew in space. Figs. 10 and 11 depict a schematic and an artistic
view of the space elevator, respectively.
5.2. Space propulsion
The space environment exposes both humans and spacecraft to
numerous hazards, which stem from the absence of Earth's
atmosphere. These exposures place extremely stringent design
rules on materials that will operate in this environment. In
particular, exposure to atomic oxygen (AO), ultraviolet (UV) radia-
tion, vacuum UV (VUV) radiation, micrometeroids, debris, ionizing
radiation, thermal cycling, and other environmental conditions
which stem from the orbit is plausible according to Watson and
Connell [269]. The potential usage of CNTs in applications related
to space propulsion has recently attracted the attention of many
researchers, as these can contribute to further advancements of
the propulsion technology in space. The usage of electric propul-
sion (EP) in comparison to conventional chemical propellant
rockets implies that the mass of the propellant is reduced which
ensues in increased payload capacity and a reduction of launch
mass of the vehicle. Other advantages that render EP systems
attractive for future solar system exploration missions are added
capability in orbital maneuvers and longer durations of orbital
maintenance which in effect result in the extension of the
mission's useful lifetime [270]. EP systems have successfully
been utilized in different space missions [271–273]. A step
beyond the EP system is a synergy between micro and nano-
electromechanical systems and nanoparticle electric propulsion.
56 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68

features such as a planar structure, low-profile, gain  7 dBi, and

The Space Elevator Counterweight bandwidth of 5–20% [275]. For the aperture-coupled design, the CNT
and usage of CNTs sheet material is often attached to a Kapton tape substrate, affixed to
a dielectric board and cut to the desired patch antenna's dimension,
by means of a circuit board layer. Many emerging usages of CNTs,
Geostationary specifically for LEO and satellites, have recently been suggested. One
orbit Center of such application includes the usage of silane grafted MWCNTs [276],
system mass is
located above which results in enhanced thermal stability and mechanical proper-
the ties, in comparison to the neat resin with corresponding unmodified
Geostationary
level MWCNTs. A different study conducted by Micheli et al. [277] suggests
a multi-layered radar absorbing material (RAM) consisting of
MWCNTs and polymer matrix composites for satellites, where an
Climber
electromagnetic cloak in the range 2–18 GHz is obtained. As dis-
cussed in the preceding section, the space environment exposes
Cable made of
spacecraft and satellites to many different hazards, among which
CNTs exposure to hypervelocity impacts (HVI) due to micrometeoroids and
orbital debris (MMOD) can be mentioned. Recently, Khatiwada et al.
[278,279] explored the nature of HVI  6:5–7 km s  1 on epoxy and
ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) with and
without SWCNTs on aluminum sheets, by means of a light gas gun
Anchor at
(LGG). In particular, the nanocomposites were evaluated for their use
equator as bumper shields and as rear walls in Whipple shield configurations.
The results from this study indicated that nanocomposites and the
neat composites exhibited better performance concerning the rear
Fig. 10. A schematic view of the space elevator. walls in comparison to the aluminum sheets, but were less effective
as bumper shields. As the thermal conductivity of individually
measured MWCNTs have exhibited higher values than diamond
[55], CNTs offer great potential for distribution of heat flow in
satellites and thermal protection systems [83]. Space vehicles,
satellites and aircraft rely on proper functioning of the mechanical
components, regardless of the operating conditions and specific
environment characteristics. However, as the tribological properties
of materials depend on their present environment, a proper choice of
solid lubricants for aerospace applications is a challenging task. The
desirable coefficient of friction for such lubricants is 0.001–0.3. The
study conducted by Street et al. [280] indicates that a long wear life
and low friction can be attained for CNTs in aerospace applications
and that CNTs may even be reasonable replacement candidates of
graphite, which currently is one of the most widely used solid
lubricants. In the context of weight savings for spacecraft as a
consequence of CNT usage, an illustrative example is exhibited in
the work of Harris et al. [281], where the baseline materials of the
Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), constituting 40% of the gross weight,
were selected for substitution by CNRP. This approach was based on
an existing system analysis model [282] and resulted in a predicted
reduction of structural weight with approximately 50% and gross
weight saving potential of  20%. Utilizing the same system analysis
model on a reusable launch vehicle (RLV), two different scenarios were
explored [281]. The first one concerned the replacement of aluminum
on the body, wings and cryogenic propellant tanks of the vehicle with
Fig. 11. NASA artwork of the space elevator created by Pat Rawlings, Science
Applications International Corporation.
CFRP. In the second scenario the aluminum replacement was actualized
Source: [243]. with CNRP. The findings of these studies ensued in weight reductions
of 55% and 82% for replacement of CFRP and CNRP, respectively. In
One such concept is the nanoparticle field extraction thruster addition, the dramatic reduction in weight would further enable
(nanoFET) [270]. Thrust in this context is attained by employing a resizing of the vehicle, resulting in further reductions of the dry weight.
series of stacked gates consisting of alternating, micron-scale thick
conductive and dielectric layers in order to provide the electric
fields necessary for electrostatically charge and acceleration of the 6. Recent developments of CNT implementation in aerospace
pre-fabricated nanoparticles [274]. applications

5.3. Satellites and spacecraft
The employment of CNTs in large satellite applications can
reduce the weight of a satellite to one-third of its current weight
[76]. For terrestrial and satellite communications systems, patch
antennas fabricated from CNTs exhibit numerous advantageous
6.1. A glimpse of actualized CNT implementation in aerospace
applications
Table 7 provides an overview of projects involving the applica-
tion of CNTs within aeronautics and aerospace sciences. This
selection has been established on the basis of available reports
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68 57

in the public forum and may include both SWCNTs and MWCNTs.
The potential aerospace applications of CNTs are further shown in
Table 5 and selected implemented CNT applications, detailed in
Table 8.
6.2. A selection of patents featuring CNT implementation in
aerospace applications
Despite the fact that numerous patents have been filed based
on CNTs [286–292], recently a number of these have been filed,
intended explicitly for CNT usage in aerospace application and
derivatives thereof. While the patents discussed in this section are
not completely exhaustive to such implementations, they provide
an insight into the multifaceted properties and application areas of
CNTs in aerospace engineering. The majority of patents discussed
herein are related to the airframe, such as interlayers for compo-
site structures enhanced with CNTs for aircraft and other struc-
tures, as suggested by Tsotsis [293]. An additional area where CNT
implementation may improve performance is in control surfaces
of the aircraft. For this purpose, the patents for skin and stingers of
the control surface by González Gozalbo et al. [294] and the
flexible lifting envelope of a wing filed by Eberhardt [295] are
good examples of this technology. Lightning protection is another
interesting area where CNT implementation may be useful for
both aircraft and spacecraft. In particular, the patent of Sequeiros
et al. [296] relates to an epoxy resin system with conductive CNTs,
proposed as a lightning protection system. Moreover, a resin
system with embedded CNTs in the matrix for high conductivity
filed by Lengsfeld et al. [297] is an illustrative example of this
concept. Another area within aeronautics where CNTs immensely
can contribute to further energy savings and extended operation
of aircraft is the field of aircraft icing. The patent filed by Nordin
and Strindberg [298] utilizes aligned and oriented CNTs in order to
conduct electrical current through the heating element in a nacelle
and enable an advanced anti-icing system. An overview of the
selected CNT patents is shown in Table 6.
7. Challenges related to CNT implementation in aerospace
applications
The route ahead for full implementation of CNTs in aerospace
applications is paved with numerous obstacles. While the prospects
of CNT implementation in aerospace applications are highly pro-
mising, the true benefits of such implementation are yet to be
realized. Next generation polymeric matrix composites with
embedded CNTs currently confront challenges pertaining to homo-
genous dispersion of CNTs and characterization of the resulting
nanocomposite quality. Although promising results have been
attained by the usage of in-situ polymerization and direct mixing
[316], further research is needed for a complete understanding of
these phenomena. The usage of computational modeling can in this
context be highly beneficial. The commercial transport industry can
only benefit from the projected advantages of CNTs, once the
obstacles related to their implementation in aeronautics have been
resolved [317]. The challenges and opportunities associated with
multifunctional nanocomposites in aerospace applications have
carefully been reviewed by Baur and Silverman [83]. Some of the
difficulties with improvement of composite structures by imple-
mentation of CNTs are associated with enabling low-cost commer-
cially viable processing methods. From a materials perspective,
properties such as interlaminar shear strength (ILS) and toughness
require full characterization of the failure mechanism, fracture
mechanics, material deformation, and morphology of the nano-
composites for a complete understanding of the nanocomposite and
potential improvements thereof [83]. Despite advancements in CNT
yarns [318,319] and sheets [320,321], the properties of individual
SWCNTs have not yet been realized. Similarly the performance of
CNTs and polymer matrix composites still remain lower than the
predicted theoretical performance [83]. In spite of the excellent
thermal conductivity of individual CNTs, these values can still not be
realized due to the ineffective phonon transport which occurs
across discontinuities or more explicitly the end of the tubes
[322]. By addressing this challenge, future thermally conductive
adhesives and reinforced interface gaskets can become a reality in
aerospace applications [83]. For lightning strike protection on
aircraft, the key obstacle comprises the partial or full dissipation
of energy to a failure mode which easily can be addressed, without
endangering the aircraft [142,323]. A number of challenges emerge
upon utilizing CNTs in comparison to traditional fiber-reinforced
composites. One such distinction is that in conventional fiber-
reinforced composites, the properties of the constituent materials
are firstly understood and their synergistic effects examined there-
after [324]. Nonetheless, the size of CNTs renders nanostructured
materials dependent on the size and structure, making composite
mechanical properties and traditional continuum assumptions

Table 5
Potential roles of CNTs in aerospace applications.

Application Role of carbon nanotubes References

Space elevator Cable extending from the Earth to outer space utilized for carrying the payload [251]
Morphing devices/wings Wing/structure material [184]
Sensing Used in structural health monitoring (SHM) systems in order to provide confident damage detection, localization, and [283]
characterization in complex geometries without complicated detection algorithms and minimal sensing channels

Low reflectance structural Simplification of instrument stray light [284]

surface treatment with CNTs Increase of observational efficiencies
Enabling low-noise observations, beyond current capabilities

Electro-magnetic shielding EMI shielding of computer screens onboard spacecraft [162]

Regenerable system for Removal of exhaled CO2 from the cabin atmosphere in space flights [285]
removal of CO2 More efficient usage of oxygen supply in space flights

Radar absorbing materials Absorption of electromagnetic waves in a multi-layer material arrangement [277]

Patch antennas Reduction of weight, planar-structure and low-profile [275]

Aircraft icing Hydrophobic character on the wetted surface [119,120,223]
Icing mitigation on aircraft, UAVs, rotorcraft

Electric UAV Contribute to lower weight and extended battery energy [216,217]

Space lubrication Potential replacement of graphite as a solid lubricant for aerospace applications [280]
58 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68

Table 6
Recent patents related to implementation of CNTs in aerospace applications.

Year Patent name Role of CNTs Source

2008 Aircraft surface control The skin and stringers of the control surface are preferably manufactured from CNTs [294]

2009 Pulverulent composition based on carbon nanotubes, methods of Reinforcing agents and/or modifiers of conducting and/or thermal properties [299]
obtaining them and its uses, especially in polymeric materials

2010 Turbomachine nacelle and anti-icing system and method CNTs are oriented and arranged to conduct electrical current through the heating [300]
therefor element, intended for an anti-icing system

2010 Lightning protection for composite aircraft structures CNTs act as conductive nanoparticles in an epoxy resin, intended for usage as a [296]
lightning protection system

2010 Multifunctional de-icing/anti-icing system Aligned and oriented CNTs are used to conduct electrical current through the heating [298]
element in a nacelle enabling an advanced anti-icing system

2012 Component with carbon nanotubes CNTs are embedded in a resin matrix for high conductivity of a component acting as [297]
lightning protection on aircraft and spacecraft

2012 Retractable aircraft wing tip The flexible lifting envelope of a wing may be reinforced with CNTs [295]

2013 Nanotube-enhanced interlayers for composite structures CNT interlayer assemblies for aircraft and other structures with nanotube-enhanced [293]
interlayers

2013 Aircraft joint and bonding A bonding lead comprising of an electrically conductive core and sheath made of CNTs, [301]
related to an aircraft joint and methods of inhibiting sparking across such joint

2013 Carbon nanotube-enhanced metallic wire CNTs are utilized as a coating material on a conductive wire comprising a metallic [302]
wire, where the coating material features a higher specific conductivity while
maintaining a low contact resistance with the metallic wire

2013 Camouflage utilizing nano-optical arrays embedded in carbon An array of CNTs in conjunction with a plurality of energy transmitting elements are [303]
matrix embedded within the absorbing material resulting in a camouflage material with an
electromagnetic energy (EME) absorbing layer

2013 Carbon nanotube coated structure and associated method of CNTs provide integrated thermal emissivity, atomic oxygen (AO) shielding and [304]
fabrication tailorable conductivity to the underlying surface

Table 7
A selection of projects involving CNTs in aerospace applications.

Project name Role of carbon nanotubes Start Source(s)

year

Carbon Nanotubes for
Applications in Electronics (CANAPE)
The production of SWCNTs and MWCNTs on a bulk scale by using chemical 2004 [305]
vapor deposition
Development of techniques for lateral growth of CNTs in defined positions with
applications in electronic devices
Toxicological study of CNTs related to health hazards
Carbon nanotube/polymer composites tested for biocompatibility

Aerospace Nanotube Hybrid Composite
Structures with Sensing and Actuating
Capabilities (NOESIS)
Formation of CNT structured assemblies embedded into resin systems for 2005 [306]
sensing/actuating purposes
Platform for mechanical sensing/actuating performance predictions
Composite materials with increased damage tolerance, fracture toughness and fatigue
performance
Weight reduction of 10% compared to conventional equivalent CFRP components

Carbon Nanotube Confinement Strategies to Active chemical functionalization of CNTs for their integration in the selected 2008 [307]
Develop Novel polymeric matrices
POlymer Matrix COmposites (POCO) Growth of CNTs in specific sites on the surface of nanocomposites, using self-
assembling concepts
To develop new CNT/polymer nanocomposite products

Multifunctional Layers for Safer Aircraft Composite Enable manufacturing and validation of composite components with ice/fire 2008 [116,119,121,308]
Structures (LAYSA) protection
Development of electrical/thermal conductivity capable of distributing the heat [115,117,122]
on a composite surface

Innovative Repair of Aerospace Structures with Development of CNTs doped conductive composite fiber patches offering 2009 [309]
Curing improved mechanical performance and sensing capabilities
Optimization and Life Cycle Monitoring Abilities
(IAPETUS)

Novel Aeronautical Multifunctional Composite Development of polymeric resin doped with CNTs to develop novel 2011 [310]
Structures multifunctional composite structures with bulk electrical conductivity and self-
with Bulk Electrical Conductivity and Self-sensing sensing capabilities
Capabilities (ELECTRICAL)
CNT handling is considered based on health, environment and safety issues

Applied NanoStructured Solutions (ANS) Infused carbon nanostructures (CNS) provide low cost manufacturing 2013 [311]
processes for next-generation of low-cost composite materials with enhanced
electrical and thermal conductivity, advanced shielding properties and protection against
lightning strikes
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
Table 8
Implemented CNTs in aerospace applications.
Application Role of carbon nanotubes References
F-35 Lightning Structural enhancement (wingtip [312]
fairings)
Gas detector/chemical Sensing and detection [313]
sensor
Portable Nanomesh Safer drinking water for astronauts [314]
AH-64 Apache Structural design of helicopter rotor [315]
blades
invalid [31]. For polymer matrix embedding, the CNTs need to be
evenly dispersed, which is a challenging task, due to the presence of
van der Waals interactions between different tubes resulting in
agglomeration, for CVD-grown CNTs [27,325]. The difficulty arises
upon subjecting the agglomerated nanoparticles to force, which
may result in premature failure of the final product [326]. For
nanocomposites it is noteworthy that processing and manufactur-
ing technologies related to quality and commercialization present
difficult challenges which need to be resolved [89]. Another crucial
parameter with direct influence on the strength, toughness, mod-
ulus, and maximization of unidirectional properties is the align-
ment of the nanoparticle [327]. Researchers have also identified
that defective structures of CNTs can be distinctive, with SWCNTs
having less defects in comparison to MWCNTs which in specific
studies have exhibited both structural and topological effects
[328–330]. One challenge that yet needs to be resolved is that
despite the superlative resilience and flexibility which CNTs exhibit
at nanoscale, a translation to macroscale is not necessarily achieved.
The European Union (EU) [331] identified barriers to commerciali-
zation of nanocomposites, including those with CNTs, intended for
the aeronautical industry to depend on three main factors. These
consisted of availability of large parts with good quality at a
low cost, resistance properties and robustness of new composite
materials, as well as automated production for large scale. It was
further identified that in Europe, 80% of polymer nanocomposites
will be utilized by the automotive and aeronautical industries.
Environmental health and safety (EHS) issues, associated with
nanomaterials, are potential release and subsequent exposure of
manufacturers and users of such materials, during the manufactur-
ing and usage phases, respectively.
7.1. Large scale production
Due to the wide range of applications where CNTs can be used and
in order to achieve their full potential, these materials have to be
available in large quantities. Despite production of relative large
volumes of CNTs [332], a full large-scale production of CNTs is yet to
be resolved. To date, researchers have investigated alternative manu-
facturing methods for large-scale production of CNTs, for instance by
electric-arc technique [333], modified mechano-chemical process
[334], the growth of CNTs on aligned MWCNTs on thin flakes of
quartz substrates [335], self-assembly by means of polar molecular
patterns [336], and by the use of reducing flame spray synthesis [337].
7.2. Adequate quality at a low cost
The introduction of CNTs at an adequate quality and low cost is
mandatory for their establishment in different disciplines. A study
that realized both these objectives was recently presented by Zhao
et al. [338], by utilizing direct current arc discharge with a
horizontal graphite anode and vertical rotating cylindrical graphite
cathode in air. Other research studies where CNTs with a low cost
were produced have been undertaken by catalytic pyrolysis of
59
hydrocarbons [339] and spray pyrolysis [340]. Despite the afore-
mentioned studies, fully detailed low cost production of CNTs at
high quality is yet to be introduced, for CNTs to be utilized in a
wider extent within different engineering disciplines.
An emerging technology that will revolutionize the aerospace
industry upon its implementation is 3D-printing of aerospace
components. CNTs are in this context highly attractive materials,
as they may enable the incorporation of the multi-functionality
into the designed components [341]. According to a recent article
[342], a number of aerospace companies such as Airbus, Boeing,
General Electric, and Lockheed Martin have already embraced the
usage of 3D-printing. The immediate results of CNT incorporation
in 3D-printing provide improvement of mechanical properties and
enhanced electrical/thermal conductivities [343].
7.3. Achievement of optimized properties upon CNT implementation
Realizing the optimized properties of CNTs in particular related
to their mechanical behavior is commonly addressed by three
different approaches which include covalent cross-linking of
adjacent shells/tubes, reformable/rehealable bonding between
CNTs and the application of optimized geometrical fiber designs
[344]. In the first of these, a strong bond between the CNTs ensues
in improvements related to the specific strength and stiffness.
The second approach can be actualized by means of van der
Waals/hydrogen bonding and the third one makes use of the
properties of the first two mentioned approaches. The work of
Filleter et al. [344] provides a thorough insight of these three
approaches, for changing engineering designs related to CNTs.
7.4. Health and safety concerns
CNT implementation and its relation to health and safety of
workers was recently addressed in an extensive report by the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
[345]. The vast number of applications in which CNTs and CNFs
are used makes them available in facilities ranging from research
laboratories, production plants to processes where these materials
are utilized, disposed and recycled. Therefore, several research
studies have been conducted on the potential exposure to airborne
concentrations of CNTs [346–352]. Thus far, there has been no
reports substantiating the adverse health effects in workers
producing CNTs [345]. Nonetheless, this statement should be
considered against the background that humans are capable of
developing fibrosis and lung inflammation as a consequence of
fiber and particle inhalation. Therefore, the corresponding expo-
sure limits to CNTs may instigate a risk for the development of the
aforementioned diseases. It is already established that CNT pro-
duction and the tasks thereof related to CNT handling ensues in
aerosolization. In particular, research studies [353–356,351] have
indicated exposure concentrations of airborne CNTs exceeding
background exposure measurements, upon not utilizing engineer-
ing controls for diminution of exposure levels. Additionally, the
airborne concentration levels of discrete and agglomerated CNTs
have been shown to be influenced by the specific tasks performed
and involved work processes. Thus, a complete exposure assess-
ment should be performed for workers with different tasks, in
order to establish potential exposure limits for different processes.
There are currently a number of adverse health effects identified
upon exposure of animals to CNTs. Some of these include pul-
monary fibrosis, granulomatous inflammation, and potential
initiation of mesothelial injury which in the long term can cause
pleural pathology, including meso-thelioma, should CNTs migrate
into the intrapleural space [345]. Until the complete effects of CNT
exposure and the specific risks for humans are determined, it is
recommended that workplace exposures should be minimized and
60 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
Table 9
The advantages, caveats and unexplored aspects of CNT implementation in aerospace applications.
Discipline CNT implementation benefits
Aeronautical Engineering Reduced weight of aircraft due to lighter structural
materials
Hydrophobicity is attained on aerospace materials
Aerostats will obtain an increased operational altitude
(above 18 km)
Provide the aircraft with lightning protection
Replacement of the internal wiring of the aircraft
results in reduced weight
Aircraft icing mitigation and economic savings in time
and energy for anti-icing/de-icing measures
Self-healing characteristics for external surface
materials of the aircraft
Longer operational duration of UAVs
Aerospace Engineering Reduced weight of spacecraft, satellites, and space
vehicles
Micrometeoroid/Orbital Debris (MMOD) strike
protection
High resolution in-space in-situ imaging
Increased catalytic efficiency of life support system
Facilitate the delivery of payloads to space
Radar absorbing materials (RAMs) for satellites
Distribution of heat flow in satellites and thermal
protection systems
Long wear life and low friction can be attained for
CNTs in aerospace applications
that an occupational health surveillance program is established for
workers exposed to CNTs [345]. Upon discussion of health and
safety concerns related to CNTs, often exposure to these materials
is discussed. Nonetheless, this section will expand on the subject
of CNT release. Recently, a comprehensive review on this topic has
been conducted by Nowack et al. [357], in which release scenarios
are explored for CNTs in composites. Nowack and co-workers
outline that the release of CNTs from products occurs either by
direct release or by a CNT embedded particle in the matrix, with a
probable subsequent release of CNTs from the matrix. The concept
of release is in this context viewed as a prerequisite for exposure.
The release of nanomaterials from products can occur at any given
time, during the life-cycle of the product [358]. Within the
framework of this review, it is noteworthy to highlight scenarios
in aerospace applications where potential release of CNTs might be
likely, once their implementation has been attained. In terms of
recycling and incineration, the adverse effects of CNT embedded
aircraft components are not yet explored. For future aircraft, such
scenarios may comprise of aircraft incidents or accidents, where
the potential release of CNTs and exposure thereof may become
reality if these materials have been implemented on the airframe
of commercial airliners, general aviation aircraft, UAVs, military
aircraft, and rotorcraft. Aircraft incidents and accidents often result
in the fuselage of the aircraft becoming damaged. Depending on
the severity of the impact, weathering by UV, hail, rain, sand, and
temperature conditions, direct release to the environment may
take place, with a subsequent exposure of crew and passengers to
CNTs. For future spacecraft, in particular the hazards associated
with CNT implementation for the spacecraft crew are even more
CNT implementation caveats and unexplored aspects
Does CNT implementation on the airframe affect the respiratory systems of passenger
and crew?
Is CNT implementation safe, in terms of fire retardance?
What are the possible effects of CNT dispersion in the atmosphere due to an accident
or incident?
Can composites reinforced with CNTs withstand erosion for prolong periods of time?
Can aircraft manufacturers utilize CNTs in the manufacturing process
without health hazards to workers arising from CNT exposure?
Will accelerated laboratory testing of CNTs represent actual flight conditions?
How accurate can CNT implementation on composite materials be simulated
computationally?
Can the superior material properties of CNTs stand the trial of time, or is there a grace
period for these materials in comparison to an estimated operating period of a
commercial airliner  30 years?
Are there any potential hazards with utilizing CNTs in airborne applications in terms
of human/wild life exposure to nanomaterials?
Will CNTs exhibit terrestrial-like properties in space?
How susceptible are CNT-manufactured parts to solar radiation in space?
Are there any health hazards or safety concerns upon utilizing CNTs in space?
Can the empirical space environments be simulated in terrestrial laboratories?
What methods of CNT exposure assessment will be available upon full
implementation of these materials in aerospace sciences?
Will a long-term exposure to an environment where CNTs have been utilized as
interior materials, in conjunction with a pressurized cabin and material degradation
expose less desirable aspects of CNTs?
What climate change impacts are possible due to the traverse of aircraft and
spacecraft with CNT reinforced fuselages?
How well do CNTs serve as fire retardant materials when implemented in aerospace
materials, in case of a fire onboard an aerospace vehicle?
pronounced as a prolong exposure due to longer missions can be
expected. In the article by Köhler et al. [359], the extent and
circumstances of CNT release are attributed to the means of CNT
incorporation in different products. In addition it is identified that
these materials may be persistent in the environment due to their
extraordinarily resistant nature against chemical, physical or
biological impact. Hence, it is imperative that the health and
safety concerns following CNT implementation in aerospace appli-
cations are fully explored.
7.5. Recycling and environmental inputs
The advantageous synergistic properties of polymers with CNT
films have been a highly attractive subject of investigation by different
research teams [320,360,361]. Nonetheless, the carcinogenic risks
involving CNTs [176,362] call for proper collection and treatment of
damaged or discarded CNT composite films. From an environmental
protection perspective, recyclability can remedy these effects. A study
conducted by Zou et al. [363] demonstrated water-soluble properties
and recyclability of CNTs by usage of a benign water-soluble polymer
and a general spin-coating process for the preparation of composite
films. An extensive review which covers the release pathways of CNTs
into the natural environment was recently presented by Petersen et al.
[364]. In this review, it was recognized that researchers should
examine the fate and release of CNTs during the service life and after
disposal of polymer/CNT nanocomposites. It was identified that harsh
environmental conditions are likely to instigate the release of CNTs
from polymer matrix composites, with potential release mechanisms
such as biodegradation, mechanical degradation, diffusion, matrix
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68 61

SPACECRAFT AND SATELLITES

• ICING MITIGATION • PATCH ANTENNAS

• MORE EFFICIENT PROPULSION SYSTEMS
• PORTABLE NANOMESH
• DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT FLOW
• SPACE LUBRICATION
• GAS DECTECTOR/CHEMICAL SENSOR
• SENSING AND SELF-HEALING
• REGENERABLE SYSTEM FOR REMOVAL OF CO2
• ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING
• LIGHTNING PROTECTION
• REDUCED LAUNCH COST OF SRA
• LIGHTER AIRFRAME

CARBON NANOTUBE BENEFITS IN AEROSPACE SCIENCES

COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT MILITARY AIRCRAFT ROTORCRAFT

• LIGHTER AIRFRAME
• LIGHTNING PROTECTION
• AIRCRAFT ICING MITIGATION
• MORE EFFICIENT PROPULSION SYSTEMS
• SENSING AND SELF-HEALING
• REDUCED WEIGHT DUE TO REPLACEMENT
OF WIRING
• LIGHTER AIRFRAME
• LIGHTNING PROTECTION • LIGHTER AIRFRAME
• AIRCRAFT ICING MITIGATION • STRUCTURAL DAMPING
• MORPHING STRUCTURES • ROTORCRAFT ICING MITIGATION
• STEALTH IMPROVEMENT • STEALTH IMPROVEMENT
• MORE EFFICIENT PROPULSION SYSTEMS • MORE EFFICIENT PROPULSION SYSTEMS
• SENSING AND SELF-HEALING
• SENSING AND SELF-HEALING
• REDUCED WEIGHT DUE TO REPLACEMENT OF
WIRING GRAPHICS BY DR. OMID GOHARDANI

Fig. 12. The benefits of using CNTs in commercial aircraft, military aircraft, rotorcraft, and space applications.

degradation, and incineration. For the purposes of the present study, it
is imperative to note that the CNT release in aerospace applications
seldom is discussed. Hence, the authors would like to highlight this
point for future research endeavors and call for CNT release implica-
tions to be pursued in aerospace sciences. If implemented on aero-
structures, the exposure to rain, sand, ice, hail, corrosion, and erosion
make up a number of potential scenarios where CNT release can be
possible.
8. Discussion
There are many aspects associated with the implementation of
CNTs in aerospace applications, out of which a few are undeter-
mined. The raised points in Table 9 discuss the implementation of
these unexplored questions related to actual implementation of
CNTs in aerospace applications. The list of presented questions
can however become extended and is by no means exhaustive.
The majority of the posed questions in the preceding section stem
from the relative limited experience that scientists have had with
advanced materials such as CNTs in real-life applications. Due to
this fact, the answers to the posed questions are yet to be fully
investigated. One method of such exploration may consist of
different types of accelerated testing. However, the adverse health
properties of CNTs and their current explored nature implicate that
smaller scale studies need to be conducted and further research is
needed, prior to a well-defined implementation framework of CNTs
in aerospace applications, which not solely is based upon their
superior characteristics but also considers the adverse aspects of
their implications on aerospace vehicles, with health and safety
consideration in mind during the manufacturing process, the life
cycle of the product, and upon its final disposal. It is also established
that certification of new products and technologies for the aero-
space industry featuring CNTs will be prolonged by the challenges
and in particular health and safety aspects stemming from the
novelty of these materials. Once recognized standards and a
certification framework for aeronautics and astronautics are estab-
lished, future accreditation of systems involving CNTs for aerospace
applications will be facilitated. The findings of this paper have been
based on reported results available in the public domain. The
competitiveness within the field of nanotechnology, intellectual
property of companies and the efforts of scientists, researchers and
engineers infer that many emerging applications of CNTs will be
exposed following the commercialization of CNT based products in
aerospace sciences. Fig. 12 provides an overview of the benefits by
utilizing CNTs in commercial aircraft, military aircraft, rotorcraft,
and space applications.
9. Future outlooks
Recently, NASA [365] presented its vision and strategy for aero-
nautics research, where emphasis was placed on the growth of safer
NextGen aircraft that operate efficiently with reduced environmental
impacts. In this context, attention was devoted to technologies that
are currently revolutionizing other industries and on the beneficial
potential of these, if applied to aviation. These concepts consisted of
smart materials, additive manufacturing, 3-D printing, information
technology, and embedded micro/nanosensors. The present review
article has discussed all the aforementioned topics pertaining to the
topic of CNT implementation within aeronautics and astronautics. It
is believed that CNTs will have a significant role for the future of
aerospace industry and many challenges faced today will be resolved
with imminent advancement and breakthroughs in nanotechnology.
62 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
The ever-changing nature of the nanotechnology field implies that it
encapsulates applications across a wide range of the scientific
spectrum. The prospects for revolutionary concepts related to CNTs
in particularly related to aerospace sciences in the future are there-
fore extremely bright. Although a glimpse of the potential applica-
tions of CNTs in aerospace related applications has been outlined in
this article, the continuous research efforts within nanotechnology
render a complete coverage of all possible applications of CNTs
within aerospace sciences to be beyond the scope of this study.
Hence, it can be expected that numerous potential applications of
CNTs within aeronautics and astronautics can emerge in the future.
Future environmental exposure on spacecraft is dependent on their
altitude, attitude, orbit, inclination, and mission duration [269]. These
parameters in synergy with longer predicted mission durations
depict the challenging tasks that future aerospace materials have to
withstand in order to provide a safe environment for future astro-
nauts and space vehicles. It is further anticipated that once a
thorough understanding of CNT characterization, mass manufactur-
ing, safety concerns, recyclability, and cost reduction is obtained, the
usage of CNTs in commercial aircraft, military aircraft, unmanned
aerial vehicles, rotorcraft, and space vehicles will increase, particu-
larly, within the structure but also in the propulsion system, electrical
systems, and thermal protection systems, in a not so distant future.
Dramatic changes in weight reduction for aerospace vehicles and
spacecraft against today's gross weights are virtually glimpses of the
full potential of nanotechnology for aerospace sciences. For future
space missions, CNT functionalization and optimization in terms of
electrical, magnetic, mechanical, optical, and thermal performance is
highly desired [281]. Apart from these properties, self-diagnostic/
repair and self-sensing will be essential.
10. Conclusions
A retrospective glance on the covered topics in this paper
portrays a multifaceted image of CNTs in aerospace applications.
The implementation of these materials in aerospace engineering
will as shown herein provide revolutionary advancements once
the technical obstacles have been addressed in full detail. Equally,
the prospective implementation of CNTs in aerospace sciences
unwraps multi-layered terrestrial and celestial health and safety
concerns, and performance evaluations during extended time
periods. To date, this review article has been the very first article
to feature these aspects of concern as a compilation, in direct
relation to the aerospace industry and provide a roadmap for
future topics to be addressed related to CNT implementation in
aerospace sciences. This study has reviewed current and potential
applications of CNTs for future commercial aircraft, military air-
craft, UAVs, MAVs, space vehicles, satellites, aerostats, and the
space elevator. Table 9 provides an overview of the findings of this
study. It can be established that the benefits of CNT implementa-
tion in aerospace engineering for terrestrial and space applications
are prodigious. Despite the limited existing applications of CNTs in
aerospace sciences, the rationale for future applications of these
materials in aerospace engineering will be realized with both a
short-term and a long-term perspective. It is recognized that new
concepts in nanotechnology will facilitate this implementation
procedure despite current existing scientific challenges.
Acknowledgments
Any opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this
journal article are those of the authors only and do not necessarily
reflect the corporate views of any organization(s) affiliated with
the authors. Furthermore, the authors are not aware of any
affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this study. Dr.
Omid Gohardani gratefully acknowledges Prof. Max Platzer, Naval
Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, USA, for invitation and insight-
ful suggestions related to this article.
References
[1] Dillon A, Jones K, Bekkedahl T, Kiang C, Bethune D, Heben M. Storage of
hydrogen in single-walled carbon nanotubes. Nature 1997;386:377–9, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1038/386377a0.
[2] Che G, Lakshmi B, Fisher E, Martin C. Carbon nanotubule membranes for
electrochemical energy storage and production. Nature 1998;393
(6683):346–9.
[3] Coleman J, Khan U, Gun'ko Y. Mechanical reinforcement of polymers using
carbon nanotubes. Adv Mater 2006;18(6):689–706.
[4] Gooding J. Nanostructuring electrodes with carbon nanotubes: a review on
electrochemistry and applications for sensing. Electrochim Acta 2005;50
(15):3049–60.
[5] Bianco A, Maurizio P. Can carbon nanotubes be considered useful tools for
biological applications? Adv Mater 2003;15(20):1765–8.
[6] Bianco A, Kostas K, Maurizio P. Applications of carbon nanotubes in drug
delivery. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2005;9(6):674–9.
[7] Wong Shi, Kam N, O'Connell M, Wisdom JA, Dai H. Carbon nanotubes as
multifunctional biological transporters and near-infrared agents for selective
cancer cell destruction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:11600–5.
[8] Fan S, Chapline M, Franklin N, Tombler TW, Cassell A, Dai H. Self-oriented
regular arrays of carbon nanotubes and their field emission properties.
Science 1999;283(5401):512–4.
[9] De Heer W, Chatelain A, Ugarte D. A carbon nanotube field-emission electron
source. Science 1995;270(5239):1179–80.
[10] Saito Y, Uemura S. Field emission from carbon nanotubes and its application
to electron sources. Carbon 2000;38(2):169–82.
[11] Duggins P. Final countdown: NASA and the end of the space shuttle program.
Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida; 2007, ISBN 0813033845.
[12] Young J, Crippen R. Wings in orbit: scientific and engineering legacies of the
space shuttle 1971–2010, In: Hale W. Executive Editor., vol. 3409. Govern-
ment Printing Office; 2011 ISBN 0160868475.
[13] Wagner M, Norris G. Boeing 787 dreamliner. New York, USA: Zenith Imprint;
2009 ISBN 9781616732271.
[14] Norris G. Airbus A380: superjumbo of the 21st Century. Minneapolis, MN,
USA: Zenith Press; 2005. ISBN 076032218X.
[15] Dresselhaus M, Endo M. Relation of carbon nanotubes to other carbon
materials. In: Carbon nanotubes, vol. 80. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg; 2001.
p. 11–28.
[16] Dai H, Kong J, Zhou C, Franklin N, Tombler T, Cassell A, et al. Controlled
chemical routes to nanotube architectures, physics, and devices. J Phys Chem
1999;103:11246–55.
[17] Moore A, Ubbelohde A, Young D. An induction furnace for operations up to
3400 1C using well oriented graphite. Br J Appl Phys 1962;13:393.
[18] Dresselhaus M, Dresselhaus G, Sugihara K, Spain I, Goldberg H. Graphite
fibers and filaments. Springer series in materials science, vol. 5. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag; 1988.
[19] Endo M. The growth mechanism of vapor-grown carbon fibers (Mecanisme
de croissance en phase vapeur de bres de carbone) [PhD thesis]. University of
Orleans, Orleans, France; 1975.
[20] Oberlin A, Endo M, Koyama T. Filamentous growth of carbon through
benzene decomposition. J Cryst Growth 1976;32(3):335–49.
[21] Tománek D, Jorio A, Dresselhaus M, Dresselhaus G. Introduction to the
important and exciting aspects of carbon-nanotube science and technology.
In: Dresselhaus M, Dresselhaus G, Avouris P, editors. Carbon nanotubes:
advanced topics in the synthesis, structure, properties, and applications, vol.
111. New York, USA: Springer; 2008 ISBN 3540728651.
[22] Zhifeng R, Yucheng L, Yang W. Introduction to carbon. In: Aligned carbon
nanotubes: physics, concepts, fabrication and devices. Springer; 2013. p. 299.
ISBN 3642304907.
[23] Dresselhaus M, Dresselhaus G, Eklund P. Science of fullerenes and carbon
nanotubes: their properties and applications. USA: Academic Press; 1996
ISBN 0080540775.
[24] Iijima S, Endo M. Eds. Special issue on Nanotubes. Carbon 1995;33
(7):869–1019.
[25] Special issue on carbon nanotubes. Appl Phys A 67, 1998, pp. 1–119.
[26] Ajayan P. Nanotubes from carbon. Chem Rev 1999;99:1787–99.
[27] Thostenson E, Ren Z, Chou T. Advances in the science and technology of
carbon nanotubes and their composites: a review. Compos Sci Technol
2001;61:1899–912.
[28] Ehrburger P. Carbon nanotubes: the present state. Carbon 2002;40(10):
873–1006.
[29] Popov V. Carbon nanotubes: properties and application. Mater Sci Eng R: Rep
2004;43(3):61–102 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2003.10.001.
[30] Komarov F, Mironov A. Carbon nanotubes: present and future. Phys Chem
Solid State 2004;5(3):411–29 ISSN 1729-4428.
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
[31] Thostenson E, Chou T. Carbon nanotube-based composites for future air force
and aerospace systems. Technical report, ADA448421.
[32] O'Connell M. Carbon nanotubes: properties and applications. USA: Taylor &
Francis; 2006 ISBN 0849327482.
[33] Popov V, Lambin P, editors. Carbon nanotubes: from basic research to
nanotechnology. In: NATO science series, vol. 222. Netherlands: Springer;
2006.
[34] Loiseau A, editor. Understanding carbon nanotubesfrom basics to applications.
Lecture notes in physics. Netherlands: Springer; 2006 ISBN 3540269223.
[35] Fiorito S, editor. Carbon nanotubes: angels or demons?. Singapore: Pan
Stanford Publishing; 2008 ISBN 9814241016.
[36] Javey A, Kong J. Carbon nanotube electronics. New York, USA: Springer; 2009
ISBN 0387692851.
[37] Ma P, Kim J. Carbon nanotubes for polymer reinforcement. Florida, USA: CRC
Press; 2011 ISBN 1439826242.
[38] Zhang Q, editor. Carbon nanotubes and their applications. Pan Stanford
series on carbon-based nanomaterials, vol. 1. Singapore: CRC Press; 2012
ISBN 9814241903.
[39] Baughman R, Zakhidov A, de Heer W. Carbon nanotubes—the route toward
applications. Science 2002;297(787):787–92.
[40] Odom T, Huang J, Kim P, Lieber C. Atomic structure and electronic properties
of single-walled carbon nanotubes. Nature 1998;391:62–4.
[41] Dresselhaus M, Dresselhaus G, Saito R. Physics of carbon nanotubes. Carbon
1995;33(7):883–91.
[42] Kalamkarov A, Georgiades A, Rokkam S, Veedu V, Ghasemi-Nejhad M.
Analytical and numerical techniques to predict carbon nanotubes properties.
Int J Solids Struct 2006;43(22 and 23):6832–54 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijsolstr.2006.02.009.
[43] Ku B, Emery M, Maynard A, Stolzenburg M, McMurry P. in situ structure
characterization of airborne carbon nanofibres by a tandem mobility-mass
analysis. Nanotechnology 2006;17:3613–21.
[44] Nanotechnologies: terminology and definitions for nano-object; nanoparti-
cle, nanofibre and nanoplate. Technical report. European Committee for
Standardization; 2009 (ISO/TS 27687:2008).
[45] Iijima S. Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. Nature 1991;354:56–8.
[46] Iijima S, Ichihashi T. Single-shell carbon nanotubes of 1-nm diameter. Nature
1993;363:603–5, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/363603a0.
[47] Bethune D, Kiang C, de Vries M, Gorman G, Savoy R, Vazquez J, et al. Cobalt-
catalysed growth of carbon nanotubes with single-atomic-layer walls. Nature
1993;363:605–7, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/363605a0.
[48] Thess A, Lee R, Nikolaev P, Dai H, Petit P, Robert J, et al. Crystalline ropes of
metallic carbon nanotubes. Science 1996;273(5274):483–7, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1126/science.273.5274.483.
[49] Yacamán J, Yoshida M, Rendon L, Santiesteban J. Catalytic growth of carbon
microtubules with fullerene structure. Appl Phys Lett 1993;62(2):202–4.
[50] De Volder M, Tawfick S, Baughman R, Hart A. Carbon nanotubes: present and
future commercial applications. Science 2013;339(6119):535–9, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1126/science.1222453.
[51] Wang X, Yong Z, Li Q, Bradford P, Liu W, Tucker D, et al. Ultrastrong, stiff and
multifunctional carbon nanotube composites. Mater Res Lett 2013;1(1):
19–25, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2012.686586X.
[52] Al-Saleh M, Sundararaj U. A review of vapor grown carbon nanofiber/
polymer conductive composites. Carbon 2009;47:2–22 http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.carbon.2008.09.039.
[53] Al-Saleh M, Sundararaj U. Review of the mechanical properties of carbon
nanofiber/polymer composites. Compos Part A: Appl Sci Manuf
2011;42:2126–42 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.08.005.
[54] Winey K, Vaia R. Polymer nanocomposites. MRS Bull 2007;32(4):314–9.
[55] Kim P, Shi L, Majumdar A, McEuen P. Thermal transport measurements of
individual multiwalled nanotubes. Phys Rev Lett 2001;87(21):215502.
[56] Shaffer M, Windle A. Fabrication and characterization of carbon nanotube/
poly(vinyl alcohol) composites. Adv Mater 1999;11(11):937–41.
[57] Xie X, Mai Y, Zhou X. Dispersion and alignment of carbon nanotubes in
polymer matrix: a review. Mater Sci Eng R 2005;49(4):89–112.
[58] Iijima S, Ajayan P, Ichihashi T. Growth model for carbon nanotubes. Phys Rev
Lett 1992;69(21):3100.
[59] Lee C, Park J. Growth model of bamboo-shaped carbon nanotubes by thermal
chemical vapor deposition. Appl Phys Lett 2000;77(21):3397–9.
[60] Li C, Chou T. A structural mechanics approach for the analysis of carbon
nanotubes. Int J Solids Struct 2003;40:2487–99.
[61] Tserpes K, Papanikos P. Finite element modeling of single-walled carbon
nanotubes. Compos Part B: Eng 2005;36(5):468–77 http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.compositesb.2004.10.003.
[62] Meo M, Rossi M. Prediction of Young's modulus of single wall carbon
nanotubes by molecular-mechanics based finite element modelling. Compos
Sci Technol 2006;66(11 and 12):1597–605.
[63] Meo M, Rossi M. A molecular-mechanics based finite element model for
strength prediction of single wall carbon nanotubes. Mater Sci Eng: A
2007;454 and 455:170–7.
[64] Rafiee R, Moghadam R. Simulation of impact and post-impact behavior of
carbon nanotube reinforced polymer using multi-scale finite element
modeling. Comput Mater Sci 2012;63:261–8.
[65] Li X, Fan X, Zhu Y, Li J, Adams J, Shen S, et al. Computational modeling and
evaluation of the thermal behavior of randomly distributed single-walled
carbon nanotube/polymer composites. Comput Mater Sci 2012;63:207–13.
63
[66] Coto B, Antia I, Barriga J, Blanco M, Sarasua J. Influence of the geometrical
properties of the carbon nanotubes on the interfacial behavior of epoxy/CNT
composites: a molecular modelling approach. Comput Mater Sci
2013;79:99–104.
[67] Buldum A, Lu J. Electron field emission properties of single-walled carbon
nanotubes: modeling and simulations. Nanotechnology 2003;3:297–300.
[68] Rafii-Tabar H. Computational modelling of thermo-mechanical and transport
properties of carbon nanotubes. Phys Rep 390(4 and 5), 2004, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.physrep.2003.10.012.
[69] Spanos P, Elsbernd P, Ward B, Koenck T. Estimation of the physical properties
of nanocomposites by finite-element discretization and Monte Carlo simula-
tion. Phil Trans R Soc A 371, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2012.0494.
[70] Bacon R, Bowman J. Production and properties of graphite whiskers. Bull Am
Phys Soc 1957;2:131.
[71] Hillert M, Lange N. The structure of graphite filaments. Z Kristallogr
1958;111:24–34.
[72] Boehm H. Carbon from carbon monoxide disproportionation on nickel and
iron catalysts: morphological studies and possible growth mechanisms.
Carbon 1973;11:583–90.
[73] Baker R, Harris P, Thomas R, Waite R. Formation of filamentous carbon from
iron, cobalt and chromium catalyzed decomposition of acetylene. J Catal
1973;30:86–95.
[74] Radushkevich L, Lukyanovich V. O strukture ugleroda, obrazujucegosja pri
termiceskom razlozenii okisi ugleroda na zeleznom kontakte. Zurn Fisic
Chim 1952;26:88–95.
[75] Monthioux M, Kuznetsov V. Who should be given the credit for the discovery
of carbon nanotubes? Carbon 2006;44:1621–3.
[76] Meador M, Files B, Li J, Manohara H, Powell D, Siochi E. Nanotechnology
roadmap technology area 10. Technical report. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA); 2012.
[77] Schilthuizen S, Simonis F. Nanotechnology: innovation opportunities for
tomorrow's defence; 2009.
[78] Tan B. Nanomechanics: aeronautics and aerospace prospective. J Aeronaut
Aerosp Eng 1(e1167), 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2168-9792.1000e117.
[79] Tsach S, Tatievsky A, London L. Future civil aviation trends. In: Fifty-second
Israel annual conference on aerospace sciences. Tel-Aviv and Haifa, Israel;
2012.
[80] Gohardani A, Doulgeris G, Singh R. Challenges of future aircraft propulsion: a
review of distributed propulsion technology and its potential application for
the all electric commercial aircraft. Prog Aerosp Sci 2011;47(5):369–91
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2010.09.001.
[81] Gohardani A, editor. Distributed propulsion technology, mechanical engi-
neering theory and applications. New York, USA: Nova Science Publishers;
2014 ISBN 978-1-62948-588-1.
[82] Gohardani A. A synergistic glance at the prospects of distributed propulsion
technology and the electric aircraft concept for future unmanned air vehicles
and commercial/military aviation. Prog Aerosp Sci 2013;57:25–70 http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2012.08.001.
[83] Baur J, Silverman E. Challenges and opportunities in multifunctional nano-
composite structures for aerospace applications. MRS Bull 2007;32
(4):328–34.
[84] Luo J, Daniel I. Characterization and modeling of mechanical behavior of
polymer/clay nanocomposites. Compos Sci Technol 2003;63(11):1607–16
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00060-5.
[85] Gorga R, Cohen R. Toughness enhancements in poly(methyl methacrylate) by
addition of oriented multiwall carbon nanotube. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym
Phys 2004;42(14):2690–702.
[86] Schmidt G, Malwitz M. Properties of polymer–nanoparticle composites. Curr
Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2003;8(1):103–8.
[87] Jordan J, Jacob K, Tannenbaum R, Sharaf M, Jasiuk I. Experimental trends in
polymer nanocomposites—a review. Mater Sci Eng: A 2005;393(1):1–11.
[88] Moniruzzaman M, Winey K. Polymer nanocomposites containing carbon
nanotubes. Macromolecules 2006;39(16):5194–205.
[89] Hussain F, Hojjati M, Okamoto M, Gorga R. Polymer–matrix nanocomposites,
processing: an overview. J Compos Mater 2006;40:1511–75, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1177/0021998306067321.
[90] Paul D, Robeson L. Polymer nanotechnology: nanocomposites. Polymer
2008;49(15):3187–204.
[91] Kim H, Abdala A, Macosko C. Graphene/polymer nanocomposites. Macro-
molecules 2010;43(16):6515–30.
[92] O'Donnell S. Impact of nanomaterials in airframes on commercial aviation.
In: AIAA third annual aviation technology, integration, and operations (ATIO)
technology conference. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Denver, CO; 2003. AIAA-2003-6774.
[93] O'Donnell S, Smith D. Potential impact of carbon nanotube reinforced
polymer composite on commercial heavy aircraft. Technical report. MITRE
Corporation; 2004. Project no. 02MSR055-F3.
[94] O'Donnell S, Sprong K, Haltli B. Potential impact of carbon nanotube
reinforced polymer composite on commercial aircraft performance and
economics. In: AIAA fourth aviation technology, integration and operations
(ATIO) forum, Chicago, IL; 2004. Project no. 02MSR055-F3.
[95] Gkikas G, Sioulas D, Lekatou A, Barkoula N, Paipetis A. Enhanced bonded
aircraft repair using nano-modified adhesives. Mater Des 2012;41:394–402.
[96] Rosca I, Hoa S. Method for reducing contact resistivity of carbon nanotube-
containing epoxy adhesives for aerospace applications. Compos Sci Technol
2011;71(2):95–100 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.10.016.
64 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
[97] Thostenson E, Chou T. On the elastic properties of carbon nanotube-based
composites: modelling and characterization. J Phys D: Appl Phys
2003;36:573–82.
[98] García E, Wardle B, Hart A. Joining prepreg composite interfaces with aligned
carbon nanotubes. Composites: Part A 2008;39(6):1065–70, http://dx.doi.
org/10.2514/1.25004.
[99] Veedu V, Cao A, Li X, Ma K, Soldano C, Kar S, et al. Multifunctional
composites using reinforced laminae with carbon-nanotube forests. Nat
Mater 2006;5(6):457–62, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmat1650.
[100] Guzman de Villoria R, Ydrefors L, Hallander P, Ishiguro K, Nordin P, Wardle B.
Aligned carbon nanotube reinforcement of aerospace carbon fiber compo-
sites: substructural strength evaluation for aerostructure applications. In:
Proceedings of the 53rd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural
dynamics and materials conference, American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Honolulu, Hawaii; 2012.
[101] Gibson R. A review of recent research on mechanics of multifunctional
composite materials and structures. Compos Struct 2010;92:2793–810.
[102] García E, Hart A, Wardle B. Long carbon nanotubes grown on the surface of
fibers for hybrid composites. AIAA J 2008;46(6):1405–12, http://dx.doi.org/
10.2514/1.25004.
[103] García E, Wardle B, Hart A, Yamamoto N. Fabrication and multifunctional
properties of a hybrid laminate with aligned carbon nanotubes grown in situ.
Compos Sci Technol 2008;68:2034–41.
[104] Blanco J, García E, Guzmán de Villoria R, Wardle B. Limiting mechanisms of
mode i interlaminar toughening of composites reinforced with aligned
carbon nanotubes. J Compos Mater 2009;43(8):825–41, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/0021998309102398.
[105] Wicks S, de Villoria R, Wardle B. Interlaminar and intralaminar reinforcement
of composite laminates with aligned carbon nanotubes. Compos Sci Technol
2010;70(1):20–8.
[106] Roco M, Mirkin C, Hersam M. Nanotechnology research directions for societal
needs in 2020: summary of international study. J Nanopart Res
2011;13:897–919, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11051-011-0275-5.
[107] Van Noorden R. The trails of new carbon. Nature 2011;469:14–6.
[108] Kukowski T. Lightweight CNT cables for aerospace. In: NESC NDE technology
assessment NASA NDI workshop, Johnson Space Center Houston, TX; 2012.
[109] Nanocomp Technologies, Inc., Nanocomp Technologies Awarded Small Busi-
ness Innovation Research (SBIR) Contract from US Air Force, 〈http://www.
reuters.com〉; 2008 [accessed 09.08.13].
[110] McKenna E. Product focus: wire and cable. Avionics Magazine, 〈http://www.
aviationtoday.com/av/military/Product-Focus-Wire-and-Cable-79536.html
[accessed 09.01.13].
[111] Drake A. NASA environmentally responsible aviation (ERA) Nþ 2 advanced
vehicle study. In: 50th Aerospace Sciences meeting including the new
horizons forum and aerospace exposition, Nashville, TN, USA; 2012.
[112] Amendola A, Mingione G. On the problem of icing for modern civil aircraft.
Air Space Eur 2001;3(3 and 4):214–7.
[113] Gent RW, Dart NP, Cansdale JT. Aircraft icing. Philos Trans: Math Phys Eng Sci:
Math 2000;358(1776):2873–911.
[114] Gohardani O. The exploration of icephobic materials and their future
prospects in aircraft icing applications. J Aeronaut Aerosp Eng 1(4):1:e116,
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2168-9792.1000e116.
[115] Gohardani O. Microhardness testing and microscopy on aerospace materials.
In: Materials today virtual conference: the frontiers of microscopy. Elsevier
Ltd.; 21 March 2012.
[116] Gohardani O, Williamson D, Hammond D. Multiple liquid impacts on
polymeric matrix composites reinforced with carbon nanotubes. Wear
2012:336–46 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2012.07.007.
[117] Gohardani O. Rain erosion characteristics of carbon nanotube reinforced
composites for potential usage as external surface materials on future
aircraft. In: Materials today virtual conference: nanotechnology. Elsevier
Ltd.; 11–13 December 2012.
[118] Gohardani O, Hammond D. Droplet interaction and dynamic wettability of
advanced materials used in aeronautics. In: Sixth Subrata Chakrabarti
international conference on fluid structure interaction, Orlando, FL, USA; 9–
11 May 2011.
[119] Gohardani O, Hammond D. Computational methods. In: Droplet interaction
and dynamic wettability of advanced materials used in aeronautics, Great
Britain: WIT Press; 2012. p. 175–85. ISBN 1845646002. ISSN 1746-1776 4471.
[120] Gohardani O, Hammond D. Ice adhesion to pristine and eroded polymer
matrix composites reinforced with carbon nanotubes for potential usage on
future aircraft. Cold Reg Sci Technol 2013;96:8–16 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
coldregions.2013.09.005.
[121] Gohardani O. The influence of erosion and wear on the accretion and
adhesion of ice for nano reinforced polymeric composites used in aeronautics
[Ph.D. thesis]. Cranfield University, 〈http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/
1826/7046〉; 2011.
[122] Gohardani O, Hammond D. Dynamic and static wettability of advanced materials
used in aeronautical applications. Int J Comput Methods Exp Meas 2013;1
(3):298–320 ISSN: 2046-0546, http://dx.doi.org/10.2495/CMEM-V1-N3-298-320.
[123] Chu H, Zhang Z, Liu Y, Leng J. Self-heating fiber reinforced polymer
composite using meso/macropore carbon nanotube paper and its application
in deicing. Carbon 2014;66:154–63.
[124] Zhao W, Li M, Zhang Z, Peng H. Carbon nanotube based composites film
heater for de-icing application. In: 14th European conference on composite
materials, Budapest, Hungary; 2010. Paper ID: 545-ECCM14.
[125] Law C. Dryden lecture: fuel options for next generation chemical propulsion.
In: Forty-ninth AIAA aerospace sciences meeting including the new horizons
forum and aerospace exposition, Orlando, FL; 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/
6.2011-1.
[126] Law C. Fuel options for next-generation chemical propulsion. AIAA J 2012;50
(January (1)):19–36, http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/1.J051328.
[127] US Department of Energy. Erosion-resistant nanocoatings for improved
energy efficiency in gas turbine engines. Technical report. Energy Efficiency
& Renewable Energy DOE/EE-0533; 2011.
[128] Godula-Jopek A, Jehle W, Wellnitz J. Hydrogen storage technologies: new
materials, transport, and infrastructure. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons; 2012
ISBN 3527649948.
[129] Federal Aviation Administration. Sustainable Alternative Jet Fuels, 〈http://
www.faa.g/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/apl/research/alternative_
fuels/〉; 2013 [accessed 26.09.13].
[130] Ruff B, Li W, Venkatasubramanian R, Mast D, Sowani A, Schulz M, et al.
Development of lightweight sustainable electric motors. In: Nanotube super-
fiber materials. USA: Elsevier Inc.; 2014. p. 595–626.
[131] Kim H, Brown G, Felder J. Distributed turboelectric propulsion for hybrid
wing body aircraft. In: Ninth international powered lift conference, London,
United Kingdom; 2008.
[132] Felder J, Kim H, Brown G. Turboelectric distributed propulsion engine cycle
analysis for hybrid-wing-body aircraft. AIAA 1132.
[133] Meyer P. Is there any available source of heat lighter than gasoline?. Technical
report. NASA, NASA-TN-136; 1923.
[134] Sloop J. Liquid hydrogen as a propulsion fuel. Technical report. NASA, NASA-
SP-4404; 1978.
[135] Sosounov V, Orlov V. Experimental turbofan using liquid hydrogen and liquid
natural gas as fuel. In: AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE 26th propulsion joint specialist
conference, Orlando, FL, USA; 1990. AIAA-1990-2421.
[136] Verstraete D. Long range transport aircraft using hydrogen fuel. Int J
Hydrogen Energy 2013;38(34):14824–31.
[137] Oriňáková R, Oriňák A. Recent applications of carbon nanotubes in hydrogen
production and storage. Fuel 2011;90(11):3123–40 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.fuel.2011.06.051.
[138] Feraboli P, Miller M. Damage resistance and tolerance of carbon/epoxy
composite coupons subjected to simulated lightning strike. Composites: Part
A 2009;40:954–67.
[139] Bazelyan E, Raizer Y. Lightning Physics and Lightning Protection. Technical
report. Institute of Physics Publishing, Philadelphia; 2000.
[140] Larsson A, Delannoy A, Lalande P. Voltage drop along a lightning channel
during strikes to aircraft. Atmos Res 2005;76:377–85.
[141] Gou J, Tang Y, Liang F, Zhao Z, Firsich D, Fielding J. Carbon nanofiber paper for
lightning strike protection of composite materials. Compos Part B: Eng
2010;41(2):192–8 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2009.06.009.
[142] Fisher F, Plumer J, Perala R. Aircraft lightning protection handbook. Technical
report. Lightning Technologies Inc.; 1989. DOT/FAA/CT-89/22.
[143] Rupke E. Lightning direct effects handbook. Technical report. Lightning
Technologies Inc.; 2002. AGATE-WP3.1-031027-043-Design guideline.
[144] Sweers G, Birch B, Gokcen J. Lightning strikes: protection, inspection, and
repair, Boeing Aero Quarterly QTR-04. AERO Magazine. USA: The Boeing
Company; 2012. p. 19–28.
[145] SAE. Aerospace recommended practice ARP 5414. Technical report; 1999.
[146] Ago H, Petritsch K, Windle A, Friend R. Composites of carbon nanotubes and
conjugated polymers for photovoltaic devices. Adv Mater 1999;11:1281–5.
[147] Kymakis E, Amartunga G. Single-wall carbon nanotube/conjugated polymer
photovoltaic devices. Appl Phys Lett 2002;80:112–4.
[148] Kim H, Kim K, Lee C, Joo J, Cho S, Yoon H, et al. Electrical conductivity and
electromagnetic interference shielding of multiwalled carbon nanotube
composites containing Fe catalyst. Appl Phys Lett 2004;84(4):589–91
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1641167.
[149] Wu C, Lu H, Liu Y, Leng J. Study of carbon nanotubes/short carbon fiber
nanocomposites for lightning strike protection. In: Proceedings of the SPIE
7644, behavior and mechanics of multifunctional materials and composites;
2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.847491.
[150] Gagné M, Therriault D. Lightning strike protection of composites. Prog
Aerosp Sci 2014;64:1–16 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2013.07.002.
[151] Martinelli A, Carru G, D'Ilario L, Caprioli F, Chiaretti M, Crisante F, et al. Wet
adhesion of buckypaper produced from oxidized multiwalled carbon nano-
tubes on soft animal tissue. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2013;5(10):4340–9.
[152] Chong D. Nanotechnology for aerospace applications—the potential. USA:
Boeing Research & Technology, The Boeing Company; 2009.
[153] Chung D. Electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness of carbon
materials. Carbon 2001;39(2):279–85.
[154] Markham D. Shielding: quantifying the shielding requirements for portable
electronic design and providing new solutions by using a combination of
materials and design. Mater Des 2000;21(1):45–50.
[155] Chung D. Materials for electromagnetic interference shielding. J Mater Eng
Perform 2000;9(3):350–4.
[156] D4935—10. Standard test method for measuring the electromagnetic shield-
ing effectiveness of planar materials. http://dx.doi.org/10.1520/D4935-10.
[157] Yang Y, Gupta M, Dudley K, Lawrence R. A comparative study of EMI
shielding properties of carbon nanofiber and multi-walled carbon nanotube
filled polymer composites. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 2005;5(6):927–31.
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
[158] Yang Y, Gupta M, Dudley K, Lawrence R. Electromagnetic interference
shielding characteristics of carbon nanofiber-composites. J Nanosci Nano-
technol 2007;7(2):549–54.
[159] Mehdipour A, Rosca I, Trueman C, Sebak A, Van Hoa S. Multiwall carbon
nanotube–epoxy composites with high shielding effectiveness for aeronautic
applications. IEEE Trans Electromag Compat 2012;54(1):28–36, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1109/TEMC.2011.2174241.
[160] Kumar R, Dhakate S, Gupta T, Saini P, Singh B, Mathur R. Effective improve-
ment of the properties of light weight carbon foam by decoration with multi-
wall carbon nanotubes. J Mater Chem A 2013;1(18):5727–35.
[161] Saini P, Arora M, Gupta G, Gupta B, Singh V, Choudhary V. Nanoscale, high
permittivity polyaniline–barium titanate nanocomposites with excellent
electromagnetic interference shielding response Nanoscale 2013;10(5):
4330–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3nr00634d.
[162] O'Rourke M, Nelson G, Waid M, Moloney P, Nikolaev P, Sosa E, et al.
Electromagnetic interference shielding via carbon nanotubes. USA: Engineer-
ing 65–66 NASA Johnson Space Center.
[163] Sehra A, Shin J. Revolutionary propulsion systems for 21st century aviation.
Technical report. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA);
2003. NASA/TM–2003-212615.
[164] Wang S, Chung D, Chung J. Self-sensing of damage in carbon fiber polymer–
matrix composite by measurement of the electrical resistance or potential
away from the damaged region. J Mater Sci 2005;40(24):6463–72.
[165] Chung D. Damage detection using self-sensing concepts. J Aerospace Eng
(Proc Inst Mech Eng Part G) 2007;221(G4):509–20.
[166] Chung D. Carbon materials for structural self-sensing, electromagnetic
shielding and thermal interfacing. Carbon 2012;50:3342–53.
[167] Wang D, DDL C. Through-thickness stress sensing of carbon fiber polymer–
matrix composite by electrical resistance measurement. Smart Mater Struct
2007;16:1320–30.
[168] Xia Z, Curtin W. Modeling of mechanical damage detection in CFRPs via
electrical resistance. Compos Sci Technol 2007;67:1518–29.
[169] Xia Z, Curtin W. Damage detection via electrical resistance in CFRP compo-
sites under cyclic loading. Compos Sci Technol 2008;68:2526–34.
[170] Vavouliotis A, Kostopoulos V. On the use of electrical conductivity for the
assessment of damage in carbon nanotubes enhanced aerospace composites.
In: Carbon nanotube enhanced aerospace composite materials. Springer;
2013. ISBN 9400742452.
[171] Jaillet C, Alexopoulos N, Poulin P. Carbon nanotube structures with sensing
and actuating capabilities. In: Carbon nanotube enhanced aerospace compo-
site materials. Springer; 2013. ISBN 9400742452 [chapter 3].
[172] Grishchuk S, Schledjewski R. Mechanical dispersion methods for carbon
nanotubes in aerospace composite matrix systems. In: Carbon nanotube
enhanced aerospace composite materials. Vol. VIII of Solid mechanics and its
applications, vol. 188. Springer; 2013. p. 99–154, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
978-94-007-4246-8_1.
[173] Dimitrios D, Giliopoulos J, Triantafyllidis K, Gournis D. Chemical functio-
nalization of carbon nanotubes for dispersion in epoxy matrices. In:
Carbon nanotube enhanced aerospace composite materials. Vol. VIII of
Solid mechanics and its applications, vol. 188. Springer; 2013. p. 155–84,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4246-8_1.
[174] Paipetis A. Stress induced changes in the Raman spectrum of carbon
nanostructures and their composites. In: Carbon nanotube enhanced aero-
space composite materials. Vol. VIII of Solid mechanics and its applications,
vol. 188. Springer; 2013. p. 155–84, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
978-94-007-4246-8_1.
[175] Theodosiou T, Saravanos D. Mechanical and electrical response models of
carbon nanotubes. In: Carbon nanotube enhanced aerospace composite
materials. Vol. VIII of Solid mechanics and its applications, vol. 188. Springer;
2013. p. 155–84, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4246-8_1.
[176] Poland C, Duffin R, Kinloch I, Maynard A, Wallace W, Seaton A, et al. Carbon
nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity of mice show asbestos-like
pathogenicity in a pilot study. Nat Nanotechnol 2008;3:423–8.
[177] Froning D, Czysz P. Advanced technology and breakthrough physics for 2025
and 2050 military aerospace vehicles. In: AIP Conference Proceedings, vol.
813; 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2169305.
[178] Schrand A, Benson Tolle T. Carbon nanotubes and epoxy composites for
military applications. In: Carbon nanotechnology—recent developments in
chemistry, physics, materials science and device applications. Elsevier,
Amsterdam; 2006. p. 633–75 [chapter 18].
[179] Institute of Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology coatings in the defence and
aerospace industry, 〈http://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=568〉;
2004 [accessed 06.10.13].
[180] Glenn J. Nanotechnology: future military environmental health considera-
tions: future military environmental health consideration. Technol Forecast
Soc Change 2006;73:128–37.
[181] Jenn D. Radar and laser cross section engineering. American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics; 1995. ISBN 1563471051.
[182] Kim P, Lee D. Composite sandwich constructions for absorbing the electro-
magnetic waves. Compos Struct 2009;87(2):161–7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.compstruct.2008.05.015.
[183] Vinoy K, Jha R. Radar absorbing materials: from theory to design and
characterization, vol. 1. London, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers;
1996.
[184] Weisshaar T. Morphing aircraft systems: historical perspectives and future
challenges. J Aircr 2013;50(2):337–53.
65
[185] McGowan A, Washburn A, Horta L, Bryant R, Cox D, Siochi E, et al. Recent
results from NASA's morphing project. In: Smart structures and materials
2002: industrial and commercial applications of smart structures technolo-
gies, vol. 4698. 2002. p. 97–111.
[186] McGowan A, Waszak M. NASA's morphing project research summaries in
fiscal year 2002. Technical report. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration; 2005. NASA/TM-2005-213266.
[187] Weisshaar T. Morphing aircraft technology-new shapes for aircraft design.
Technical report. DTIC Document; 2006.
[188] Tandale M, Rong J, Valasek J. Preliminary results of adaptive reinforcement
learning control for morphing aircraft. In: AIAA guidance, navigation, and
control conference and exhibit; 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.2004-5358.
[189] Barbarino S, Bilgen O, Ajaj R, Friswell M, Inman D. A review of morphing
aircraft. J Intell Mater Syst Struct 2011;22(9):823–77.
[190] Valasek J, Tandale M, Rong J. A reinforcement learning—adaptive control
architecture for morphing. J Aerosp Comput Inf Commun 2012;2(4):174–95.
[191] Nanotechnology shapes new future for aerospace materials, 〈http://www.
airforce-technology.com〉; 2012 [accessed 27.01.12].
[192] Bakis C, Wang K. Structural damping and health monitoring enhancement
via multifunctional carbon nanotube-based composites tailoring. Technical
report. Pennsylvania State University; 2011.
[193] Liu A, Bakis C, Wang K. Multiscale damping model for polymeric composites
containing carbon nanotube ropes. J Compos Mater 2010;44:2301–23.
[194] Cetingsoy E, Dikyar S, Hancer C, Oner K, Sirimoglu E, Unel M, et al. Design
and construction of a novel quad tilt-wing uav. Mechatronics 2012;22:
723–45.
[195] Dydek Z, Annaswamy A, Lavretsky E. Adaptive configuration control of
multiple UAVs. Control Eng Pract 2013;21:1043–52.
[196] Wu J, Peng H, Chen Q, Peng X. Modeling and control approach to a distinctive
quadrotor helicopter. ISA Trans 2014;53:173–85.
[197] Peck L, Ryerson C, Martel C. Army aircraft icing. Technical report. Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, ERDC/CRREL TR-02-13; 2002.
[198] DeGarmo M, Nelson G. Prospective unmanned aerial vehicle operations in
the future national airspace system. In: AIAA fourth aviation technology,
integration and operations (ATIO) forum; 2004. p. 20–3.
[199] Berni J, Zarco-Tejada P, Suárez L, Fereres E. Thermal and narrowband
multispectral remote sensing for vegetation monitoring from an unmanned
aerial vehicle. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 2009;47(3):722–38.
[200] Twomey T, Perry J, Logan M. Global hawk for broad area maritime
surveillance. In: AIAA third “Unmanned Unlimited” technical conference,
workshop and exhibit; 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.2004-6377.
[201] Kurvinen K, Smolander P, Pöllänen R, Röllänen, Kuukankorpi S, Kettunen M,
et al. Design of a radiation surveillance unit for an unmanned aerial vehicle. J
Environ Radioact 2005;81:1–10 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.10.
009.
[202] Pöllänen R, Toivonen H, Peräjärvi K, Karhunen T, Ilander T, Lehtinen J, et al.
Radiation surveillance using an unmanned aerial vehicle. Appl Radiat Isot
2009;67(2):340–4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2008.10.008.
[203] Clothier R, Palmer J, Walker R, Fulton N. Definition of an airworthiness
certification framework for civil unmanned aircraft systems. Safety Sci
2011;49(6):871–85 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2011.02.004.
[204] Lei X, Bai L, Du Y, Miao C, Chen Y, Wang T. A small unmanned polar research
aerial vehicle based on the composite control method. Mechatronics 2011;21
(5):821–30 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mechatronics.2010.12.002.
[205] Gohardani A, Gohardani O. Ceramic engine considerations for future aero-
space propulsion. Aircr Eng Aerosp Technol 2012;84(2):75–86, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1108/00022661211207884.
[206] Neubauer M, Günther G, Füllhas K. Structural design aspects and criteria for
military UAV. Technical report. European Aeronautic Defence and Space
(EADS); 2007.
[207] Tianyuan H, Xiongqing Y. Aerodynamic/stealthy/structural multidisciplinary
design optimization of unmanned combat air vehicle. Chin J Aeronaut
2009;22(4):380–6.
[208] Wise K. First flight of the X-45A unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV). In:
AIAA atmospheric flight mechanics conference and exhibit; 2003. http://dx.
doi.org/10.2514/6.2003-5320.
[209] Noor K, Venneri S, editors. Future aeronautical and space systems, vol. 172.
USA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics; 1997 ISSN 0079-
6050, ISBN 1563471884.
[210] Herwitz S, Johnson L, Dunagan S, Higgins R, Sullivan D, Zheng J, et al.
Imaging from an unmanned aerial vehicle: agricultural surveillance and
decision support. Comput Electron Agric 2004;44(1):49–61 http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.compag.2004.02.006.
[211] Funaki M, Hirasawa N, The Ant-plane Group. Outline of a small unmanned
aerial vehicle Ant-Plane designed for Antarctic research. Polar Sci
2008;2:129–42 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2008.05.002.
[212] Casbeer D, Kingston D, Beard A, Mclain T, Li S, Mehra R. Forest fire monitoring
with multiple small UAVs. In: 2005 American control conference, Portland,
OR, USA; 2005.
[213] Casbeer D, Kingston D, Beard A, Mclain T, Li S, Mehra R. Cooperative forest
fire surveillance using a team of small unmanned air vehicles. Int J Syst Sci
2006;37:351–60.
[214] Subramaniam E, Joseph N, Rose A, Bil C. Design of a fire-fighting unmanned
air vehicle. In: 50th AIAA aerospace sciences meeting including the new
horizons forum and aerospace exposition; 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.
2012-1039.
66 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
[215] John A. Volpe national transportation systems center. Unmanned aircraft
system (UAS) service demand 2015–2035: literature review and projections
of future usage. Technical report. DOT-VNTSC-DoD-13-01. US Department of
Transportation; August 2013.
[216] Anderson J. Aircraft performance & design. McGraw-Hill; 1998 ISBN
0070019711.
[217] Thomas J, Qidwai M. Mechanical design and performance of composite
multifunctional materials. Acta Mater 2004;52:2155–64.
[218] Thomas J, Qidwai M. The design and application of multifunctional structure-
battery material systems. JOM 2005;57(3):18–24.
[219] Fu K, Yildiz O, Bhanushali H, Wang Y, Stano K, Xue L, et al. Aligned carbon
nanotube-silicon sheets: a novel nano-architecture for flexible lithium ion
battery electrodes. Adv Mater. 2013;25(36):5109–14, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1002/adma.201301920.
[220] Nascimento L. UAV lessons learned from OPERATION ALLIEDFORCE. Technical
report. Center for Army Lessons Learned; January–February 2000.
[221] Unmanned aerial vehicle reliability study. Technical report. Office of the
Secretary of Defense; 2003.
[222] Haslim L, Lee R. Electro-expulsive separation system. US 8,336,830 B2; 1985.
[223] Battelle's anti-icing system for remotely piloted aircraft (RPAs), 〈http://www.
battelle.org〉; 2013 [accessed 14.08.13].
[224] Barrera E, Shofner M, Corral E. Applications: composites. In: Meyyappan M,
editor. Carbon nanotubes: science and applications. USA: CRC Press LCC;
2005 ISBN 0-8493-2111-5.
[225] Park C, Ounaies Z, Watson K, Pawlowski K, Lowther S, Connell J, et al.
Polymer-single wall carbon nanotube composites for potential spacecraft
applications. Technical report. NASA/CR-2002-211940. ICASE report no.
2002-36; 2002.
[226] NASA Ames Research Center, 〈www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/index.html〉;
2013 [accessed 09.17.13].
[227] Files B. Applications of carbon nanotubes for human space exploration. In:
Proceedings of the international conference on integrated nano/microtech-
nology for space applications; 1998.
[228] Files B. NASA/JSC carbon nanotube project status. J Nanopart Res 1999;1
(4):507–9.
[229] NASA Johnson Space Center. Thermal radiation impacts protection system,
〈http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/technology-onepagers/protecti
ve_shields.html〉; 2008 [accessed 25.09.13].
[230] Nikolaev P, Sosa E, Arepalli S, Coughlin S, Moloney P, Boul P, et al. Materials
development and testing. In: Thermal radiation impacts protection system.
Biennial research and technology development report. USA: National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration; 2009. p. 77–8.
[231] NASA Johnson Space Center. Nano and micro fabrication process modeling,
〈http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/technology-onepagers/nano_
fabrication_prt.html〉; 2008 [accessed 25.09.13].
[232] NASA Johnson Space Center. Large-scale fabrication of carbon nanotube
probe tips for space imaging and sensing applications, 〈http://www.nasa.
gov/centers/ames/research/technology-onepagers/carbon_nanotube_probe.
html〉; 2008 [accessed 25.09.13].
[233] Harris P. Carbon nanotube composites. Int Mater Rev 2004;49(1):31–43,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/095066004225010505.
[234] NASA Johnson Space Center. Carbon nanotubes as vertical interconnects,
〈http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/technology-onepagers/car
bon_nanotubes_vertical.html〉; 2008 [accessed 24.09.13].
[235] NASA Johnson Space Center. Carbon nanotubes for removal of toxic gases in
life support systems, 〈http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/technolo
gy-onepagers/carbon_nanotubes.html〉; 2008 [accessed 25.09.13].
[236] Tsiolkovsky K. Grezy o Zemle i Nebe (i) Na Veste (Speculations about Earth
and Sky and on Vesta). Izd-vo AN SSSR, Moscow; 1895.
[237] Artsutanov Y. V kosmos na Elektrovoze, Komosomolskava Pravda. The
contents described in English by Lvov in Science 1967;158:946–7.
[238] Pearson J. The orbital tower: a spacecraft launcher using the earth's
rotational energy. Acta Astronaut 1975;2:785–99.
[239] Issacs J, Vine A, Bradner H, Bacchus G. Satellite elongation into a true
skyhook. Science 1966;151:682–3.
[240] Pearson J. Anchored lunar satellites for cislunar transportation and commu-
nication. J Astronaut Sci 1979;27:39–62.
[241] Artsutanov Y, Trakka Luna-Zemlya. Tech Molod 1979;4:21.
[242] Edwards B. Design and deployment of a space elevator. Acta Astronaut
2000;47(10):735–44.
[243] Smitherman Jr D, Tether G. Space elevators. Technical report. NASA, NASA/
CP-2000-210429; 2000.
[244] Bolonkin A. Non-rocket earth–moon transport system. Adv Space Res
2003;31(11):2485–90.
[245] Pearson J, Levin E, Oldson J, Wykes H. The lunar space elevator. In: Fifty-fifth
international astronautical congress; 2004.
[246] Pug N. On the strength of the carbon nanotube-based space elevator cable:
from nanomechanics to megamechanics. J Phys: Condens Matter 2006;18
(33):S1971–90.
[247] Wörle-Knirsch J, Pulskamp K, Krug H. Oops they did it again! Carbon
nanotubes hoax scientists in viability assays. Nano Lett 2006;6(6):1261–8.
[248] Iannotta B. Space elevator. Aerosp Am 2006;31:30–5.
[249] Avnet M. The space elevator in the context of current space exploration
policy. Space Policy 2006;22(2):133–9.
[250] Dempsey J. System and method for space elevator. US patent no. US
6,981,674 B1.
[251] Pugno N. Space elevator: out of order?. Nano Today 2007;2(6):44–7.
[252] Van Pelt M. Space elevators. In: Space tethers and space elevators. Springer
New York; 2009. p. 143–78.
[253] Clarke A. The fountains of paradise. ISBN 0-575-02520-4.
[254] Sheffield C. Web between worlds. Random House; 1988. ISBN 0345344359.
[255] Westling E. The space elevator. Bc Edwards; 2003. ISBN 0974651710.
[256] Ragan P, Edwards B. Leaving the planet by space elevator. Seattle, USA: Lulu;
2006. ISBN 143030006X.
[257] Swan P. Space elevator systems architecture. Lulu; 2007. ISBN 1430314052.
[258] Swan C, Swan P, Penny R. Space elevator survivability space debris mitiga-
tion. Lulu.com; 2011. ISBN 9780557964598.
[259] Perek L. Space elevator: stability. Acta Astronaut 2008;62:514–20.
[260] Pugno N, Schwarzbart M, Steindl A, Troger H. On the stability of the track of
the space elevator. Acta Astronaut 2009;64(5 and 6):524–37 http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2008.10.005.
[261] Woo P, Misra A. Dynamics of a partial space elevator with multiple climbers.
Acta Astronaut 2010;67:753–63.
[262] Takeichi N. Geostationary station keeping control of a space elevator during
initial cable deployment. Acta Astronaut 2012;70:85–94 http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.actaastro.2011.07.016.
[263] Jorgensen A, Patamia S, Gassend B. Passive radiation shielding considerations
for the proposed space elevator. Acta Astronaut 2007;60:198–209.
[264] Engel K. Lunar transportation scenarios utilising the Space Elevator. Acta
Astronaut 2005;57(2–8):277–87 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2005.
03.016.
[265] Swan C, Swan P. Why we need a space elevator. Space Policy 2006;22
(2):86–91 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2006.02.008.
[266] Ketsdever A, Young M, Mossman J. Overview of advanced concepts for space
access. J Spacecr Rockets 2010;47(2):238–50.
[267] Bolonkin A. Non-rocket space launch and flight. Great Britain: Elsevier; 2010
ISBN 0080458750.
[268] Quinea B, Seth R, Zhua Z. A free-standing space elevator structure: a practical
alternative to the space tether. Acta Astronaut 2009;65:365–75.
[269] Watson K, Connell J. Polymer and carbon nanotube composites for space
applications. In: Carbon nanotechnology—recent developments in chemistry,
physics, materials science and device applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam;
2006. p. 677–98 [chapter 19].
[270] Liu T, Musinski L, Patel P, Gallimore A, Gilchrist B, Keidar M. Nanoparticle
electric propulsion for space exploration. In: AIP conference proceedings, vol.
880; 2007.
[271] Rayman M, Varghese P, Lehman D, Livesay L. Results from the deep space
1 technology validation mission. Acta Astronaut 2000;47(2):475–87.
[272] Koppel C, Marchandise F, Prioul M, Estublier D, Darnon F. The SMART-1
electric propulsion subsystem around the moon: in flight experience. In:
Proceedings of the 41st AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion conference,
Reston, VA; 2005. Paper no. AIAA-2005-3671.
[273] Kuninaka H, Nishiyama K, Funaki I, Yamada T, Shimizu Y, Kawaguchi J.
Powered flight of HAYABUSA in deep space. In: Proceedings of the 42nd
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion conference, Reston, VA; 2006. Paper
no. AIAA-2006-4318.
[274] Liu T, Morris D, Cionca C, Gallimore A, Gilchrist B, Clarke R. MEMS gate
structures for electric propulsion applications. In: Proceedings of the 42nd
AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion conference, Reston, VA; 2006. Paper
no. AIAA-2006-5011.
[275] Keller S, Zaghloul A. Carbon nanotube yarn and sheet antennas. In: Nanotube
superfiber materials—changing engineering design. Boston: Elsevier, William
Andrew; 2014. p. 749–87, 〈http://dx.doi.org/focus.lib.kth.se/10.1016/
B978-1-4557-7863-8.00026-8〉 [chapter 26].
[276] Jin S, Son G, Kim Y, Kim C. Enhanced durability of silanized multi-walled
carbon nanotube/epoxy nanocomposites under simulated low earth orbit
space environment. Compos Sci Technol 2013;87:224–31.
[277] Micheli D, Pastore R, Gradoni G, Mariani Primiani V, Moglie F, Marchetti M.
Reduction of satellite electromagnetic scattering by carbon nanostructured
multilayers. Acta Astronaut 2013;88:61–73.
[278] Khatiwada S, Laughman J, Armada C, Christiansen E, Barrera E. Hypervelocity
impact experiments on epoxy/ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
composite panels reinforced with nanotubes. In: Hypervelocity impact
symposium (HVIS 2012), NASA Johnson Space Center, Baltimore, MD, United
States; 2012. JSC-CN-25499.
[279] Khatiwada S, Armada C, Barrera E. Hypervelocity impact experiments on
epoxy/ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene fiber composites reinforced
with single-walled carbon nanotubes. Proc Eng 2013;58:4–10.
[280] Street K. Jr, Miyoshi K. Application of carbon based nano-materials to
aeronautics and space lubrication. Technical report. NASA, NASA/TM–2007-
214473; 2007.
[281] Harris C, Shuart M, Gray H. A survey of emerging materials for revolutionary
aerospace vehicle structures and propulsion systems. Technical report.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA/TM-2002-211664;
2002.
[282] Talay T, Cerro J, Lepsch R, Gelhausen P, Guynn M. Systems analysis of
nanotube technology. In: Nanotube technology assessment. National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration, Office of AeroSpace Technology, Washing-
ton, DC; 2000.
[283] Hehr A, Song Y, Suberu B, Sullivan J, Shanov V, Schulz M. Embedded carbon
nanotube sensor thread for structural health monitoring and strain sensing of
composite materials. In: Nanotube superfiber materials—changing engineering
 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
design. Elsevier, USA: William Andrew; 2014. p. 671–712. ISBN 978-1-4557-
7863-8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-7863-8.00024-4 [chapter 24].
[284] Hagopian J, Getty S, Quijada M, Tveekrem J, Shiri R, Roman P, et al.
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes for stray light suppression in space flight
instruments. In: Pribat D, Lee Y, Razeghi M, editors. Carbon nanotubes,
graphene, and associated devices III, vol. 7761. USA: SPIE; 2010 77610F.
[285] Allada R, Moloney P, Nikolaev P, Sosa E, Arepalli S, Yowell L. Carbon dioxide
removal using carbon nanotubes. Engineering 63–64 NASA Johnson Space
Center, 2008.
[286] El Bounia N. Polymer materials containing dispersed carbon nanotubes. US
2008/0207817 A1; 2008.
[287] Guereet O, El Bounia N, Poivet S, Nallet F, Fabre P, Papon E, et al. Adhesive
composition for a humid medium, based on block copolymers comprising at
least one hydrophilic block. US 2006/0052545 A1; 2008.
[288] El Bounia N. Elemental carbon containing with organic component resin,
rubber, or derivative thereof containing. US 2009/0121196 A1; 2009.
[289] El Bounia N. Compositions electrically conductive or emissive compositions.
US 2009/0200517 A1; 2009.
[290] Brule B, Brule B, Devaux N, Piccione P, Gamache E, Bluteau C, et al.
Conducting composite material containing a thermoplastic polymer and
carbon nanotubes. US 2010/0084616 A1; 2010.
[291] El Bounia N, Roussel T. Polymer-based cellular structure comprising carbon
nanotubes, methods for its production and uses thereof. US 2011/0039089
A1; 2011.
[292] Mcandrew T, Hochstetter G, Werth M, Bouilloux A, Brule B, Piccione P, et al.
Polymer-based cellular structure comprising carbon nanotubes, methods for
its production and uses thereof. US 2011/0251331 A1; 2011.
[293] Tsotsis T. Nanotube-enhanced interlayers for composite structures. US
8,388,795 B2; 2013.
[294] González Gozalbo A, Verde Preckler J, Cabello Moreno J, Collado Briceño
J, Llamas Sandín R. Aircraft control surface. 08864382.0; 2008.
[295] Eberhardt D. Retractable aircraft wing tip. US 8,336,830 B2; 2012.
[296] Sequeiros Murciano F, Cano Pérez F, Quero Lopez M. Lightning protection for
composite aircraft structures. 10382307.6; 2010.
[297] Lengsfeld H, Helfrich C, Marquardt H. Component with carbon nanotubes. US
8,146,861 B2; 2012.
[298] Nordin P, Strindberg G. Multifunctional de-icing/anti-icing system. WO2011087412
A1, 2010.
[299] Bordere S, Bourrigaud S, Cazaumayou S, Couvreur L, El Bounia N, Passade-
Boupat N, et al. Pulverulent composition based on carbon nanotubes,
methods of obtaining them and its uses, especially in polymeric materials.
US 2009/0176924 A1; 2008.
[300] Maheshwari M. Turbomachine nacelle and anti-icing system and method
therefor. 10195197.8; 2010.
[301] West J, Sutton A. Aircraft joint and bonding. US 8,400,749 B2; 2013.
[302] Tsotsis T, Huang J, Kim N, Humfeld K, Mitchel W, Mecham B. Carbon
nanotube-enhanced metallic wire. US 8,445,788 B1; 2013.
[303] Jackson M, Spooner D. Camouflage utilizing nano-optical arrays embedded in
carbon matrix. US 2012/0318129 A1; 2012.
[304] Streett A. Carbon nanotube coated structure and associated method of
fabrication. US 8,400,749 B2; 2013.
[305] Carbon nanotubes for applications in electronics, catalysis, composites and
nano-biology (CANAPE). 12 Month periodic technical report, 〈http://cordis.
europa.eu/documents/documentlibrary/102583031EN6.pdf〉; 2007 [accessed
05.01.2013].
[306] Aerospace nanotube hybrid composite structures with sensing and actuating
capabilities (NEOSIS), 〈http://ec.europa.eu/research/transport/projects/items/noe
sis_en.htm〉, 2005 [accessed 01.05.13].
[307] Carbon nanotube confinement strategies to develop novel POlymer Matrix
COmposites (POCO), 〈http://www.poco-project.org/home.asp〉; 2008 [accessed
02.05.13].
[308] Multifunctional Layers for Safer Aircraft Composite Structures (LAYSA),
〈http://ec.europa.eu/research/transport/projects/items/laysa_en.htm〉; 2008
[accessed 06.26.13].
[309] Innovative repair of aerospace structures with curing optimization and
life cycle monitoring abilities (IAPETUS ), 〈http://www.iapetus.eu〉; 2009
[accessed 13.08.13].
[310] Novel aeronautical multifunctional composite structures with bulk electrical
conductivity and self-sensing capabilities, 〈http://www.electrical-project.eu〉;
2010 [accessed 15.08.13].
[311] Lockheed Martin Corporation. Infused carbon nanotubes—manufacturing
solutions for next generation products, CET201302014, GS9509, 〈www.lock
heedmartin.com/nano〉.
[312] Trimble S. Lockheed Martin reveals F-35 to feature nanocomposite struc-
tures. Flight International; 2011.
[313] NASA Ames Research Center. Carbon nanotube sensors for gas detection,
〈www.nasa.gov〉 [accessed 30.01.2012].
[314] Portable nanomesh creates safer drinking water. Technical report. Spinoff
2008: 50 years of NASA-derived technologies (1958–2008), NASA/NP-2008-
OL-527-HQ; 2008.
[315] US Army. Army researchers chase helicopter performance gains, 〈www.army.
mil/article/105134〉; June 2013 [accessed 21.07.13].
[316] Siochi E, Lillehei P, Wise K, Park C, Rouse J. Design and characterization of
carbon nanotube nanocomposites. Technical report. NASA Langley Research
Center; 2003.
67
[317] Stickler P. Composite materials for commercial transport: issues and future
research direction. In: Sun T, Kim H, editors. Proceedings of the American
Society for Composites (ASC), 17th annual technical conference; 2002.
[318] Dalton A, Collins S, Munoz E, Razal J, Ebron V, Ferraris J, et al. Super-tough
carbon-nanotube fibres. Nature 2003;423(6941):703.
[319] Vigolo B, Poulin P, Lucas M, Launois P, Bernier P. Improved structure and
properties of single-wall carbon nanotube spun fibers. Appl Phys Lett
2002;81(7):1210–2.
[320] Wu Z, Chen Z, Du X, Logan J, Sippel J, Nikolou M, et al. Transparent,
conductive carbon nanotube films. Science 2004;305(5688):1273–6, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1101243.
[321] Endo M, Muramatsu H, Hayashi T, Kim Y, Terrones M, Dresselhaus M.
Nanotechnology: ‘Buckypaper’ from coaxial nanotubes. Nature 2005;433
(7025):476.
[322] Bagchi A, Nomura S. On the effective thermal conductivity of carbon
nanotube reinforced polymer composites. Compos Sci Technol 2006;66(11
and 12):1703–12.
[323] Gardiner G. Lightning strike protection for composite structures. High Per-
form Compos 2006;14(4):44.
[324] Chou T. Microstructural design of fiber composites. In: Cambridge solid state
science series. Cambridge University Press; 2005. ISBN 0521019656.
[325] Thostenson E, Li C, Chou T. Nanocomposites in context. Compos Sci Technol
2005;65(3):491–516.
[326] Jana S, Jain S. Dispersion of nanofillers in high performance polymers using
reactive solvents as processing aids. Polymer 2001;42:6897–905.
[327] Zhang B, Xie C, Hu J, Wang H, Gui Y. Novel 1-3 metal nanoparticle/polymer
composites induced by hybrid external fields. Compos Sci Technol
2006;66:1558–63.
[328] Han J, Anantram M, Jaffe R, Kong J, Dai H. Observation and modeling of
single-wall carbon nanotube bend junctions. Phys Rev B 1998;57(23):14983.
[329] Han J, Jaffe R. Energetics and geometries of carbon nanoconic tips. J Chem
Phys 1998;108(7):2817 http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.475672.
[330] Meyyappan M, editor. Carbon nanotubes: science and applications. USA:
Taylor & Francis; 2004 ISBN 0203494938.
[331] European Union. ObservatoryNANO factsheets. Technical report. 〈http://
www.observatorynano.eu/project/〉; March 2012 [accessed 01.08.13].
[332] Tennent H, Barber J, Hoch R. Carbon fibrils, method for producing same and
adhesive compositions containing same. US patent no. 5,578,543; 1996.
[333] Journet C, Maser W, Bernier P, Loiseau A, Lamyde la Chapelle M, Lefrant S,
et al. Large-scale production of single-walled carbon nanotubes by the
electric-arc technique. Nature 1977;388:756–8.
[334] Kónya Z, Vesselenyi I, Niesz K, Kukovecz A, Demortier A, Fonseca A, et al.
Large scale production of short functionalized carbon nanotubes. Chem Phys
Lett 2002;360(5):429–35.
[335] Singh C, Shaffer M, Koziol K, Kinloch I, Windle A. Towards the production of
large-scale aligned carbon nanotubes. Chem Phys Lett 2003;372:860–5.
[336] Rao S, Huang L, Setyawan W, Hong S. Nanotube electronics: large-scale
assembly of carbon nanotubes. Nature 2003;425(6953):36–7.
[337] Athanassiou E, Grass R, Stark W. Large-scale production of carbon-coated
copper nanoparticles for sensor applications. Nanotechnology
2006;17:1668–73.
[338] Zhao J, Wei L, Yang Z, Zhang Y. Continuous and low-cost synthesis of high-
quality multi-walled carbon nanotubes by arc discharge in air. Phys E: Low-
dimens Syst Nanostruct 2012;44(7):1639–43.
[339] Cheng H, Li F, Su G, Pan H, He L, Sun X, et al. Large-scale and low-cost
synthesis of single-walled carbon nanotubes by the catalytic pyrolysis of
hydrocarbons. Appl Phys Lett 1998;72(25):3282–4.
[340] Sadeghian Z. Large-scale production of multi-walled carbon nanotubes by
low-cost spray pyrolysis of hexane. New Carbon Mater 2009;24(1):33–8.
[341] Campbell T, Williams C, Ivanova O, Garrett B. Could 3D printing change the
world? Technologies, potential, and implications of additive manufacturing.
Technical report. Atlantic Council, Washington, DC; 2011.
[342] Tajdeh Y. 3D printing promises to revolutionize defense, aerospace indus-
tries. National Defense Magazine; 20–23 March 2014.
[343] Campbell T, Ivanova O. 3D printing of multifunctional nanocomposites. Nano
Today.
[344] Filleter T, Beese A, Roenbeck M, Wei X, Espinosa H. Tailoring the mechanical
properties of carbon nanotube fibers. In: Nanotube superfiber materials—
changing engineering design. USA: Elsevier, William Andrew; 2014. p. 61–85.
ISBN 978-1-4557-7863-8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4557-7863-8.
00003-7 [chapter 3].
[345] Current Intelligence Bulletin. Occupational exposure to carbon nanotubes
and nanofibers. Technical report 65. National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) publication no. 2013-145; April 2013.
[346] Maynard A, Baron P, M F, Shvedva A, Kisin E, V C. Exposure to carbon
nanotube material: aerosol release during the handling of unrefined single
walled carbon nanotube material. J Toxicol Environ Health 2004;67
(1):87–107.
[347] Bello D, Wardle B, Yamamoto N, de Villora R, Garcia E, Hart A, et al. Exposure
to nanoscale particles and fibers during machining of hybrid advanced
composites containing carbon nanotubes. J Nanopart Res 2009;11(1):231–49.
[348] Tsai S, Hofmann M, Hallock M, Ada E, Kong J, Ellenbecker M. Characterization
and evaluation of nanoparticle release during the synthesis of single-walled
and multiwalled carbon nanotubes by chemical vapor deposition. Environ Sci
Technol 2009;43(15):6017–23.
68 O. Gohardani et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 70 (2014) 42–68
[349] Bello D, Wardle B, Zhang J, Yamamoto N, Santeufemio C, Hallock M, et al.
Characterization of exposures to nanoscale particles and fibers during solid
core drilling of hybrid carbon nanotubes advanced composites. Int J Occup
Environ Health 2010;16(6):434–50.
[350] Lee J, Lee S, Bae G, Jeon K, Yoon J, Ji J, et al. Exposure assessment of
carbonnanotube manufacturing workplaces. Inhal Toxicol 2010;22(5):369–81.
[351] Cena L, Peters T. Characterization and control of airborne particles emitted
during production of epoxy/carbon nanotube nanocomposites. J Occup
Environ Hyg 2011;2(8):86–92.
[352] Dahm M, Evans D, Schubauer-Berigan M, Birch M, Fernback J. Occupational
exposure assessment in carbon nanotube and nanofiber primary and
secondary manufactures. Ann Occup Hyg 2012;56(5):542–6, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1093/annhyg/mer110.
[353] Methner M, Birch M, Evans D, Ku B-K, Crouch K, Hoover M. Case study:
identification and characterization of potential sources of worker exposure to
carbon nanofibers during polymer composite laboratory operations. J Occup
Environ Hyg 2007;4(12):D125–30.
[354] Han J, Lee E, Lee J, So K, Lee Y, Bae G, et al. Monitoring multiwalled carbon
nanotube exposure in carbon nanotube research facility. Inhal Toxicol
2008;20(8):741–9.
[355] Evans D, Ku B, Birch M, Dunn K. Aerosol monitoring during carbon nanofiber
production: mobile direct-reading sampling. Ann Occup Hyg 2010;54
(5):514–31.
[356] Johnson D, Methner M, Kennedy A, Steevens J. Potential for occupational
exposure to engineered carbon-based nanomaterials in environmental
laboratory studies. Environ Health Perspect 2010;118(1):49–54.
[357] Nowack B, David R, Fissan H, Morris H, Shatkin J, Stintz M, et al. Potential
release scenarios for carbon nanotubes used in composites. Environ Int
2013;59:1–11.
[358] Upadhyayula V, Meyer D, Curran M, Gonzalez M. Life cycle assessment as a
tool to enhance the environmental performance of carbon nanotube pro-
ducts: a review. J Clean Prod 2012;26:37–47.
[359] Köhler A, Som C, Helland A, Gottschalk F. Studying the potential release of
carbon nanotubes throughout the application life cycle. J Clean Prod
2008;16:927–37.
[360] Barraza H, Pompeo F, O'Rea E, Resasco D. SWNT-filled thermoplastic and
elastomeric composites prepared by miniemulsion polymerization. Nano
Lett 2002;2(8):797–802.
[361] Zhang X, Liu T, Sreekumar T, Kumar S, Moore V, Hauge R, et al. Poly (vinyl
alcohol)/SWNT composite film. Nano Lett 2003;3(9):1285–8.
[362] Takagi A, Hirose A, Nishimura T, Fukumori N, Ogata A, Ohashi N, et al.
Induction of mesothelioma in p53 þ /- mouse by intraperitoneal application
of multi-wall carbon nanotube. J Toxicol Sci 2008;33(1):105–16.
[363] Zou G, Jain M, Yang H, Zhang Y, Williams D, Jia Q. Recyclable and electrically
conducting carbon nanotube composite films. Nanoscale 2010;2(3):418–22.
[364] Petersen E, Zhang L, Mattison N, O'Carroll D, Whelton A, Uddin N, et al.
Potential release pathways, environmental fate, and ecological risks of
carbon nanotubes. Environ Sci Technol 2011;45(23):9837–56.
[365] Bolden Jr C. AIAA AVIATION 2013 keynote address—embracing a world of
change: NASA's aeronautics research strategy, 〈www.aiaa.org/Secondary.
aspx?id=18498〉; 2013 [accessed 10.10.13].