Energy 186 (2019) 115849

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Review

Thermoelectric cooler and thermoelectric generator devices: A review

of present and potential applications, modeling and materials
Seyed Mohsen Pourkiaei a, Mohammad Hossein Ahmadi b, *, Milad Sadeghzadeh a,
Soroush Moosavi a, Fathollah Pourfayaz a, Lingen Chen c, *, Mohammad Arab Pour Yazdi d,
Ravinder Kumar e
a
Department of Renewable Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran
c
Institute of Thermal Science and Power Engineering, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan, 430205, China
d
FEMTO-ST UMR 6174, CNRS, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comte, UTBM, Belfort, 90010, France
e
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, 144411, Punjab, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Increasing the production of energy in line with industry development, transportation, and life quality
Received 10 April 2019 improvement is an interesting topic needs to be addressed. Energy policymakers and researchers have
Received in revised form aimed at energy management, particularly by improving energy systems performance. This review paper
27 July 2019
explains the rising interest of thermoelectric technology and applications. Nowadays, thermoelectric
Accepted 29 July 2019
Available online 31 July 2019
technology such as thermoelectric generators (TEGs) and thermoelectric cooling systems (TECs) provide
heat loss recovery of thermodynamic units for power production of remote areas. Unlimited solar energy
can also be employed for thermoelectric power production. This paper describes the principles of
Keywords:
Thermoelectric power generation
thermoelectricity and presents an explanation of current and upcoming materials. Developed models
Thermoelectric cooling systems and various performed optimization of thermoelectric applications by using non-equilibrium thermo-
Air conditioning systems dynamics and finite time thermodynamics are discussed as well. Additionally, a number of topical ap-
Thermoelectric materials plications and energy resources are introduced. The main goal of this study is to give a clear overview of
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics thermoelectric technology and applications.
Finite time thermodynamics © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Working principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Material researches of thermoelectric devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2. Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Thermoelectric modules as coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1. Thermodynamics of thermoelectric refrigerators (TERs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1.1. Based on non-equilibrium thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1.2. Based on finite time thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1.3. Evaluation of thermoelectric heat pumps based on finite time thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2. Electronic cooling applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3. Air conditioning systems for vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: mohammadhosein.ahmadi@gmail.com, mhosein.ahmadi@
shahroodut.ac.ir (M.H. Ahmadi), lingenchen@hotmail.com, lgchenna@yahoo.com
(L. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.07.179
0360-5442/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849

4.4. Thermoelectric household air-conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.5. Solar TEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5. Power production by thermoelectric application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.1. Finite time thermodynamics of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2. Low power generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3. Large density power production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.1. Waste heat TEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.2. Solar thermoelectric power generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4. Power production by combing TEG and other devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Declaration of interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

thermoelectric materials and a comprehensive review of thermo-

Abbreviations electric studies can address this issue.
In this work, it is tried to cover all works and studies which were
CNT carbon nanotube formerly reviewed and published in scientific journals before and
COP coefficient of performance after review articles [10e12]. The aim of present work is to conduct
IoT internet of things a comprehensive review in the fields of thermoelectric technology,
MEMS micro-electromechanical systems materials, and applications to obtain insights about thermoelectric
PCM phase change materials concept regarding current obstacles and challenges.
RTG radioisotopic thermoelectric generator
STEG solar thermoelectric generator
TE thermoelectric 2. Working principles
TEC thermoelectric cooling systems
TEG thermoelectric generator In 1821 the phenomenon was discovered which revealed that
VC vapor-compression temperature difference (DT) at the joint of two different metals
ZT figure of merit resulted in current and created an electromotive force in the
executed circuit. This phenomenon, the generated current, and
electromotive force were entitled the Seebeck effect, thermo-
current, and thermo-electromotive force, respectively. The tem-
perature difference (DT) between metal joints can be raised up by
1. Introduction
raising up the voltage difference (DV). The Seebeck coefficient is a
property-based constant and it is different for various materials. It
The augmentation of technology arises the urgency to introduce
is considered significantly low, about 0 mV/K for metals, while this
new alternatives for the sake of power generation. Thermoelectric
coefficient is regarded much greater for semiconductor materials,
power generation (TEG) technology is considered as one of the
200 mV/K. The Seebeck coefficient (a) is defined as
main processes which generates electrical current directly from a
temperature difference. The thermoelectric effect gives the most DV
positive method to produce electricity out of radioisotope power. It a¼ (1)
DT
is called radioisotopic thermoelectric generator (RTG) employed in
Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) regularly. Therefore, where DV is the voltage difference in volt and DT is temperature
thermoelectric power generation can be considered as one of the difference in K.
reliable power generation technologies as well as photovoltaic one In 1834 it was found out that in presence of current in the circuit,
[1e3]. One of the advantages of thermoelectric systems is that there depending on the current's direction, various conductor materials
is no requirement for moving devices such as solution pumps, absorb or reject the heat at the joints. This phenomenon was called
compressor, and valves since no working fluid is utilized in such as the Peltier effect. The Fermi energies (a concept in quantum
systems. Moreover, it also has a high-precision temperature control physics in relation with energy state of occupied electrons in
[4e6]. This issue proves that TEGs, coolers, and heat pumps have temperatures above zero) between the jointed materials are the
supremacy over conventional power generation as well as cooling reason for this happening. The property of the two different
and heat pumping applications. Lack of moving equipment leads to conductor materials and the joint's temperature determine the
surging in reliability and lifetime as well as declining of operation capacity of the heat absorption or rejection, figure of merit (ZT), a
and maintenance costs. The modularity provides a wide variety of dimensionless parameter, which is employed to specify the ther-
utilization without considerable weakness in performance. In moelectric performance of a specific material:
addition, hazardous environmental damages are prevented due to
the lack of fluid in its working principles. Thermoelectric technol- a2
ZT ¼ sT (2)
ogy is utilized in military, aerospace, power generation, trans- k
portation, and HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning)
appliances for particular targets [7e9]. Currently, thermoelectric where s and T denote the electrical conductivity and the temper-
technology has been facing challenges in efficiency and physical ature, respectively. k denotes the thermal conductivity which is
property promotion in relation to the performance of comprised of two separate thermal properties (ke and kl , the elec-
trical conductivity and lattice conductivity, respectively).
 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849 3

Finally, the last thermoelectric effect was called as the Thomson

effect which is related to the rate of generated (reversible) heat due
to the current in the single conductor. The Thomson effect is also
considered a continues version of Peltier effect which was discov-
ered by William Thomson in 1851 and it can be calculated as
follows

q
b¼ (3)
I DT

where b is the Thomson effect coefficient in V/K, I is current in A,

and DT is the temperature difference in K.
The TE technology is generally categorized in TEGs and TECs.
TEG for power production when two materials are at different
Fig. 2. The schematic illustration of a thermoelectric cooler, (TEC) [13].
temperatures, as illustrated in Fig. 1. In the other hand, TEC for
cooling purposes when an external moving force (bias voltage) is
applied to the two materials as illustrated in Fig. 2. The perfor- due to the requirement of more efficient tools for being used in
mance of TEGs and TECs can be evaluated as efficiency and coeffi- electronic refrigeration or power production applications and
cient of performance (COP) equations (since the TEGs are
numerous investigations have been carried out to enhance the ZT of
considered as power generation engines and TECs are considered as
semiconductor materials for utilization in the thermoelectric ap-
refrigerators) and the maximum values can be calculated as
plications. These technology is being commercially feasible, if the
follows:
ZT of these semiconductor materials is increased by more than 3.
The maximum efficiency of the TEG can be obtained as follows
A typical thermoelectric module arrangement is depicted in
based on the non-equilibrium thermodynamics:
Fig. 3.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Here are some advantages of TE systems: No moving component
TH  TC 1 þ ZT  1 and minor maintenance requirement; Reported steady state oper-
hmax ¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (4)
TH 1 þ ZT þ TC ation record of 100,000 h; Dual function as heater and cooler;
TH
Temperature control with high precision to ±0.1  C; Being opera-
where TC and TH indicate the cold side temperature and the hot tional in severe sensitive conditions or too small spaces; Being
side temperature, respectively. position-independent.
The maximum COP of the TEC is computed as, based on the non- The main objective of thermoelectric design (for given operating
equilibrium thermodynamics: parameters and specific thermoelectric material) is to determine
design parameters at minimum cost. For this reason, the design
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi parameters can be calculated as follows:
TC 1 þ ZT  TTHC
COPmax ¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (5)
TH  TC 1 þ ZT þ 1
Based on Eqs. (3) and (4), the efficiency or COP is equal to the Vð1 þ 2rlc =lÞ
N¼ (6)
Carnot energy conversion ratio, when an infinite value is consid- aðTh  Tc Þ
ered for the ZT [14]. However, TEGs are only considered as a Carnot
engine, where the working medium are electrons. The performance
of the TE system is determined by two key elements: the material
properties of the TE and the system, itself. I2rðn þ lÞð1 þ 2rlc =lÞ
A¼ (7)
An alternative methodology is proposed to fabricate new arti- aðTh  Tc Þ
ficial materials with essentially low thermal conductivity values.
Therefore, the optimization is merely performed on the power
factor as . Both p-type and n-type conductor materials are needed in
2

the fabrication of the TE modules [15].

In the 1990s, interest in the area of TE is significantly risen up

Fig. 1. The schematic illustration of a thermoelectric power generator, (TEG) [13]. Fig. 3. A thermoelectric module [16] " Reprinted with permission of Springer".
4 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849

by augmenting the phonon blocking electron transmittance

a2 ANðTh  Tc Þ2 through low temperature metal organic chemical vapor deposition
P¼ (8)
2rðn þ 1Þð1 þ 2rlc =lÞ2 (MOCVD) process [20]. Pei et al. [21] reported that the alloy
structure of PbTe with MnTe obtained a ZT@700 K of 1.6 which can be
  described by alloy scattering and multiple band type, as depicted in
Th Tc
Th Fig. 4. As aforementioned earlier, the ZT can be improved by
f¼       (9) decreasing the thermal conductivity.
ð1 þ 2rlc =lÞ2 2  12 ThTT
h
c
þ 4
ZTh
lþn
lþ2rl
Pei et al. [22] discovered the thermal conductivity of the BiCu-
c
SeO can be decreased by doping Ca. Therefore, the ZT for
Bi0.925Ca0.075CuSeO was reported to be approximately 0.9 at 923 K.
where N is the number of thermocouples,A is the cross-sectional
Rhyee et al. [23] obtained the ZT of 1.48 at 705K for the binary
area,P is the power output, f is conversion efficiency, V is the
crystalline n-type material, In4 Se3s . This large value of ZT is based
voltage,Z is the figure-of-merit, a is the Seebeck coefficient, n and r
on the large Seebeck coefficient and the small thermal conductivity
are electrical and thermal contact resistivity, lc is the thickness of
in the charge density wave plane. Hsu et al. [24] experimented the
contact layer,l is the thermos element length, Th and Tc are the ZT@800K of the cubic AgPbmSbTe2-m and found out to be 2.2. Zhao
temperatures of the hot and cold sides, and r is the electrical et al. [25] tested SnSe single crystals and reported a ZT@923K of
resistivity. 2.6 ± 0.3. This can be probably the inherent ultralow lattice thermal
In addition, the generated electricity of the thermoelectric conductivity in SnSe along the b axis. Mahmood et al. [26] inves-
module can be estimated as follows: tigated the performance of Magnesium family perovskites for uti-
cm cf lization in thermoelectric modules.
c¼ þ (10)
P Dt f
3.2. Ceramics
where cm is the fabrication cost of thermoelectric, cf is the input
thermal energy cost per kilowatt-hour, Dt is the operation period, P In general, alloy materials like SiGe and Bi2Te3 establish the
is the power output, and f is conversion efficiency. most applied usage of TEs. Metal oxides have a number of superi-
Based on the operational statuses, three classifications are ority such as higher chemical stability, oxidation resistance, less
considered for these systems: coolers/heaters, power generators, toxicity and lower cost in comparison with TE alloys, therefore their
and thermal energy sensors. The related specifications will be usage allows the construction of instruments with high durability
[27]. Ceramic can be used in thermal recovery applications in
discussed below in detail. In addition, the performance of the
thermoelectric devices is exceptionally related to material charac- combustion engines or incinerators and is known as a noteworthy
TE material for thermoelectric energy conversion [28]. However,
teristics and for this reason, the overview of current materials in
thermoelectric technology and their characteristics will be pre- before the rise of NaxCo2O4 oxides were not considered as a proper
choice for TE materials due to their low carrier mobility. Recently,
sented in the next section.
cobalt oxides as p-type and Cadmium oxide as n-type semi-
conductor are widely utilized in TE units with satisfying TE prop-
3. Material researches of thermoelectric devices
erties [15].
Nonstoichiometric CdO generally shows appropriate electrical
Semiconductors, ceramics, and polymers are the most used
conductivity. Proper dopants with high-valence elements have
materials in the fabrication of TEs. Recent investigations have been used in order to lower its resistivity [15]. SnO2 is a n-type
shown that some polymers such as ethylenedioxythiophene and
carbon fiber polymer-matrix structural composites have satisfying
thermoelectric properties [17].

3.1. Semiconductor

One of the reliable utilization of semiconductor materials is

being used in thermocouples, since these materials have high
Seebeck coefficients (more than 100 mV/ C), and an appropriate
technique to decline k without any impacts on a and in the bulk
materials; consequently, surging in ZT to employ semiconductors
due to their high atomic weight, like Bi2Te3 and its other alloys with
transition metals such as Sb, Sn, and Pb. The high atomic weight
declines the sound velocity and consequently thermal conductivity
in the material. A solid state or semiconductor electronic module
can operate properly for several years while it is working at or close
to the surrounding temperature. Sun et al. [18] reviewed and dis-
cussed evolution of n-type organic semiconductors for utilization
in thermoelectric devices. The best selection of ZT materials is
identified as small bandgap semiconductors. Grander specifications
such as having large Seebeck coefficient, lower electrical resistance,
and lower thermal conductivity make some intermetallic compo-
sitions such as Mg2X (X ¼ Si, Ge, Sn) (ZTMg2 Si @ 682 K ¼ 0.86) [19]
and their solid solutions due to their antifluorite structure, a proper Fig. 4. Temperature-dependent lines of figure of merit (ZT) for PbTe:Na, PbTe:Tl,
alternative for high-performance and efficient thermoelectric ma- Pb0.97-Mg0.03Te:Na and Pb1-xMnxTe:Na [21] “Reprinted with permission of Nature
terials. The P-type Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 yields the highest ZT of 2.4 at 300 K Publishing Group".
 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849 5

material. Furthermore, insertion of Sb2O5 dopants in SnO2 increases
the electrical conductivity characterization. SnO2 demonstrates
carrier mobility similar to oxide material [29]. Wang et al. [8]
experimented the thermoelectric properties of Cd1-xPrxO ceramics
at high temperature. It was depicted that the ZT@1000K of the 0.1%
Pr-doped CdO sample yields 0.38. Zhu et al. [27] studied the effect
of doping Lanthanides and other rare-earth materials to CaMnO3 on
TE performance. The ZT of optimized dopants reaches to 0.20 with
the replacement of either Dy or Yb. The ZT can be significantly
increased by means of an appropriate dual-doping. The maximum
ZT@973K ¼ 0.21 was obtained for Ca0.96Dy0.02Bi0.02MnO3.
Fig. 5 shows the function of temperature for the ZT. It can be
monitored that the trends of the ZT values are increasing with
temperature. For x ¼ 0.02, the value of ZT is increasing with tem-
perature until it reaches to the peak of ZT ¼ 0.21 at 973 K, and then
the value of ZT is remaining at a constant value.
Wang and Wang [30] examined the effect of ytterbium dopants
on La0.1Sr0.9TiO3 ceramics on the thermoelectric performance in the
temperature range of 300K < T < 1000K and reported the
maximum ZT of 0.20 at 963 K. Tsubota et al. [31] evaluated the ef-
fect of adding B2O3-CuO to the structure of LaCoO3 ceramics on the
thermoelectric properties. It was monitored from the results that
the highest amount of ZT was achieved at 373K for this specific
materials, more than 1.5 times of pure LaCoO3 sintered at 1473 K.
Butt et al. [32] analyzed the effect of the dopants of (La, Fe) on the
thermoelectric performance Ca3Co4O9 and monitored that this
doping can enhance the ZT up to 70% greater in comparison to the
simple Ca3Co4O9. Sabir et al. [33] performed a characterization
study on CsTaO3, and CsNbO3 compounds for utilization in ther-
moelectric devices. Hira et al. [34] studied the thermoelectric fea-
tures and effect of dual doping of Na and W in the structure of
Bi2Sr2Co2Oy-ceramics and reported that these doping cause to in-
crease in electrical conductivity and decrease in thermal conduc-
tivity and as a result the thermoelectric performance was
monitored to be improved.
materials for additional development [35,36]. In the classifications
of conductive polymer composites, two classes of insulating poly-
mer matrices and conductive fillers are eco-friendlier and more
environmentally benign in comparison to other conventional
thermoelectric modules. Therefore, for more detail analyses several
features of these materials such as mechanical flexibility, low-cost
fabrication, solution process facility, and lightweight were
assessed [37]. Elmoughni et al. [38] demonstrated the feasibility of
utilizing polymers in thermoelectric devices which were worked
based on heat of human body. Lu et al. [39] analyzed different
strategy to improve performance of n-type polymer for being uti-
lized in thermoelectric devices. Pang et al. [37] performed an
experiment on a discrete conductive polymer composite with the
addition of carbon nanotube (CNT) and bismuth telluride to eval-
uate the thermoelectric performance, specifically the correspond-
ing ZT value. The outcomes are depicted in Fig. 6.
Han and Chung [40] studied carbon fiber polymer-matrix
structural composites. They reported that thermoelectric proper-
ties of composites were significantly increased by adding tellurium
particles (13 vol%), bismuth telluride particles (2 vol%) and carbon
black (2 vol%). Wang et al. [41] studied thermoelectric properties of

3.3. Polymers

Some of the most important disadvantages of inorganic ther-

moelectric materials are their toxicity, limitation of natural re-
sources, and complex expensive production procedures. Fig. 6. ZT of CNT/Bi2Te3/UHMWPE composites with different contents of CNT and
Consequently, it is needed to advance or modify new types of Bi2Te3 [36].

Fig. 5. Figure of merit (ZT) vs. temperature [13,26] “Reprinted with permission of Elsevier".
6 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849

Fig. 7. Creation of electrical potential in ethylenedioxythiophene as a result of Biopolarons move in a thermal gradient [41].

polythiophene/multiwalled carbon nanotube composites and re-
ported the maximum ZT value of 8.71  104 by 80 wt% carbon
nanotubes. Kim et al. [33] experimented the effect of the dopant
poly (styrenesulphonate) in poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) at
room temperature on the thermoelectric performance and the ZT of
0.42 was obtained. The motion of bipolarons in the presence of a DT
(temperature gradient) to create an electrical potential in ethyl-
enedioxythiophene is illustrated in Fig. 7.
Currently, materials mostly made of Bi-Te, as listed in Table 1, are
considered as promising available materials for fabrication of TEs.
Based on the table, ZT@room temperature is close to unity and it is not
desired.
Since the conversion efficiency is low. The ZT > 3 is required to
be exciting and competitive with other typical generators and re-
frigerators. Based on theories, development of a TE material with
greater ZT than 3 is feasible but till today, no thriving alternative is
found [43]. Accordingly, the Bi-Te based alloys are utilized for the
room temperature application [44]. Though the small value of ZT
for ceramics, polymers and some other semiconductor materials
listed in Table 2, the other features like high-temperature resistance

Table 1
The value of figures of merit (ZT) of the BieTe-based material.

References Published year Material Figure of merit Temperature (K)

[45] 2014 Bi2Se0.5Te2.5 1.28 298

[46] 2014 (Bi,Sb)2Te3 1.41 298
[47] 2014 Bi2Te2.7Se0.3 1.27 298
[48] 2014 Bi0.4Sb1.6Te3 1.26 298
[49] 2014 p-type (Bi,Sb)2Te3 thermoelectric material 1.17 323
[50] 2014 Bi2(Te,Se)3 1.01 298
[51] 2012 P-type(Bi0.26Sb0.74)2Te3 þ 3%Te ingots 1.12 298
[52] 2005 BieSbeTe materials 1.15 350
[53] 2003 (Bi2Te3)0.25(Sb2Te3)0.75 1.80 723
[54] 2002 Bi2Te2.85Se0.15 2.38 773
[55] 2002 Bi0.5Sb1.5Te3 1.93 693
[56] 2001 Bi2Te3eSb2Te3 1.26 420
[57] 2000 95%Bi2Te3e5%Bi2Se3 1.67 723
[58] 2000 90%Bi2Te3e5% Sb2Te3e5% Sb2Se3 1.77 693
[59] 1997 (Bi2Se3)x(Bi2Te3)1-x 1.87 713
[59] 1997 Bi2Te3 1.62 693
[60] 1996 Bi2Te2.85Se0.15 1.86 693
[20] 2001 p type Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 2.4 300

Table 2
The value of figure of merit (ZT) of the TE material.

References Published year Material Figure of merit Temperature (K)

[61] 2004 Si0.8Ge0.2 0.66 1073

[62] 2001 BaUO3 1.8 900
[63] 1996 SiC/B4C þ PSS 1.75 873
[19] 2005 Mg2Si 0.86 862
[64] 1999 Fe0.9Mn0.1Si2 1.31 773
[65] 1997 Zn4Sb3 1.4 670
[66] 2003 Tl9BiTe6 0.86 590
[67] 1997 CuxSn1S4 0.6 570
[68] 2003 Zn4Sb3 1.2 460
[35] 2011 Graphite 0.54 393
[69] 1996 Sb2-xBixTe 0.93 300
[70] 2002 PbTe 0.87 293
[21] 2012 Pb1-xMnxTe 1.6 700
[22] 2013 BiCuSeO 0.9 923
[23] 2009 In4Se3-s 1.48 705
[25] 2014 SnSe single crystal 2.6 ± 0.3 923
[42] 2013 3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene 0.42 298
[71] 2016 SnSe single crystals 1.17 800
 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849
and flexibility make them a trustworthy alternative for TE material.
Consequently, polymers and ceramics can be proper
supplementary.
4. Thermoelectric modules as coolers
Thermoelectric setups are noticeably stable when utilized as
coolers in the condition of temperature lower than 298K (Standard
room temperature). However, recent studies showed that the per-
formance of thermoelectric setups as generators may decrease in
the condition of temperature higher than 293e298 K [72].
Generally, TEC systems are reliable approaches which provide
accurate temperature control and easy installation. TECs are more
applicable for niche usage (below 25 W) since their limited COP is
not an outward shortcoming. A TEC arrangement comprises an
electric circuit, a heat sink (or more), a heat source (or more), and a
control unit. Fig. 8 presents the schematic of a typical TEC system.
4.1. Thermodynamics of thermoelectric refrigerators (TERs)
4.1.1. Based on non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Xuan [73] studied equivalent impedances, and defined two
novel models to provide simplified equations for calculation of
temperature difference, cooling rate, and COP, respectively. Yama-
shita [74,75] investigated the relative cooling performance of a
thermoelectric module. Meng et al. [76] designed a model for a
novel TEC heat pump which was driven by a TEG generator and also
performed an optimization to maximize the performance of the
system. Huang and colleagues [77,78] presented a linear dynamic
model of a TEC and showed that the model has two poles and one
zero. Xuan et al. [79] investigated the optimization of conduction-
cooled Peltier current leads in a superconducting magnetic sys-
tem. Yang et al. [80] investigated the mass load effect on the
transient response of TECs. Cheng and Lin [81] utilized genetic al-
gorithms to optimize the size of the thermoelectric component
legs, in order to enhance the cooling capacity. Tan and Fok [82,83]
developed a computer-aided program to help designers to compare
and decide on the TEC from various brands. Saifizi et al. [84]
developed and evaluated a hybrid TEC system which employed a
direct air to air thermoelectric heat pump to provide low temper-
ature in order to keep vaccines packages. Lal and Kumari [85] car-
ried out an experimental performance analysis of a cost-efficient
TEC. The highest value of the COP was reported equal to 0.26 with
the minimum reachable temperature of 2.3  C. Dongare et al. [86]
modeled and modified a practical TEC system with the volume size
Fig. 8. Illustration of a typical TEC system. Q1 presents the extracted heat, P presents
the electrical power input, and Q2 presents the heat misspend outside [2].
7
of 18L. It was reported that by the COP of 0.2e0.6 it takes 1 h to keep
the temperature from 33  C to 22  C. Ebrahimi and Derakhshan [87]
modeled a micro combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP)
generation unit which employed a TEC module as the cooling unit,
and PEMFC as the heating and power generation unit. Wu et al. [88]
studied an integrated phosphoric acid fuel cell-TEC module,
cogeneration system with the aim of power and cooling production.
Shafee et al. [89] fabricated and evaluated a cascaded and inte-
grated thermoelectric cooling and heating system. The results
showed COPs of 0.02 and 0.294 for cascade and integrated ar-
rangements, respectively. Lamba et al. [90] designed a thermody-
namic model of an exoreversible TEC. Adeyanju et al. [91] studied
experimentally and theoretically a quick drink cooler based on TEC
in order to chill a glass of water with the size of about 0.5L in 2 min.
Feng et al. [92] investigated the performance of a TEG-TEC device
with the Thomson effect. The results revealed that the Thomson
effect would decrease the cooling capacity by 27% and conse-
quently the COP of the system would be lowered by 19% as well.
Feng et al. [93] investigated the influences of Thomson effect on
performance of TEG-driven thermoelectric heat pump combined
device. Eslami et al. [94] presented a thermodynamic investigation
on a TEC system to produce water from humid air.
Chiba et al. [95] presented a thermodynamic analysis on multi-
stage TEC based on hydrogen liquefier and the Seebeck and the
Peltier effects were studied. Gao et al. [96] investigated a novel two-
stage TEC to enhance the cooling performance of the thermoelec-
tric system. Tijani et al. [97] presented a water cooling system using
a multi-stage TEC. The TEC system was powered by solar energy to
decrease the temperature of domestic water in the hot season. The
COP of the system was evaluated by 0.45 and the temperature
gradient of 0.004  C/s was achieved for a 5L storage tank. Nemati
et al. [98] carried out an exergoeconomic analysis on a two-stage
TEC and the effects of various parameters were investigated. The
results demonstrated that the minimum cooling cost can be
reached 5.086$/kWh.
4.1.2. Based on finite time thermodynamics
The fundamental characters of finite time thermodynamics or
entropy generation minimization theory is to bridge the gap be-
tween thermodynamics, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics, and
thermodynamically optimize performance of real finite-time and/
or finite-size thermodynamic systems with the irreversibilities of
heat transfer, fluid flow and mass transfer toward decreasing the
irreversibility of the total system [99e122].
Chen et al. [123] designed a model of TEC with external heat
transfer. Chen et al. [124] fabricated an analyzing apparatus for
assessing the influence of external heat transfer on the operational
characteristics of the multi-component TEC system. Fig. 9 depicts
the impact of heat transfer irreversibility in their study, which
should be taken into account. Experimental data are depicted by
dots. Also, curves 1 and 2 represent calculated values at the
favorable and unfavorable conditions respectively. Luo et al. [125]
performed an optimization on the heat transfer area of two heat
exchangers in a TEC system, in order to enhance the COP and
cooling capacity. Meng et al. [126] predicted the performance and
performed irreversibility analysis of a thermoelectric refrigerator
with finned heat exchangers.
Chen et al. [127] analyzed the effect of heat transfer on the
performance of two-stage semiconductor combined TEC. Meng
et al. [128,129] and Chen et al. [130,131] designed a model of TEG-
driven TEC with external heat transfer. The results showed that the
combination of finite time thermodynamics and non-equilibrium
thermodynamics provides an accurate extensive assessment and
optimization of the system concerning external and internal irre-
versibilities. Meng et al. [132e134] performed performance
8 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849
Fig. 9. Changes of cryogenic capacity of the TEC system by electric current.
optimizations for two-stage TEG-driven TEC systems with and
without considering external heat transfer.
Astrain et al. [135] presented a thermoelectrical model to pre-
dict nonlinear thermal and electrical behavior of a TEC system.
Huang et al. [136] studied the Thomson effect impact on the highest
reachable temperature difference and the highest permissive
thermal load. Vikhor and Anatychuk [137] designed a TEC system
by the means of optimal control theory and determined the optimal
elements of BiTe-based materials for TEC systems with various
configurations. Gutierrez and Mendez [138] investigated the en-
tropy generation minimization of a TEC setup.
Riffat and Qiu [139] showed that the highest effect on COPs of
TEC systems is related to the type of materials and the layout of hot
side heat sinks. Feng et al. [140] investigated Influences of external
heat transfer and Thomson effect on performance of TEG-TEC
combined device.
4.1.3. Evaluation of thermoelectric heat pumps based on finite time
thermodynamics
Chen et al. [141] and Bi et al. [142] established models ther-
moelectric heat pumps considering the effect of heat transfer. Chen
et al. [143] performed an optimization on heat transfer surface area
for heating capacity and COP of a thermoelectric heat pump further.
Riffat and colleagues [144,145] presented an optimal arrangement
of thermoelectric units for heavy-duty heat pump usage [144], and
a new thermoelectric heat pump arrangement [145]. Junior et al.
[146] developed a novel combined system of thermoelectric heat
pump and a recuperating heat exchanger. Chen et al. [147] estab-
lished a model of two-stage thermoelectric heat pumps with in-
ternal and external irreversibilities, and performed the an
optimization on heat transfer surface area for heating capacity and
COP. Chen et al. [148] and Meng et al. [149] analyzed the effect of
heat transfer on the performance of a thermoelectric heat pump
driven by a TEG. Chen et al. [150] provided a novel configuration
and analyzed and optimized the performance of two-stage ther-
moelectric heat pump system driven by two-stage TEG, and per-
formed optimizations on heat transfer surface area distribution and
thermoelectric element distribution.
4.2. Electronic cooling applications
Electronic applications such as personal computer processors
are capable to produce a large amount of heat that requires a suf-
ficient heat transfer management due to the maintenance of the
optimum temperature [151,152]. Generally, the highest electronic
device connection temperature should be kept below 382K
[153,154]. Also, the maximum heat flow from an electronic set can
be almost 200 W, which is regularly growing [155]. Employing TEC
technology besides fluid cooling systems on the hot side presents a
great potential due to the intrinsic features of TEC technology.
Phelan et al. [156] examined miniature refrigeration cooling ap-
proaches for high power microelectronics and reported that the
only available commercialized small size system, is TEC. Naphon
and Wiriyasart [157] evaluated liquid cooling in a fin heat sink
coupled with the TEC system and showed that the TEC system
operates more efficient at lower heat loads (18e20W) [158]. Gould
et al. [159] investigated a TEC system employed for a desktop
personal computer. It was reported that the TEC approach keeps the
CPU temperature below the ambient air temperature. In combi-
nation with liquid cooling systems for electronics, TECs compara-
tively operate more effective up to about 55e60W [160]. Chein et al.
[153] modeled a TEC air/water cooled system for electronic cooling
utilization and reported the maximum cooling load of 207 W.
Nanofluids are advantageous for the liquid cooling purpose due to
their unique heat transfer properties which help to enhance the
cooling capacity [161,162].
Moreover, Wiriyasart et al. [163] studied the cooling perfor-
mance of a computer processor with a thermoelectric module.
Saber et al. [164] utilized thermoelectric devices for the sake of
cooling computer chips. Ju et al. [165] numerically investigated the
effect of a thermoelectric element on the cooling performance of
the electronic device. The results showed that the Bismuth Tellu-
ride can be efficiently utilized as a cooling element and the COP of
the system was calculated to be 3.21. Al-Shehri and Saber [166]
presented an experimental study on a commercial thermoelectric
module in the interest of cooling computer chip at different heat
rates. The results showed that the temperature can be reduced by
94% and 79% for the low heat rate and high heat rate respectively.
4.3. Air conditioning systems for vehicles
Employing a TEC system for an automotive air conditioner as an
alternative for typical AC units has two key advantages: it resolves
the requirements of R-134a and supplies the produced cooling to
selected areas, instead of the whole cabin. Consequently, fuel
consumption decreases [167e169]. On the other hand, TEC systems
inherent advantages have made them as an appropriate choice for
vehicles air conditioning systems. However, it was reported that for
environment temperatures of 25e30  C, the common automobile
air conditioning systems provide a cooling capacity 5 times greater
than TEC units for equal input power [170]. Yang et al. [171]
reviewed recent vehicle applications of TEC technology. Luo et al.
[172] designed a new thermoelectric based air-conditioning system
for a truck. Wang et al. [173] developed a numerical model for a TEC
unit utilized in a passenger vehicle. They also fabricated a prototype
setup to verify their model which was capable to achieve a COP
equal to 1.55 at a cooling capacity of 1.55 kW with an ambient
temperature of 30  C [173]. Choi et al. [174] designed a thermo-
electric car seat temperature control system for both cooling or
heating purpose. Their product was developed and commercialized
by Gentherm Company under the name of Climate Control Seat
(CCS®) [175]. Recently, the growing market of automotive air
conditioning systems is showing interests in TEC technologies as
well. Attar et al. [176] performed an analytical investigation of an
 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849
automotive TEC air conditioning system.
4.4. Thermoelectric household air-conditioning
Thermoelectric household air conditioning systems are being
studied and developed to achieve satisfactory performance against
their well-known vapor-compression (VC) rivals. Riffat et al. [4]
carried out a comparison study between thermoelectric and con-
ventional VC air-conditioners and reported that the COPs of VC and
TEC air-conditioners are about 2.6e3.0 and 0.38e0.45, respectively.
Cosnier et al. [177] examined a thermoelectric air conditioner
system (cooling/heating). They reported COPs of 1.5 and 2 within
the cooling and heating process, respectively. Cheng et al. [178]
modeled a solar thermoelectric cooling unit for sustainable build-
ing utilization. Gillott et al. [179] fabricated and assessed a TEC
module for limited space's conditioning utilization. They achieved
220 W of cooling load with the highest COP of 0.46. Arenas-Alonso
et al. [180] and Va zquez-Arias et al. [181] presented an active
thermoelectric wall (PTA). Their work has been registered in Spain
patent as well [180e182]. Thermoelectric cooling devices directly
cool down the indoor air. Shen et al. [183] studied a new thermo-
electric radiant air heating-cooling system. Examining a commer-
cial thermoelectric unit (TEC1-12706) indicated that keeping the
cold side temperature at 293K results in the COP of 1.77. Rinco  n-
Casado et al. [184] investigated a fabricated TEC-based conditioned
mattress in line with providing desirable sleep condition. The best
performance of the system was reported as 3.4  C temperature
difference between mattress surface and room ambient with 0.58
of COP. Irshad et al. [185] presented an economic study on ther-
moelectric cooling for a building integrated photovoltaic system.
Life cycle assessment analysis was performed. The best-case sce-
nario showed the energy saving potential of 1830 kWh/yr with a
payback period of 4.8 years.
4.5. Solar TEC
TEC devices can employ photovoltaic panels directly along with
economic savings. In solar electric cooling arrangements, the power
generated by photovoltaic panels is delivered to Peltier cooling
units [186]. Fig. 10 shows the schematic structure of the afore-
mentioned arrangement. The thermoelectric generator contains
several thermocouples which generate high electrical current, even
Fig. 10. Structure of a solar TEC setup [189].
9
with small amount of heat source. The most widely used thermo-
electric material for this purpose is Bi2Te3 semiconductors [187].
Vella et al. [188] investigated combined TEG-refrigerator systems
and calculated the numbers of thermocouples required for the
whole arrangement.
The latest advances in thermoelectric researches have decreased
the production cost of Peltier-heat exchangers assembles, while the
performance of the combined unit is improved. Vijayarengan [190]
modeled a practical portable solar TEC. The results showed that the
system was able to reduce 10  C of 250 ml water in 2 h, in the
ambient temperature of 31  C. Praveen and Pranay [191] built and
analyzed a 40L size solar TEC which was equipped with a liquid
heat removal system. Abdul-Wahab et al. [192] designed and
fabricated a portable cost efficient TEC system for remote regions.
The COP of 0.16 was obtained for the TEC. Wu et al. [193] presented
a thermodynamic analysis of thermoelectric cooling for a solar
system. Nazari et al. [194] presented an experimental study on the
cooling performance of thermoelectric modules on a solar still.
5. Power production by thermoelectric application
A TEG is a specific heat engine in which the working fluid is
replaced by charge carriers. Low efficiencies of about 5% have
limited its applications to particular medicinal, military and space
use, where the price is not the key parameter. Recently, TEG has
been fixing its position as a “zero-emission" and reliable source of
power which is capable to satisfy various power requirements
[195]. Fig. 11 depicts the schematic structure of a TEG system.
A TEG device is compressed and located between a heat source
and a heat sink. Molina et al. [196] presented a new power condi-
tioning model of a grid-connected TEG unit to manage the active
and reactive power output in the distribution network at the same
time.
5.1. Finite time thermodynamics of thermoelectric generators
(TEGs)
Chen et al. [197,198] analyzed the effect of heat transfer on the
performance of TEG [197], and performed the optimal distribution
of the heat transfer surface area between the two heat exchangers
[198]. Meng et al. [199] established a numerical model and per-
formed comparative investigation of a thermoelectric generator
with multi-irreversibilities. The effects of heat transfer law
Fig. 11. The schematic structure of a TEG system. Q1 presents the extracted heat, P
presents the electrical power output, and Q2 presents the heat misspend outside [2]"
Reprinted with permission of Elsevier".
10 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849
between the thermal junction and the heat exchanger on the
optimal performances of TEGs were also performed [200,201].
Chen et al. [202] performed the performance optimization of a two-
stage semiconductor TEG, and optimized the heat transfer area
distribution and thermoelectric element number distribution.
The details of applications of finite time thermodynamic ana-
lyses and optimizations for various TE devices can be seen in a
review paper by Chen et al. [16].
5.2. Low power generation
Compact, low-cost and well-organized TEG systems are an
attractive option for replacing batteries in various applications
[203]. For instance, a small preamplifier and a sensor control
arrangement could be utilized by a TEG system producing 1.5 mW of
power via 10  C of temperature difference.
Thermoelements are generally produced from sintered
(Bi,Sb)2(Te,Se)3-based thermoelectric materials. Due to the limita-
tion of available P/N junction in a small space and limited outlet
voltage, as a result, a thin film of the thermoelectric unit for both
refrigeration and power production has been evaluated [204]. Film
TEGs are capable to produce 103-106 W. Currently, film TEGs
systems have been commercialized [205]. Any type of heat source
can deliver enough heat flux for low power utilization.
One of the chief technological revelations of this century which
is able to provide all kinds of services is called the Internet of Things
(IoT) [206]. The IoT envisions a broad data collection without any
intervention by a human through communicating of various smart,
integrated, miniaturized equipment (sensors, computing, and
networking technologies) [207]. The IoT is able to enhance the
quality of human life by means of applications in transportation
[208], human health [209], manufacturing maintenance [210], and
education [211]. However, a practical route to powering the IoT
devices remains unclear and necessitating cost-effective and
continuous power sources to support this form of devices [211].
Recently, TEG has been investigated as a desirable energy conver-
sion system which is also enabling renewable energy utilization for
IoT modules [209,212].
On the other hand, the application of thermoelectric modules in
vehicles is to improve the waste heat recovery status and power
generation. Tappura [214] presented a thin-film TEG system by a
new folding arrangement for large-area, low energy-density re-
quirements. The novel folding scheme provided minimum heat loss
and highest obtainable temperature gradient as well. Fig. 12 depicts
the schematic of the aforementioned design.
Hsiao et al. [215] studied and modeled a TEG unit with this aim
to boost up the performance of an automobile engine. The unit
highest power generation was reported 51.13 mWcm-2 at 290  C
temperature difference. Kim et al. [216] installed a fabricated hex-
agonal thermoelectric generator system in the middle of the
exhaust gas pipe of a hybrid electric car. Li et al. [217] employed TEG
Fig. 12. (a) The basic arrangement of the folded thermoelectric unit. (b) Side view of
the folded structure [213] " Reprinted with permission of Elsevier".
units integrated with radial heat pipe arrangement at exhaust
stream output of a passenger car. Agudelo et al. [218] also studied
the potential of waste heat recapture from exhaust gases in a diesel
passenger car. Demir and Dincer [219] numerically evaluated three
various Perovskite-type oxides combined thermoelectric materials
to be employed in thermoelectric power generation from exhaust
waste heat recovery. The highest power density, exergy efficiency
and energy efficiency of the system were reported 108.8 W/m2, 0.9
and 0.61 respectively. Lan et al. [220] developed a model to predict
the temperatures and power output of a TEG which operated with
recovered waste heat of a heavy-duty truck in a dynamic driving
cycle. Meng et al. [221e223] and Xiong et al. [224] studied the
performances of TEGs with air-cooling and water-cooling heat re-
covery devices from industrial waste heat with single- [221e223]
and two- [224] stage TEG configurations by applying finite time
thermodynamics. Shu et al. [225] proposed a model of a TEG system
operated by the waste heat of a Diesel engine. Also, the segmented
structured TEG system provided a 13.4% growth in the highest
output power in comparison with the original one. Ge et al. [226]
also performed an optimization to evaluate the performance of a
segmented TEG system.
Nour Eddine et al. [227] evaluated the behavior of the TEG for
marine application and assessed the impact of the clamping pres-
sure on the system performance and heat transfer coefficient.
Muralidhar et al. [228] modeled and investigated the advantages of
implementation of a TEG in a heavy-duty hybrid electric bus. The
results showed that fuel consumption and CO2 emissions reduction
could be achieved up to 7.2 and 7.58% respectively. Blandino et al.
[229] theoretically and experimentally evaluated a TEG system as a
heat sensor or IR detector which was exposed to temperature dif-
ferences less than 0.5 K. Gomez et al. [230] presented a numerical
approach to calculate the temperature of thermoelectric materials
and optimal operating conditions of thermoelectric power
production.
TEGs can be classified into two general classes due to their di-
mensions: bulk and micro-TEGs. Bulk TEGs generally have di-
mensions more than 1 mm and are commonly utilized for power
production below a temperature difference of 300e600 K
[231,232]; consequently, medium-grade (230e650  C) and high-
grade (>650  C) waste heat can be used by bulk. Micro-TEGs, in
which thickness is normally less than 1 mm, are appropriate to the
thermal recovery of low-grade waste heat to support tech togs,
sensitive recorders, sensors, medical applications, etc. [233e237].
TEGs are a potential approach to power production in hypersonic
vehicles. For a lengthy distance hypersonic transportation, an in-
situ electricity production system is vital to resolve the require-
ment of power for hypersonic vehicles, which is mostly due to the
fuel, control, and radar systems, respectively [238]. Cheng et al.
[239,240] presented a power generation approach for hypersonic
vehicles based on the high-grade multi-stage (cascade) TEG system.
The maximum efficiency of 18.38% was achieved, due to the
implementation of advanced thermoelectric materials. Cheng et al.
[241] also carried out a comparative study between single- and
multi-stage TEG arrangements to determine the system highest
performance condition.
Liu et al. [242] produced a micro TEG system by the method of
thin-film electrodeposition of 200 mm glass pillars. An alternate
approach for thermal supervision of a TEG and reduce temperature
fluctuation is utilizing phase change materials (PCM). PCMs could
be broadly employed for passive heat storage and thermal man-
agement [243]. Atouei et al. [244] evaluated the utilization of PCMs
in order to manage the hot and cold side temperatures of a TEG unit
by investigating the effect of applying PCM box at various sites of
the system in comparison with a typical TEG module without the
PCM. The results indicated that employing PCM box on the hot side,
 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849
leads to longer time power generation, even after eliminating the
heat source and protection of the unit from high input thermal
power failure.
5.3. Large density power production
5.3.1. Waste heat TEG
Generating electrical power by means of waste heat mainly at
temperatures less than 413K enhance the TEG market competition
considerably. In overall, the running cost and the module cost are
the two important factor which are highly affecting the cost of
electricity production through thermoelectric technology.
Employing commercially available TEG systems by a proper
thermos-element can decrease the electricity production cost to
£4/W. Global Thermoelectric Inc., the world's pioneer TEG manu-
facturer, fabricated TEG systems with a variety of power output
range from 15 to 550 W [245]. A study on TEG systems performance
supplied by the waste hot water as a heat source revealed that the
power production cost per watt of the aforementioned system in a
three-year period accommodates that of regular utilities. Chen and
Lee [246] designed a model to investigate thermal and electrical
performances of a TEG system under transient and steady-state
conditions, in order to determine the conversion efficiency im-
provements with pulsed input power.
Yodovard et al. [247] evaluated the utilization of waste heat TEG
approach for combined Diesel-GT cogeneration cycle. In order to
avoid this loss of energy, the idea of ‘‘symbiotic’’ production has
been presented. The concept is to employ TEG systems as a double
purpose unit, heat exchanger/generator. Fig. 13 shows a simple
structure of a thermoelectric symbiotic cogeneration unit. As it is
depicted, the cold side of a TEG unit is connected to a fluid heater to
provide hot working fluid. Also, a small amount of fluid heater
output heat flow (Q1eQ3) will be returned back to the TEG unit, for
power generation. The disposed heat from the TEG module (Q2)
returns to the fluid heater input and preheats the cold fluid.
It is approximated that the total efficiency of heat and power
production of a symbiotic generation unit is equal to the heat
production efficiency of a standard heating unit. TEG symbiotic
cogeneration systems are suitable for a variety of applications
which utilizes heat and power simultaneously, especially for those
in which power supply is not possible due to severe climate or
regional circumstances [248]. Nguyen and Pochiraju [249] investi-
gated the power production of a TEG system, subjected to a tran-
sient heat source on the hot side with natural convection on the
cold side.
5.3.2. Solar thermoelectric power generation
Solar thermoelectric generator (STEG) systems are capable to
supply energy for applications which needs heat and power at the
same time. Tirtt et al. [250] showed that the infrared range of the
solar irradiation spectrum provides the required hot temperature
for STEG setup. According to solar energy conversion, STEG systems
Fig. 13. A simple structure of a thermoelectric symbiotic cogeneration unit (preheat-
ing/parasite unit). Q2 is being used to preheat the working fluid [2] “Reprinted with
permission of Elsevier".
11
Fig. 14. Energy density distribution of sun irradiation for STEG systems [250, 251].
use the IR range of solar irradiation as depicted in Fig. 14. Telkes
[252] reviewed the literature about STEG systems earlier than the
50s and described the ZnSb and Bi-Sb alloy based modules of the
TEG unit. The highest efficiency achieved by a flat-panel STEG was
0.63% which enhanced to 3.35% by concentrating lenses due to
higher temperature differences.
Amatya and Ram [253] investigated the thermal-to-electrical
conversion efficiency of a STEG system. They reported the highest
efficiency of 5.6% by means of new thermoelectric materials and
solar concentration ratio of 120. Trinh et al. [254] fabricated and
analyzed a STEG system. The results indicated that the thermo-
electric module successfully converts 0.6% of the existing 804.1 W/
m2 to electrical power resulting in 4.82 W/m2. Xiao et al. [255]
developed a 3D finite element model of a STEG based on low and
medium temperature thermoelectric materials. The results showed
that the highest conversion efficiency of 10.52% was obtainable in a
three-stage thermoelectric unit arrangement. Makki et al. [256]
developed a mathematical model to study a hybrid system of TEG
module with a heat pipe-based PVT (Photovoltaic/Thermal)
absorber. Kraemer et al. [257] presented a model and developed an
optimization approach for a STEG arrangement employing a glass
vacuum packing and a large flat-plate thermal concentration.
Bepinkumar et al. [258] performed a technical feasibility investi-
gation on the compatibility of grid-connected PV inverters for TEG
applications. Li et al. [259] designed, modeled and fabricated a
concentration STEG unit. Experimental results showed efficiencies
of 10%, 13%, and 14% for Bi2Te3, skutterudite, and Ag-Sb-Pb-Te al-
loys, respectively. Chen [260] studied the performance of STEGs and
developed a model considering solar concentration. Omer and
Infield [261] fabricated and modeled a prototype double-stage
STEG.
5.4. Power production by combing TEG and other devices
Habibzadeh et al. [262] performed a multi-objective optimiza-
tion based on a genetic algorithm on an integrated system
comprised of a parabolic trough solar collector, a TEG, a Rankine
cycle and a Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer for elec-
tricity and hydrogen production. Ding et al. [263,264] studied the
optimum performances of a combined thermionic-thermoelectric
refrigerator [263] and generator [264] with external heat transfer
12 S.M. Pourkiaei et al. / Energy 186 (2019) 115849
by applying finite time thermodynamics, and found the advantages
of those combined devices. Performance assessments and optimi-
zations of combined systems consisting of a high temperature
polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell and TEG have also been
performed recently [265e268].
6. Conclusions
Employing TE systems can support the global commitment for
energy conservation improvement and pollution reduction. This
study reviews the present researches on TE system abilities, prin-
ciples, material, thermodynamics, energy resources, utilization and
applications in power production and heating-cooling processes.
Additional practical research information is proposed by the
authors.
By increasing the figure of merit and development of setups, it
can be used for the residential section as air conditioning and po-
wer generation systems. Moreover, it is operational even with low
waste heat temperature. Another application of thermoelectric
modules is self-cooling instruments; particularly relatively small
setups which thermoelectric cooling is advantageous in compari-
son with conventional systems. Different types of thermoelectric
materials with various properties are available including semi-
conductors, ceramics (high temperature), and polymers (flexi-
bility). The alloys of Bi-Te materials are generally employed in
thermoelectric modules due to their high ZT values. Moreover, the
advantages of TECs would accentuate their role in future cooling
technologies.
On the other hand, an established heat transfer model through
the heat sink or the heat exchanger device can strongly affect the
performance of the thermoelectric module. It is necessary to apply
the finite time thermodynamics in the performance analyses and
optimizations of various TE devices. It is showed that implanting
inserts at the channel walls, could enhance the output power up to
110%. Optimizing TEG units has increased the output power per
module from 1W(2003) to 9W(2014).
Temperature and temperature difference are key parameters for
TEG applications. As the temperature increases, the power output
increase as well, whereas the durability and efficiency are the re-
straints for TEG.
Generally, the heat demand of TEG systems is supplied from
cheap/free resources. Also, TEG systems are employed for solar
energy power production aside from PV panels. It should be noted
that the time of returning capital in TEG systems is about 6e8 years.
Consequently, reducing thermoelectric material costs is extremely
important.
Declaration of interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal
relationships which may be considered as potential competing
interests:
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (Project No. 51576207). The authors wish to thank
the reviewers for their careful, unbiased and constructive sugges-
tions, which led to this revised manuscript.
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