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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Media plays a vital role in our lives and its effects are boundless and universal. From the

beginning of the day till the end of it, people tend to utilize different sources of media for

different purposes. The advancement of technology has revolutionized the ways in which one

can entertain himself or herself. Television, papers, radio, books and the internet communicate

with its viewers almost 24-hours.Through advanced cells, tablets, home PCs, and different game

devices one can easily access the projects, films, and games in seconds. This exceptional

interaction with media normally arise questions about short and long term influences of these

exposure. After all, while devouring media, people don't just watch a clear screen. They watch

and take an interest in rich stories with topics, exercises, and depictions that establish enduring

connections with its audiences. Such contact not just enables individuals to appreciate the

content (anti-social or pro-social), but also enables them to learn from it (Anderson, Bushman,

Donnerstein, Hummer, & Warburton, 2015).

Deviant and hazard practices such as abusing, stealing, cheating, smoking, drinking,

striking, battling, assaulting are mostly depicted through media. Demonstration of physical,

sexual, emotional and psychological violence can have long lasting outcomes. Hence, it is very

difficult to maintain a strategic distance from the negative effects it has on our lives (Sanches,

Gouveia-Pereira, Maroco, Gomes, & Roncon, 2016).

Young adults are especially prone to media violence and its harmful impact. Therefore, it

is vital to explore the impact of violent media content on aggressive and deviant behavior among
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young adults. As the researcher before critically viewing violent media content let’s illustrate

what media is.

1.1. Media

Any source or mean of transforming information is known as media (Danesi, 2009).

1.1.1 Types of media

Media is divided into two fundamental classes: broadcast and print. The Internet has

likewise developed as a noteworthy player, because the developing number of individuals gets

their news, motion pictures, and so on from the web sites (Nordqvist, 2017).

Print media incorporates a wide range of publications like news reports, periodicals,

digest, books and reports etc. Although, the importance of internet is growing day by day but still

print media is used by majority of people (Danesi, 2009).

Broadcast media is the most effective source for transforming information to the large

audiences. It includes radio and television which came into scene from the start of the twentieth

century. Many people still use TV and radio for information but specialists think that soon

internet will rule (Bbamantra, 2017).

Over the past twenty years, internet use has grown in importance. In the beginning people

used it just to access information but now a days the application of internet is constantly evolving

and making it possible for people to access easily different ways of information or content and it

also allow users to connect with others (e.g. through social media sites like facebook, twitter
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etc.). Only twenty-one years ago, not many individuals around the world understood what the

Internet was but today it has become an integral part of their lives (Nordqvist, 2017).

Hamer, Kojin, and Bushman (2017) developed a scale to measure content based media

exposure. This instrument investigates effects of prosocial media content such as representation

of helping, sharing, cooperative actions and effects of antisocial media or violent media content

such as portrayal of fighting, vandalism, stealing, and substance abuse. However, it is important

before analyzing the impact of prosocial and violent media content among young adults one

should also understand what prosocial and violent media are.

1.1.2 Prosocial Media

Coyne et al. (2018) stated that portrayal of prosocial behavior in media which is planned

to impact optimistically and benefit other people known as prosocial media. It can be depicted

through commercials, TV shows, movies and through different kind of publications. Heavy

viewer of prosocial media would have less aggressive and high prosocial behaviors.

The actions that intended to benefit others are known as pro-social behaviors. These

actions are of broad range and mostly include serving, sharing, offering and helping others but

are not limited to these behaviors. Most of the time these behaviors cost small or even large price

to pro-social person like using funds such as giving money, energy such as helping others by

loading their loads or sometimes it can also cause physical pain such as giving blood (Manesi,

Doesum, & Lange, 2017).

Extensive research on this subject indicated the positive influences of prosocial media

such as Greitemeyer (2011) discovered that prosocial music decreases the negative thinking and
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behaviors. Prosocial TV programs effects individuals social interaction positively by fostering

them to feel happy and behave pleasantly with each other (Mares & Woodard, 2005), prosocial

video games increases positive thoughts and helping behaviors (Saleem, Anderson, & Gentile,

2012), and prosocial music lyrics also promote positive thoughts, mutual understanding and

helping behaviors (Greitemeyer, 2009).

1.1.3 Media Violence

Anderson and Bushman (2001) postulates media violence is the portrayal of intentional

attempts by individuals to inflict harm on others through any media source.

Huesmann and Taylor (2006) describes media violence as the depiction of physical

hostility by one human against another human (or object). Violence through motion pictures

(movies, videos, clips etc.) and projects portraying the brutality is very common now: Tom and

Jerry, The Godfather, Mad Max, Game of Thrones, Kill Bill, Vikings and so on; the list is very

long. It includes all types of media that portray the danger to use coerce, the demonstration of

utilizing power, or the results of the utilization of power against any being including animation

characters or different species as well as humans.

Anderson (2016) indicates that today youth are considerably more exposed to media

violence than past ages, not only from entertainment sources but also from broadcast and

instructive media. Violent media is more appealing, characterized as conduct in which one

character purposefully hurts another character, for example, slaughtering (physical hostility),

name calling (verbal hostility), or damaging vital relational connections by sneaking or lying

(social hostility).
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Media violence has long been a debated topic, particularly since the extensive acceptance

of television in the 1950s. A recognition that media use now dominates the waking hours of

many young people and indicates that violent media can have different destructive consequences

on children, adolescents, and young adults (Huesmann & Taylor, 2006).

Different forms of violence (physical, psychological, humorous and sexual etc.) can be

found in different sources of media (movies, clips, videos, novels, newspapers etc). Brown

(1996) who did most of the research in this area has analyzed the influences of violence depicted

in television. It is an exceptional type of distraction because pretty much every home on the

planet has at least one TV. Mostly people watch it regularly, so depiction of violence through TV

could possibly influence enormously as compared to other sources of violence. TV programming

expects to fulfill the desires of audiences of all ages and for this purpose the wide variety of

content has been made. Most of the content contained violent material either in humorous forms

like the violence depicted through cartoons or in serious forms like the violence depicted through

adult movies.

Similarly, as with different types of cruelty on TV, there is worry that the reporting of

suicides, murders, deviant and criminal activities on the news, will result in impersonation. For

instance, a few studies demonstrated that the quantity of suicides has expanded after news

reports of suicide especially where the incident is reported in details (Hassan, 1996).

Videos or movies represent bigger issues than TV due to the more explicit, fierce

materials and such materials can be comparatively easily accessible. Recordings and videos are

accessible nearly 24 hours a day and their material ranges from healthy "feel better" to “X” and

“R” rated, violent and sexually explicit (Brown, 1996).

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Several researches recommended that pornography, mainly those containing cruelty can

cause the callous sexual acts and cruelty towards females. Pornographic content presents women

as sex workers or call girls often as objects of sexual insults, rape and torture and women posture

as liking these dehumanizing acts. So the continual exposure of sexual explicit material can

develop immediate, long lasting and disrespectful attitudes such as likelihood of rape and

behaviors like sexual hostility in men directed towards women (Linz & Malamuth, 1993;

Donnerstein & Linz, 1994).

This can be because of the way in which women are depicted in these films ¾ often either

as nasty or agreeable. The pictures or videos depicted women as items to be utilized by men for

sex possibly convey the harming social messages. In meta-analysis Paik and Comstock (1994)

found that erotica had a conceivably negative impact on the behavior of men towards women,

even without including violence.

Mostly the video/computer games have either low or high level of violent content. The

player has to battle or fight the opponent player to complete the present level and proceed

further. Some of the explicit games have sensual subjects, and some have sexually violent

themes. The issue related to this kind of games is due to players effective participation in the

cruelty. Likewise, as with TV or video violence, there is intensifying issue that players will turn

out to be increasingly hostile because of fierce amusements, or might become desensitized

towards the violence (Brown, 1996).

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1.2. Theoretical Background of Media effects

Generally, media effects had inclined to emphasize a three or four phase model with each

phase characterized by either major or minor effect (Bryant & Thompson, 2002; McQuail, 2010;

Noelle-Neumann, 1973; Wartella & Middlestadt, 1991).

To characterize these phases, researchers of each stage used technologies of emerging

media, social and cultural background, methods, perspectives and ideologies.

1.2.1 Magic Bullet Theory

Harold Lasswell considered as the primary figure of this phase of media effects. The first

phase starts during 1920s and1930s and it included "magic bullet" or "hypodermic needle"

theory which implied that media had a nonstop, instant and influential impact on its viewers. In

this phase, as the tremendous fame of press, film, and radio into daily life, media were credited

with huge power in forming feelings, frame of minds and conduct. Hence, natives and scientists

alike were dreadful of the wide, prevalent influences that developing media violence depicted in

films and radio could have on society. The publicity that began in World War I further flamed

these worries because of the propaganda campaigns. At that time, there were two types of

propaganda, black and grey propaganda. Black propaganda was intentional/ planned broadcast of

lies and grey propaganda was transmission of ideas or information that might or might not be

false. Audiences accepted those messages without any rejection. Moreover, Lasswell (1927) also

suggested that minorities could also control societies and individuals through propaganda.
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1.2.2 Limited Effect Theory

A second phase and comparatively short stage was started during the 1930s. McQuail

(2010) stated that this stage played an important role in the growth of technical procedures of

communication concepts. This advancement brought about examinations and trials that gradually

raised doubt about scholars before suppositions. Moreover, the concept of “personal influence”

Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) started to influence the theory of media effect and Klapper (1960)

student of Lazarsfeld concluded that the media simply strengthen tendencies and did not directly

influence them. Furthermore, investigators considered there was no immediate or straight

forward connection between media incentives and viewers reaction. This methodology ended up

known as the limited effect model. This model explains that more educated, qualified and

experienced individuals are negligibly affected by the media. Then again, the individuals who

are less educated are bound to be affected by the media.

1.2.3 Cumulative Effects

After World War II the third phase began with the rise of television. In this stage,

researchers concentrated on the direct effect of media (McQuail, 2010).

Additionally, the admittance of TV during the 1960s caused in switching concerns from

no effect myths to long lasting influences, also known as cumulative effects. It means that media

have long term and enduring effects on its viewers and it brought back the concept of dominant

media (Noelle-Neumann, 1973).

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1.2.4 Social Constructivist Approach

Beginning of the 1990s has been considered as the potential fourth phase of media effect.

In this stage, social constructive approach has been developed which argues that media do

include the construction of reality but it depends on audience whether or not to accept/adopt the

media’s view of reality. It also assesses the role of media in building meaning and comparing

social realities. At first media design the picture of society in an expected way then viewers

construct their views of actual image of society and their role in it with the association of

media’s presentation of reality. However, it depends on the individuals either to adapt these

social realities or learn from another source like direct experience or cultural environment

(Gamson & Modigliani, 1989; McQuail, 2010).

1.3. Media Violence and Aggressive Behavior

Issue related to influence of violent media content on aggressive behavior is not restricted

to any specific media source and mostly included television, film, music, video and computer

games. The depiction of violence, viciousness and brutality is very consistent in different types

of media. Content analysis has exhibited that, all things considered, 42.5 forceful activities every

hour are depicted in the most frequently viewed TV programs such as in reality TV shows

participants were forcefully became the victim of sleep deprivation which might cause emotional

instability (Coyne, Robinson, & Nelson, 2010).

Not only physical aggression but also psychological, sexual, verbal and emotional

aggression presented through different sources of media (Lindner & Lyle, 2011).
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Moreover, not only television programs depict violence, it is also presented through

advertisements (Blackford, Gentry, Harrison, & Carlson, 2011).

Movies also show violent content; in fact, the most popular movies have more violent

content which is gradually increasing from the last 40 years (Bleakley, Jamieson, & Romer,

2012).

Additionally, the culprits in violent movies or videos are portrayed more charming and

smarter than ordinary people (McIntosh, Murray, Murray, & Manian, 2003).

Most of the video games also have violent content. About 98% of PC games are age

classified means they are for adult players. In reality, it indicates the presence of violence.

Savagery is an essential piece of the diversion/game; acting brutally is mostly reinforced or is

important to progress (Thompson, Tepichin, & Haninger, 2006).

Researches have shown that watching of violent media content contributes in aggressive

behavior among young adults.

1.3.1 Aggression

Aggression is defined as any conduct concentrating toward another person that is done

with the proximate (quick) aim to cause damage. Moreover, the culprit must trust that the

conduct will hurt the target and that the target is tried to stay away from the conduct (Anderson

& Bushman, 2002).

Aggression is any sequence of behavior, the goal response to which is the injury of the

person toward whom it is directed (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mower, & Sears, 1939).
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Berkowitz (1965) also stated that aggression is a conduct, whose aim is the damage of

certain individual or item.

It includes the view of expectation, what resembles aggressive behavior from one point of

view may not look alike from another, and the similar destructive conduct can or cannot be

viewed as aggression depending on its purpose. Intentional damage is considered as more terrible

than unintentional pain; despite the damage might be same (Ames & Fiske, 2013).

Busching, Allen and Anderson (2016) stated a few main features that differentiate

aggression from other activities. First, aggression is a behavior or conduct also known as

aggressive behavior. Though it is possible to think aggressively or have a craving for acting in a

forceful way, these feelings however related but not viewed as aggression. Aggressive behavior

is not restricted to direct and explicit physical behavior like hitting or beating known as physical

aggression. It is also possible to act aggressively by spreading gossips (relational aggression),

sending threatening electronic messages (cyber-aggression) or using offensive language (verbal

aggression).

Second, aggressive behavior is intentional behavior and is planned to inflict harm,

meaning that inflicting unintentional, unplanned or accidental harm (e.g., accidentally running

over your neighbor’s pet) is not considered as aggressive behavior. Additionally, conduct that

hurts another but is to help that individual (e.g., managing an excruciating vaccination) is not

viewed as aggressive behavior. The basic purpose of aggressive behavior should be inflicting

harm on target intentionally. For example, shooting at somebody with the aim to murder is an

aggressive behavior regardless the shots might miss and cause no damage.
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Third, the person being harmed must be determined to escape that harm. This means that

masochism (i.e., gratification from self-inflicted pain) and suicide are not viewed as aggressive

behaviors unless the suicide is committed to harm someone else (e.g., suicide as a way of

punishing someone else).

1.3.2 Types of Aggression

Cherry (2018) stated that psychologists distinguish between two different types of

aggression.

• Impulsive aggression: It is also known as affective aggression; impulsive aggression is

described by strong emotions typically anger. This type of aggressive behavior is not

strategic and often happens in the heat of the moment e.g. another vehicle cuts you off in

rush hour traffic and you start shouting and abusing the other driver, you're encountering

impulsive aggression.

• Instrumental aggression: Also recognized as predatory aggression, instrumental

aggressive behaviors are planned to accomplish a bigger objective. Instrumental

aggression is often cautiously arranged and typically happens to achieve targeted goal.

Hurting the individual in a burglary is an example of this type of aggression. The

aggressor's goal is to obtain money and harming another individual is the way to achieve

that target. The attacker will probably acquire cash and hurting the individual is the way

to accomplish that point.

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1.3.3 Gender Differences and Aggression

Researchers found that men and women exhibit different kinds of aggressive behavior.

Specially, men are more likely to take part in serious physical and criminal activities while

women are more likely to be involved in indirect aggressive behaviors. But men and women

shows an equal tendency of taking part in verbal hostility, general hostility and aggressive

behaviors towards their spouses (Huesmann, Moise-Titus, Podolski, & Eron, 2003).

Meta-analytic reviews have also discovered that men are more physically aggressive than

women (e.g., Card, Stucky, Sawalani, & Little, 2008). In their study, Anderson et al. (2003) gave

evidence which propose that connection between exposure to media violence and hostile conduct

are found equally in males and females.

Certain empirical studies also proposed that men who were involved in playing violent

video games have shown more hostile behavior than the women who played the same game

(Bartholow & Anderson, 2002).

Media portrayed male characters as more violent and forceful than female characters

which can cause gender differences in terms of physical aggression (Anderson et al., 2003).

Men have higher level of fondness for violent content than women, and studies proposed

that men generally play more violent video games than women, causing more physical

aggression in males as compare to females (Moller & Krahe, 2009).

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1.4. Theoretical Framework of Aggressive Behavior and Media Violence

Different Views regarding the impact of violent media content have been presented

decades ago but the researchers from different fields, especially from psychology, mass

communication and sociology have introduced and verified the much better models and theories.

These models and theories are able to present the impact of violent media content on its viewers.

The theories which were developed and generally accepted not just disclose that presence of

brutality in media increases hostile and violent conduct but also recommended various

components that may fuel or relieve the influence (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007).

1.4.1 Social learning theory

Social learning theory postulates that aggressive behavior is learned through observation

and it can be maintained through operant conditioning i.e., reward and punishment (Bandura,

1973).For example people might follow the hostile behavior which is depicted through their

favorite movie character; particularly when that character has been rewarded for his aggressive

behavior.

Bandura informed that through recorded and broadcast observation children and adults

can adapt attitudes, reactions and new patterns of behaviors (Griffin, 1994).

Through media one can learn novel ways to harm others. For example, a follower of

television professional wrestling is likely to interpret folding chairs as potential weapons because

of their repetitive use in wrestling. This theory acclaims that rewarded violent media content

depicted through TV, films, videos, news and games can cause aggressive behavior in
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individuals. For example, the star of a movie may be appreciated and reinforced for using

forceful acts against the villain (DeLisi & Beaver, 2014).

1.4.2 Script theory

Huesmann (1986, 1998) studied that through high association people can develop

concepts or scripts which guide their perception of social events and portrayal of social conduct.

If a violent idea is associated with a particular script, triggering one piece of that content can

activate the whole concept which might cause aggressive conduct.

For example, an individual who often watch in different TV shows that the reaction of

verbal insult is to strike back in the form of physical aggression and this might become part of

individual’s concept that how to tackle verbal insults. This person would likely to response

aggressively when offended because the script of aggressive strike is activated.

1.4.3 The General Aggression Model

One of the recent and complete descriptions about the impact of violent media content on

aggressive behavior is General Aggression Model (GAM). GAM brings together many oldest

theories which only focused on one perspective of hostility to understand human aggression and

unified them. It explains that how any aggressive stimulus can cause the aggressive conduct.

The GAM has the power to explain short-term as well as long-term development of

aggressive behavior. Short-term process is episodic and cyclic procedure, where situational and

person factors (individual’s aggressive personality) contribute to influence individual’s internal

state. Cognition, affect and arousal are the three variables which classified this kind of internal

state. Any situation can influence one or all three variables of internal state. For example, news
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of mass murder can cause aggressive thinking, increased physiological arousal and enrage anger.

Then the person’s inner state leads to decision process. For example, aggressive thinking,

increased physiological arousal and enrage anger can cause aggressive conduct. Furthermore,

this aggressive conduct will influence the situation and the cycle will begin again. These effects

also known as proximate GAM (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).

All these internal state factors are related to one another. For example, if one feels angry

then those feelings might cause aggressive thinking (Anderson & Dill, 2000).

Violent media content does not only have short term influences but there is also long

term influences related to media violence and aggressive conducts. Long term process of GAM

indicates that violence depicted through media can change the person’s mental concepts. The

person then applies these concepts into real world means people can learn from violent media

content and change their behavior accordingly. This long-term process is also known as distal

process (Anderson & Bushman, 2002).

Distal GAM predicts that if a person exposed to aggressive stimulus again and again then

it can cause aggressive personality of that individual (Anderson & Carnagey, 2004).

Therefore, when an individual exposed to violent media content through games, TV,

videos, movies and news etc., it can influence the development of an aggressive personality.

Continual exposure to violence also leads to desensitization (Carnagey, Anderson, & Bushman,

2007).
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1.5. Media Violence and Deviant Behavior

The role of violent media content in promoting of deviant behavior is a very important

issue in our society. Because in this era of advancement almost everyone in this world has access

to different means of media, so the researchers and specialists of psychology, mass

communication and criminology are and will continue to seek out the connection between

violent media content and deviant behavior. Pamphlets, billboards and magazines etc. constantly

send their messages to individuals and communities. These messages not only inform about

items or events but also influence one’s opinions or concept of what is or is not important (Loh

& Lim, 2018)

Moreover, through media people became famous and known as celebrity because media

publicity of these people could reach across thousands of miles and without media sources it is

almost impossible to become famous. Therefore only few politicians, businessman and notorious

criminals were famous in the past. But now days because of media actors, singers and leaders

have become superstars (Harcourt, 2016).

To understand the contribution of media violence in deviant behaviors it is vital to

understand what deviant behavior is.

1.5.1 Deviant behavior

Deviant behaviors are those conducts that are against the norms of any society.

Sometimes these deviant actions violate the laws and administration systems of a society which

are considered as crimes. These behaviors do not meet the criteria of law, ethics and moral
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values of any society or at least are disturbing/ irritating to others like property theft or

destruction, false rumor, loud noises and graffiti etc. (Humphery & Schmalleger, 2012).

Macionis and Gerber (2010) also explained that deviant conduct is any behavior which is

opposed to prominent norms of society.

In every society, there are basically three kinds of social norms; folkways, mores and

laws (Sumner, 1907).

Folkways are the practices and duties of daily life like greetings and byes. Not fulfilling

these duties might be considered as bad or deviant behavior but not as punishable conducts.

While mores derived from the Latin word which means manners or customs. Mores are strict

societal and cultural norms as they have greater ethical importance like appropriate dressing and

use of offensive language are guided by the mores of any society. Acting against the mores

might leads to serious consequences like job dismissal or permanent damage of one’s reputation

(Macionis & Gerber, 2010).

Sumner (1907) stated that laws are the most severe form of societal norms. Laws of any

society provide categorizations and specific features of crimes. Violation of societal laws like

murder might result in life-time imprisonment or execution.

Additionally, Humphery and Schmalleger (2012) also stated that there are some conducts

which may be deviant but not criminal (like cross-dressing) while other behaviors might consider

as both deviant and criminal (like rape, murder etc.). Deviant actions may be demonstrated by

person alone (like suicide, smoking, cybercrime or substance abuse etc.) or in groups (like

terrorism or gang violence etc.).These behaviors may be episodic (like binge drinking) or might
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extreme situation give rise to unexpected conducts (like cannibalism in case of extreme

starvation). Deviant behaviors may be innovative or unusual (like cybercrimes and terrorism may

involve innovative or unusual ways) or they might be routine behaviors (like drug or alcohol

addiction etc.).

Therefore, there is no single definition that explains deviant behavior clearly but this

behavior mostly defined as violation of specific societal norms. Sometimes some societal norms

change with the passage of time. It depends on the adaption of the behavior e.g., at first making

tattoos on your body is reflected as deviant behavior but now in most countries it is considered as

normal practice. Firstly, some conducts are deviant for one society while they are acceptable for

other society based on their cultural values e.g., consumption of alcohol is often seem as illegal

in Islamic countries but mostly acceptable in Western countries. Secondly, place where the

action is displayed also play an important role in the recognition of deviant behavior e.g.,

fighting on the street is socially unacceptable but fighting in the boxing ring is legal and socially

adequate (Bryant, 2012).

1.5.2 Gender Differences in Deviant Behavior

Researchers also tried to find out the difference among men and women in regards to

deviant behavior. An empirical study proposed that males have more deviant friends and they are

more likely to influence from this friendship than females because males have weaker morality

than females (Tedor, 2014).

Kornand Bonny-Noach (2017) found that among young adults men are more prone to

risky behaviors related to health like use of cannabis and deviant practices like speeding than

women.
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Results of another research indicated that American men are more susceptible to deviant

conduct than women while in Japan both men and women showed almost same level of deviant

behaviors (Kobayashi, Sharp, & Grasmick, 2008).

Moreover, Kunkel and Nielsen (1998) found that male deviants were criticized for

showing more negativity, strength of reaction, laughter and homophobia but female deviants

criticized for giving more verbal and sexual remarks.

Scholars suggested that this difference between men and women might be because in

some cultures male mostly overpowered females and also because females had less access to

opportunities to become deviant (Collier, 1998).

1.6. Theoretical Framework of Media Violence and Deviant Behavior

Today media became a significant power in almost every culture (including TV, game.

advertisement, video, internet, picture, newspaper and so on). Media also plays an important role

in the construction of deviant or antisocial conducts and laws against them. Media portrayal

builds viewers perception of offenders, culprits, deviants as well as defenders and victims

(Dowler, 2004).

Criminologists, psychologists and sociologists are constantly trying to find out the impact

of violent media content on deviant behavior through series of scholastic debates. Every

specialist has different point of view about the extent and type of media effect but all of them

agree that media is everlasting part of modern culture (Fadul & Estoque, 2010).

Cundiff (2013) study proposed that gangsta rap/ hip-hop plays a prominent role in

endorsing wicked language among young individuals. Moreover, the lyrics include sexual
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victory. So this profane language lowers human potentials and shrinks it as equals to animals.

Additionally, this study found that a large amount of rap/hip-hop followers used sexist language

which also leads them to indulge in immoral sexual conducts.

Bremner, Burnett, Nunney, Ravat, and Mistral (2011) stated that representation of

alcohol and drinking from different means of media like soap operas, music videos and

advertisements have expanded the conditions through which young individuals become the

highest consumers of alcohol. Also the consumption of alcohol has mostly portrayed in media as

acceptable conduct. Use of alcohol in media has been presented to attract female by showing it

as the part of glamorous celebrity life and as the part of daily routines. Mostly famous female

actors play these characters and women usually idealized them. More so, alcohol is represented

as macho, susceptible and emotional identity of males. It also inspires men that if they face any

issue or worries they should start drinking alcohol in order to face or solve that problem while

ignoring the fact that this conduct could have health consequences.

Theories which explain the impact of media violence on its viewers are cultivation theory

and social learning theory.

1.6.1 Cultivation theory

It has been specifically created to analyze the impact of media violence. The main idea of

this theory is that the quantity of various messages delivered by the media is mostly less, reliable

sets. When viewers receive the same massages again and again through any media source, they

would trust the messages and consider them as mirror reflection of reality (Gerbner, Gross,

Morgan & Signorielli, 1982).

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For example, Elders, Perry, Ericksen and Giovino (1994) reported that the depictions of

smoking through movies or soap operas are also encouraging young people to do the smoking.

Continual exposure of smoking through media makes them believe that their society expects

them to adapt it which gradually leads to drug addiction.

This theory mostly deals with the impact of television violence which persuades heavy

television viewers that the world is more brutal place then it really is. This perspective is known

as “mean world syndrome” (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, & Shahnahan, 2002).

For example, a young female who saw different shows or videos where men tend to

behave abusively with women. So she might grow with the thought that mostly men are abusive

individuals and developed fear of getting married (Neuman & Guggenheim, 2011).

1.6.2 Social Learning Theory

Crossman (2018) proposed that people learn and manage their behavior because of results

and feedbacks. So the people usually learn deviant and criminal behaviors by observing other

people who receive rewards for these practices.

For example, a person who saw a movie where his favorite character was involved in a

robbery but till the end of that movie that character did not get caught or punished, instead he

was rewarded in the form of stolen money. Then the person might adapt the same behavior

because he believed that he would be rewarded with the same outcome. According to social

learning theory, this is how deviant behavior is developed.

This theory also postulates that a person exactly adapt the same behavior as of his role

model. So, if the role model advertises the product the fan will buy the same product (Bandura,
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2001).For example, young man sees his favorite character at TV smoking K-2 in advertisements

for the product’s promotion, the young man likely to go and buy K-2 for smoking.

Thus, Coilns, Elickson, Mccaffrey and Hambarsoomians (2007) also reported that those

individuals who learned certain behaviors from different media sources like stealing or drinking,

it is not compulsory that they portray that behavior immediately but instead they show them

later.

Overall, media remarkably contributes in the development of human life and the main

function of media is to educate, to inform and to entertain its audience. Television, radio,

internet, newspaper, magazines, novels, books etc. are different sources of media. Media content

can be presented in prosocial or antisocial form. Prosocial media content like depiction of

helping, donating and cooperative behaviors might encourage positive behaviors in individuals.

However, almost all types of media content represent media violence and constant exposure to

violent or antisocial media content could have adverse effects on individuals such as

representation of violent behaviors like physical, psychological, emotional, sexual and humorous

violence including killing, abusing, cheating, beating, shouting, torturing, shooting, lying,

making fun of others misfortune, plotting or planning against others for personal benefits, usage

of slang language, invading someone’s privacy etc. could also have negative consequences. It

can also promote aggressive or deviant behaviors among young adults. Nevertheless,

considerable theories now exists that support relationship among violent media content,

aggression and deviant behaviors including magic bullet theory, social learning theory, script

theory, cultivation theory and the theory of general aggression model.

 24

Moreover, the importance of media has also increased phenomenally since 2002 in

Pakistan which is also considered as the era of media revolution. One can easily access any type

of media content whether it is violent or prosocial content because of media’s liberalization. This

access to violent media content expanding hostile, vicious and risk taking behaviors in general

public for instance sensational representation of violence might cause imitative behaviors.

Continuous portrayal of media violence impact the attitudes, perception and behaviors of

individuals for instance Jahangir and Nawaz (2014) discovered that media is playing more of

negative role in Pakistan. It is promoting 41% violence, 46% vulgarity, 65% chaos and 97%

stress or tension building. In short, media violence is also causing tremendous collateral damage

among young adults in Pakistan as well as all over the world. Therefore, because Pakistan has

also a vibrant media it is essential to analyze the impact of media violence in terms of aggression

and deviant behaviors among Pakistani young adults.

 25

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Media portrays high level of violence. Movies, television sitcoms, advertisements and

other programs as well as cartoons use violent content as a source of entertainment and to

capture the attention of viewers. Even musical lyrics and computer games depicts violent and

deviant content, it isn't simply put there to catch eye; it is the goal. Role of media violence in

relation to aggression and deviant behavior has been and will remain an important factor in our

society. This chapter has theoretical literature that supports the idea of media violence and it

likely influence in the form of aggressive and deviant behavior among young adults. Of course

not every study yields the same results, but when viewed as a whole the results have been

remarkably consistent.

Many researchers are of view that media violence is significantly related to aggressive

behavioral tendencies.

2.1. Violent Media Content and Aggressive Behavior

Paik and Comstock (1994) carried out meta-analysis to measure the effects of violence

through TV on antisocial behaviors. They found that TV violence and antisocial behaviors, in

particular, aggressive behaviors were significantly and positively related.

Another meta-analysis study carried out by Bushman and Huesmann (2006) investigated

short and long term impacts of violent media content on aggression. Children younger than 18

years and adults were included. The results indicated that adults were more influenced by violent
 26

media content for shorter period of time than youngsters, while long term violent media has more

influence on children than adults.

Similarly, Anderson et al. (2010) performed meta-analysis to reveal the influences of

violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect,

physiological arousal, empathy or desensitization and pro-social behavior. The facts presented in

the study strongly suggested that video games based on violent content caused amplifying

aggressive behavior, cognition and affect while lessening the empathy and prosocial behavior.

Besides, Huesmann and Tayler (2006) carried out the research on the role of media

violence in violent behavior. Results of the study revealed that unrealistic TV and violent content

presented through films enhances short and long term aggressive and violent acts. Violent

content presented through TV news also contributed in imitating suicidal news and aggressive

conducts. Similarly, violent video games also increase short-term hostile and deviant (criminal)

acts.

On the contrary, Ferguson et al. (2008) studied family environment, media violence, and

personality as predictor variables for aggression. Data from young adults (n=355) revealed that

personality traits and exposure to physical abuse significantly predicts violent crime. Exposure to

television and video game violent content were not significant predictors of violent crime. These

results explained the complex interaction between multiple cases linked to the causes of violent

acts as the findings raise doubts regarding the view of linking violent media content with brutal

actions.

Moreover, findings of several researches also indicated that watching violent media

content promote deviant behaviors among viewers.

 27

2.2. Violent Media Content and Deviant Behaviors

Boeringer (1994) studied the relationship between sexually explicit content and violence

related to it. Data was taken from 515 college men indicating significant relation between rape

and rape tendency linked to viewing different forms of pornography.

Another study of Jackson, Janssen and Gabrielli (2018) explored the impact of

media/marketing on substance abuse (including tobacco, alcohol, e-cigarette and marijuana)

among adolescents and young adults. The results indicated that adolescents and young adults

are highly exposed to substance use through social sites, brand web and that these portrayals are

consequently associated with substance abuse.

Meta-analytical evaluation of Anderson and Bushman (2001) also suggested that violent

video games enhance aggressive acts among children and young adults. These results were

further supported by experimental and non-experimental evidences in laboratory and field

settings. Results revealed that video games based on violent content also amplify physiological

arousals, hostile cognitions and feelings while reducing the prosocial acts.

Another study of Batool and Akram (2014) explored the yin-yang impact of social

networking sites on personal and social life of youth. The data was collected through semi-

structured interviews, focus group discussion and content analysis. The results revealed that

social networking sites (including Facebook, Skype etc.) impact youth’s personal, academic and

social life positively like reducing distances, boosting confidence, providing information etc. as

well as negatively like limiting family interaction, deviating moral values, causing physical

distress etc.
 28

On the other hand, researches also highlighted gender differences in terms of exposure to

violent media content.

2.3. Violent Media Content and Gender Differences

Anderson and Dill (2000) examined the effects of violent video games on aggression-

related variables. Study 1 showed positive relationship between real-life violent video game with

aggression and delinquency. A strong relation was found for aggressive people specifically men.

While academic achievement was negatively related to time spent on playing video games and

study 2 showed higher aggressive thoughts and behaviors on disclosure to violent graphical

video games. Males were found to be more aggressive than females in both studies.

Another study of Bartholow and Anderson (2002) investigated the impact of violent

video games on aggressive behaviors in relation to potential sex differences. The results

indicated that playing violent video games was significantly related to aggressive behaviors than

playing nonviolent video games. Findings were also revealed that men showed more aggression

after playing violent video games than women.

Overall, numerous studies revealed that violent media content is not only promoting

aggressive and deviant behaviors among its viewers but can also have long lasting negative

influences. Moreover, continual violent media exposure can also discourage the empathetic and

prosocial behaviors among young adults. Furthermore, past researches also indicated significant

gender differences in terms of violent media exposure as men are more prone to violent media

content than women and its likely effects.

 29

2.4. Rationale

In this new age radio, TV, motion pictures, recordings, computer games, and PC systems

etc. have been continuously playing essential roles in our daily lives. For better or for worse, the

media is enormously influencing our behaviors, convictions, and practices. But where there is

pro-social media providing information, knowledge and solutions to different problems, there is

also the dark side of media consisting of violence also known as anti-social media promoting

aggressive and deviant behavior among young adults.

With the advancement of media individuals are constantly exposed to wide variety of

media violence such as physical, sexual, psychological, verbal or humorous violence etc. Large

amount of viewers including young adults are prone to media violence without knowing its

impact on them. It has been evident through literature that many researches were carried out

worldwide on media violence but the impact of media violence on aggressive and deviant

behavior is less explored area in Pakistan.

Moreover, previous researches mostly concentrated on how media violence influences

children and adolescents (e.g., Krish, 2006) but very few researches considered young adults.

There is a dire need to investigate that how continual exposure to media violence enhance or

develop aggressive and deviant behaviors among Pakistani young adults.

2.5. Objectives

• To explore the relationship among media violence, aggressive and deviant behavior.

• To determine the impact of media violence on aggressive behavior.

• To determine the impact of media violence on deviant behavior.

 30

• To explore the impact of more and less exposure to violent media content in terms of

aggressive and deviant behavior among young adults.

• To determine the gender differences in terms of media violence, aggressive and deviant

behavior.

2.6. Hypothesis

• There would be significant relationship among media violence, aggressive and deviant

behavior.

• Young adults with more or less exposure of violent media content would differ

significantly in terms of aggressive and deviant behavior.

• There would be gender differences in media exposure, aggressive and deviant behaviors.

• Media violence would be a strong predictor of aggressive and deviant behavior.

 31

CHAPTER 3

METHOD

3.1. Research design

The mixed method approach was used to study the impact of media violence on

aggressive and deviant behavior.

3.2. Sampling Technique

Purposive sampling technique was used for data collection.

3.3. Sample

A purposive sample consisting of 350 young adults with the distribution of 171 male and

179 female young adults with an age range of 21-39 years drawn from a public university. The

details about the demographic characteristics of the participants have been summarized in the

table given below.

Table 1

Demographic Characteristics of Sample (N= 350)

Variables Categories f (%) M SD

Age (21-39) 350(100) 23.43 3.21

Gender Men 171(48.9)

Women 179(51.1)
 32

Education College 176(50.29)

University 174(49.71)

Marital status Single 322(92)

Married 28(8)

Family system Nuclear 213(60.9)

Joint 137(39.1)

The demographics of the participants are shown in the above mentioned table. n=171

men and n=179 women participated in the study in which 50.29% participants were college

students and 49.71% were university students. 92% of participants were single and 8% were

married. 60.9% were from nuclear family system while 39.1% were living in a joint family

system.

3.4. Inclusion Criteria

Young adults of ages 21-39 were included (Syed & Mclean, 2017).

3.5. Exclusion Criteria

Men and women below 21 years of age and above 39 years of age were excluded. Men

and women who have never watched violent content were not included.
 33

3.6. Research Tools

3.6.1 Piloting

Pilot study was conducted on 20 young adults to check the reliability and appropriateness

of the instruments. On the basis of participant’s responses and feedback, some of statements

were adapted according to Pakistani culture with author’s permission to improve reliability and

validity of the scale.

3.6.2 Demographic Information Sheet

Demographic information included age, gender, education, marital status and family

system.

3.6.3 Extended version of the Content-Based Media Violence Exposure Scale (C-

ME2)

It was developed by Hamer, Konijn, and Bushman in 2017. It has 22 items. It measures

both antisocial and prosocial content based media exposure. Antisocial media content was

measured using 12 items depicting media violence including “how often do you watch people

who fight, how often do you watch people who use drugs, how often do you watch people who

are having sex and how often do you watch people who steal etc.” Prosocial media content was

measured using 10 items including “how often do you watch people who help someone, how

often do you watch people who are in love and how often do you watch people who stand up for

someone etc.”All items were scored using a 5-point scale (1 = never to 5 = very often). Cronbach

alpha is α = .89 on antisocial subscale and Cronbach α = .88 on prosocial subscale.

 34

3.6.4 Aggression Questionnaire

Aggression questionnaire was developed by Buss and Perry in 1992. It is consists of 29

statements which are to be rated from 1 "extremely uncharacteristic of me" to 5 "extremely

characteristic of me." The questionnaire has 4 dimensions of aggression including physical

aggression with α = .85, verbal aggression with α = .72, anger with α = .83 and hostility with α =

.77. Physical aggression included items like “I have become so mad that I have broken things, I

have threatened people I know, if somebody hits me I hit back etc.”, verbal aggression included

items like “I can’t help getting in arguments when people disagree with me, my friends say that I

am somewhat argumentative etc.”, anger included items like “some of my friends think I am

hothead, I have trouble controlling my temper etc.” and “ I am suspicious of overly friendly

strangers, other people always seems to get breaks etc.” are some of items included in hostility.

3.6.5 Deviant Behavior Variety Scale (DBVS)

It was developed by Sanches, Gouveia-Pereira, Maroco, Gomes and Roncon in 2016. It is

a self-report measure of 19 items. For each of the 19 deviant behaviors composing the DBVS,

participants are asked whether they have committed it during the last year. Answers are given in

a yes or no format. A participant variety score, which is a sum score, is calculated by summing

the dichotomous scores on each individual item, and it ranges between 0 and 19 with α = .83 and

higher scores indicating a wide variety of deviant behaviors committed. The scale has two

factors i.e., minor infractions and serious infractions. Items included in minor infractions are

“during the last year, have you ever used public transport without paying, skipped classes/duties

because you did not felt like going, done graffiti on buildings etc.” and “during the last year,
 35

have you ever used cocaine or heroin, sold drugs, carried a weapon (e.g., pistol, knife) etc.” are

some of items included in serious infractions.

3.6. Procedure

Informed consent was taken from the different departments of public university to collect

data. Then pilot study was carried out on 20 young adults to find out the reliability of the scales.

Questions about the reasons for liking / disliking the violent media content and demographic

information sheet along with the standardized questionnaires measuring exposure of violent

media content, aggressive and deviant behavior were administered on young adults. The

participants were also briefed about the general purpose of the study. Participants took almost 30

minutes to complete the questionnaire and at the end they were thanked for their participation.

3.7. Analysis

In the current study, the statistical techniques of correlation, regression and MANOVA

have been implied to study the impact and relationships of variables with each other. Correlation

analysis was run to find out the relationship between media violence, aggression and deviant

behavior. Regression was used to see if media violence predicts aggressive or deviant behavior.

MANOVA was applied to explore the impact of media violence on aggressive and deviant

behavior, also to find out gender differences in terms of media violence, aggressive and deviant

behavior. Content analysis was used to interpret the qualitative data. Categories and sub

categories of the data were develop to gather information about the reasons for liking or disliking

violent media content and what kind of media content young adults prefer to watch.
 36

3.8. Ethical Considerations

Ethics were maintained throughout the study.

• Permission for using scales has been taken from the respective authors through email

correspondence.

• Also permission was obtained from the respective departments for the collection of data.

• Inform consent providing sufficient information was obtained from the participants prior

to the study.

• Participants were assured that the information given by them will kept confidential and

that they can withdraw at any time if they want to.

• Participants were assured that their participation will not cause any harm or damage to

them.
 37

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Qualitative and Quantitative interpretation of the data was carried out. Content Analysis

was used to interpret the Qualitative data. Categories and subcategories were developed to

uncover the preferences and reasons of liking / disliking of violent media content among young

adults. Descriptive and Inferential statistics was applied to interpret the quantitative data. Product

Moment Correlation Analysis was applied to explore the relationship among media violence,

aggressive and deviant behavior. Moreover, MANOVA was applied to determine the impact of

media violence in terms of aggressive and deviant behavior and to determine the impact of

gender in terms of media violence, aggressive and deviant behavior. Furthermore, simple linear

regression was applied to see if media violence predict aggressive and deviant behavior.
 38

Table 2

Content Analysis Indicating Categories of Preferred Content Evolved from Qualitative Data

among Young Adults (N=350)

Preferred Content f %

1. Action/Adventure 168 48

2. Crime/ Thriller 124 35.42

3. Fantasy/ Fiction 137 39.14

4. Horror/ Mysterious/ Suspense 117 33.42

5. Documentary 102 29.14

6. Comedy 194 55.42

7. Romantic/ Drama 160 45.71

8. Historical 94 26.85

9. Social/ Political 97 27.71

10. Adult Content 54 15.42

Categories indicate the preferences of young adults in terms of watching different

categories of media content. Three major categories that young adults mostly preferred to watch

are comedy content (55.42%), action or adventurous content (48%) and drama or romantic

content (45.71%). However, the least preferred content by young adults is to watch adult content

(15.42%).
 39

Table 3

Content Analysis of Liking of Violent Media Content Indicating Categories and Subcategories

Evolved from the Qualitative Data (n=106)

Categories Subcategories f (%)

Pleasure Seeking/ Instinctual 52(49.05)

Liking 18(16.98)

Entertaining 25(23.58)

Satisfactory 1(.94)

Stress Releasing 2(1.88)

Curiosity 2(1.88)

Create Suspense 1(.94)

Thrilling 2(1.88)

Instinctive 1(.94)

Education 15(14.15)

Awareness 7(6.60)

Enhance Knowledge 8(7.54)

Informative Content 13(12.26)

Informative 10(9.43)

Reaction towards violence 3(2.83)

Exposing Dark Side of Human 5(4.71)

Evil Reality 5(4.71)

 40

Content analysis indicates that young adults watch violent content for pleasure seeking

(49.05%), education (14.15%) and information (12.26%) reasons. Additionally, only less than

five percent young adults watch violent media content because they considered it as the portrayal

of dark side of humans (4.71%).

 41

Table 4

Content Analysis of Disliking Violent Media Content Indicating Categories and Subcategories

Evolved From the Qualitative Data (n=244)

Categories Subcategories f (%)

Psychological Disturbance 77(31.55)

Disturbing 32(13.11)

Depressing 15(6.14)

Sad 3(1.22)

Damaging 12(4.91)

Irritating/ Frustrating 9(3.68)

Aggressive 2(.81)

Triggering 1(.40)

Sensitive 1(.40)

Desensitizing 1(.40)

Change Mood 1(.40)

Negative Impact 49(20.08)

Negative Thought Insertion 13(5.32)

Lead towards violence 3(1.22)

Bad Impact 22(9.01)

Impact Behavior 4(1.63)

Spoil Imagination 2(.81)

Distracting 1(.40)

Effect Socially 1(.40)

 42

Effect Unconsciously 1(.40)

Persuade to Over think 1(.40)

Discouraging 1(.40)

Not Appealing 29(11.88)

Not of Personal Choice 24(9.83)

Wastage of time 2(.81)

Hatred 3(1.22)

Non-beneficial Content 8(3.27)

Not Worth Seeing 8(3.27)

Immoral & Unethical 4(1.6)

Dehumanization of Mankind 4(1.6)

Spread Negativity 4(1.6)

Spread hatred 1(.40)

Spread Negativity 2(.81)

Spread violence 1(.40)

Fiction Content 3(1.22)

Unrealistic 3(1.22)

Physical Distress 2(.81)

Nausea 1(.40)

Headache 1(.40)

Content analysis indicates that the most of the young adults do not like to watch violent

media because they find it psychologically disturbing (31.55%). Moreover, violent media has
 43

also negative impact (20.08%) on young adults. Also, young adults reported that violent content

as not appealing (11.88%) to them. However, some of young adults also reported media violent

content as non-beneficial (3.27%), unethical (1.6%) and fiction content (1.22%). It also spread

negativity (1.6%) and cause physical distress (.81%) among young adults.
 44

Table 5

Psychometric Properties of Media Exposure, Aggression Questionnaire and Deviant Behavior

Scales (N=350)

Range

Variable n M SD α Potential Actual Skew

C-ME2 350 67.76 9.49 .75 1-5 2.09-4.5 .39

Antisocial Media 350 34.13 7.60 .79 1-5 1.25-0.27 .15

Prosocial Media 350 33.63 6.28 .83 1-5 1.4-5 .05

AQ 350 85.97 16.93 .87 1-5 1.37-4.62 .07

Physical Aggression 350 24.44 6.65 .74 1-5 1-4.88 .13

Verbal Aggression 350 16.25 3.75 .60 1-5 1-5 -.06

Anger 350 20.93 4.68 .62 1-5 1-4.71 -.15

Hostility 350 24.35 5.30 .69 1-5 1.25-4.6 -.11

DBVS 350 3.68 3.46 .82 0-1 0-1 1.31

Minor Infractions 350 2.06 1.69 .62 0-1 0-1 .66

Serious infractions 350 1.62 2.14 .78 0-1 0-1 1.77

Note: C-ME2= Extended Version of the Content-based Media Exposure Scale, AQ = Aggression

Questionnaire, DBVS = Deviant Behavior Variety Scale

The psychometric properties of extended version of the content-based media exposure

scale (α=.75) including antisocial media (α=.79), prosocial media (α=.83), aggression

questionnaire (α=.87) including physical aggression (α=.74), verbal aggression (α=.60) , anger

(α=.62), hostility (α=.69) and deviant behavior variety scale (α=.82) including minor infractions

(α=.62) and serious infractions (α=.78) have high level of internal consistency.
 45

Table 6

Correlation between Media Exposure, Aggression and Deviant Behavior (N=350)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 M SD

1. Media Exposure _ .75** .60** .27** .23** .25** .20** .23** .21** .26** .13* 67.76 9.49

2. Antisocial Media _ -0.1 .39** .37** .27** .29** .32** .34** .36** .27** 34.13 7.6

3. Pro-social Media _ -0.1 -0.1 0.05 -0.1 -0 -.1 -0 -.13* 33.63 6.28

4. Aggression _ .86** .74** .85** .82** .27** .25** .24** 85.97 16.93

5. Physical Aggression _ .50** .64** .57** .37** .31** .34** 24.44 6.65

6. Verbal Aggression _ .56** .52** .15** .16** .12* 16.25 3.75

7. Anger _ .62** .17** .16** .14** 20.93 4.68

8. Hostility _ .15** .16** .11* 24.35 5.3

9. Deviant Behavior _ .87** .92** 3.68 3.46

10.Minor Infractions _ .62** 2.06 1.69

11.Serious Infractions _ 1.62 2.14

Note:*p<.05,**p<.01
 46

A Pearson product-moment correlation was run to determine the relationship between

content base media exposure, aggressive and deviant behavior. Results indicates that media

exposure has significant positive correlation with aggression, r(349)=.27, p<.01 and also with

its subscales e.g., physical aggression, r(349)=.23, p<.01, verbal aggression, r(349)=.25, p<.01,

anger, r(349)=.20, p<.01, hostility, r(349)=.23, p<.01. Also, media exposure has a positive

significant correlation with deviant behavior, r(349)=.21, p<.01, and on its both subscales which

are minor infractions, r(349)=.26,p<.01 and positive correlation with serious infractions,

r(349)=.13,p<.05. Moreover, anti-social media has also positive significant correlation with

aggression, r(349)=.39, p<.01, physical aggression, r(349)=.37, p<.01, verbal aggression,

r(349)=.27,p<.01, anger, r(349)=.29,p<.01, hostility, r(349)=.32,p<.01.

Content based media exposure has also a positive significant correlation with deviant

behavior, r(349)=.34, p<.01, minor infractions, r(349)=.36, p<.01 and positive correlation with

serious infractions, r(349)=.27, p<.05.

However, pro-social media is not significantly correlated with aggression, r(349)=.05,

p=ns, physical aggression, r(349)=-.10, p=ns, verbal aggression, r(349)=.05, p=ns, anger,

r(349)=-.05, p=ns, hostility, r(349)=-.03, p=ns, deviant behavior, r(349)=-.1, p=ns, minor

infractions, r(349)=-.03, p=ns and significantly negatively correlated with serious infractions,

r(349)=-.13, p<.05.

Aggression is also positively correlated with deviant behavior, r(349)=.27, p<.01, minor

infractions, r(349)=.25, p<.01 and serious infractions, r(349)=.24, p<.01. Furthermore, physical

aggression is also positively correlated with deviant behavior, r(349)=.37, p<.01, minor

infractions, r(349)=.31, p<.01 and serious infractions, r(349)=.34, p<.01. Moreover, verbal
 47

aggression is also positively correlated with deviant behavior, r(349)=.15, p<.01, minor

infractions, r(349)=.16, p<.01 and significantly positively correlated with serious infractions,

r(349)=.12, p<.05. Additionally, anger is also positively correlated with deviant behavior,

r(349)=.17, p<.01, minor infractions, r(349)=.16, p<.01 and serious infractions, r(349)=.14,

p<.01. Likewise, hostility is also positively correlated with deviant behavior, r(349)=.15, p<.01,

minor infractions, r(349)=.16,p<.01 and significant positively correlated with serious infractions,

r(349)=.11, p<.05.

Overall, there is a strong, positive correlation between scales and subscales of content

based media exposure, aggression and deviant behavior except for pro-social media content

which is not significantly correlated with aggression and deviant behavior.

 48

Table 7

Media Exposure as a Predictor of Aggressive Behavior in Young Adults (N=350)

95%CI

Aggressive

Behavior

Variable B LL UL

Constant 52.58 40.21 64.94

Media Exposure .49 .31 .67

R2 .07

F 28.76***

Note: ***p<.001, CI= Confidence Interval, B=Unstandardized Regression Coefficient, LL=

Lower Limit, UL=Upper Limit

Result of simple linear regression indicates that media exposure is a significant predictor

of aggressive behavior in young adults, β=.27, p<.001. Furthermore R2 =.07 indicates that 7%

variance in aggressive behavior of young adults can be accounted for by media exposure. β value

indicates 27% relative influence of media exposure on aggressive behavior.

 49

Table 8

Antisocial Media as a Predictor of Aggressive Behavior in Young Adults (N=350)

95%CI

Aggressive

Behavior

Variable B LL UL

Constant 56.38 48.82 63.93

Antisocial Media .86 .65 1.08

R2 .15

F 62.30***

Note: ***p<.001, CI= Confidence Interval, B=Unstandardized Regression Coefficient, LL=

Lower Limit, UL=Upper Limit

Result of simple linear regression indicates that anti-social media is a significant

predictor of aggressive behavior in young adults, β=.39, p<.001. Furthermore R2 =.15 indicates

15% variance in aggressive behavior of young adults can be accounted for by antisocial media. β

value indicates 39% relative influence of anti-social media on aggressive behavior.

 50

Table 9

Media Exposure as a Predictor of Deviant Behavior in Young Adults (N=350)

95%CI

Deviant

Behavior

Variable B LL UL

Constant -1.57 -4.15 .99

Media Exposure .07 .04 .11

R2 .04

F 16.48***

Note: ***p<.001, CI= Confidence Interval, B=Unstandardized Regression Coefficient, LL=

Lower Limit, UL=Upper Limit

Result of simple linear regression indicates that media exposure is a significant predictor

of deviant behavior in young adults, β=.21, p<.001. Furthermore R2 =.04 indicates 4% variance

in deviant behavior of young adults can be accounted for by media exposure. β value indicates

21% relative influence of media exposure on deviant behavior.

 51

Table 10

Antisocial Media as a Predictor of Deviant Behavior in Young Adults (N=350)

95%CI

Deviant

Behavior

Variable B LL UL

Constant -1.73 -3.30 -.15

Antisocial Media .15 .11 .20

R2 .12

F 48.04***

Note: ***p<.001, CI= Confidence Interval, B=Unstandardized Regression Coefficient, LL=

Lower Limit, UL=Upper Limit

Result of simple linear regression indicates that anti-social media is a significant

predictor of deviant behavior in young adults, β=.34, p<.001. Furthermore R2 =.12 indicates that

12% variance in deviant behavior can be accounted for by antisocial media among young adults.

β value indicates 34% relative influence of anti-social media on deviant behavior.

 52

Table 11

Multivariate Analysis Indicating Impact of Violent Media Exposure in terms of Aggression and

Deviant Behavior among Young Adults (N=350)

Source DVs SS df MS F p η2 Power

Classification Aggression 5144.24 1 5144.24 18.86 .001 .05 .99

Physical Aggression 647.05 1 647.05 15.18 .001 .04 .97

Verbal Aggression 195.48 1 195.48 14.41 .001 .04 .96

Anger 132.09 1 132.09 6.10 .01 .01 .69

Hostility 433.10 1 433.10 16.07 .001 .04 .97

Deviant Behavior 97.99 1 97.99 8.33 .004 .02 .82

Minor Infractions 40.64 1 40.64 14.62 .001 .04 .96

Serious Infractions 12.41 1 12.41 2.71 .10 .008 .37

Error Aggression 94898.52 348 272.69

Physical Aggression 14827.18 348 42.60

Verbal Aggression 4718.88 348 13.56

Anger 7536.25 348 21.65

Hostility 9374.36 348 26.93

Deviant Behavior 4093.80 348 11.76

Minor Infractions 967.09 348 2.77

Serious Infractions 1593.80 348 4.58

Total Aggression Total 2687095 350

Physical Aggression 224534 350

Verbal Aggression 97385 350

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Anger 161012 350

Hostility 217306 350

Deviant Behavior 8939 350

Minor Infractions 2493 350

Serious Infractions 2528 350

Results of multivariate analysis of variance (one-way MANOVA) indicates that young

adults with more exposure of violent media content (M=89.33, SD=17.18) are more aggressive

than the young adults with less media violence exposure (M=81.60, SD=15.59),

F(1,348)=18.86,p<.001. Young adults are more physically aggressive with more violent media

exposure (M=25.63, SD=17.18) as compared to less violent media exposure (M=22.89,

SD=5.90), F (1,348)= 15.18,p<.001. Also young adults with more exposure to violent media

content (M=16.91, SD=3.73) are more verbally aggressive than young adults with less exposure

to violent media content (M=15.40, SD=3.61), F(1,348)=14.41, p<.001. Young adults with more

violent media exposure (M=21.47, SD=4.69) are found angrier than young adults with less media

exposure (M=20.23, SD=4.60), F(1,348)=6.10,p<.01. More violent media exposure (M=25.32,

SD=5.12) is significantly related to hostility than less violent media exposure (M=23.08,

SD=5.26), F(1,348)=16.07, p<.001.

Furthermore, exposure to more violent media content is significantly related to deviant

behavior (M=4.15, SD= 3.51) as compared to less exposure to violent media content among

young adults (M=3.08, SD=3.31), F(1,348)=8.33 ,p<.001. Additionally, young adults with more

exposure to violent media content (M=2.36, SD=1.70) are more prone to minor infractions as

compared to young adults with less exposure to violent media content (M=1.67, SD=1.61),

F(1,348)=14.62 ,p<.001. However, young adults with more (M=1.79, SD=2.18) and less
 54

exposure to violent media content (M=1.41, SD=2.08) do not differ significantly in terms of

serious infractions F(1,348)=2.71, p=ns.

Overall, young adults with more and less violent media exposure are significantly differ

in terms of aggression, physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, hostility, deviant behavior

and minor infractions. However, no significant results are found among young adults with more

or less violent media exposure regarding serious infractions.

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Table 12

Multivariate Analysis for Gender differences in Media Exposure, Aggression and Deviant

Behavior among Young Adults (N=350)

Source DVs SS df MS F p η2 Power

Groups Media Exposure 184.54 1 184.54 2.05 .15 .01 .29

Antisocial Media 919.03 1 919.03 16.58 .001 .04 .98

Prosocial Media 279.92 1 279.92 7.21 .01 .02 .76

Aggression 575.77 1 575.77 2.01 .15 .01 .29

Physical Aggression 474.74 1 474.74 11.01 .001 .03 .91

Verbal Aggression .64 1 .64 .04 .83 .001 .05

Anger .25 1 .25 .01 .91 .001 .05

Hostility .80 1 .80 .02 .86 .001 .05

Deviant Behavior 638.10 1 638.10 62.48 .001 .15 1

Minor Infractions 90.04 1 90.04 34.14 .001 .08 1

Serious Infractions 248.74 1 248.74 63.76 .001 .15 1

Error Media Exposure 31263.3 348 89.83

Antisocial Media 19281.43 348 55.40

Prosocial Media 13503.26 348 38.80

Aggression 99466.99 348 285.82

Physical Aggression 14999.5 348 43.10

Verbal Aggression 4913.72 348 14.12

Anger 7668.09 348 22.03

Hostility 9806.66 348 28.18

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Deviant Behavior 3553.68 348 10.21

Minor Infractions 917.69 348 2.63

Serious Infractions 1357.47 348 3.90

Total Media Exposure 1638444 350

Antisocial Media 427798 350

Prosocial Media 409726 350

Aggression 2687095 350

Physical Aggression 224534 350

Verbal Aggression 97385 350

Anger 161012 350

Hostility 217306 350

Deviant Behavior 8939 350

Minor Infractions 2493 350

Serious Infractions 2528 350

Results of one-way multivariate analysis of variance (one-way MANOVA) shows that

there are no mean differences in terms of media exposure between male (M=68.50, SD=9.07)

and female young adults (M=67.05, SD=9.84), F(1,348)=2.05, p=ns. However, males (M=35.78,

SD=7.31) are more affected by antisocial media than females young adults (M=32.54, SD=7.56),

F(1,348)=16.58, p<.001. Also there is significant mean difference between male (M=32.72,

SD=5.87) and female young adults (M=34.51, SD=6.54) regarding pro-social media,

F(1,348)=7.21, p<.01.

Additionally, there are no significant differences between male (M=87.29, SD=15.47)

and female young adults (M=84.72, SD=18.17) in terms of aggression, F(1,348)=2.01, p=ns. But
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male young adults (M=25.63, SD=6.13) tend to be more physically aggressive as compared to

female young adults (M=23.30, SD=6.95), F(1,348)=11.01, p<.001 . However, males (M=16.30,

SD=3.74) did not differ significantly from female young adults (M=16.21, SD=3.76) in verbal

aggression, F(1,348)=.04, p=ns. Also, there is no significant mean difference between male

(M=20.96, SD=4.25) and female young adults (M=20.91, SD=5.07) in terms of anger,

F(1,348)=.01, p=ns. Moreover, male (M=24.40, SD=5.02) and female young adults (M=24.35,

SD=5.30) do not show significant difference regarding hostility, F(1,348)=.02, p=ns.

Furthermore, mean difference shows that male young adults (M=5.06, SD=3.76) are more

deviant than female young adults (M=2.36, SD=2.54), F(1,348)=62.28, p<.001. Also male young

adults (M=2.58, SD=1.80) are more involved in minor infractions as compared to female young

adults (M=1.56, SD=1.42),F(1,348)=34.14, p<.001. Likewise, male young adults (M=2.49,

SD=2.31) tend to participate more in serious infractions than female young adults (M=.80,

SD=1.58),F(1,348)=63.76, p<.001.

Overall, there are significant gender difference in antisocial media, prosocial media,

physical aggression, deviant behavior, minor infractions and serious infractions. But no

significant gender differences regarding media exposure, aggression, verbal aggression, anger

and hostility were found.

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of media violence on aggressive

and deviant behavior among young adults. It was hypothesized that there is significant

relationship between media violence, aggressive and deviant behavior among young adults.

Secondly, media violence is the significant predictor of aggressive and deviant behavior among

young adults. Moreover, violent media content impact significantly aggressive and deviant

behavior. Besides, there are significant gender differences in terms of media violence, aggression

and deviant behavior. Content Analysis indicating the categories and sub categories of preferred

content, reasons of liking and disliking violent media content were obtained from qualitative

data.

Past researches were carried out on different content and sources of media violence e.g.

television violence, news violence, video games violence, pornography, violence depicted

through social media or internet etc. regarding aggressive and deviant behavior.

Results of the current study indicate that there is a strong positive relationship among

media violence, aggressive and deviant behavior. Findings are supported by several previous

studies, for instance, Anderson and Dill (2000) discovered that violent video games were

significantly related to aggressive and antisocial behaviors among youth. Furthermore, another

study indicated that less and frequent exposure of violent media content is significantly related to

aggressive behavior. Similarly, findings of a cross sectional research found that violent media

content was positively related with aggressive behavior across seven states i.e. Australia, China,

Croatia, Germany, Japan, Romania and United States (Anderson et al., 2017).
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The relationship among media violence, aggression and deviant behavior are explained

by the category of media content and its influences on the viewer who is exposed to that content,

for instance, exposure to frequent violent news reports can support imitating behavior (Anderson

et al., 2003). Imitating is best described by the social learning theory. The study support Griffin

(1994) who presented Bandura’s point of view that individuals can learn reactions, attitudes and

behaviors through recordings and transmissions. Dill (2007) highlighted that continual exposure

to violent media content increases the impact of media violence (through learning).

Moreover, media violence has a strong relationship with physical aggression, verbal

aggression, anger and hostility. Bushman and Anderson (2015) suggested that violent media

content is an important risk factor that can increase aggressive and violent activities. Greene and

Krcmar (2005) also reported that risk taking, verbal aggression, argumentativeness and

masculinity were positively more associated with violent films and horror movies and to a minor

degree with actual crime and violent TV. The findings support script theory which postulate that

individuals are highly susceptible to build schemas through association with violent media

content and when they found themselves in that particular associated situation they tend to

behave in a scripted way (Huesmann, 1986 & 1998).

Finding of the study also indicated that there is significant relation between media

violence and deviant behavior including minor infractions like skipping duties, vandalism, lying

etc. and serious infractions like drug usage, hitting, stealing etc.(e.g., Sanches et al., 2016). Past

research also proposed that exposure to violent media images was related to acceleration in

(deviant behaviors like) violation, drinking, drug usage, and driving while intoxicated (Krcmar &

Greene, 2000).
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The results also revealed that higher aggressive behavior is also positively associated

with greater deviant behavior or vice versa among young adults. Kaplan (1972) persuaded that

aggressive conduct could lead to deviant actions.

However, prosocial media is not linked with aggressive and deviant behavior. Hamer et

al. (2017) pro-social media (e.g. depiction of helping, sharing and cooperation) is non-

significantly related to media violence. Overall, significant correlations have been found in

media exposure (anti-social media), aggressive (physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger

and hostility) and deviant behavior (minor infractions and serious infractions). But prosocial

media is not related to aggressive and deviant behavior. So we can infer that watching prosocial

media content such as watching people who understand others, comfort others and are in love is

not significantly related to aggressive behaviors like threatening others, trouble in controlling

anger, involving in arguments etc. and deviant behaviors such as stealing, drinking, smoking,

entering into others properties without permission and destroying private and public properties

etc.

Furthermore, the present study shows that media exposure and media violence are also

found as the significant predictors of aggressive behavior. Several previous researches clearly

supported these findings like Huesmann et al. (2003) found that children’s premature contact to

violent television content predicted aggressive conduct for both men and women in adulthood.

Findings of Steve (2010), Huesmann and Taylor (2006) also suggested that violent media impact

human behavior negatively. Findings support General Aggression Model (GAM) that exposure

to violent media can contributes to the development of aggressive behavior (Anderson &

Bushman, 2018).
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Consistent with the results media exposure and media violence also predict deviant

behavior among men and women. It supports Chauke and Malatji (2018) study which showed

that depiction of deviance (violent content) on some TV projects resulted in sex before marriage,

lack of respect towards women, verbal aggression, materialistic obsession, drug and alcohol

consumption, attempt to trade their soul to devil to get quick and huge achievement, mobster

connection and sexual confusion. It is also consistent with which Chassin et al. (1981) revealed

that media modeled behavior from perceived environment predicted 10 percent variance in

cigarette smoking habit among youth.

The above mentioned findings of study are also supported magic bullet theory. This

theory implied that media had a continual, quick and significant impact on its viewers (Lasswell,

1927).Thus, media exposure and media violence has been found significant predictors of

aggressive and deviant behaviors among young adults.

Additionally, findings of the study also indicate that young adults with more exposure to

violent media content tend to show more aggressive behavior including physical aggression such

as tendency to use physical force when expressing anger or aggression, verbal aggression such as

tendency to be verbally argumentative, anger such as uncontrolled behavior and hostility such as

feelings of resentment, suspiciousness. Findings support the meta-analytical study of Bushman

and Huesmann (2006) which indicated that media violence was significantly related to

aggression including aggressive behavior, aggressive thoughts, anger and arousal.

Moreover, results indicate that young adults with more exposure to violent media content

such as exposure of drinking, stealing and fighting etc. promote deviant practices like

consumption of alcohol, skipping duties etc. Particularly, young adults with exposure to violent
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media content tend to be involve in minor infractions such as drinking, lying etc. Hamer et al.

(2017) also reported that violent media content is significantly related to antisocial behavior like

drinking, reckless driving and smoking etc.

However, results indicate that young adults with exposure to violent media content do not

involve significantly in serious infractions like carrying a weapon and drug abusing etc. Past

study is opposite to this finding as Brook, Saar, and Brook (2008) revealed that violent television

exposure can leads to drug dependence. It can be due to cultural differences for instance in

Pakistan young adults might have fewer opportunities to indulge in serious infractions like

selling drugs or hitting others.

In addition to relationship, prediction and impact gender differences in all constructs

were also analyzed. Result showed no significant gender differences in terms of media exposure.

Findings support Fallows (2005) who proposed that men and women were using internet quite

equally. Also Williams, Consalvo, Caplan, and Yee (2009) proposed that men and women

devoted same amount of time on playing internet games.

However, results established that male young adults are more affected by anti-social

media including media exposure of fighting, stealing, sexual explicitly and alcohol consumption

while female young adults are more affected by pro-social media like watching romantic,

altruistic and cooperative content. Findings support Bushman (1995) who proposed that men

preferred more violent movies (anti-social media) as compared to women. Although past study

found contradict results of current study regarding gender difference in terms of pro-social media

that there was no difference between men and women regarding pro-social video games (Gentile

et al., 2009). It can be due to the fact that there is cultural difference, for instance in Pakistan
 63

may be women are more prone to pro-social media as compared to men. Also, we can infer on

the basis of results that women are more attracted to helping, positive and romantic content

presented through media. So, further investigation is required to study this difference.

Moreover, current study shows that men are more physically aggressive as compared to

women. Literature strongly supported this finding, for instance Huesmann et al. (2003)

concluded that men are more physically aggressive than women. But no significant gender

differences regarding media exposure, aggression, verbal aggression, anger and hostility were

found. Some of previous findings also support these results like Bjorkqvist (2018) and

Huesmann et al. (2003) suggested that men did not differ significantly from women in terms of

verbal aggression. Also, Shaban and Kumar (2016) found that male and female young adults

were similar in terms of aggressive behavior.

Furthermore, men are more deviant as compared to women. Also male young adults are

more involved in minor infractions including behaviors like smoking, lying, using public

transport without paying as compared to female young adults. Likewise, male young adults tend

to participate more in serious infractions including behaviors like driving without having a

driving license or selling and taking drugs etc. than female young adults. Previous literature

Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, and Silva (2001) reported that generally men tend to involve more in

deviant behaviors than women. Additionally, Kornand Bonny-Noach (2017) indicated that males

tend to be more susceptible of deviant activities than female young adults.

Overall, there are significant gender differences in anti-social media, pro-social media,

physical aggression, deviant behavior, minor infractions and serious infractions. But no

significant gender differences regarding media exposure, aggression, verbal aggression, anger
 64

and hostility were found. Most of these results are strongly supported by previous researches

and theories like social learning theory, theory of general aggression model, magic bullet theory

and script theory.

Additionally, the Analysis of qualitative data indicated that young adults mostly preferred

to watch comedy, action/ adventures and romantic content. The findings support Krish (2010)

who suggested that comedy is one of the factors that influence the perception of violence.

Rentfrow, Goldberg, and Zilca (2011) also proposed that most of the individuals preferred to

watch communal (reality television), aesthetic (classical or poetic content), dark or thrilling

(action, science fiction and war) and cerebral (news, business) content.

Moreover, the categories of qualitative data also recommended that those young adults

who usually like to watch violent media content mostly finds it entertaining, fascinating, thrilling

and relaxing and it is also perceived as a way of getting information and increasing knowledge.

The findings are consistent with Sparks (2001) point of view that gratifications perspective

indicated that enjoyment is the key of media consumption. Smithers (2018) revealed that Ted

Bundy (serial killer) found violent media especially sexually explicit violent content or

pornography fascinating, addictive and one of the reasons behind his sinister and deviant acts.

Similarly, the categories derived from qualitative data also indicates that those young

adults who do not like to watch violent media content is because of psychological disturbances

(like depression, sadness etc.). Besides, they thought that violent media content has negative

impact on them and they found it as not appealing. This findings support the past meta-analytical

study of Hopwood and Schutte (2017) suggested that media exposure to disaster and large-scale

violence cause negative psychological outcomes.

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5.1. Conclusion

The findings of the study reveal that media violence impact positively on aggressive and

deviant behavior. Aggressive and deviant behavior is also correlated with each other but

prosocial media is not related to aggressive and deviant behavior. Additionally, media exposure

and media violence are significant predictors of aggression and deviant behaviors.

Moreover, violent media content impact significantly aggressive behavior including

physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, hostility and deviant behavior including minor

infractions. However, exposure to violent media content has no impact on serious infractions

among young adults. Gender differences are also found regarding antisocial media, prosocial

media, physical aggression, deviant behavior, minor infractions and serious infractions but no

gender difference are found among young adults in terms of media exposure, aggression, verbal

aggression, anger and hostility.

Furthermore, categories and sub categories evolved from qualitative data indicated that

mostly young adults preferred to watch comedy, action and romantic content. The reasons

behind the liking of violent content among young adults are fascination, enjoyment and

information and reasons behind disliking of violent content is that it causes psychological

distress, have negative impact and is less appealing.

5.2. Limitations

The data was collected only from one university. Future studies may include different

universities of Pakistan. Additionally, the study does not provide the in depth analysis of the

phenomenon as quantitative analysis is used. In depth analysis could be explored through

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qualitative analysis. Diverse sample could include children, adolescents, middle aged and elderly

adults.

5.3. Implications

There are several implications of this study. It would help young adults to develop better

insight about the impact of watching violent media content on aggressive and deviant behavior.

Professionals can arrange programs to develop awareness among people regarding beneficial and

aversive influences of pro-social and anti-social media. The study also prompts other researchers

to search other factors that can cause aggressive and deviant behavior. Certainly not only

viewing the media violence but liking of that content must be considered in future research.

Government can also ban the more damaging violent media content like pornography etc.