processes
Article
Improving the Efficiency of the Bowden Cable Terminal
Injection Process for the Automotive Industry
José L. T. A. Pereira 1 , Raul D. S. G. Campilho 1,2, * , Francisco J. G. Silva 1,2 , Isidro J. Sánchez-Arce 2 ,
Chander Prakash 3,4 and Dharam Buddhi 5
Citation: Pereira, J.L.T.A.; Campilho,
R.D.S.G.; Silva, F.J.G.; Sánchez-Arce,
I.J.; Prakash, C.; Buddhi, D.
Improving the Efficiency of the
Bowden Cable Terminal Injection
Process for the Automotive Industry.
Processes 2022, 10, 1953. https://
doi.org/10.3390/pr10101953
Academic Editor: Xiong Luo
Received: 22 August 2022
Accepted: 16 September 2022
Published: 28 September 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Processes 2022, 10, 1953. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10101953
1 Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do
Porto, R. Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 431, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
2 INEGI—Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering—Pólo FEUP, Rua Dr.
Roberto Frias, 400, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
3 School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, India
4 Division of Research and Development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, India
5 Division of Research & Innovation, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun 248007, India
* Correspondence: raulcampilho@gmail.com; Tel.: +351-939526892
Abstract: Control cables transfer force between two separate locations by a flexible mean, and hence,
they are important in the automotive industry and many others; their terminals interact with both
moving and moved mechanisms, so they must be strong. Cable terminals are commonly made of
ZAMAK and are created by injection molding. However, such a production method requires leaving
extra material to allow the correct molding, also known as sprues, which are removed later in the
process. In this case, the sprues were separating from the terminals in an uncontrolled way. In
this work, the cause of sprues separating prematurely from the terminals in a production line is
addressed. The whole process was analyzed, and each possible solution was evaluated using process
improvement techniques and the Finite Element Method, leading to the best solutions. Molds, mold
structures, and auxiliary equipment were improved, resulting in a minimally invasive intervention
and remaining compatible with other equipment. Cost analyses were done, indicating an investment
return in less than a year. The modification led to a reduction of 62.6% in the sprue mass, while
porosity was reduced by 10.2% and 55.9%, corresponding to two terminal models. In conclusion, the
interventions fulfilled the requirements and improved the operation of the line.
Keywords: control cables; ZAMAK injection; die casting; finite element method; process improvement
1. Introduction
In the global scenario of the industry, all organizations are dedicated to being more
competitive with the increase in productivity achieved through superior quality manufac-
turing processes and at a lower cost [1]. Quality control has the function of guaranteeing
and improving the quality of the product through inspection and process control, which
leads to the fulfilment of customer requirements and the reduction of quality losses [2].
Ishikawa [3] proposed seven basic tools to find solutions to problems and achieve process
improvements: histograms, Pareto diagrams, cause and effect diagrams, control charts, ver-
ification sheets, and scatter diagrams. Continuous quality improvement is a management
strategy that aims to maintain and improve quality through constant evaluation of causes
that generate quality defects. After identifying the causes, solutions are created to avoid
defects and make optimizations [4]. Within the currently available tools, brainstorming,
Ishikawa (or cause and effect) diagrams, and Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
Threats (SWOT) analyses are particularly useful for process improvement in industrial
environments [5].
Brainstorming is a group or even individual process used to generate ideas in a non-
judgmental environment. In the meeting, the problem is presented and the members
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2022, 10, 1953 2 of 21

should present ideas, while not criticizing the other ideas [4]. There are three fundamental
principles for group brainstorming [6]: (1) aiming for quantity instead of quality (anything
that limits the number of ideas goes against brainstorming principles), (2) freedom of
thought (not to criticize the ideas of others, even implicitly, and to let ideas flow to also
allow new ones to be built from them), and (3) encouraging new and innovative ideas
(innovative ideas, even if outside the context of the theme, serve as pillars for creative
cycles). Typically, this technique involves the following steps: problem presentation,
idea creation, idea review, idea selection, and idea prioritization. For example, Rodrigues
et al. [7] employed the brainstorming process for the development of a computer application
to solve the mismanagement of waste reports that existed in a company in the automotive
industry. In this case, workers from various sectors of the company were involved in the
brainstorming process to define the required specifications for the application. As a result,
using the developed computer application, it was possible to increase the reliability of
waste reports by 76% and reduce their associated cost and time by 75%. The cause-effect
diagram, also known as the Ishikawa diagram or fishbone diagram, is a tool used for
identifying the possible causes of a problem [4]. The causes are organized by families,
which in turn are divided into subcategories. The families considered by Ishikawa [3]
are method, labor, raw material, measurement, and environment. The diagram helps to
understand the relationships between these parts by determining causes with a positive
or negative impact, determining the causes of a given effect and identifying areas with
lack of information [3]. Silva et al. [8] carried out a study to reduce finishing operations
and obtain defect-free parts with a good appearance by optimizing die-casting processes
and mold configuration. To analyze all factors that influence the quality of the produced
parts, a cause-effect diagram was made, and guidelines were established, leading to the
intended results in the ZAMAK casting process. Likewise, the SWOT analysis is a strategic
quality tool to analyze both internal and external factors involved in a process. Through
external analysis, the threats and opportunities of the competitive environment in which the
process operates are identified, while the internal analysis helps to assess the organization’s
strengths and weaknesses [9]. After identifying these factors, strategies are developed
in order to intensify strengths, eliminate weaknesses, explore opportunities, and combat
threats [10]. Karimi et al. [11] studied the factors affecting the production performance of the
ceramic industry, aiming to increase the level of exports, understand the best opportunities
in terms of investments, and formulate a competitive strategy based on the potential of the
company and the industry. The objectives were met, and the SWOT analysis proved to be
an effective approach to the assessment of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats involved in the ceramic industry.
Metal casting is a widely used process for large production runs due to the low cost and
flexibility in the components’ geometry and materials. In casting, the parts are obtained
through the solidification of the molten metal previously poured into the mold cavity.
Casting is nowadays vital in the metalworking industry [12]; it can be applied to almost all
metal alloys, with iron, aluminum, steel, and copper being the most common [13]. Casting is
a very versatile process with significant advantages, such as the ability to produce complex
geometry parts, the possibility to obtain the final form, the capacity to produce large parts,
and the application to any type of metal. Nonetheless, some issues require attention, such
as the obtained mechanical properties, the existence of porosities, poor surface finish, and
poor geometric precision [12,14]. One of the most popular variants of casting processes
is die casting, a complex process that depends on many parameters, so it must, therefore,
be properly controlled to optimize it. Die casting is characterized by filling the mold
cavity by injecting molten metal at high speed and pressure. Typical pressures, ranging
from 7 to 350 MPa, are maintained during solidification and, subsequently, the molds are
opened [14]. This process makes it possible to obtain parts with good mechanical properties,
high dimensional accuracy, complex geometries, and excellent surface finishes [8,15]. It is
a process of extreme precision since it works at high temperatures and pressures in short
time intervals. Otherwise, it would cause numerous problems [16]. The steel molds are
Processes 2022, 10, 1953 3 of 21

made up of two halves, to allow the extraction of the parts, and enable serial production
of parts. The process begins with the closing of the molds, followed by the injection of
molten metal. After solidification, the mold is opened, and the parts are extracted. The
whole process is carried out in short time intervals, resulting in the most productive process
for non-ferrous alloys [15]. Despite the high cost of molds, the price of parts produced in
large series is reduced [17]. The geometry of the parts to be produced sometimes requires
the use of cores and modules in the molds. Runner and cooling systems must also be
incorporated during mold development [15]. The automation of processes can additionally
be considered as an important parameter that allows reducing production costs [15]. Cavity
filling can be improved with mold coatings that not only reduce the coefficient of friction
but also improve wear resistance [18]. The main advantages of this manufacturing process
are the high production rates, the unit cost of the parts in large series, the tight tolerances
(±0.076 mm) for small parts, the good finishes, the small geometries thickness (around
0.5 mm), and the rapid solidification, which lead to small grain size and high strength. The
major drawbacks are the limitation in the metal alloys to be used and in the geometries,
which have to allow the extraction of the part from the mold [14]. The parts typically most
produced by this process are transmission housings, pumps, and engine and industrial
machinery components [19]. The molds are one of the most important components, because
there the molten metal takes shape and the parts are produced [20]. Die casting molds are
normally produced from mild steel with hardening heat treatment. In addition, molds are
sprayed with lubricant to prevent the material from adhering to the mold [14].
Research is ongoing regarding process improvement in die casting from different
perspectives [20,21]. Nunes, Silva, Andrade, Alexandre, and Baptista [18] studied the wear
mechanisms of two molds for the automotive industry with severe problems. Mold coating
was proposed, and its benefits were tested by analyzing the wear resistance behavior and
respective wear mechanisms. Tribological tests were undertaken to study the correlation
between laboratory and industrial tests using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). The most suitable results, involving less friction
coefficient and improved wear resistance, were found for the Ti40 Al60 N coating. Silva
et al. [8] optimized the injection parameters and mold configuration for the fabrication of
a ZAMAK aesthetic part that should be injected in one-shot and with minimal finishing
operations. To optimize defect-free parts, the high-pressure die casting process and relevant
parameters were addressed. The work involved numerical simulations in the SolidCastTM
software to analyze the material flow into the mold. As a result, the optimal set of parame-
ters was defined, and mold geometry modifications were undertaken, leading to achieving
the best results. Sun et al. [22] addressed the gas pores in engine crankcases fabricated by
low-pressure die casting. Gas entrainment defects were detected near the top crankcases’
faces, with the presence of oxide films. It was found that filters could be useful to remove
oxide inclusions bigger than the mesh size from the furnace and the crucible. Numerical
simulations were carried out to model mold filling with magma in the Flow-3D software,
showing that the gating velocity increased for higher pressurization rates. Moreover, turbu-
lence occurred in the middle of the casting due to a waterfall structure and confluence of
the free surface metal. The authors suggested reducing the gating velocity by decreasing
the pressurization rate.
This work addresses the sprue size and its consequences from an industrial case study.
In this case, the process was studied; also, techniques such as the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) method together with the Finite Element Method
were employed to determine the best alternative solutions. Subsequently, the mold and
mold structure were improved, allowing for a controlled sprue size and a common mold
structure for 95% of the products of the company, which reduced the tooling preparation
time. Then, adjacent components such as the measuring kit, the strength testing device, and
the structure of the robotic manipulator were addressed to facilitate the product flow. All
the interventions were planned and minimally invasive as possible, while taking advantage
 the product flow. All the interventions were planned and minimally invasive
while taking advantage of the components currently in operation, maintaini
patibility with the other production lines in the company, and reducing the in
Processes 2022, 10, 1953
costs. 4 of 21

2. Methods and Problem Characterization

of the
2.1. components
Objectives currently
and in operation, maintaining the compatibility with the other
Requirements
production lines in the company, and reducing the interventions’ costs.
The production line for Bowden cables analyzed here is part of a compan
2. Methods and Problem Characterization
northern Portugal while the analysis and design were done on their request; t
2.1. Objectives and Requirements
name is kept anonymous by their request. One of the processes performed in
The production line for Bowden cables analyzed here is part of a company located in
tion linePortugal
northern is thewhile
injection molding
the analysis of cable
and design terminals
were done suiting
on their request; theseveral
company applic
molds
name is are
kept specific
anonymous for
byeach model.One
their request. Inherently to the
of the processes injection
performed molding
in the productionprocess
line is the injection molding of cable terminals suiting several applications; thus, molds
cable terminal is accompanied by sprues, which in their current form are larg
are specific for each model. Inherently to the injection molding process, the injected cable
random
terminal isshape; an example
accompanied by sprues, is which
shown in Figure
in their current 1. Although
form the with
are large and sprues
a are
removed
random shape; at aanspecific
examplestage,
is showndue in to their
Figure size, they
1. Although thebreak
spruesand fall through
are meant to be the
removed at a specific stage, due to their size, they break and fall
line, leaving them scattered around. In their current form, the average weight through the production
line, leaving them scattered around. In their current form, the average weight of the sprue
for eachinjected
for each injected
cablecable isthe
is 1.93 g, 1.93 g, theproduces
company company produces
on average 72,450 on average (as
cables/month 72,450 c
(as calculated
calculated from December
from December 2020 to May2020 2021),to May
giving 2021),
a total giving
of 140.5 a total
kg/month of 140.5 kg/m
of ZAMAK
being scrapped.
MAK being scrapped.

Figure 1.1.Cable
Figure Cableterminal with its
terminal sprue.
with its sprue.
This work aims to reduce the sprue size on the control cables, while also having control
This
over the work
sprues’ aims
size, to reduce
allowing the sprue
for its removal withinsize on the
a specific control
zone cables, while
of the equipment. The also
necessary modifications are planned for the production line BX726 of the
trol over the sprues’ size, allowing for its removal within a specific zone of thecompany, which
is in continuous operation; consequently, all the modifications should be done within a
The necessary modifications are planned for the production line BX726 of th
two-day period, as requested by the host company. In addition, the modifications should be
which is as
as minimal inpossible,
continuousallowingoperation; consequently,
the interchangeability with otherall the
lines andmodifications
reducing costs. shou
within a two-day period, as requested by the host company. In addition, the m
2.2. Process Characterization
should be as minimal as possible, allowing the interchangeability with oth
The fabrication of a control cable starts with the injection of the first terminal to the
reducing
inner cable,costs.
completed in another production line. Then, the inner cable is transferred to
line BX726, the objective of this study. Currently, the line BX726 is used in the production
of four
2.2. modelsCharacterization
Process of control cable, shown in Figure 2. The cable terminal injected in this line
corresponds to those on the left side of Figure 2. The model numbers were shortened to three
Thetofabrication
numbers of a control
ease their identification cablethis
throughout starts with the
manuscript; theseinjection oflocated
numbers are the first ter
at the right of Figure 2. The preparation process depends on the
inner cable, completed in another production line. Then, the inner cablecable model; overall, this is tr
process involves the removal of the plastic coating to the cable, when applicable, (Figure 3a),
line BX726, the objective of this study. Currently, the line BX726 is used in the
the installation of all the grommets on the cable spiral (sheath) (Figure 2), threading of the
of four
inner models
cable, of control ofcable,
and mushrooming shown
the inner cable’sinremaining
Figure 2.tip The cable
(Figure terminal
3b). The latter isinjecte
corresponds to those
important to ensure a strongon the leftbetween
connection side oftheFigure 2. the
cable and The model
injected numbers
terminal. Once were s
three numbers to ease their identification throughout this manuscript; these n
located at the right of Figure 2. The preparation process depends on the cable m
all, this process involves the removal of the plastic coating to the cable, when
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Processes 2022, 10, 1953 5 of 21
(Figure 3a), the installation of all the grommets on the cable spiral (sheath) (Figure 2),
threading of the inner cable, and mushrooming of the inner cable’s remaining tip (Figure
3b). The latter
(Figure 3a), theis installation
important to of ensure a strong connection
all the grommets on the cablebetween the cable
spiral (sheath) and 2),
(Figure the in-
the
jectedcables are
terminal.
threading assembled,
of theOnce
innerthe they pass
cables
cable, to the injection
are assembled,
and mushrooming station,
of they where the
passcable’s
the inner second
to theremaining terminal
injection tip
station, is
(Figure where
injected,
3b). Theshown
latter in Figure 4. to ensure a strong connection between the cable and the in-
is important
the second terminal is injected, shown in Figure 4.
jected terminal. Once the cables are assembled, they pass to the injection station, where
the second terminal is injected, shown in Figure 4.

Figure 2.2.Models
Figure Modelsof
ofcontrol
control cables producedininthe
cables produced theline
line BX726.
BX726.
Figure 2. Models of control cables produced in the line BX726.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Preparation processes to the control cables: (a) removal of the plastic cover to the cable,
Figure 3. Preparation processes to the control cables: (a) removal of the plastic cover to the cable,
(b) mushrooming
Figure of the
3. Preparation inner cable’s
processes to thetip.
control cables: (a) removal of the plastic cover to the cable,
(b) mushrooming of the inner cable’s tip.
(b) mushrooming of the inner cable’s tip.
Once the control cable is within the injection station, three operations are performed:
(1) injection of the cable terminal, (2) strength test, and (3) length measurement. In addition,
two different terminal models are injected in the line BX726, shown in Figure 5, these
terminals are injected using the ZAMAK 5 alloy [23]. The cables are manually placed in the
injection mold by an operator.
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Processes
Processes2022,
2022,10,
10,x1953
FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21 6 of 2

Figure 4. Production line BX726; the terminal injection area is indicated.

Once the control cable is within the injection station, three operations are performed:
(1) injection of the cable terminal, (2) strength test, and (3) length measurement. In addi-
tion, two different terminal models are injected in the line BX726, shown in Figure 5, these
terminals are injected using the ZAMAK 5 alloy [23]. The cables are manually placed in
theFigure4.4.
injection
Figure Production
mold by
Production line
an
line BX726;
operator.
BX726; the terminal
the terminal injection
injection area is area is indicated.
indicated.

Once the control cable is within the injection station, three operations are performed
(1) injection of the cable terminal, (2) strength test, and (3) length measurement. In add
tion, two different terminal models are injected in the line BX726, shown in Figure 5, thes
terminals are injected using the ZAMAK 5 alloy [23]. The cables are manually placed i
the injection mold by an operator.

Typesof
Figure5.5.Types
Figure ofcable
cable ends
ends injected
injected in
inthe
theline
lineBX726:
BX726:(a)
(a)model
model75,75,
(b)(b)
model 70.70.
model

The measurement is automatically done with the cable taut, which is achieved by a
The measurement is automatically done with the cable taut, which is achieved by a
10 N load. If the cable length is correct, the cable is subject to an 800 N load. Then, the cable
10 N load. If the cable length is correct, the cable is subject to an 800 N load. Then, the
is transported by a robotic manipulator (Figure 6) to another station, where the sprues are
cable is transported by a robotic manipulator (Figure 6) to another station, where the
removed by shearing, as shown in Figure 7.
sprues are removed by shearing, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 5. Types of cable ends injected in the line BX726: (a) model 75, (b) model 70.

The measurement is automatically done with the cable taut, which is achieved by
10 N load. If the cable length is correct, the cable is subject to an 800 N load. Then, th
cable is transported by a robotic manipulator (Figure 6) to another station, where th
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7
Processes
Processes2022,
2022, 10,
10, x1953
FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21 7 of 21

Figure6.6.Robotic
Figure Robotic manipulator
manipulator within
within the BX726.
the line line BX726.
Figure 6. Robotic manipulator within the line BX726.

Figure 7. Machine to remove the sprues from the cable terminals.

Figure
Figure 7. 7. Machine
Regarding
Machine toZAMAK
tothe remove
remove the sprues
injection
the sprues from
cablethe
process,
from the itcable terminals.
is performed
terminals. within specific stations (Fig-
ure 8) and is capable of around 600 injections/h. The machine has the following general
Regarding
Regarding thetheZAMAK
ZAMAK injection
injectionprocess, it is performed withinwithin
specificspecific
stations
parameters: crucible temperature of 430process,
± 10 °C,itinput
is performed
compressed air pressure stations
of 7 ± 1
(Figure 8) and is capable of around 600 injections/h. The machine has the following
ure
bar, 8) and is capable
injection, cooling of around
times of 0.2600± of injections/h.
0.05 The machine
extractionhas theoffollowing
0.3of± 0.05 ge
general parameters: crucible temperature 430s±each,
10 ◦ C,and ancompressed
input time
air pressure s.
parameters:
Among the crucible
subassemblies temperature
composing of 430
the ± 10 °C,
injection input
machine, compressed
only
7 ± 1 bar, injection, cooling times of 0.2 ± 0.05 s each, and an extraction time of 0.3 ± 0.05 s. the air pressure
frontal supportof
bar,
where
Among injection,
the molding cooling
thesubassemblies takes times of the
is further
composing 0.2 ± 0.05insmachine,
studied
injection each,
this and
workonly an
becauseextraction
of the
the frontal time
molds.
support of
The0.3
where ±0
mold
size most used in the company is 43 mm. For example,
Among the subassemblies composing the injection machine, only the frontal sup
the molding takes is further studied in this work because ofFigure
the 9
molds.shows
The the
moldinternal
size faces
of the
most
whereusedmolds forcompany
theinmolding
the terminaltakes models
is 43 mm.75For
is further and 70 produced
example,
studied thisin
inFigure 9 the
shows
work company. Atthe
the internal
because of the center
faces of ofThe
molds. them
the molds
mold, the for terminal
shape of themodels
terminal 75 and
is 70 produced
visible, the in
cable the company.
guide
size most used in the company is 43 mm. For example, Figure 9 shows the internal grooves,At the
and center
the of
spruethecavities;
mold,
thethe the shape
latter being ofthe
theobject
terminal is visible,
ofmodels
this study. theOncable guide
other grooves,
theproduced hand, theand the sprue
mold cavities;
structure holds botho
of
the latter
molds
being
for
the
terminal
object of this study.
75
On
and
the
70
other hand, the
in
mold
thestructure
company. At both
holds
the center
mold
mold, halves
the shape and keeps
of the them aligned
terminal throughout
is visible, the the injection
theinjection
cable guide process.
grooves, The
and mold structure
the sprue cav
mold halves and keeps them aligned throughout process. The mold structure
contains cooling passages and a pressure sensor to ensure the cable is installed before the
the latter
contains being
cooling the object
passages and of this study.
a pressure sensorOn tothe
ensureother
the hand,
cable isthe moldbefore
installed structure
the holds
injection. In addition, the mold structure contains an extracting device that extracts the
mold halves and keeps them aligned throughout the injection process. The mold stru
injection. In addition, the mold structure contains an extracting device that extracts the
cablefrom
cable from thethe mold
mold after
after thethe injection
injection takestakes
place.place.
contains cooling passages and a pressure sensor to ensure the cable is installed befor
injection. In addition, the mold structure contains an extracting device that extract
cable from the mold after the injection takes place.
Processes 2022,
Processes 10,10,
2022,
Processes
x FOR
2022,10, x1953
FOR PEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 8 of 21
88

Figure
Figure 8.8.Injection
Figure Injection
8. machine
Injection and and
machine
machine itsits
itsand
main main components.
main components.
components.

Figure
Figure 9.9.Details
Figure Details
9. of of
Details the
of
the molds,
the molds,
molds, terminals
modelmodel
terminals
terminals and 75
75model and
75
model 70model
and 7070
model
shown. shown.
shown.
2.3. Existing Problems
2.3.
2.3.Existing
ExistingProblems
Problems
The main problem is the excessive size of the injection molding sprues; moreover, in
The
Themain
the current mainproblem
form, the spruesisare
problem isthe
theexcessive
excessivesize
non-uniform, sizeofofthe
behaving theinjection
injection
randomly molding
molding
throughout sprues;
the sprues; moreove
process. moreov
the
thecurrent
currentform,
Consequently, form,
their thethesprues
random sprues are
breaking arenon-uniform,
non-uniform,
leaves behaving
behaving
them scattered around randomly
randomly throughout
the facilities (Figure 10).the
throughout theproc
pr
Consequently,
The large sprue their
size random
affects the breaking
final properties leaves
of thethem
cable scattered
terminal
Consequently, their random breaking leaves them scattered around the facilities (F around
because it the facilities
alters the (Fig
cooling rates, compromising the finalthe
10).
10).The
Thelarge
large sprue
spruesize affectsquality
sizeaffects thefinal ofproperties
final the product.ofThese
properties ofthe factorsterminal
cable are
thecable difficult
terminal to
because
because it ita
control
the during the process. In addition, the mean weight of a resulting sprue is 1.94 g/cable,
thecooling
coolingrates,
rates,compromising
compromisingthe thefinal
finalquality
qualityofofthe theproduct.
product.These
and the line has a production capability of 450 cables/h; hence, large quantities of ZAMAK
Thesefactors
factorsare
arediff
di
to control
towasted.
are
during
controlFurthermore, the
during the in process.
process. In
the current
addition,
In addition, the mean
the mean
form, containers
weight
wereweight
of
placed in
a resulting
of various
a resulting sprue is
parts sprue i
g/cable,
asg/cable, and
andthe
a palliative theline
linehas
measure has
to a aproduction
production
collect the broken capability
capability
sprues withofof450450cables/h;
limitedcables/h; hence,
success, hence, large
as shown inquantitie
large quanti
ZAMAK
Figure
ZAMAK are
10c,d. arewasted.
wasted.Furthermore,
Furthermore,ininthe thecurrent
currentform,form,containers
containerswere wereplaced
placedininvarva
parts as a palliative measure to collect the broken sprues
parts as a palliative measure to collect the broken sprues with limited success, as s with limited success, as sh
ininFigure
Figure10c,d.
10c,d.
 Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

Processes
Processes 2022,
2022, 10,10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
1953 9 of 21
9 of 21

Figure10.10.
Figure Scattered sprues
Scattered on the work floor and palliative measures to contain them; (a,b) sprues
Figure Scatteredsprues
sprueson
onthe
thework
workfloor and
floor andpalliative measures
palliative to contain
measures them;
to contain (a,b)(a,b)
them; sprues
sprues
scattered
scattered on on the
on the machine and its guides, (c,d) extra sprue containers placed as a palliative measure
scattered the machine
machineand
andits
itsguides,
guides,(c,d)
(c,d)extra sprue
extra spruecontainers placed
containers as aaspalliative
placed measure
a palliative measure.

3.3.Results
3. Results
3.1.
3.1.Pre-Design
3.1. Pre-Design
Pre-Design
The
Thefirst stage
first stage
stage consisted
consisted
consisted ofofthe
ofthe
theobservation
observation
observation of of
ofthe
the thecurrent
current
current process, butbut
process,
process, butthe
the theobservation
observation
observation
continued
continued until the project’s completion. The observation led to determining thepossible
continued until
until the
the project’s
project’s completion.
completion. The
The observation
observation ledled
to to determining
determining the the
possiblepossible
modifications
modifications
modifications and
and
and improvements
improvements
improvements for
for the
for the process
process
the processandand equipment.
equipment.
and equipment. This This process
process
This waswas
process wasdone
done done
following
following
following a SWOT
a SWOT analysis,
analysis,allowing
allowing
allowing to select
to select thethe
the
to select most
most appropriate
appropriate
most appropriate improvements.
improvements.
improvements. InInor-
order
In or-
to
der reduce
der the sprue
totoreduce
reduce the size,size,
sprue
the sprue itsize,
is itnecessary
isit necessary to improve
is necessary to improve thethe
to improve mold thestructure.
mold structure.
mold A common
A common
structure. mold
A common
mold
base
mold base
eases eases
basethe thethe
mold
eases mold
changing
mold changing
processes
changing processes according
according
processes to the
accordingtoproduction
the
to production run.run.
the production In
In this this
run.regard,
In this
regard,
several several
options options
were were
proposed proposed
and and
analyzed analyzed
using using
the the
SWOT
regard, several options were proposed and analyzed using the SWOT method. The chosen SWOT
method.method.
The The chosen
chosen design
design
allows allows
designkeeping
allows keeping
the thethe
current
keeping current
mold
current mold
bases,
moldbases,
adaptedadapted
bases, now now
adapted for 16formm
now 16formm 16 ones.
ones. mm ThisThis is suit-
is suitable
ones. This for
is suit-
able of
95% forthe
95% of the
cable cable
ends ends manufactured
manufactured in the in the facilities.
facilities. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the was
mold moldmodified
was
able for 95% of the cable ends manufactured in the facilities. Furthermore, the mold was
modified
to to inject
inject cable cable terminals
terminals sizeswith sizes up to 7 mm.the Finally, design
the final design was as
modified to inject cablewith
terminals up to
with 7sizes
mm. Finally,
up to 7 mm.final Finally, thewas finalcompact,
design was
compact,
shown in as shown
Figure 11.in Figure 11.
compact, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Geometry of the improved mold structure.

Figure
11.11.Geometry
Geometryofofthe
theimproved
improved mold structure.
Figure
Subsequently, modifications tomold structure.
the injection machine are necessary to accommodate
the modified mold bases. The components to modify are the front and crucible supports.
Subsequently,modifications
Subsequently, modificationstotothe
theinjection
injectionmachine
machineare
arenecessary
necessarytotoaccommodate
accommodate
themodified
the modifiedmold
moldbases.
bases.The
Thecomponents
componentstotomodify
modifyare
arethe
thefront
frontand
andcrucible
cruciblesupports.
supports.
The modifications involved slight machining of four existing parts and the fabrication of
 Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Processes 2022, 10, 1953Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21 10 of 2

The modifications involved slight machining of four existing parts and the fabrication of
one extra support. In addition, the modifications described above imply the displacement
oneof the support.
extra measuring
TheIn kit by 22.4the
modifications
addition, mm forwards.
involved slight This
modifications required
machining
described slight
ofabove
four modifications
existing
imply parts
the and in
thethe
displacement cur-
fabrication o
rent mechanisms
one to
extraallow the
support. clearance
In addition, with
the the mold
modificationsbase and to
described hold
above
of the measuring kit by 22.4 mm forwards. This required slight modifications in the current new components;
imply the displacemen
two current
mechanisms toofparts
allow were slightly
the measuring kit bymodified
the clearance with the by
22.4 mm moldmachining
forwards.
baseThis
and while
required three
to hold slight
new auxiliary supports
modifications
components; in the cur
rent mechanisms to allow the clearance with the moldin base and to hold new components
two current parts were slightly modified by machining while three auxiliary supports the
were fabricated. The proposed positioning devices are shown Figure 12. Following
SWOT two the
analysis, current parts werewere
modifications slightly modified bythemachining while three auxiliary support
were fabricated. The proposed positioning found
devices toare
fulfil
shown requirements
in Figure 12. without
Following changing
the
the actual were fabricated.
working Theremaining
principle, proposed positioning
like the devices
other are shown
machines in in Figure
the 12. Following
production line. th
SWOT analysis, the modifications were found to fulfil the requirements without chang-
SWOT analysis, the modifications were found to fulfil the requirements without changing
ingMoreover,
the actual the parts requiring
working principle,fabrication
remainingwere like designed
the other to be integrated
machines in thewith the current
production
componentry. the actual working principle, remaining like the other machines in the production line
line. Moreover, the parts requiring fabrication were designed to be integrated with the
Moreover, the parts requiring fabrication were designed to be integrated with the curren
current componentry.
componentry.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 12. Improved positioning
Figure 12. devices fordevices
Improved positioning different
forproduct
differentreferences: (a) models
product references: 159 and159
(a) models 160,
Figure 12. Improved positioning devices for different product references: (a) models 159 and 160, and 160
(b) models 161
(b)and 162. 161 and 162.
models
(b) models 161 and 162.
The supporting structure of the robotic manipulator, which handles the control ca
TheThe supporting
supporting structure
structure of theof the robotic
robotic manipulator,
manipulator, whichwhich
handles handles the control
the control cables, ca-
bles, also bles, also
requires requires
slight slight modifications
modifications due to due to interference
interference with the with
flow the
of flow of control
control cables.cables
also requires slight modifications due to interference with the flow of control cables. The
The
The modifications modifications required
required refitment refitment of
of the supports the supports
at one at one side
sidestructure of the
of the structure structure
(Figure(Figur
modifications required
13a) and refitment
were designedof thetosupports
be carried at out
oneon-site.
side ofAnthe analysis using(Figure 13a)
the Finite Elemen
and13a)
wereand were designed
designed to be(FEM)
Method
to be
carried
wasout
carried out
on-site.
performed An on-site.
on theanalysis An
modified
analysis
using usingElement
the Finite
structure
the Finite Element
Method
to ensure its performance unde
Method
(FEM) was (FEM)
performedwas performed on thestructure
modified to structure to ensure its performance under
load. Theon the modified
assembly of the robotic ensureon
manipulator itsthe
performance
structure and under load.
the new supports i
Theload. The assembly
assembly ofshown of the
the robotic robotic manipulator
manipulator
in Figure
on the and
on the structure
13b. The structure was assumed
structure
the
to benewandsupports
the newissupports
constructed shown
with
is
steel C45E. Fo
shown in Figure
in Figure 13b. the 13b.
Themodels, The
structure structure
this was was
assumed
material assumed to be
to be constructed
was considered constructed with
with steel C45E.
to have a linear-elastic steel C45E.
For so
behavior, For
theno perma
the models,
models, this
this material material
was was
consideredconsidered
to
nent deformations should occur. have toa have a linear-elastic
linear-elastic behavior, behavior,
so no so no
permanent perma-
nent deformations
deformations should occur.
should occur.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

Figure 13. Modified structure for the robotic manipulator: (a) standalone structure, (b) assembled
manipulator.
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

Figure 13. Modified structure for the robotic manipulator: (a) standalone structure, (b) assemble
manipulator.
Processes 2022, 10, 1953 Figure 13. Modified structure for the robotic manipulator: (a) standalone structure,11(b) assembled
of 21
manipulator.
Regarding the boundary conditions of these models, the bottom parts of the suppor
were considered fixed in all directions (UX = UY = UZ = 0); hence, their displacement (Ui)
Regarding the boundary conditions of these models, the bottom
parts ofparts of the supports
set Regarding the
to zero. The boundary
load appliedconditions of these
in the manipulator models,wasthe bottom
0.551 the supports
N, corresponding to the weigh
were
were considered
considered fixed
fixed in in
all all directions
directions (U = (U
U X == U
U Y =
= U Z
0); = 0);
hence,hence,
their their displacement
displacement (U (Ui) is
) isFigure
of the control cables. The imposed boundary conditions and loads are shown iin
X Y Z 1
set to
set tozero.
zero.The
Theload
load applied
applied in the
in the manipulator
manipulator was 0.551 N, corresponding to the weigh
Afterward, the structure was meshed withwas solid 0.551 N, corresponding
elements, four-nodetotetrahedrons,
the weight
resul
of the
of thecontrol
controlcables.
cables. The
The imposed
imposed boundary
boundary conditions
conditions and loads
and loads are shown
are shown in Figurein14.
Figure 14
ing in 203,484 elements and 404,962 nodes; the meshed structure is shown in Figure 1
Afterward, the structure was meshed with solid elements, four-node tetrahedrons,
Afterward, the structure was meshed with solid elements, four-node tetrahedrons, result resulting
inThe analysis was andsolved as linear
nodes;elastic understructure
the assumption
shownof large deformations.
ing203,484 elements
in 203,484 elements 404,962
and 404,962 the meshed
nodes; the meshed is structure inisFigure
shown 14.inThe
Figure 14
analysis was solved as linear elastic under the assumption of large deformations.
The analysis was solved as linear elastic under the assumption of large deformations.

Figure 14. Finite Element mesh, boundary conditions and loads on the robotic manipulator’s stru
ture.
Figure
Figure14.14.Finite
FiniteElement
Elementmesh, boundary
mesh, conditions
boundary and loads
conditions andonloads
the robotic
on themanipulator’s structure.
robotic manipulator’s struc
ture.
The
The results
results fromfrom
the the
FEMFEM analyses
analyses indicated
indicated that thethat the modifications
modifications do not
do not affect the affect th
mechanical
mechanical characteristics
characteristics of theof the structure
structure underloads.
under working working loads.
In this In von
case, the thisMises
case, the vo
The results from the FEM analyses indicated that the modifications do not affect the
Mises
stress stress
under underloads
working workinghas a loads
maximum has value
a maximum
of 180 kPavalue
whileof the
180yield
kPastrength
while the yiel
mechanical
ofstrength
this material
characteristics
is 620
of the structure
MPa, indicating
under load
thatindicating
working
the appliedthat
loads. In this
hasapplied
no significant
case,
effect
the von
of this material is 620 MPa, the load has noonsignifican
Mises
the stress
structure under
(Figure working loads
15). Similarly, has a
the deformation maximum
of the value of
structure was 180 kPa while
evaluated, withthe yield
effect on the structure (Figure 15). Similarly, the deformation of the structure was evalu
strength
the of this material
displacement’s magnitude is 620
beingMPa,
around indicating
7 being thatgrips,
µm at the the applieddoes loadnothas no the
significan
ated, with the displacement’s magnitude around 7which
μm at the grips, affect
which does n
effect onofthe
function thestructure
manipulator (Figure
(Figure15).
16).Similarly, the deformation of the structure was evalu
affect the function of the manipulator (Figure 16).
ated, with the displacement’s magnitude being around 7 μm at the grips, which does no
affect the function of the manipulator (Figure 16).

Figure 15. Effective stresses in the robotic manipulator’s structure under working loads.
Figure 15. Effective stresses in the robotic manipulator’s structure under working loads.
Figure 15. Effective stresses in the robotic manipulator’s structure under working loads.
Processes 2022,10,
Processes2022, 10,1953
x FOR PEER REVIEW 12
12 of
of2121

Figure 16. Magnitude of displacement in the manipulator’s structure under working loads.

3.2. Workstation Interventions

FigureThe
Figure 16. main subset
16.Magnitude
Magnitude of this intervention
ofofdisplacement
displacementininthe is molds
themanipulator’s
manipulator’s and under
structure
structure their structures
underworking due to the prec
workingloads.
loads.
and heat treatments involved in the process. Subsequently, a metrological inspecti
3.2.
3.2.Workstation
WorkstationInterventions
Interventions
performed to validate their compliance with the design, followed by a functional va
The main subset ofofthis
thisintervention
interventionisismolds
moldsand
andtheir
theirstructures
structuresdue
duetotothe
theprecision
tion,The main subset
described below. precision
and
and heat treatments involved in the process. Subsequently, a metrological inspectionisis
heat treatments involved in the process. Subsequently, a metrological inspection
performed
performedtotovalidate
validatetheir compliance
their compliancewith the design, followed by a functional validation,
3.3. Validation
described below. of the Mold Structure with the design, followed by a functional valida-
tion, described below.
The validation process consisted of 25 injections from each terminal model; then
3.3. Validation of the Mold Structure
produced parts
3.3. Validation of theare
Mold inspected
Structure and measured, and the respective dimensional report
The validation process consisted of 25 injections from each terminal model; then, the
performed. With this
The validation processgoal, the mold
consisted was
of 25 mounted
injections fromon theterminal
each company’smodel;testing machine
then, the
produced parts are inspected and measured, and the respective dimensional reports are
produced
the parts parts
were are inspected
injected. and measured,
Upon completion andof thetherespective
testing dimensional
process, it reports
was are
possible to
performed. With this goal, the mold was mounted on the company’s testing machine
performed.
clude With this goal, the mold was mounted on the company’s testing machine and
and thethat
partsa were
largeinjected.
part of Upon
the sprues brokeofout
completion the of the injected
testing process, itterminal, thustonot fulfi
was possible
the parts were injected. Upon completion of the testing process, it was possible to con-
the objectives
conclude of the
that a large partwork.
of the Additionally,
sprues broke outsome
of the samples of the injections
injected terminal, showed non
thus not fulfilling
clude that a large part of the sprues broke out of the injected terminal, thus not fulfilling
the objectives
forming of the work.
dimensions Additionally,
inAdditionally,
the dimensionalsome samples
reports, ofimplying
the injections showed
further non-
adjustments to
the objectives
conforming of the work.
dimensions in the dimensionalsome samples
reports, of the further
implying injections showed non-con-
adjustments to the
molds
forming bydimensions
Electric Discharge Machining
in theMachining
dimensional (EDM).
reports, The premature failure of the thesprues
molds by Electric Discharge (EDM). Theimplying
prematurefurther
failureadjustments
of the spruestowas
caused
molds bybybyElectric
the initially
Discharge reduced dimensions of the originalfailure
gating of system section,
was as sh
caused the initially reducedMachining
dimensions(EDM). The
of the original premature
gating system section, the sprues
as shown
in Figure
caused by
in Figure 17. 17.
the initially reduced dimensions of the original gating system section, as shown
in Figure 17.

Figure 17. Original gating system for terminal of model 75 (A) and model 70 (B).
Figure17.17.
Figure Original
Original gating
gating system
system for terminal
for terminal of modelof75model 75model
(A) and (A) and model 70 (B).
70 (B).
Consequently, the gating system was changed to increase the cross-section area of
the sprue aiming to counteract the tendency of early sprue failure during extraction, as
shownConsequently, theadjusting
in Figure 18. After gating system was
the molds, changed
it was to increase
necessary theeffect
to assess the cross-section
on the ar
the sprue aiming to counteract the tendency of early sprue failure during extractio
shown in Figure 18. After adjusting the molds, it was necessary to assess the effect o
 Processes 2022, 10, 1953 13 of 21

Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 2

Consequently, the gating system was changed to increase the cross-section area of
the
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW sprue aiming to counteract the tendency of early sprue failure during extraction, 13 of as
21
shown in Figure 18. After adjusting the molds, it was necessary to assess the effect on the
sprues. For this, the injections and the respective dimensional reports were repeated. A
sprues. For this, the injections and the respective dimensional reports were repeated. As
a result of the changes, the sprues remained attached to the terminal after its extraction
a result of the changes, the sprues remained attached to the terminal after its extraction
sprues.
fromthe Formold,
the this, the injections and the respective dimensional reports were repeated. As
from mold, andand it was
it was concluded
concluded with
with the the dimensional
dimensional reports
reports that that fulfilled
all samples all samples ful
a result of the changes, the sprues remained attached to the terminal after its extraction
filled the requirements.
the requirements.
from the mold, and it was concluded with the dimensional reports that all samples ful-
filled the requirements.

Figure18.
Figure
Figure 18.
18. Gating
Gating
Gating system,
system,
system, after
after
after modification,
modification,
modification, for for terminal
for terminal
terminal of of 75
of model
model model
75 (A) 75 (A)
(A) and
and and70
model
model 70model
(B). 70 (B).
(B).

3.4.
3.4. Validation
3.4.Validation
Validation of the
of thethe
of Produced
Produced
Produced Components
Components
Components
Once the
Once the validation
validation ofofthe mold
the mold has been
has beencarried
carriedout,out,
validation of the of other produced
Once the validation of the mold has been carriedvalidation
out, validation the other
of thepro-
other pro
components
duced was accomplished.
components was Thus, for
accomplished. this for
Thus, purpose,
this visual analysis
purpose, visual and measurements
analysis and meas-
duced
of components
the functional was accomplished.
dimensions were undertaken Thus, for this
to ensure that purpose, visual analysis and meas
urements of the functional dimensions were undertaken toall components
ensure that all were suitable
components
urements
for their of the
assembly. functional
Afterward, dimensions
it was concluded were undertaken
that all parts were to ensure
inall
accordancethat all
withcomponent
were suitable for their assembly. Afterward, it was concluded that parts were in the
ac-
were suitable
technical drawings,for so
their
it wasassembly.
possible Afterward,
to start the it was concluded
intervention in the that all parts
equipment. Figure were
19 in ac
cordance with the technical drawings, so it was possible to start the intervention in the
equipment. Figure 19 presents two examples of fabricated parts for implementation in the in th
cordance
presents with
two the
examples technical
of drawings,
fabricated parts so
for it was possible
implementation to
in start
the the
new intervention
equipment,
corresponding
equipment.
new equipment, tocorresponding
Figurethe measuring
19 presents kit.
to two exampleskit.
the measuring of fabricated parts for implementation in th
new equipment, corresponding to the measuring kit.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 19. Example of
19. Example of fabricated
fabricatedparts
partsfor
forthe
theequipment
equipmentmodification:
modification: proximity
proximity sensor
sensor support
(a)support (b).
(a) and target (b) support (a)
and target support (b).
Figure 19. Example of fabricated parts for the equipment modification: proximity sensor suppor
Process Description
3.5. Process Description
(a) and target support (b).
The first
The first stage
stageofofthe
theprocess was
process thethe
was disassembly
disassemblyof the
ofcomponents of direct
the components exchange,
of direct ex-
the mold
change, structure,
the mold
3.5. Process and the measurement kit, as they contain some components
structure, and the measurement kit, as they contain some components
Description that would
be subjected
that would beto alterations
subjected carried out
to alterations externally.
carried In FigureIn20,
out externally. both20,
Figure subassemblies
both subassem-are
shown
blies The
after
are first
shown stagedisassembly.
disassembly.
after of the process was the disassembly of the components of direct ex
change, the mold structure, and the measurement kit, as they contain some component
that would be subjected to alterations carried out externally. In Figure 20, both subassem
blies are shown after disassembly.
 Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21
Processes2022,
Processes
Processes 2022,10,
2022, 10,1953
10, xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 14 of
14 of 21
of 21
21

Figure 20. Equipment after disassembling the components to be changed: (A) robotic manipulator
Figure20.
Figure
Figure 20.Equipment
20. Equipmentafter
Equipment afterdisassembling
after disassemblingthe
disassembling thecomponents
the componentsto
components tobe
to bechanged:
be changed:(A)
changed: (A)robotic
(A) roboticmanipulator
robotic manipulator
manipulator
grips, (B) measuring kit.
grips,(B)
grips, (B)measuring
measuringkit.
kit.
grips, (B) measuring kit.
A specialized technician in ZAMAK injection machines was assigned to install, ad-
Aspecialized
A specializedtechnician
specialized technicianinin
technician in ZAMAK
ZAMAK injection
injection machines
machines was
was assigned
assigned to install,
to install, ad-
ad-
just,Aand validate the structure, ZAMAK injection
considering thatmachines was assigned
it is a time-consuming toprocedure
install, adjust,
that
just,
just,
and and
and
validatevalidate
validate the
the
theknowledge structure,
structure, considering
considering
structure, considering that
that it
it
thatInitaddition, is
is aa
is a time-consuming time-consuming
time-consuming
procedure procedure
procedure
that involves that
that
involves deep of the process. the alteration to the structure of the
involves
involves
deep deepknowledge
deep
knowledge knowledge
of the ofthe
of theIn
process. process.
process. Inaddition,
In
addition, addition,
the thealteration
the
alteration alteration
to the tothe
to thestructure
structure structure
of ofthe
of
theshown
roboticthe
robotic manipulator was initiated to be performed in parallel to other tasks, as in
roboticmanipulator
robotic
manipulatormanipulatorwas wasinitiated
initiatedtotobe
beperformed
performedin inparallel
paralleltotoother
othertasks,
tasks,asasshown
shownin in
Figure 21. was initiated to be performed in parallel to other tasks, as shown in Figure 21.
Figure21.
Figure 21.

Figure21.
Figure 21.Structure
Structureof
ofthe
therobotic
roboticmanipulator
manipulatorafter
afterthe
thechanges.
changes.
Figure21.
Figure 21.Structure
Structureof
ofthe
therobotic
roboticmanipulator
manipulatorafter
afterthe
thechanges.
changes.

Oncethe
Once thementioned
mentionedchanges
changeswere wereimplemented,
implemented,allallthe
theconditions
conditionswere
weremet
metfor
forthe
the
Oncethe
Once thementioned
mentionedchanges
changeswerewereimplemented,
implemented,allallthe
theconditions
conditionswere
weremet
metfor
forthe
the
completion
completion of
of the
the assembly
assembly of
of all
all components.
components. Figure
Figure 22
22 presents
presents the
the device
device with
with the
the
completion of
completion of the
the assembly
assembly of
of all
all components.
components. Figure
Figure 22
22 presents
presents the
the device
device with
with the
the
changescompleted.
changes completed.
changescompleted.
changes completed.

Figure 22. Equipment after assembly and ready for operation.

Figure22.
Figure
Figure 22.Equipment
22. Equipmentafter
Equipment afterassembly
after assemblyand
assembly andready
and readyfor
ready foroperation.
for operation.
operation.
 assemblies. Subsequently, the final validation of the produced cables was performed. This
step is performed on a measuring bench, as shown in Figure 23, which concluded that the
process fulfilled the requirements.
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21
Processes 2022, 10, 1953 15 of 21

To prepare
To prepare thethe
equipment
equipmentforforproduction, adjustmentswere
production, adjustments were made
made to to
thethe various sub-
various
assemblies. Subsequently, the final validation of the produced cables was performed.
subassemblies. Subsequently, the final validation of the produced cables was performed. This
stepThis
is performed on a measuring
step is performed bench,
on a measuring asas
bench, shown
shownininFigure 23,which
Figure 23, which concluded
concluded that that the
the process fulfilled the requirements.
process fulfilled the requirements.

Figure 23. Validation of the produced control cable after changing the equipment.

3.6. Results
3.6.1. Raw Material Waste
After completing the changes to the equipment, the first sprue samples were ana-
Figure 23. 23.
Validation ofofthethe produced control cable after changing the equipment.
lyzed and compared with Validation
Figure those obtained produced control
before cable
their after changing
implementation. the equipment.
The average mass
difference from3.6.
five3.6.
samples
Results of each batch was 0.93 g, corresponding to a mean reduction
Results
of 48.3% per sprue. 3.6.1. Raw Material Waste
3.6.1.Then, the
Raw Material geometries
Waste of the resulting sprues were compared, showing
large differences between Afterthem,
completing the changes
indicating to the
that equipment,
further the first spruetosamples
adjustments were analyzed
the mold were re-
After
and completing
compared the obtained
with those changesbeforeto the equipment,
their implementation.the first
Thesprue
averagesamples were ana-
mass differ-
quired. After the analysis,
lyzed and
ence from it
comparedwas
five samplesconcluded
with those
of each that
obtained
batch the difference
was 0.93before was caused
their implementation.
g, corresponding by
to a mean reduction the sprue
Theofaverage
48.3% mass
channel in the mold persupports.
sprue. Then,Afterward,
the geometries theof sprue
the channel
resulting sprueswas
difference from five samples of each batch was 0.93 g, corresponding to a meanwereadjusted
compared, by an
showing external
large
reduction
supplier by using differences
EDM; between them, indicating that further adjustments to the mold were required.
of 48.3% perthe
sprue.modification is shownofin
Then, the geometries theFigure
resulting 24.sprues
In parallel with these
were compared, showing
After the analysis, it was concluded that the difference was caused by the sprue channel
changes, a magnet
large was
in installed
differences
the mold in Afterward,
between
supports. thethem,
moldindicating
structures
the
thattofurther
sprue channel ensure
was thebycorrect
adjustments
adjusted
to position
thesupplier
an external of re-
mold were
quired.
the cable and eliminate After
by using some theinjection
EDM; analysis, it wasisconcluded
failures
the modification that the
due intoFigure
shown misplaced difference
24. In cables,
parallel was
with caused
which
these by the
occurred
changes, a sprue
channel
magnet
before these modifications. in was
theThemold supports.
installed in the mold
installed Afterward,doestothe
structures
magnet sprue
ensure
not havethechannel
correct
a further waseffect
adjusted
position of the by an
oncable
the andexterna
pro-
eliminate
supplier some injection
by using EDM; the failures due to misplaced
modification is shown cables,
in which
Figureoccurred before these
24. In parallel with these
cess. modifications. The installed magnet does not have a further effect on the process.
changes, a magnet was installed in the mold structures to ensure the correct position of
the cable and eliminate some injection failures due to misplaced cables, which occurred
before these modifications. The installed magnet does not have a further effect on the pro-
cess.

Figure 24. Structure of the 24.

Figure molds before
Structure of the(a) andbefore
molds after(a)changing the sprue
and after changing channel
the sprue geometry
channel (b).
geometry (b).

After the modification to the sprue channel, the sprue mass was reduced by 1.21 g with
After the modification
respect
Figure to thetocases
24. Structure
the sprue
of prior
channel,
to any
the molds
the corresponding
modification,
before
sprue
(a) and after
mass the
was
changing to
reduced
a mean
sprue reduction
by 1.21 g(b).
of 62.6%
channel geometry
with respect to the per sprue.
cases priorThistoproved to be very positive
any modification, for the economic to
corresponding analysis
a meanof the investment,of
reduction
which is carried out next for the equipment under study and for other projects from the
62.6% per sprue. This proved
After to be verytopositive
the modification the sprue forchannel,
the economic
the sprueanalysis
mass was of reduced
the invest-
company, considering that the study was done in late 2021 to start its implementation by
by 1.21 g
withthe
ment, which is carried respect to
outofnext
start thefor
2022. cases
theprior to any modification,
equipment under studycorresponding
and for othertoprojects
a mean reduction
from of
62.6%
the company, consideringper sprue.
that This proved
theBX726
study to be
was donevery positive for the economic analysis of the invest-
• Saving on the production line in late 2021 to start its implementation
ment,
by the start of 2022. which is carried out next for the equipment under study and for other projects from
the company, considering that the study was done in late 2021 to start its implementation
• Saving on the BX726
by the start production
of 2022. line
In the case •of the line under
Saving study,production
on the BX726 the economic
line return is analyzed between the years
2022 and 2026, sinceInthethe production
case of the lineforecast is limited
under study, to thisreturn
the economic period. Table 1 between
is analyzed shows the
the years
data used for calculation purposes.
Processes 2022, 10, 1953 16 of 21

In the case of the line under study, the economic return is analyzed between the years
2022 and 2026, since the production forecast is limited to this period. Table 1 shows the
data used for calculation purposes.

Table 1. Data used to calculate the saving achieved with the BX726 production line.

ZAMAK’s Retail Price 2.8 EUR/kg

Scrap ZAMAK’s retail price 1.1 EUR/kg
Sprue mass reduction 1.21 g
Total investment 3970 EUR
BX726 production line’s annual average production [22–25] 1,021,700 units

The resulting savings are calculated as shown in Equation (1), as follows:

Saving 22 − 26[€] = (2.8 − 1.1) × 1, 021, 700 × 5 × 1.21 × 10−3 − 3970 = 8728.82 € (1)

With the implementation made in the BX726 production line, the return on investment
(ROI) will be achieved in August 2023, following the production forecast, which is an
acceptable date given the initial investment. This project worked as a model for the changes
to be made to active equipment, as well as for all future projects developed by the company,
whose values will be analyzed next.
• Investment in changing existing lines
The proposed concept received positive feedback from the company’s management,
which was willing to allocate a budget of EUR 40,000 to change 10 of the critical active
equipment by the end of the year. For this investment, the amount saved between 2022 and
2026 will be analyzed, based on an annual production estimate, as presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Data used to calculate the savings achieved with ten critical lines.

Number of Production Lines to Modify 10

Expected average investment per production line 4000 EUR
Production line’s annual average production 1,000,000

With the presented data, the calculation of the saving is shown in Equation (2),
as follows:

Saving 22 − 26[€] = 10 × (2.8 − 1.1) × 1, 000, 000 × 5 × 1.21 × 10−3 − 40, 000 = 62, 850 € (2)
Considering that the production lines are ready at the start of 2022, a profit of EUR
62,850 is expected by the end of 2026, which is highly significant considering the initial
investment.
• Implementation in new projects
After the implementation of the project, it became imperative that the sprue reduction
concept is implemented in all newly developed equipment, due to the major economic
impact associated with nil initial investment. Thus, in Table 3, the new projects that will be
implemented until 2023 are presented.

Table 3. Data used to calculate the saving achieved for new projects until 2026.

Number of Projects to Be Implemented in 2022 3

Number of projects to be implemented in 2023 10
Production line’s annual average production 1,000,000
 Processes 2022, 10, 1953 17 of 21

ocesses 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 2

The calculation of the amount saved for the same period is accomplished in
Equation (3), as follows:
The implementation of this concept in new projects will have a very positive impac
Saving 22 − 26[€] = (2.8 − 1.1) × 1, 000, 000 × (3 × 5 + 10 × 4) × 1.21 × 10−3 = 113, 135 € (3)
since the initial investment is mandatory and does not change by this design concept, an
The implementation
the respective result will beofentirely
this concept in new projects
converted will have a very positive impact,
into profit.
since the initial investment is mandatory and does not change by this design concept, and
the respective result will be entirely converted into profit.
3.6.2. Dedicated Sprue Collection
3.6.2. Dedicated
Besides Spruemass
the sprue Collection
and respective cost savings with the proposed change, it
necessaryBesides the spruethe
to guarantee mass and respective
sprue collectioncost savings withcontainers.
in dedicated the proposed Tochange,
achieveit isthis goa
necessary to guarantee the sprue collection in dedicated containers. To achieve
changes were made to the feeding sections of the sprue removal shear, making it possib this goal,
changes were made to the feeding sections of the sprue removal shear, making it possible to
to reinforce them and avoid premature failure. With the accomplished changes and re
reinforce them and avoid premature failure. With the accomplished changes and respective
spective production
production monitoring,monitoring, it was
it was found thatfound that
all sprues all sprues
followed followed
the injected the injected
terminals up to term
nals up to reaching
reaching the sprue the spruestation,
removal removalandstation, and of
the existence theany
existence of anythe
sprues outside sprues outside th
container
for their collection was eliminated, as shown in Figure 25.
container for their collection was eliminated, as shown in Figure 25.

Figure 25. Equipment after the intervention: correct sprue storage in the dedicated container (A
Figure 25. Equipment after the intervention: correct sprue storage in the dedicated container (A),
lack of scattered sprues (B), and clean path up to the container after continuous production (C).
lack of scattered sprues (B), and clean path up to the container after continuous production (C).

3.6.3.3.6.3.
FinalFinal Product
Product QualityImprovement
Quality Improvement
The molds currently used by the company do not include exhaust ports for the gases,
The molds currently used by the company do not include exhaust ports for the gase
which translates into the existence of excessive porosities in the injected terminals. As the
which translates
volume of the into thededicated
cavities existencetoof theexcessive
sprue wasporosities in the injected
reduced significantly, terminals. As th
it is predictable
volume of the cavities dedicated to the sprue was reduced significantly,
that there will be a reduction in the porosities inside the injected terminals after the it isinter-
predictab
vention.
that there To be
will analyze the changes
a reduction in in
thetheporosities
injection process,
insideathe
few injected
samples were prepared
terminals for athe inte
after
metallographic analysis by following the field’s common practices and procedures. For
vention. To analyze the changes in the injection process, a few samples were prepared fo
porosity analysis, the procedure specified by the BDG P202 standard [24] was followed.
a metallographic
In addition, theanalysis by following
images obtained with an the field’sBX53M
Olympus common practices
Metallurgical and procedures.
Microscope and Fo
porosity
200×analysis,
optical zoomthe were
procedure specified
processed by the BDG
in the Olympus Stream P202
Basicstandard
® software[24] was followed
(Olympus
In addition, the Measuring
Imaging and images obtained with an
Systems, Tokyo, Olympus
Japan), makingBX53M Metallurgical
it possible to quantify theMicroscope
porosity an
within the terminals. Figure 26 shows sample microscope images before
200× optical zoom were processed in the Olympus Stream Basic software (Olympus Im ®(A,C) and after the
agingintervention
and Measuring(B,D); the images were obtained with a microscope analysis.
Systems, Tokyo, Japan), making it possible to quantify the porosit
The procedure used for the analysis of porosity involved choosing the largest rect-
within the terminals.
angular area visibleFigure 26 shows
in the sections sample
followed microscope
by the processing ofimages before (A,C)
the microscope imagesand afte
the intervention
in the software.(B,D); the images
The results were obtained
are presented in Table 4,with a microscope
corresponding to oneanalysis.
measurement
per sample.
Processes 2022,
Processes 2022,10,
10,x1953
FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21 18

Figure
Figure 26.26. Terminal
Terminal section
section with
with 200 200× optical
× optical zoom
zoom with withfilter:
porosity porosity
beforefilter:
(A,C),before (A,C),
and after the and aft
intervention (B,D).
intervention (B,D).

Results
Table 4.The obtained with
procedure usedthefor
porosity analysis forofthe
the analysis various samples.
porosity involved choosing the largest re
gular area
Sample visible
Porosity [%]in the sections
Pores followed
Pores Density by thePorosity
[1/mm] processing of the
According microscope
to BDG imag
P202
theAsoftware. The results
10.28 2437
are presented
81.12
in Table 4, corresponding to one measuremen
%15.0/ØL1.0
sample.
B 9.23 732 20.06 %10.0/ØL1.8
C 12.6 2286 36.19 %15.0/ØL2.8
D 4. Results
Table 5.56obtained
1004 18.65 analysis for the various
with the porosity %10.0/ØL1.3
samples.

From the analysis

Sample of Figure
Porosity [%]26 and Table
Pores4, it isPores Density
possible Porosity
to conclude According
that there is a to
very significant decrease in the occurrence of porosities with[1/mm]
the new injections, reducedP202
by
10.2% between
A samples A and
10.28 B and by 55.9% between
2437 samples
81.12 C and D. The existence of
%15.0/ØL1.0
two macroporosities in sample B can be explained by the poor regulation of the oil spray,
B 9.23 732 20.06 %10.0/ØL1.8
which significantly affects the analysis. This problem comes from the fact that a vacuum
systemCis used for the lubrication
12.6 2286 which makes
of the molds 36.19it impossible to precisely
%15.0/ØL2.8
D lubrication of the
adjust the 5.56molds. Nonetheless,
1004 the result18.65 %10.0/ØL1.3
of the intervention proved to
be quite positive due to the great impact that the reduction in the sprue size had on the
porosity of thethe
From terminals andof
analysis a consequent
Figure 26 increase
and Tablein resistance is also expected.
4, it is possible to conclude that ther
• very
Microstructure analysis
significant decrease in the occurrence of porosities with the new injections, red
by After
10.2%polishing,
betweenthe samples
surfaceAevenly
and Breflects
and bythe
55.9%
lightbetween
that falls samples C andonly
on it, allowing D. The exis
of detection
the two macroporosities
of cracks, pores,inorsample B can
inclusions. To be
be explained by the
able to analyze poor regulation of th
the metallographic
constituents
spray, which significantly affects the analysis. This problem comes for
of the material, it is necessary to carry out a chemical treatment their
from the fact t
identification. In the case of the analysis performed, a solution of ferric chloride was used,
vacuum system is used for the lubrication of the molds which makes it impossible to
leading to the microscopic images shown in Figure 27.
cisely adjust the lubrication of the molds. Nonetheless, the result of the interve
proved to be quite positive due to the great impact that the reduction in the sprue siz
on the porosity of the terminals and a consequent increase in resistance is also expec
• Microstructure analysis
Processes 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of

Processes 2022, 10, 1953 19 of 21

identification. In the case of the analysis performed, a solution of ferric chloride was used
leading to the microscopic images shown in Figure 27.

Figure
Figure 27.27. Sample
Sample surfaces
surfaces afterafter the chemical
the chemical treatment,
treatment, with of
with a zoom a zoom
200×: of 200×:
before before
(A,C), and(A,C),
after and aft
the intervention (B,D).
the intervention (B,D).

ByByimage
image inspection,
inspection,it isitpossible to conclude
is possible that the
to conclude thatgrain size issize
the grain slightly higher higher i
is slightly
inthe
theinitial
initial samples,
samples, which
whichalso alsopresent
present a more rounded
a more rounded geometry,
geometry,while the later
while the sam-
later sample
ples present a microstructure with grain formation that resembles dendrites
present a microstructure with grain formation that resembles dendrites and a finer gran and a finer
granulometry. The larger grain size was caused by the slower cooling rate associated
ulometry. The larger grain size was caused by the slower cooling rate associated with th
with the larger mass of the sprues before the modifications. On the other hand, the finer
larger mass of the sprues before the modifications. On the other hand, the finer grain pro
grain promotes an improved toughness of the sample, also resulting in higher fatigue
motes an
strength improved
[25], toughness
which clearly benefitsof the
theinjected
sample,terminal,
also resulting
since itinwill
higher fatigue
undergo strength [25
cyclical
which clearly
loading. benefits
Additionally, the injected
samples terminal,
from injections since
after the itintervention
will undergo cyclical
showed loading. Add
improved
tionally, samples from injections after the intervention showed improved
uniformity in grain size and structure, which, despite not being a very significant difference, uniformity i
translates
grain size into a positive
and result.
structure, It is important
which, to note
despite not being that,
a veryafter significant
the modifications, all thetranslate
difference,
produced cables passed
into a positive result.all
It the quality andtostrength
is important tests
note that, defined
after by the company.all the produce
the modifications,
cables passed all the quality and strength tests defined by the company.
4. Conclusions
Industrial processes are often considered case studies for product improvement and
4. Conclusions
knowledge application. In this work, the injection molding process employed to produce
controlIndustrial
cables for processes are often
the automotive considered
industry case studies
was analyzed for product
and improved. Thisimprovement
process an
knowledge application.
corresponded In this work,
to a local company. the injection
The main molding
concern was process employed
the uncontrolled separationto produc
ofcontrol
sprues cables
throughout theautomotive
for the manufacturing process,
industry waswhich endedand
analyzed up scattered
improved. around
This the
process co
facilities.
responded The to
analysis
a localemployed
company. theThe
Strengths,
main Weaknesses,
concern wasOpportunities,
the uncontrolledand Treats
separation o
(SWOT) technique and the Finite Element Method (FEM) to analyze
sprues throughout the manufacturing process, which ended up scattered aroundthose processes and the fa
machine components involved in the injection molding of the cable terminals. In summary,
cilities. The analysis employed the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Trea
the application of SWOT methodology together with engineering tools such as the FEM led
to(SWOT) technique
the improvement ofand the Finite
the mold Element
structures, moldMethod (FEM)
sprue gates, to analyze
measuring those
kit and processes an
strength
machine
testing components
device, involved
the structure in themanipulator,
of the robotic injection molding of thecomponents
and auxiliary cable terminals.
of the In sum
mary, the application of SWOT methodology together with
injection molding machine. These improvements can be summarized as follows: engineering tools such as th
•FEM led
The to the improvement
capability ofthe
to inject 95% of thecompany
mold structures, moldone
products with sprue gates, measuring
standardized type of kit an
strength
mold structure led to the reduction of downtime. The improved mold structure was compo
testing device, the structure of the robotic manipulator, and auxiliary
nents
the of the of
result injection molding
an iterative machine.
process These
combining FEM improvements can until
and SWOT analyses be summarized
a suitable as fo
solution was obtained.
lows:
• The capability to inject 95% of the company products with one standardized type o
mold structure led to the reduction of downtime. The improved mold structure wa
the result of an iterative process combining FEM and SWOT analyses until a suitab
solution was obtained.
Processes 2022, 10, 1953 20 of 21

• As the mold structure was modified and improved, it required further improvements
to the measuring kit, namely the front and back positioning fixtures, which ensure
the correct location of the control cable throughout the injection process. A similar
approach was followed for the structure of the robotic manipulator, which transports
the control cables from the injection station to the sprue removal station.
• In all the previous cases, the number of fabricated components was minimal, while
existing components were modified slightly by machining; hence, maintaining com-
patibility with the other production lines operating in the company.
In addition, the random size of the sprues was caused by a variation on the sprue gate
throughout the molds employed in the company. Before and after the improvement of the
injection molds and mold structures, a control injection run of 25 injections was performed.
Metallographic analyses and control cable transport tests were performed. The analyses of
these data led to:
• Establishing the cause of the random size and consequent behavior of the sprues
before the improvements were done. Once the cause was found, the mold and mold
structures were fine-tuned to produce a controlled sprue size, also reflected in a
controlled behavior of the sprues.
• The reduction of the sprue size led to the improvement of the terminal strength, which
improved the quality of the control cables produced. The control of the sprue size
means that the cooling rate of the terminal was also controlled; additionally, a smaller
sprue mass indicates faster cooling rates, which lead to a stronger microstructure.
The combination of the SWOT and FEM techniques together with the synchronization
between departments within the company led to a significant improvement, which did not
require major disruptions to the company’s production. Furthermore, the investment for
one production line will be returned in slightly over a year, while it would take four years for
10 production lines; consequently, the return of investment is relatively quick. In conclusion,
the combination of process improvement techniques and engineering knowledge benefited
the quality of a product, while also improving the reliability and reducing production costs
of the associated machinery.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: J.L.T.A.P., R.D.S.G.C. and F.J.G.S.; data curation: J.L.T.A.P.,
R.D.S.G.C., F.J.G.S. and I.J.S.-A.; formal analysis: J.L.T.A.P., F.J.G.S. and I.J.S.-A.; methodology:
R.D.S.G.C. and F.J.G.S.; resources: C.P., D.B.; software: J.L.T.A.P., I.J.S.-A.; supervision: R.D.S.G.C.,
C.P. and D.B.; writing—original draft J.L.T.A.P., R.D.S.G.C. and I.J.S.-A.; writing—Review and editing:
F.J.G.S., C.P. and D.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Currently, the data used for this work cannot be disclosed due to a
confidentiality agreement with the host company.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Senthilkumar, C.B.; Nallusamy, S. Enrichment of quality rate and output level in a medium scale manufacturing industry by
implementation of appropriate quality tools. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 37, 817–822. [CrossRef]
2. Cheng, G.; Li, L. Joint optimization of production, quality control and maintenance for serial-parallel multistage production
systems. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 2020, 204, 107–146. [CrossRef]
3. Ishikawa, K. What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way; Prentice Hall: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1985.
4. Westcott, R.T.; Duffy, G.L. The Certified Quality Improvement Associate Handbook; ASQ Quality Press: Milwaukee, WI, USA, 2014.
5. Kogawa, A.C.; Salgado, H.R.N. Quality tools for a successful strategic management. Int. J. Bus. Process Integr. Manag. 2017, 8,
153–159. [CrossRef]
6. Wilson, C. Brainstorming and Beyond: A User-Centered Design Method; Morgan Kaufmann: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2013.
7. Rodrigues, H.; Silva, F.J.G.; Morgado, L.G.; Sá, J.C.; Ferreira, L.P.; Campilho, R.D.S.G. A novel computer application for scrap
reporting and data management in the manufacturing of components for the automotive industry. Procedia Manuf. 2020, 51,
1319–1326. [CrossRef]
Processes 2022, 10, 1953 21 of 21

8. Silva, F.J.; Campilho, R.D.; Ferreira, L.P.; Pereira, M.T. Establishing guidelines to improve the high-pressure die casting process of
complex aesthetics parts. In Transdisciplinary Engineering Methods for Social Innovation of Industry 4.0; IOS Press: Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 2018; Volume 7, pp. 887–896.
9. Gürel, E.; Tat, M. SWOT analysis: A theoretical review. J. Int. Soc. Res. 2017, 10, 994–1006. [CrossRef]
10. Dyson, R.G. Strategic development and SWOT analysis at the University of Warwick. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 2004, 152, 631–640.
[CrossRef]
11. Karimi, M.; Niknamfar, A.H.; Niaki, S.T.A. An application of fuzzy-logic and grey-relational ANP-based SWOT in the ceramic
and tile industry. Knowl.-Based Syst. 2019, 163, 581–594. [CrossRef]
12. Ayar, M.S.; Ayar, V.S.; George, P.M. Simulation and experimental validation for defect reduction in geometry varied aluminium
plates casted using sand casting. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 27, 1422–1430. [CrossRef]
13. Goenka, M.; Nihal, C.; Ramanathan, R.; Gupta, P.; Parashar, A.; Joel, J. Automobile Parts Casting-Methods and Materials Used:
A Review. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 22, 2525–2531. [CrossRef]
14. Groover, M.P. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY,
USA, 2020.
15. Anderson, B. Die Casting Engineering: A Hydraulic, Thermal and Mechanical Process; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005.
16. Pinto, H.; Silva, F.J.G. Optimisation of Die Casting Process in Zamak Alloys. Procedia Manuf. 2017, 11, 517–525. [CrossRef]
17. Campbell, J. Complete Casting Handbook: Metal Casting Processes, Metallurgy, Techniques and Design; Butterworth-Heinemann:
Oxford, UK, 2015.
18. Nunes, V.; Silva, F.J.G.; Andrade, M.F.; Alexandre, R.; Baptista, A.P.M. Increasing the lifespan of high-pressure die cast molds
subjected to severe wear. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2017, 332, 319–331. [CrossRef]
19. Swift, K.G.; Booker, J.D. Process Selection: From Design to Manufacture; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2003.
20. Pinto, H.A.; Silva, F.J.G.; Martinho, R.P.; Campilho, R.D.S.G.; Pinto, A.G. Improvement and validation of Zamak die casting
moulds. Procedia Manuf. 2019, 38, 1547–1557. [CrossRef]
21. Chandrasekaran, R.; Campilho, R.D.S.G.; Silva, F.J.G. Reduction of scrap percentage of cast parts by optimizing the process
parameters. Procedia Manuf. 2019, 38, 1050–1057. [CrossRef]
22. Sun, J.; Le, Q.; Fu, L.; Bai, J.; Tretter, J.; Herbold, K.; Huo, H. Gas entrainment behavior of aluminum alloy engine crankcases
during the low-pressure-die-casting process. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2019, 266, 274–282. [CrossRef]
23. Davis, J.R. Zinc and Zinc Alloys. In Metals Handbook, 2nd ed.; ASM International: Novelty, OH, USA, 1998; pp. 589–597.
24. BDG. BDG Reference Sheet P202 [Internet]. 2010, p. 24. Available online: https://www.guss.de/fileadmin/user_upload/
richtlinien/bdg-richtlinie_p_202_eng.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2022).
25. Askeland, D.R. The Science and Engineering of Materials; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 1996.