08 The TCPIP Protocol Suite and Utilities

Revision no.
: PPT/2K403/02
TCPIP Protocol Suite & Utilities

Revision no.: PPT/2K403/02
Comparing the TCP/IP protocol Suite,

the OSI Model, and the DoD Model
© CMS INSTITUTE, 2004. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced, stored or emailed without the prior permission of Programme Director, CMS Institute
Comparing the TCP/IP protocol Suite, the OSI Model,

and the DoD Model (contd.)
• The TCP/IP protocol suite specifies functions above the

Network Access layer of the DoD model and above the Data
Link layer of the OSI model.
• The DoD networking model describes networking functions
just like the OSI model, but it consists of only four layers :
• Process/Application
• Host-to-Host
• Internet
• Network Access
IP and the Internet Protocol Suite
IP Internetwork with Autonomous Systems
IP Internetwork with Autonomous Systems (contd.)
• An IP internetwork can be divided into logical groups referred
to as autonomous systems. An autonomous system is a group
of networks administered as a whole system by a single
authority.
• Autonomous systems are interconnected using an exterior
gateway protocol, such as Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP).
Distance Vector Routing with RIP
Distance Vector Routing with RIP (contd.)
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is the TCP/IP suite’s
distance vector routing protocol.
• Routers A, B, and C connect LANs 1, 2,and 3. Router B
broadcasts over LAN 2 that it is one hop from LAN 1. Router C,
hearing this, then broadcasts to LAN 3 that it is two hops from
LAN 1.
Distance Vector Routing with RIP (contd.)
• Hosts on LAN 3 also hear router A advertise that it is one hop
from LAN 1, and they route all packets to LAN 1 through router
A because it advertises the route with a lower metric.
• The cost associated with each route is a metric between 1 and
16. The metric usually represents a hop count. A route with a
cost of 16 is considered to be unreachable.
Router Convergence and the Count-to-Infinity Problem
Router Convergence and the Count-to-Infinity Problem

(contd.)
• A major problem with the RIP protocol is the amount of time it
takes for all routers to synchronize their databases when a
change occurs to the network (this process of synchronization
is called convergence).
Split Horizon
Split Horizon (contd.)
• Split horizon decreases the amount of RIP traffic on the

network, but it increases the time required for convergence.
Poison Reverse
Poison Reverse (contd.)
• When poison reverse is enabled, all routes learned from a
network are advertised back to the same network with a cost of
16 (unreachable).
• Enabling poison reverse reduces the time taken by
convergence, but increases the amount of RIP traffic on the
network.
OSPF Routing
OSPF Routing (contd.)
• Link state routers build their route tables from packets

distributed by other routers on the internetwork containing
information about their directly connected interfaces and their
costs.
• The main advantage of link state routing is that it minimizes
the size of each router’s routing table.
• The link state protocol most commonly used on IP
internetworks is the Open Shortest Path First Protocol (OSPF).
OSPF Hello Packet
OSPF Hello Packet (contd.)
• The OSPF Hello protocol is responsible for establishing and
maintaining neighbor relationships, or adjacencies, between
routers connected to the same segment.
OSPF Database Synchronization
OSPF Database Synchronization (contd.)
a. Each router exchanges database description packets (DDPs)

with the DR and BDR. These packets include summary
information.
b. Upon receiving these packets, each OSPF router compares the

information with the entries it has (from the neighbors list).
c. If a database description packet has new or more up-to-date

information, the receiving router sends an LSR (link state
request) packet to the router that has the information.
OSPF Database Synchronization (contd.)
d. The router receiving the LSR packet replies with the needed
information using an LSU (link state update) packet.
• After an LSU packet is received by the requesting router, the
requesting router sends an LSA (link state acknowledgment
packet) to acknowledge receipt of the new information.
OSPF Autonomous System
OSPF Autonomous System (contd.)
• Autonomous System. An autonomous system (AS) is a group
of routers that exchange routing information using a common
routing protocol in a single administrative unit.
OSPF Areas
OSPF Areas (contd.)
• The previous figure shows the EMA corporate network divided

into areas. A separate area is established for each building on
a campus.
• Backbone. A backbone is a logical area to which all other
areas are connected. This special area must be directly
connected to all other areas of the internetwork. The
backbone’s address is always 0.0.0.0.
• The routers that attach an area to the backbone are called Area
Border Routers (ABRs).
Packet Routing
Packet Routing (contd.)
• Information sent between hosts is sent in packets that are
often forwarded through many routers to reach their
destinations.
• The Internet layer must perform the routing and packet
switching to ensure that packets reach that final destination.
IP Header Format
Internet Protocol (IP)
• IP provides connectionless, non-guaranteed delivery of
Transport layer packets (also called transport protocol data
units (TPDUs) across an internetwork.
• Each TPDU or fragment is fitted with an IP header and
transmitted as a frame by lower-layer protocols.
ICMP Redirect Messages
ICMP Redirect Messages (contd.)
• Redirect: This message is sent by an intermediate router to the

source to inform it of a more optimal route to the destination.
• If you have not configured link-state routing on an IP host,
routes might be automatically added to your routing table by
ICMP.
ICMP Router Discovery
ICMP Router Discovery (contd.)
• Router discovery is not a routing protocol. It allows your host
to discover neighboring routers, but it does not provide
information about the best router to use to reach a destination.
• If a host chooses the incorrect router to reach a destination, it
receives an ICMP redirect from that router identifying a better
one.
ARP and RARP
ARP and RARP (contd.)
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is the most widely used

method of address resolution. The TCP/IP protocol suite uses
ARP to map 4-byte
• software-based IP addresses to 6-byte hardware-based Data
Link addresses.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is an extension
of ARP. It is used to retrieve the IP address associated with a
hardware address.
• This protocol is especially important for determining network
addresses of diskless workstations.
ARP Operation
ARP Operation (contd.)
• Each system maintains a table that maps IP addresses to
hardware addresses. The ARP protocol creates entries in this
table as they are needed.
• If the ARP table does not contain the hardware address for
your destination, a broadcast goes out to every host
requesting the network address for that hardware.
ARP Operation (contd.)
• If the destination host is up and supports the ARP protocol, it

will hear the broadcast and its network address. This address
is added to the ARP table.
• To obtain the physical address of the destination, the host
broadcasts an ARP packet and waits for the destination to
respond.
TCP Header Format
TCP Header Format (contd.)
• TCP is the primary TCP/IP transport protocol. It accepts

messages of any length from an upper-layer protocol (ULP)
and provides full-duplex, acknowledged, connection-oriented,
flow-controlled transport to a TCP peer in a remote network
station.
• TCP transports data in a continuous, unstructured byte
stream. Each segment is identified by a sequence number.
• To save time and make optimal use of transmission bandwidth,
TCP supports numerous, simultaneous ULP conversations.
UDP Header Format
UDP Header Format (contd.)
• UDP, like TCP, provides transport services. Unlike TCP, UDP is

not connection oriented and does not acknowledge data
receipt. UDP simply accepts and transports datagrams from a
ULP.
File Transfer Protocol
File Transfer Protocol (contd.)
• FTP also provides a variety of login, directory inspection, file

manipulation, command execution, and other session control
functions.
• These functions execute properly regardless of the host

operating system and hardware platform.
• FTP uses virtual circuits to establish a reliable path between

hosts. File transfers require an account and password as
verification, or they can be configured for anonymous access .
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (contd.)
• SMTP specifies a standard for exchanging mail between

workstations. This electronic mail routing application relies
primarily on TCP to route mail messages between network
hosts.
• SMTP does not provide the local mail user interface; it simply
specifies how the message is passed from one host to
another.
SNMP Architecture
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• SNMP enables you to monitor a network from a single
workstation called an SNMP manager.
• An SNMP manager can inspect or alter the objects contained
within the agent’s MIB. For example, from the SNMP manager
you could examine the ARP table for another host and delete
or change an incorrect entry.
Mapping the IPX/SPX Protocol Suite

to the OSI Reference Model
• The IPX/SPX protocols are modular and layered, and do not fit
neatly into the seven layers of the OSI model.
IPX Addresses
IPX Addresses (contd.)
• The primary purpose of IPX is to get packets through the entire

internetwork. As workstations transmit data across the
internetwork, IPX appends a header to the beginning of the
data.
• SPX offers connection-oriented guaranteed delivery of

packets. Hence, SPX requires overhead in buffer space and
packets/second requirements.
IPX Addresses (contd.)
• IPX : Internetworking Packet Exchange
• SPX: Sequenced Packet Exchange
• Proper network addressing is one of the critical factors for
successful routing in an internetwork. The preceding figure
illustrates the routing of an IPX packet.
Internal IPX Address Operation
Internal Network Address
• The internal network address is an 8-digit (4-byte) hexadecimal
number that enables the server to perform internal routing of
services to the upper-layer protocols. You assign an IPX
internal network number when you name the server.
IPX Packet Format
• IPX is a connectionless Network layer protocol that performs

addressing and internetwork routing functions.
IPX Services Table
IPX Services Table (contd.)
Exercise
• Hands-on on TCP/IP Protocol Suite and Utilities
Design & Published by:

CMS Institute, Design & Development Centre, CMS House, Plot No. 91, Street No.7,
MIDC, Marol, Andheri (E), Mumbai –400093, Tel: 91-22-28216511, 28329198
Email: courseware.inst@cmail.cms.co.in
www.cmsinstitute.co.in

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Revision no.

TCPIP Protocol Suite & Utilities

Comparing the TCP/IP protocol Suite,

Comparing the TCP/IP protocol Suite, the OSI Model,

• The TCP/IP protocol suite specifies functions above the

IP and the Internet Protocol Suite

IP Internetwork with Autonomous Systems

IP Internetwork with Autonomous Systems (contd.)

• An IP internetwork can be divided into logical groups referred

to as autonomous systems. An autonomous system is a group

of networks administered as a whole system by a single

• Autonomous systems are interconnected using an exterior

gateway protocol, such as Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP).

Distance Vector Routing with RIP

Distance Vector Routing with RIP (contd.)

• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is the TCP/IP suite’s

distance vector routing protocol.

• Routers A, B, and C connect LANs 1, 2,and 3. Router B

broadcasts over LAN 2 that it is one hop from LAN 1. Router C,

hearing this, then broadcasts to LAN 3 that it is two hops from

Distance Vector Routing with RIP (contd.)

• Hosts on LAN 3 also hear router A advertise that it is one hop

A because it advertises the route with a lower metric.

• The cost associated with each route is a metric between 1 and

16. The metric usually represents a hop count. A route with a

cost of 16 is considered to be unreachable.

Router Convergence and the Count-to-Infinity Problem

Router Convergence and the Count-to-Infinity Problem

• A major problem with the RIP protocol is the amount of time it

takes for all routers to synchronize their databases when a

change occurs to the network (this process of synchronization

Split Horizon (contd.)

• Split horizon decreases the amount of RIP traffic on the

Poison Reverse (contd.)

• When poison reverse is enabled, all routes learned from a

network are advertised back to the same network with a cost of

• Enabling poison reverse reduces the time taken by

convergence, but increases the amount of RIP traffic on the

OSPF Routing (contd.)

• Link state routers build their route tables from packets

OSPF Hello Packet

OSPF Hello Packet (contd.)

• The OSPF Hello protocol is responsible for establishing and

maintaining neighbor relationships, or adjacencies, between

routers connected to the same segment.

OSPF Database Synchronization

OSPF Database Synchronization (contd.)

a. Each router exchanges database description packets (DDPs)

b. Upon receiving these packets, each OSPF router compares the

c. If a database description packet has new or more up-to-date

OSPF Database Synchronization (contd.)

information using an LSU (link state update) packet.

• After an LSU packet is received by the requesting router, the

requesting router sends an LSA (link state acknowledgment

packet) to acknowledge receipt of the new information.

OSPF Autonomous System

OSPF Autonomous System (contd.)

• Autonomous System. An autonomous system (AS) is a group

of routers that exchange routing information using a common

routing protocol in a single administrative unit.

OSPF Areas (contd.)

• The previous figure shows the EMA corporate network divided

Packet Routing (contd.)