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Ths Mac layer abo oppo mary au xilitey geome leases cuth 05 CL’ sypat 6 hong - — d collin avordank Comey Sonse tarde mulipk alts an csma) c#) & fe mac layer mechanism ued by LEEE 802-1 CLANS CArrity Some (ids mulephk aco» and Colton deleckon Ccsma) (6) & &@ well cfadeed Recharge LEEE Cork wired LAWS: he medscmn Actes tuchanism: Tg te medivm s coued Ws fe (dle Gs a. oluvation 08 DIPL, fe hoda acces, tee Mmedivry be teavurision DE the mediom % buy, te vode back 066 pu cubich fe Stanton dep Channel acces by a wudem amount & chaser cadbin a Contendrn tpadero( Co) Te Value OF cor Com \viry belinecr Coomty aud Comex oon feck — tein CCU Irefod oaks, vsed by Shaw A b toad cub medion Bu ck vole , ob6- ck Be ie Ba med ovate (mene? te feel DIPS ini rarerrnsl Ly py Lp TOR pester TFS odes : Oa Caras i Li [aw Ca) Nav Wetuibe Aliota yon veel) ved oa cprelOs Ho? 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MAC by lol C3 Csee fa : onan i & bw eouulling ty The aumescon ab dA : ee ae and The Hr peRLan]! Py cobach charuel ie ee &y fia PAC prntolos foltocas a hypamk QCa% a is divaion daplesieg (ro / TOR) : fire aheajm rn fs ; Solame wit Cenba cenpeg Mr Gp aco} be bed ConPal yBLUETOOTH . WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure-based services through a wireless carrier provider. The first attempt to define a standard for PANs dates back to Ericsson's Bluetooth project in 1994 to enable communication between mobile phones using low power and low-cost radio interfaces. In May 1998, several companies such as Intel, IBM, Nokia, and Toshiba joined Ericsson to form the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a de facto standard for PANs. Recently, IEEE has approved a Bluetooth-based standard (IEEE 802.15.1) for wireless personal area networks (WPANs). Une can have an interactive conference by establishing an ad hoc network of laptops. Cordless computer, instant postcard [sending digital photographs instantly (a camera is cordlessly connected to a mobile phone)], and three-in-one phone [the same phone functions as an intercom (at the office, no telephone charge), cordless phone (at home, a fixed-line charge), and mobile phone (on the move, a cellular charge)] are other inaicative usage models. 1.5.1 Bluetooth Specifications The Bluetooth specification consists of two parts: core and profiles. The core provides a common data link and physical layer to application protocols, and maximizes reusability of existing higher layer protocols. The profiles specifications classify Bluetooth applications into thirteen types. The protocol stack of Bluetooth performs the functions of locating devices, connecting other devices, and exchanging data. It is logically partitioned into three layers, namely, the transport protocol group, the middleware protocol group, and the application group. The transport protocol group consists of the radio layer, baseband layer, link manager layer, logical link control and adaptation layer, and the host controller interface. The middleware protocol group comprises of RFCOMM, SDP, and IrDA (IrOBEX and IrMc). Figure1.7 shows the protocol stack of Bluetooth. Host Controtter Interface1.5.2 Transport Protocol Group This group is composed of the protocols designed to allow Bluetooth devices to locate each other and to create, configure, and manage the wireless Tinks, Design of various protocols and techniques used in Bluetooth communications has been done with the target of low power consumption and ease of operation. Raslo (Physical) Layer radio patt of the specification deals with the characteristics of the transceivers and design specifications such as frequency accuracy, channel interference, and modulation Characteristics. It supports 64 Kbps voice channels and asynchronous data channels with @ peak rate of 1 Mbps. The data channels are either asymmetric (in one direction) or symmetric (in both directions). The Bluetooth transceiver is a FHSS system operating ove™ act of m channels each of width 1 MHz. In most of the countries, the value of m is 79. Frequency hopping is used and hopsare made at a rapid rate across the possible 79 hops in the band, starting at 2.4GHz and stopping at 2.480 Gllz. Baseband Layer “The key functions of this layer are frequency hop selection, connection creation, and medium access control. Bluetooth communication takes place by adhoc creation of a network ealled a piconet, Every device is assigned a single 48-bit address which is similar to the addresses of IEEE 802.xx LAN devices, The address fleld is partitioned into three parts and the lower address part (LAP) is used in several baseband operations such as piconet identification, error checking, and security checks, Piconet ‘The initiator for the formation of the network assumes the role of the master (of the piconet). All the other members are termed as slaves of the piconet. Apiconet can have up to seven active slaves at any instant. Figure 1.8, A typical piconet.Operational States Figure 1.9 shows the state diagram of Bluetooth communications. Initially, all the devices would be in the standby mode. Then some device (called the master)could begin the inquiry and get to know the nearby devices and, if needed, join them into its piconet. After the inquiry, the device could formally be joined by paging, which is a packet-exchange process between the master and a prospective slave to inform the slave of the master's clock. If the device was already inquired, the master could get into the page state bypassing the inquiry state. Once the device finishes getting paged, it enters the connected state. This state has three power-conserving sub-states - hold, sniff, and park (described later in this section). A device in the connected state can participate in the data transmission. Figure 1.9. Operational states. Frequency Hopping Sequences A Frequency Selection Module (FSM) is present in each device to select the next frequency to be used under various circumstances. In the connected state, the clock and the address of the device (master) completely determine the hopping sequence. Different com! of inputs (clock, address) are used depending on the operational state. During the inquiry operation, the address input to FSM is a common inquiry address. Communication Channel ‘The channel is divided into time slots, each 625 ps in length, The time slots are numbered according to the Bluetooth clock of the piconet master. The master starts its transmission in even-numbered time slots only, and the slave starts its transmission in odd-numbered time slots only. A Bluetooth device would determine slot parity by looking at the least significant bit (LSB) in the bit representation of its clock. If LSB is set to 1, it is the possibletransmission slot for the slave. A slave in normal circumstances is allowed to transmit only ifin the preceding slot it has received a packet from the master. Figure 1.10. Transmission of packets over a channel. Packet-Based Communféation o Bluetooth uses packet-based communication where the data to be transmitted is fragmented into packets, Only a single packet can be transmitted in cach slot. A typical packet used in these communications has three components: access code, header, and payload. The main component of the access code is the address of the piconet master. The packet header contains many fields such as a three-bit active slave address, a one-bit 'ACK/NACK for ARQ scheme a four-bit packet type to distinguish payload types, and an eight-bit header error check code to detect errors in the header. Depending on the payload size, one, three, or five slots may be used for the packet transmission. Inquiry State ‘A device which is initially in the standby state enters the inquiry state. As its name suggests, the sole purpuse of this state fs to collect information about other Bluctooth devices in its vicinity. his information includes the Bluetooth address and the clock value, as these form the crux of the communication between the devices. This state is classified into three substates: inquiry, inquiry scan, and inquiry response. When an inquiry message is received in the inquiry scan state, a response packet called the Frequency Hopping Sequence (FHS) containing the responding device address must be sent. Devices respond after a random jitter to reduce the chances of collisions. Page StateA device enters this state to invite other devices to join its piconet. A device could invite only the devices known to itself. So normally the inquiry operation would precede this state. This state also is classified into three sub-states: page, page scan, and page response. In the page mode, the master estimates the slave's clock based on the information received during the inquiry state, to determine where in the hop sequence the slave might be listening in the page scan mode. Scatternets and Issues Piconets may overlap both spatially and temporally, that is, many piconets could operate in the same area at the same time. Each piconet is characterized by a unique master and hence the piconets hop independently, each with its own channel hopping sequence as determined by the respective master. In this scenario, a device can participate in two or more overlaying piconets by the process of time sharing, A Bluetooth unit can act as a stave in several piconets, but as a master in only a single piconet. A group of piconets in which connections exist between different piconets is called a scatternet (Figure 1.11). Figure 1.11. A typical scatternet. Pigonest Piconet 2 When a device changes its role and takes part in different piconets, it is bound to lead to a situation in which some slots remain unused (for synchronization). An interesting proposition at this juncture would be to unite the timings of the whole of the scatternet. But this may lead to an increase in the probability of packets colliding, Another important issue is the timing that a device would be missing by participating in more than one piconet. A master that is missing from a piconet may miss polling slaves and must ensure that it does not miss beacons from its slaves. Similarly, a slave that is missing from a piconet could appear to its master to have gone out of range or to be connected through a poor-quality link.Link Manager Protocol J Link manager protocol (LMP) is responsible for setting and maintaining the properties of the Bluetooth link. Currently, the major functionality of this layer is power management and security management. Normally, a paging device is the default master of the piconet, but, depending on the usage scenario, the roles of the master and a slave could be switched and this is coordinated by exchange of LMP packets, Power Management ‘The Bluetooth units can be in several modes of operation during the connection state, namely, active mode, sniff mode, hold mode, and park mode. These modes are now described. + Active mode: In this mode, the Bluetooth unit actively participates in the piconet, Varlous optimizations are provided to save power. + Sniff mode: This is a low-power made in which the listening activity of the slave is reduced. + Hold mode: In this mode, capacity is made available for performing other functions such as scanning, paging, inquiring, or attending another piconet. + Park mode: This is a very low-power mode. The slave gives up its active member address and is given an eight-bit parked member address. Any messages to be sent to a parked member are sent over the broadcast channel characterized by an active member address of all zeros. Bluetooth Security Tn Bluetooth communications, devices may be authenticated and links may be encrypted. ‘The authentication of devices is carried out by means of a challenge response mechanism which is based on a commonly shared secret link key generated through a user-provided personal identification number (PIN). Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) 2CAP supports protocol multiplexing to give the abstraction to each of the several applications running in the higher layers as if it alone is being run, Since the data packets defined by the baseband protocol are limited in size, L2CAP also segments large packets from higher layers such as RFCOMM or SDP into multiple smaller packets prior to their transmission over the channel. This protocol provides QoS on certain parameters such as peak bandwidth, latency, and delay variation when the link is established between two Bluetooth units.@ Host Controller Interface This is the optional interface layer, provided between the higher (above LMP) and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack, for accessing the Bluetooth hardware capabilities. Whenever the higher layers are implemented on the motherboard of a host device, this. layer is needed. Command packets that are used by the host to control the device, event packets that are used by the device to inform the host of the changes, and data packets come under this category. 2.5.3 Middleware Protocol Group The basic functionality of the middleware protocol group is to present to the application layers a standard interface that may be used for communicating across the transport layer, that is, the applications need not know the transport layer's complexities, they can just use the application programming interfaces(APIs) or higher level functions provided by the middleware protocols. ‘This group consists of the RFCOMM layer, service discovery protocol (SDP), IrDA interoperability protocols, telephony control specification (TCS), and audio. The RFCOMM layer presents a virtual serial port to applications using the serial interface. RFCUMM uses an LZCAP connection to establish a link between two devices. In the cuse of Bluetuoth devices, there is nu device which will be static and hence services offered by the other devices have to be discovered. The main protocols in the IrDA set are IrOBEX (IrDA object exchange) for exchanging objects between two devices and IrMC (infrared mobile communications) for synchronization. Audio is the distinguishing part of Bluetooth. Audio is given the highest priority and is directly carried over the baseband at 64 Kbps so that a very good quality of voice is provided. Telephony control is implemented using the telephony control specification -binary (TCS-BIN) protocol. TCS defines three major functional areas: call control, group management, and connectionless TCS. Call control is used to setup calls which can be subsequently used to carry voice and data traffic. Group management enables multiple telephone extensions, call forwarding, and group calls,1.5.4 Bluetooth Profiles These profiles have been developed to promote interoperability among the many implementations of the Bluetooth protocol stack. Each Bluetooth profile specification has been defined to provide a clear and transparent standard that can be used to implement a specific user end function. Two Bluetooth devices can achieve a common functionality only if both devices support identical profiles. In all, 13 profiles have been listed and these can be broadly classified into the following four categories: 1. Generic profiles: The Generic access profile, which is not really an application, Provides a way to establish and maintain secure links between the master and the slaves. 2, Telephony profiles: The cordless telephony profile is designed for three in-one phones. The Intercom profile supports two-way voice communication between two Bluetooth devices within range of each ather. 3. Networking profiles: The LAN Access profile cnables Bluetooth devices to either connect to a LAN through APs or form a small wireless LAN among themselves. The dial-up networking profile is designed to provide dial-up connections via Bluetooth-enabled mobile phones. 4. Serial and object exchange profiles: The serial port profile emulates a serial line (RS232 and USB serial ports) for (Iegary) applications that require a serial line. The other profiles, generic object exchange, object push, file transfer, and synchronization, are for exchanging objects between two wireless devices. 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