United Nations peacekeeping

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United Nations Peacekeeping

Founded 1945; 77 years ago

Website peacekeeping.un.org

Leadership

Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Jean-Pierre Lacroix

Operations

Personnel

Active personnel 81,820 total[1]

Expenditures

Budget $6.7 billion

Related articles

History United Nations peacekeeping

missions

United Nations System

 Principal Organs

United Nations Secretariat

United Nations Security Council

United Nations General Assembly

International Court of Justice

United Nations Economic and Social Council

United Nations Trusteeship Council

Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role held by the Department of Peace

Operations as an "instrument developed by the organization as a way to help countries
torn by conflict to create the conditions for lasting peace". [2] It is distinguished
from peacebuilding, peacemaking, and peace enforcement although the United
Nations does acknowledge that all activities are "mutually reinforcing" and that overlap
between them is frequent in practice. [3]
Peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist
ex-combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed. Such
assistance comes in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-
sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic
and social development. Accordingly, UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue
Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets) can include
soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.
The United Nations Charter gives the United Nations Security Council the power and
responsibility to take collective action to maintain international peace and security. For
this reason, the international community usually looks to the Security Council to
authorize peacekeeping operations through Chapter VII authorizations.[4]
Most of these operations are established and implemented by the United Nations itself,
with troops serving under UN operational control. In these cases, peacekeepers remain
members of their respective armed forces, and do not constitute an independent "UN
army", as the UN does not have such a force. In cases where direct UN involvement is
not considered appropriate or feasible, the Council authorizes regional organizations
such as NATO,[4] the Economic Community of West African States, or coalitions of
willing countries to undertake peacekeeping or peace-enforcement tasks.
Jean-Pierre Lacroix is the Head of the Department of Peace Operations; he took over
from the former Under-Secretary-General Hervé Ladsous on 1 April 2017. Since 1997,
all leaders have been French. DPKO's highest level doctrine document, entitled "United
Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines" was issued in 2008. [5]

Contents

 1Formation
o 1.1Financing
o 1.2Structure
 2Statistics
 3History
o 3.1Cold War peacekeeping
o 3.2Since 1991
 4Participation
o 4.1United States
 5Results
 6Peacekeeping and cultural heritage
 7Crimes by peacekeepers
o 7.1Peacekeeping, human trafficking, and forced
prostitution
o 7.2Human rights violations in United Nations missions
 8Proposed reform
o 8.1Brahimi analysis
o 8.2Rapid reaction force
o 8.3Restructuring of the UN secretariat
 9Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping
 10See also
 11References
 12Further reading
 13External links

Formation[edit]
Bangladesh Emergency Crash and Rescue Section of MONUSCO Force, in Bunia, Ituri.

Guard of Honor during UN Medal Awarding Parade at Bunia, Orientale, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo by Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force

A multinational UN battalion at the 2008 Bastille Day military parade

Once a peace treaty has been negotiated, the parties involved might ask the United
Nations for a peacekeeping force to oversee various elements of the agreed upon plan.
This is often done because a group controlled by the United Nations is less likely to
follow the interests of any one party, since it itself is controlled by many groups, namely
the 15-member Security Council and the intentionally diverse United Nations
Secretariat.
If the Security Council approves the creation of a mission, then the Department of
Peacekeeping Operations begins planning for the necessary elements. At this point, the
senior leadership team is selected.[6] The department will then seek contributions from
member nations. Since the UN has no standing force or supplies, it must form ad hoc
coalitions for every task undertaken. Doing so results in both the possibility of failure to
form a suitable force, and a general slowdown in procurement once the operation is in
the field. Roméo Dallaire, force commander in Rwanda during the Rwandan
genocide there, described the problems this poses by comparison to more traditional
military deployments:
He told me the UN was a "pull" system, not a "push" system like I had been used to with
NATO, because the UN had absolutely no pool of resources to draw on. You had to
make a request for everything you needed, and then you had to wait while that request
was analyzed... For instance, soldiers everywhere have to eat and drink. In a push
system, food and water for the number of soldiers deployed is automatically supplied. In
a pull system, you have to ask for those rations, and no common sense seems to ever
apply.

— (Shake Hands With the Devil, Dallaire, pp. 99–100)

It has been shown that contributors deploy their troops with varying speed. [7] While the
peacekeeping force is being assembled, a variety of diplomatic activities are being
undertaken by UN staff. The exact size and strength of the force must be agreed to by
the government of the nation whose territory the conflict is on. The Rules of
Engagement must be developed and approved by both the parties involved and the
Security Council. These give the specific mandate and scope of the mission (e.g. when
may the peacekeepers, if armed, use force, and where may they go within the host
nation). Often, it will be mandated that peacekeepers have host government minders
with them whenever they leave their base. This complexity has caused problems in the
field. When all agreements are in place, the required personnel are assembled, and
final approval has been given by the Security Council, the peacekeepers are deployed
to the region in question.
Financing[edit]

Australian peacekeepers in East Timor

The financial resources of UN Peacekeeping operations are the collective

responsibility of UN Member States. Decisions about the establishment, maintenance or
expansion of peacekeeping operations are taken by the Security Council. According to
UN Charter every Member State is legally obligated to pay their respective share for
peacekeeping. Peacekeeping expenses are divided by the General Assembly based
upon a formula established by Member States which takes into account the relative
economic wealth of Member States among other things. [8] In 2017, the UN agreed to
reduce the peacekeeping budget by $600 million after the US initially proposed a larger
cut of approximately $900 million.[9]
 Funding sources by
Year Description Total
country/source

2015–
$8.3bn[10]
2016

 US 28.57%
Less than 0.5% of world military expenditures (estimated at
 China 10.29% $1,747 billion in 2013). The resources financed 14 of the 16
United Nations peacekeeping missions with the two
 Japan 9.68%
remaining ones getting financed through the UN regular
 Germany 6.39% budget.
2016–  France 6.31% $7.87bn[8]
2017  United Many countries have also voluntarily made additional
Kingdom 5.80% resources available to support UN Peacekeeping efforts such
as by transportation, supplies, personnel and financial
 Russia 4.01%
contributions beyond their assessed share of peacekeeping
 Italy 3.75% costs.[8]
 Canada 2.92%
 Spain 2.44%

While many have praised the Ivory Coast UN peacekeeping

2017–
mission's stabilizing effects on the country, the mission was $7.3bn[9]
2018
ended on 30 June 2017.[11]

The General Assembly approves resource expenditures for peacekeeping operations

on a yearly basis. Financing covers the period from 1 July to 30 June of the following
year.

Operation-Level Budgets (US$)[12][13]

Acronym Operation 2017–2018 2018–2019

UNMISS Mission in South Sudan $1,071,000,000 $1,124,960,400

MONUSCO Stabilization Mission in the Congo $1,141,848,100 $1,114,619,500

MINUSMA Stabilization Mission in Mali $1,048,000,000 $1,074,718,900

MINUSCA Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic $882,800,000 $930,211,900

 Operation-Level Budgets (US$)[12][13]

Acronym Operation 2017–2018 2018–2019

UNSOS Support Office in Somalia $582,000,000 $558,152,300

UNIFIL Interim Force in Lebanon $483,000,000 $474,406,700

UNAMID Mission in Darfur $486,000,000 $385,678,500

UNISFA Interim Security Force for Abyei $266,700,000 $263,858,100

UNMIL Mission in Liberia $110,000,000 -

MINUJUSTH Mission for Justice Support in Haiti $90,000,000 $121,455,900

UNDOF Disengagement Observer Force $57,653,700 $60,295,100

UNFICYP Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus $54,000,000 $52,938,900

MINURSO Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara $52,000,000 $52,350,800

UNMIK Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo $37,898,200 $37,192,700

Year Total $6,362,900,000 $6,250,839,700

Structure[edit]
See also: United Nations Department of Peace Operations, United Nations Military
Observer, and United Nations Police
A United Nations peacekeeping mission has three power centers. The first is the
Special Representative of the Secretary-General, the official leader of the mission. This
person is responsible for all political and diplomatic activity, overseeing relations with
both the parties to the peace treaty and the UN member-states in general. They are
often a senior member of the Secretariat. The second is the Force Commander, who is
responsible for the military forces deployed. They are a senior officer of their nation's
armed services, and are often from the nation committing the highest number of troops
to the project. Finally, the Chief Administrative Officer oversees supplies and logistics,
and coordinates the procurement of any supplies needed. [citation needed]

Statistics[edit]

Total size of United Nations peacekeeping forces, 1947 to 2014 [14]

In 2007, a peacekeeper volunteer was required to be over the age of 25 with no

maximum age limit.[15] Peacekeeping forces are contributed by member states on a
voluntary basis. As of 30 June 2019, there are 100,411 people serving in UN
peacekeeping operations (86,145 uniformed, 12,932 civilian, and 1,334 volunteers).
[16]
 European nations contribute nearly 6,000 people to this total. Pakistan, India, and
Bangladesh are among the largest individual contributors with around 8,000 people
each. African nations contributed nearly half the total, almost 44,000 people. [17] Every
peacekeeping mission is authorized by the Security Council. [citation needed]

History[edit]
Main article: History of United Nations peacekeeping
Cold War peacekeeping[edit]
Peacekeepers' Panhard armoured car in the Musée des Blindés, Saumur, France. These vehicles have served
with the UN since the inception of UNFICYP.

A Pakistani UNOSOM armed convoy making the rounds in Mogadishu.

United Nations peacekeeping was initially developed during the Cold War as a means
of resolving conflicts between states by deploying unarmed or lightly armed military
personnel from a number of countries, under UN command, to areas where warring
parties were in need of a neutral party to observe the peace process. Peacekeepers
could be called in when the major international powers (the five permanent members of
the Security Council) tasked the UN with bringing closure to conflicts threatening
regional stability and international peace and security. These included a number of so-
called "proxy wars" waged by client states of the superpowers. As of December 2019,
there have been 72 UN peacekeeping operations since 1948, with seventeen
operations ongoing. Suggestions for new missions arise every year.
The first peacekeeping mission was launched in 1948. This mission, the United Nations
Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was sent to the newly created State of Israel,
where a conflict between the Israelis and the Arab states over the creation of Israel had
just reached a ceasefire. The UNTSO remains in operation to this day, although
the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has certainly not abated. Almost a year later, the United
Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was authorized to
monitor relations between the two nations, which were split off from each other following
the United Kingdom's decolonization of the Indian subcontinent.
As the Korean War ended with the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953,[18] UN forces
remained along the south side of demilitarized zone until 1967, when American and
South Korean forces took over.[citation needed]
Returning its attention to the conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors, the United
Nations responded to Suez Crisis of 1956, a war between the alliance of the United
Kingdom, France, and Israel, and Egypt, which was supported by other Arab nations.
When a ceasefire was declared in 1957, Canadian Secretary of State for External
Affairs[19] (and future Prime Minister) Lester Bowles Pearson suggested that the United
Nations station a peacekeeping force in the Suez in order to ensure that the ceasefire
was honored by both sides. Pearson had initially suggested that the force consist of
mainly Canadian soldiers, but the Egyptians were suspicious of having
a Commonwealth nation defend them against the United Kingdom and her allies. In the
end, a wide variety of national forces were drawn upon to ensure national diversity.
Pearson would win the Nobel Peace Prize for this work, and he is today considered a
father of modern peacekeeping.[citation needed]
In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations peacekeeping
forces. The press release stated that the forces "represent the manifest will of the
community of nations" and have "made a decisive contribution" to the resolution of
conflict around the world.
Since 1991[edit]

Bangladesh forces under MINUSMA Mali.

Norwegian Peacekeeper during the Siege of Sarajevo, 1992–1993.

Indian Army patrol under UN mission in Congo, Africa

Indian Army doctors attend to a child in Congo

The end of the Cold War precipitated a dramatic shift in UN and multilateral
peacekeeping. In a new spirit of cooperation, the Security Council established larger
and more complex UN peacekeeping missions, often to help implement comprehensive
peace agreements between belligerents in intra-State conflicts and civil wars.
Furthermore, peacekeeping came to involve more and more non-military elements that
ensured the proper functioning of civic functions, such as elections. The UN Department
of Peacekeeping Operations was created in 1992 to support this increased demand for
such missions.
By and large, the new operations were successful. In El Salvador and Mozambique, for
example, peacekeeping provided ways to achieve self-sustaining peace. Some efforts
failed, perhaps as the result of an overly optimistic assessment of what UN
peacekeeping could accomplish. While complex missions in Cambodia and
Mozambique were ongoing, the Security Council dispatched peacekeepers to conflict
zones like Somalia, where neither ceasefires nor the consent of all the parties in conflict
had been secured. These operations did not have the manpower, nor were they
supported by the required political will, to implement their mandates. The failures—most
notably the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1995 massacre in Srebrenica and Bosnia
and Herzegovina—led to a period of retrenchment and self-examination in UN
peacekeeping. As a result, relatively small UNTAES transitional administration
in Eastern Slavonia received high level of commitments and was turned into "proving
ground for ideas, methods, and procedures".[20] It turned out to be labeled as the most
successful UN mission, and was followed by other more ambitious transitional
administrations in Kosovo (UNMIK) and East Timor (UNTAET).
That period led, in part, to the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, which works
to implement stable peace through some of the same civic functions that peacekeepers
also work on, such as elections. The commission currently works with six countries, all
in Africa.[21]

Participation[edit]
Alpine Helicopters contract Bell 212 on UN peacekeeping duty in Guatemala, 1998.

San Martin Camp in Cyprus. The Argentine contingent includes troops from other Latin American countries.

Indian Army T-72 tanks with UN markings as part of Operation CONTINUE HOPE.

The UN Charter stipulates that to assist in maintaining peace and security around the
world, all member states of the UN should make available to the Security Council
necessary armed forces and facilities. Since 1948, close to 130 nations have
contributed military and civilian police personnel to peace operations. While detailed
records of all personnel who have served in peacekeeping missions since 1948 are not
available, it is estimated that up to one million soldiers, police officers and civilians have
served under the UN flag in the last 56 years. As of June 2013, 114 countries were
contributing a total 91,216 military observers, police, and troops to United Nations
Peacekeeping Operations.
As of June 2022, 120 countries were contributing a total of 74,892 personnel in
Peacekeeping Operations, with Bangladesh leading the tally (6,700), followed
by India (5,832) and Nepal (5,794). [22] As of 28 February 2015, 120 countries were
contributing a total of 104,928 personnel in Peacekeeping Operations, with Bangladesh
leading the tally (9,446).[23] As of March 2008, in addition to military and police personnel,
5,187 international civilian personnel, 2,031 UN Volunteers and 12,036 local civilian
personnel worked in UN peacekeeping missions.[24]
A Polish peacekeeper in Syria

Through October 2018, 3,767 people from over 100 countries had been killed while
serving on peacekeeping missions.[25] Many of those came from India
(163), Nigeria (153), Pakistan (150), Bangladesh (146), and Ghana (138).[26] Thirty
percent of the fatalities in the first 55 years of UN peacekeeping occurred in the years
1993–1995. About 4.5% of the troops and civilian police deployed in UN peacekeeping
missions come from the European Union and less than one percent from the United
States (USA).[27]
The rate of reimbursement by the UN for troop-contributing countries per peacekeeper
per month include: $1,028 for pay and allowances; $303 supplementary pay for
specialists; $68 for personal clothing, gear and equipment; and $5 for personal
weaponry.[28]
United States[edit]
In the United States, the Bill Clinton and George W. Bush administrations started from
opposite perspectives but came to adopt remarkably similar policies in support of peace
operations as tools for American foreign policy. Initial positions formed by ideological
concerns, were replaced by pragmatic decisions about how to support UN peace
operations. Both administrations were reluctant to contribute large contingents of
ground troops to UN-commanded operations, even as both administrations supported
increases in the number and scale of UN missions. [29]
The Clinton administration faced significant operational challenges. Instead of a liability,
this was the tactical price of strategic success. American peace operations help
transform its NATO alliance. The George W. Bush administration started with a negative
ideological attitude toward peace operations. However European and Latin American
governments emphasized peace operations as strategically positive, especially
regarding the use of European forces in Afghanistan and Lebanon. However American
allies sometimes needed to flout their autonomy, even to the point of sacrificing
operational efficiency, much to the annoyance of Washington. [30]

Results[edit]
According to scholar Page Fortna, there is strong evidence that the presence of
peacekeepers significantly reduces the risk of renewed warfare; more peacekeeping
troops leads to fewer battlefield and civilian deaths. [31] There is also evidence that the
promise to deploy peacekeepers can help international organizations in bringing
combatants to the negotiation table and increase the likelihood that they will agree to a
cease-fire.[32]
However, there have been several reports during UN peacekeeping missions of human
rights abuse by UN soldiers, notably in Central African Republic in 2015. The cost of
these missions is also significant, with UNMISS in South Sudan costing $1 billion per
year for 12,500 UN soldiers unable to prevent the country's movement towards civil war.
Often missions require approval from local governments before deploying troops which
can also limit effectiveness of UN missions.[33]
Nicholas Sambanis asserts that the presence of a UN peacekeeping mission is
correlated with a positive effect on the achievement of peace, especially in the short-
term. However, he notes that this effect is lessened over time. Thus, the longer that
peacekeepers remain in a country, the greater the likelihood that peace will maintain.
Acknowledging the success that UN peacekeeping operations have achieved in
increasing political participation, Sambanis claims that a greater focus on economic
development would further increase the efficacy of peacekeeping efforts. [34]
Another study suggests that doubling the peacekeeping operation budget, stronger
peacekeeping operation mandates and a doubling of the PKO budget would reduce
armed conflicts by up to two thirds relative to a scenario without PKOs. [35] An analysis of
47 peace operations by Virginia Page Fortna of Columbia University found that the
involvement of UN personnel generally resulted in enduring peace. [36] Political scientists
Hanne Fjelde, Lisa Hultman and Desiree Nilsson of Uppsala University studied twenty
years of data on peacekeeping missions, including in Lebanon, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, and the Central African Republic, and concluded that they were
more effective at reducing civilian casualties than counterterrorism operations by nation
states.[37]
A 2021 study in the American Political Science Review found that the presence of UN
peacekeeping missions had a weak correlation with rule of law while conflict is ongoing,
but a robust correlation during periods of peace. The study also found that "the
relationship is stronger for civilian than uniformed personnel, and is strongest when UN
missions engage host states in the process of reform." [38] Likewise, Georgetown
University professor Lise Howard argues that UN peacekeeping operations are more
effective by virtue of their lack of compelling force; rather, their use of nonviolent
methods such as "verbal persuasion, financial inducements and coercion short of
offensive military force, including surveillance and arrest" are likelier to pacify warring
parties.[39]
A 2021 study in the American Journal of Political Science found that UN peacekeeping
in South Sudan had a positive effect on the local economy. [40]
According to a 2011 study, UN peacekeeping missions were most likely to be
successful if they had support and consent from domestic actors in the host state. [41]

Peacekeeping and cultural heritage[edit]

The UN Peacekeeping's commitment to protecting cultural heritage dates back to 2012,
when there was extensive destruction in Mali. In this matter, the protection of a country's
cultural heritage was included in the mandate of a United Nations mission (Resolution
2100) for the first time in history. In addition to many other advances, Italy signed an
agreement with UNESCO in February 2016 to create the world's first emergency task
force for culture, made up of civilian experts and the Italian Carabinieri. On the one
hand, UN Peacekeeping trained its personnel with regard to the protection of cultural
property and, on the other hand, there was intensive contact with other organizations
concerned with it. The "Blue Helmet Forum 2019" was one of those events where the
actors involved exchanged their previous experiences and tried to strengthen the
cooperation. An outstanding mission was the deployment of the UN peace
mission UNIFIL together with Blue Shield International in 2019 to protect the UNESCO
World Heritage in Lebanon. It was shown that cultural property protection (carried out by
military and civil specialists) forms the basic basis for the future peaceful and economic
development of a city, region or country in many conflict zones. The need for training
and coordination of the military and civilian participants, including the increased
involvement of the local population, became apparent. After the explosion in Beirut in
2020, the blue helmets were able to take extensive relief measures together with Blue
Shield International and the Lebanese Army. [48]

Crimes by peacekeepers[edit]
Peacekeeping, human trafficking, and forced prostitution[edit]
Further information: Peacekeeping §  Peacekeeping, human trafficking, and forced
prostitution
Reporters witnessed a rapid increase in prostitution in Cambodia and Mozambique after
UN peacekeeping forces moved in. In the 1996 UN study "The Impact of Armed Conflict
on Children", the former first lady of Mozambique Graça Machel documented: "In 6 out
of 12 country studies on sexual exploitation of children in situations of armed conflict
prepared for the present report, the arrival of peacekeeping troops has been associated
with a rapid rise in child prostitution."[49]
Gita Sahgal spoke out in 2004 about the fact that prostitution and sex abuse crops up
wherever humanitarian intervention efforts are set up. She observed: "The issue with
the UN is that peacekeeping operations, unfortunately, seems to be doing the same
thing that other militaries do. Even the guardians have to be guarded." [50]
Human rights violations in United Nations missions[edit]

Brazilian Army participating in a UN peacekeeping mission in Haiti.

The following table chart illustrates confirmed accounts of crimes and human rights
violations committed by United Nations soldiers, peacekeepers, and employees. [61]

A comparison of incidents involving United Nations peacekeepers, troops, and employees.

Sexual Murde
Conflict United Nations Mission Extortion/Theft
abuse r

Second Congo United Nations Mission in the

150 3 44
War Democratic Republic of Congo

United Nations Operation in Somalia

Somali Civil War 5 24 5
II

Sierra Leone Civil United Nations Mission in Sierra

50 7 15
War Leone

Eritrean-Ethiopian United Nations Mission in Ethiopia

70 15 0
War and Eritrea

Burundi Civil War United Nations Operation in Burundi 80 5 0

United Nations Observer Mission

Rwanda Civil War 65 15 0
Uganda-Rwanda

Second Liberian
United Nations Mission in Liberia 30 4 1
Civil War

Second Sudanese
United Nations Mission in Sudan 400 5 0
Civil War

Côte d'Ivoire Civil United Nations Operation in Côte

500 2 0
War d'Ivoire
 A comparison of incidents involving United Nations peacekeepers, troops, and employees.

Sexual Murde
Conflict United Nations Mission Extortion/Theft
abuse r

2004 Haitian coup United Nations Stabilization Mission

110 57 0
d'état in Haiti

United Nations Interim

Kosovo War 800 70 100
Administration Mission in Kosovo

Israeli–Lebanese United Nations Interim Force in

0 6 0
conflict Lebanon

Proposed reform[edit]
Brahimi analysis[edit]
In response to criticism, particularly of the cases of sexual abuse by peacekeepers, the
UN has taken steps toward reforming its operations. The Brahimi Report was the first of
many steps to recap former peacekeeping missions, isolate flaws, and take steps to
patch these mistakes to ensure the efficiency of future peacekeeping missions. The UN
has vowed to continue to put these practices into effect when performing peacekeeping
operations in the future. The technocratic aspects of the reform process have been
continued and revitalised by the DPKO in its "Peace Operations 2010" reform agenda.
This included an increase in personnel, the harmonization of the conditions of service of
field and headquarters staff, the development of guidelines and standard operating
procedures, and improving the partnership arrangement between the Department of
Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), African Union and European Union. 2008 capstone doctrine entitled "United
Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines" [5] incorporates and builds
on the Brahimi analysis.
Rapid reaction force[edit]
One suggestion to account for delays such as the one in Rwanda, is a rapid reaction
force: a standing group, administered by the UN and deployed by the Security Council,
that receives its troops and support from current Security Council members and is ready
for quick deployment in the event of future genocides. [62]
Restructuring of the UN secretariat[edit]
The UN peacekeeping capacity was enhanced in 2007 by augmenting the DPKO with
the new Department of Field Support (DFS). Whereas the new entity serves as a key
enabler by co-ordinating the administration and logistics in UN peacekeeping
operations, DPKO concentrates on policy planning and providing strategic directions. [citation
needed]

Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping[edit]

The Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping initiative was established in 2014 by
the Information and Communications Technology Division of the former Department of
Field Support (DFS) with an objective to bring greater involvement to peacekeeping
through innovative approaches and technologies that have the potential to empower UN
global operations.[63]
The Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping holds annual symposiums. The fifth
International Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping Symposium was held in Nur-
Sultan, Kazakhstan from 28 to 31 May 2019. It was the first time the Central Asian
country held such event on peacekeeping. Jean-Pierre Lacroix, UN Under-Secretary-
General for Peacekeeping Operations, and Atul Khare, UN Under-Secretary-General for
Field Support, participated in the symposium. [64]

See also[edit]

 Politics portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to United Nations peacekeeping missions.

 United Nations Department of Political and

Peacebuilding Affairs
 International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers
 List of United Nations peacekeeping missions
 List of countries by number of UN peacekeepers
 Multinational Force and Observers
 Timeline of UN peacekeeping missions
 List of non-UN peacekeeping missions
 NATO peacekeeping
 White Helmets Commission
 International security
 Responsibility to protect
 Security-related bills

References[edit]
1. ^ "Contributors to UN Peacekeeping Operations by Country
and Post Police, UN Military Experts on Mission, Staff
Officers and Troops"  (PDF),  United Nations, 31 August 2020,
archived from the original  (PDF) on 19 September 2020
2. ^ "United Nations Peacekeeping". United Nations
Peacekeeping. Retrieved 2022-07-28.
3. ^ "Peace and Security".  United Nations. Retrieved  2017-05-
18.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b Nau, Henry (2015).  Perspectives on
International Relations. Washington DC: CQ Press.
pp.  252. ISBN 978-1-4522-4148-7.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b "DPKO Capstone Doctrine"  (PDF). Archived
from  the original  (PDF)  on 2008-08-19. Retrieved  2011-07-
16.
6. ^ Oksamytna, Kseniya; Bove, Vincenzo; Lundgren, Magnus
(2021).  "Leadership selection in United Nations
peacekeeping".  International Studies
Quarterly.  doi:10.1093/isq/sqaa023.
7. ^ Lundgren, Magnus; Oksamytna, Kseniya; Katharina,
Coleman (2021). "Only as fast as its troop contributors:
Incentives, capabilities, and constraints in the UN's
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Further reading[edit]
 Blocq, Daniel. 2009. "Western Soldiers and the
Protection of Local Civilians in UN Peacekeeping
Operations: Is a Nationalist Orientation in the Armed
Forces Hindering Our Preparedness to
Fight?" Armed Forces &
Society,abstract Archived 2009-04-06 at
the Wayback Machine
 Bridges, Donna and Debbie Horsfall. 2009.
"Increasing Operational Effectiveness in UN
Peacekeeping: Toward a Gender-Balanced
Force." Armed Forces & Society, May 2009. abstract
 Bureš, Ronkęš (June 2006). "Regional
Peacekeeping Operations: Complementing or
Undermining the United Nations Security
Council?". Global Change, Peace & Security (in
Nepali). 66 (2): 83–
99. doi:10.1080/14781150600687775. S2CID 1549
82851.
 Dandeker, Christopher; Gow, James (1997). "The
Future of Peace Support Operations: Strategic
Peacekeeping and Success". Armed Forces &
Society. 23 (3): 327–
347. doi:10.1177/0095327X9702300302. S2CID 14
5191919.
 Fortna, Virginia Page; Lise Morjé, Howard
(2008). "Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping
Future". Annual Review of Political Science. 11:
283–301. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103
022.
 Fortna, Virginia Page (2004). "Does Peacekeeping
Keep Peace? International Intervention and the
Duration of Peace After Civil War". International
Studies Quarterly. 48 (2): 269–
292. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.489.1831. doi:10.1111/j.002
0-8833.2004.00301.x.
 Goulding, Marrack (July 1993). "The Evolution of
United Nations Peacekeeping". International
Affairs. 69 (3): 451–
64. doi:10.2307/2622309. JSTOR 2622309.
 Holt, Victoria K., and Michael G. Mackinnon. (2008)
"The origins and evolution of US policy towards
peace operations." International peacekeeping 15.1
(2008): 18–34; regarding the Bill Clinton and George
W. Bush administrations. online Archived 21 August
2020 at the Wayback Machine
 Howard, Lise Morjé. 2008. UN Peacekeeping in Civil
Wars. (Cambridge University Press 2008) abstract
 Jenne, Nicole (2022). "Who leads peace operations?
A new dataset on leadership positions in UN peace
operations, 1948–2019". Journal of Peace
Research:
 Powles, Anna, Negar Partow, Nelson (eds).
(2015) United Nations Peacekeeping Challenge:
The Importance of the Integrated
Approach (Routledge, 2015)
 Pushkina, Darya (June 2006). "A Recipe for
Success? Ingredients of a Successful Peacekeeping
Mission". International Peacekeeping. 13 (2): 133–
149. doi:10.1080/13533310500436508. S2CID 144
299591.
 Reed, Brian; Segal, David (2000). "The Impact of
Multiple Deployments on Soldiers' Peacekeeping
Attitudes, Morale and Retention". Armed Forces &
Society. 27: 57–
78. doi:10.1177/0095327X0002700105. S2CID 143
556366.
 Sion, Liora (2006). "'Too Sweet and Innocent for
War'?: Dutch Peacekeepers and the Use of
Violence". Armed Forces & Society. 32 (3): 454–
 474. doi:10.1177/0095327X05281453. S2CID 1452
72144.
 Worboys, Katherine (2007). "The Traumatic Journey
from Dictatorship to Democracy: Peacekeeping
Operations and Civil-Military Relations in Argentina,
1989-1999". Armed Forces & Society. 33 (2): 149–
168. doi:10.1177/0095327X05283843. S2CID 1441
47291.

External links[edit]
 United Nations Peacekeeping Forces on
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