THE COLLEGE OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT POSTAL COURSES Superstructure Contents Code 1 Framed structures 8007 2 Framed structures - typical details 8008 3 Cladding to frames 8010 4 Roof structures and finishes 8011 5. Floor structure and finishes 8012 6 External walls and partitions 8013 7 Stairs construction 8015 8 Alterations and extensions to buildings 8019 7.96 © The College of Estate Management 1996 Set 038a) s” THE COLLEGE OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT POSTAL COURSES Framed Structures Contents Introduction Learning objectives Basic criteria governing selection and design of frames Dimensions Loads Deflections Costs Reinforced concrete frames Basics of insitu reinforced concrete construction Formwork Reinforcement Concrete Builders’ work details Dimensional control Access and safety Slip-form construction Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete construction Steel frames Basic forms of steel frame construction Single-storey industrial buildings Multi-storey frames Parallel beam construction Bracing of multi-storey frames Construction of steel frames Painting Access and safety Advantages and disadvantages of steel frame construction (compared to concrete) * Precast concrete frames Basic elements Single storey industrial buildings Multi-storey frames Advantages and disadvantages of precast frame construction 6.95 © The College of Estate Management 1996 8007Advanced timber frames ‘Composite joists and beams Trusses Laminated timber Timber and glue ‘Advantages and disadvantages of timber-framed construction Composite insitu/precast concrete frames Insitu frames with precast floors Precast columns within insitu frames ‘Composite steel/concrete frames Steel frame above concrete Precast columns and steel beams Lift slab construction Cold-formed steelwork frames Summary 8007THE COLLEGE OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT POSTAL COURSES Framed Structures Introduction This paper describes the use of structural frames in buildings and outlines the functional and economic criteriaavhich govern their design. Comparisons are drawn between the different materials and types of frame in common use. Reference is also made to some of the more unusual forms of construction. Learning objectives ~ ‘On completion of this paper you should be able to: 1 Identify the various types of frames used in single and multi-storey construction. 2 Compare the use of concrete, steel and timber frames. i 3. Critically assess the functional performance of structural frames. 4 Makesketches which show in outline the main constructional features of structural frames in various materials. 3 8007Courtesy: HH Robertson 8009/8007THE COLLEGE OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT POSTAL COURSES Framed Structures Basic criteria governing selection and design of frames Dimensions Ina framed building, the main structure consists of a rigid cage of beams and columns which carry all the loads. The basic layout ofthese structural members is determined by the building's intended use. If wide, uninterrupted floor areas are required, the horizontal grid dimensions (ie distances between columns) will be large and long-span floor beams will be necessary. ‘The vertical dimensions of the grid will be controlled by four factors: * Floor to ceiling height. + Depth of the ceiling zone (which may accommodate services). © Depth of floor zone (which may accommodate floor f ishes and services), * Depth of the floor structure, including beams, Ifitis necessary to reduce the vertical dimensions (perhaps in order to accommodate extra floors within a given building height), the designers may save height by using shallow beams and floors, or by running services alongside the beams. Some of the internal spaces, including toilets, staircases, lift shafts and service risers, occupy only small areas on each floor and it is usual to group these within vertical core zones, In many buildings these cores form specially stiffened elements within the structural frames,Framed Structures Loads ‘The structural frame must withstand the self-weight of the building and various imposed loads. ‘The self-weight and the weight of the occupiers and contents act vertically and are transmitted, via the columns, to the foundations. Horizontal forces (mainly caused by wind) must be resisted by some kind of lateral restraint (Figure 1). In its simplest form, this may consist of diagonal bracing members on each vertical face of the building, An alternative ‘approach is to group the braces within the core walls, thereby leaving the main elevations unobstructed, for window openings. In reinforced concrete frames, lateral restraint is usually provided by shear walls, rather than by bracing. Some single-storey frames have no vertical bracing but resist horizontal forces by means of stiff cantilever columns, set rigidly into their bases. The same principle can be applied to ‘multi-storey frames if the beam/column intersections are designed as stiff joints. It is also necessary to provide horizontal bracing, to prevent deformations in the plan shape of the building. In a single-storey structure diagonal members may be incorporated in the roof, but in multi-storey frames itis more common for the floor to be constructed as stiff plates and to serve the same purpose Deflections All loads cause corresponding movements, including initial foundation settlement (hopefully very slight), frame sway (induced by wind loads) and beam deflections. The designers must ensure that these movements are not sufficient to damage the partitions, cladding and finishes Reinforced concrete frames also undergo long-term movements due to shrinkage. Over a period of several years, a concrete frame can foreshorten slightly, so that it is necessary to allow for relative movement between the frame and the cladding. Costs The designer must consider the following: 1 Direet costs. The actual value of the frame, as paid to the contractor. 2. Indirect costs. To some extent, the costs of the foundations, cladding, finishes and services will depend on the design of the frame. 3 Investment costs. A frame which can be completed quickly will allow the building to be sold, let or used at an early date, so improving the return on the investment. 4 Costs in use. If parts of the frame are exposed to weather, there will be maintenance costs for repainting, etc. Some types of frame (notably steelwork) lend themselves readily to alterations, such as might be required when a factory is equipped with new manufacturing plant, ‘The design will also be influenced by availability of materials. When the construction industry is experiencing ‘boom’ conditions, some types of frame may be subject to long delivery periods. 6 8007Framed Structures FIGURE 1 Loads Wing force ut Single storey frame with bracing bil u saliares [alas N\A 7 Ys ee ‘Single storey frame with cantilever columns y frame with braced core Multi-storey frame with concrete coreFramed Structures Reinforced concrete frames Basics of insitu reinforced concrete construction Plain concrete is well able to withstand compressive stresses but is liable to crack when subjected to tension or bending. If steel reinforcement is incorporated in a concrete member, it can be designed to act as a beam, or as part of a framed structure. Construction of reinforced concrete involves three main trades: formwork, steelfixing and concrete placing. In a multi-storey frame, these operations are repeated at each stage and level of the building. Speed and economy are dependent on good site organisation of this work cycle but are also influenced by the details of the design Most of the variety in the design of reinforced concrete frames occurs in the floor structures. Traditional designs use narrow, rectangular beams between the columns and floor slabs spanning between those beams. If the beams are made shallower and wider, they become less efficient and require more concrete and reinforcement to achieve the same strength. However, formwork and steelfixing are simplified and structural floor depths are reduced. If this approach is taken to its logical conclusion, by eliminating all beams, the slab has to be thicker and heavier. A compromise is sometimes achieved by using a constant-depth slab but incorporating weight-saving voids, formed by a trough of waffle moulds, within each floor span. An alternative to producing a shallow conerete suspended floor is by using a prestressed concrete slab. Prestressing counteracts deflections in long spans. Tendons are set within transverse ducts in the slab and are tensioned when the concrete has cured. Most reinforced concrete frames include some shear walls, usually grouped into one or more cores. Concrete core walls are relatively slow to construct, particularly if they have to incorporate numerous openings for services. Formwork (Refer to ‘Materials’ module) Before each bay of concrete is cast, the formwork must be checked for accuracy and security. Formwork should always be constructed to a specific design, rather than being ‘built by eye’ Reinforcement Reinforcement bars are shown on the structural engineer's drawings and are listed in bending schedules. On delivery to site, they must be carefully sorted, checked and distributed: any shortages can result in delays. Beamand column reinforcement is usually designed so that the main longitudinal bars can bbe wire-tied to the transverse bars, links and binders to form a coherent steel cage. In slabs, it is also necessary to provide steel ‘chairs’ to hold the top mat of reinforcement above the lower mat. Concrete or plastic spacers maintain the necessary cover between the reinforcement and the formwork. When the bay of reinforcement is complete and ready for concreting, it must be meticulously checked to ensure that no bars have been omitted or misplaced. If a construction joint is formed between two bays of concrete, the reinforcement of the first bay must protrude through the joint shutter, as ‘starter bars’. The length of lap between bars should be specified by the structural engineer. 8 8007Framed Structures FIGURE 2 Insitu concrete floors in reinforced concrete frames Views of softs of insta floors showing: (2) Floor siab on grid of deep beam Sab incorporated into shallow Waffle stab (e) (1 oor sieh ieomorated beam {e) Watfe grid slab with incorporated beams 8007Framed Structures Foreach bay of concrete, itis necessary for the formwork to be erected beyond the position of the construction joint. Therefore, in order to obtain efficient use of formwork, the layout of joints should be coordinated with the formwork design. Concrete In most buildings, different grades of concrete are specified for different elements. Before each bay is concreted, it is essential to check that the correct grade has been ordered. The shutter should also be carefully cleaned, possibly with an air line, to remove both dirt and offcuts of reinforcement tying wire, which could otherwise cause rust stains on the surface of the concrete, During delivery of the concrete, test cube samples are taken, the frequency of testing depending on the specification. It may also be necessary to carry out other checks, such as slump test, to monitor the consistency of the wet concrete, ‘The concrete is compacted to remove air bubbles, usually by immersed ‘poker’ vibrators. ‘On completion of each pour, the top surface is tamped or trowelled to give the required finish. Surfaces of horizontal construction joints can be washed and brushed soon after the concrete has set, in order to expose the aggregate at the joint and improve the bond with the next pour. All concrete should be ‘cured’, by covering or sealing the surface to prevent evaporation of moisture during the period of strength gain. It may also be necessary, in very cold weather, to protect or insulate the shutters, to prevent the unset concrete from freezing, Builders’ work details During the construction of a reinforced concrete frame, itis necessary to include those voids, holes, cast-in sockets and other details to accommodate services and to provide anchorages for cladding etc. Some of these items will be specified and dimensioned by the designers, but others will be requested by the specialist subcontractors. The structural engineer should check and approve the positions of all holes. In some cases, to allow for the weakening effect of alarge hole, it may be possible to add extra reinforcing bars, Alternatively, it is possible to cut holes or install drilled anchors after the frame is cast. ‘These are usually more costly than in-situ fixings and there isa risk of clashing with reinforcing, bars, but this approach may be inevitable if the construction of the frame proceeds faster than the sub-contractors’ design work. Drilled fixings are sometimes desirable if precise location is needed; it is possible to set out the positions more accurately on the completed frame than on the formwork. Dimensional contro! The construction of a reinforced concrete frame entails a large number of separate operations, using timber and steel components (some of which may be warped or bent), often in poor weather conditions and usually in a hurry. The contractor is expected to execute this work to finished accuracy of a few millimetres (typically with overall deviations not exceeding about 15mm, depending on the specification) To achieve this accuracy without relying on luck requires skilled use of instruments and careful planning. The building’ s basic dimensional grid is usually set out and referenced before the foundations are excavated, then marked at ground floor slab level. For verticality through upper floor levels, itis possible to rely upon plumbing each lift of columns and walls, but errors. tend to be cumulative. 10 8007Framed Structures A more precise method is the use of theodolite to “swing up’ the grid lines from offset instrument stations. However, the site engineer's view can be obstructed by scaffolding ete, A third approach is to use a plumb bob or an optical plummet to transfer positions up through holes in each floor, ‘Whatever method is adopted, some time is required at each floor level for the site engineer to set out the grid and check the positions of the next lift of columns etc. If the accuracy of the frame is neglected, the cladding may not fit the building, Access and safety At all levels there must be secure access, by scaffold, staircases or ladders, with secure perimeter handrails. Some falsework systems incorporate handrail supports, but where these are used other handrails must be fixed as soon as the falsework is struck ‘The design and erection of the falsework itself should be checked by asuitably experienced engineer. A mass of several tons of wet concrete, supported on timber and tubular steel supports is potentially dangerous. sl The core walls of some buildings have been constructed by a procedure known as slip-forming. A set of wall shutters are raised, very slowly but continuously, as concrete is poured, The conerete sets between the moving surfaces, and by the time that it becomes exposed at the lower edge of the shutter, its sufficiently strong to guide the shutter. A working platform is attached tothe shutter, and another platform, directly above, is used to fix reinforcement as the assembly rises. -form construction Slip-form construction is expensive but may be justifiable if itenables a substantial saving to be made in the programme period. Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete construction Advantages ¢ The constituent materials are relatively cheap. * Off-site manufacturing is largely restricted to reinforcing steel and ready-mixed concrete, so an early start is usually possible. ‘Complex and irregular shapes can be produced. © Small design changes may be made at a late stage during construction. * Very large beams can be formed on site, avoiding road transport problems. © Good inherent fire resistance. © The frame requires litle maintenance (although exposed concrete benefits from weather protection). u 8007Framed Structures Disadvantages ‘© Site operations are labour-intensive, demanding high levels of skill on the parts of both operatives and management. ‘A good deal of site-based plant and equipment is required. © Construction is relatively slow, particularly where the designers have incorporated complex shapes. © There is a fairly high risk of errors and the accuracy of construction is generally lower than that of prefabricated frames. The finish is also likely to be relatively rough. ‘© Itis necessary to store and handle large quantities of materials on site, with associated problems of quality control. ¢ Construction is weather-sensitive. © The frame undergoes slow shrinkage and some deflection due to creep. Steel frames Basic forms of steel frame construction In the majority of steel-framed buildings, the principal structural members are standard, hot- rolled steel sections. (See ‘Materials’ module.) For columns (which, in steelwork, are generally described as ‘stanchions’), universal column sections, with their wide-flanged H-shape, are efficient in compression but universal beam I-sections may be needed where the columns are also subjected to bending. UB sections are used for most beams, although channels are suitable for light loads. Hollow steel sections, both circular and rectangular, have fewer crevices and dirt traps than the H- and L-sections, so are useful in exposed situations, where cleaning, maintenance and appearance might otherwise be a problem. If the load exceeds the capacity of a standard section, it can be strengthened by welding, on additional plates. However, for beams, it is possible to achieve an enhanced performance (cither greater strength or lighter weight) by using castellated beams or trusses. Plate beams or girders are made by welding together flange and web plates to form any desired section. This is one way of obtaining a non-standard section but it is also used to produce tapered beams, for which the efficient strength/weight distribution may justify the additional costs of fabrication Connections are made by a combination of welding and bolting ~ the former usually restricted to off-site fabrication and the latter used for on-site assembly. 12 3007Framed Structures Single-storey industrial buildings Such structures fall into one of two categories: Plane frames. Beams span between stanchions but, for long spans, the ‘beams’ usually consist of trusses or lattice girders. This form of constructionis suitable for flat or shallow- pitched roofs and will be described in more detail in a later paper. Portal frames. The portal frame, a rigid-jointed assembly of stanchions and pitched rafters which act as a single structural unit, is simple and comparatively elegant. It offers clear floor spaces and is economical for moderate spans. A typical single-storey frame of this type includes the following elements: Main frame members. Plane frames may span in one direction or in both directions. Portal frames span in one direction and are connected to one another by eaves and valley beams. Gable posts. The end walls may have light rafters spanning between the gable posts, or may comprise standard portal frames with light posts to infill between floor and rafter levels. The latter arrangement facilitates future extensions to the building. Bracing. Cross-bracing, in both walls and roof, resists both wind loads and surge loads from travelling cranes. In portal framed buildings, the frames themselves may utilise their flexural rigidity to resist transverse forces. FIGURE 3. Typical single storey industrial building with steel portal frames B 8007Framed Structures 4 Purlins and sheeting rails. These may be hot-rolled angles, but for lightweight roofing, and cladding systems are more usually cold formed sections. Their spacing depends on the strength and stiffness of the roof/cladding sheets and they are laterally supported by wire stays, tubular stiffeners and rods to prevent them sagging or twisting under load. Multi-storey frames (Figure 4) Atypical multi-storey frame has primary beams spanning between stanchions and secondary beams spanning between the primaries. The floor is usually a form of concrete slab but various constructions are used: 1 Aminsitu concrete slab, not acting compositely with the floor beams. For this type of slab, the soffit shuttering may be suspended from the beams. 2 Aninsitu slab, acting compositely with the beams. The beams have welded shear studs ‘on their upper flanges and it is normally necessary to prop the beams or the formwork until the concrete has hardened. 3. Shallow, precast concrete planks with structural concrete topping. The concrete planks act as permanent shutters and contribute to the strength of the slab. For long spans, they may require temporary props until the topping concrete has hardened. 4 Metal decking with structural concrete topping. The stec! decking acts compositely with the concrete and welded or shot-fired shear studs enable the slab to act compositely with the beams. Temporary props may be required for long decking spans. 5 Precast concrete floor units, usually with a topping screed. The screed helps the floor to act as a plate and distributes loads. If a raised access floor is used, the screed may be ‘omitted, but the joints between precast units will normally be grouted. ‘These floor systems are more fully described later. The type of floor chosen controls the design of the beams because the span and the presence or absence of composite action will dictate their spacing and section size. ‘The arrangement of the floor beams and primary beams interacts with the design of the services within the ceiling void. The steelwork plus floor slab is generally deeper than the equivalent flat concrete slab, although the greatest depth only occurs at the primary beams. The space between beams can be occupied by services but it may be necessary for ducts and pipework to run under or through the beams. Integrated designs may be achieved in a number of ways and castellated beams provide ready-made openings for small and medium-diameter services. Parallel-beam construction ( ‘This approach to steel frame design uses both primary beams and secondary beams which are continuous over several spans. The secondary beams (or rib beams) pass over the primaries, rather than being joined to their webs, so services may be routed under the secondary beams and over the primaries. The primary beams (or spine beams) are arranged in pairs, placed both sides of the stanchions. Either spine or rib beams can be used as short cantilevers without requiring complex connections. 4 8007Framed Structures FIGURE 4 Alternative beam arrangements 8007Framed Structures Continuity of beams over several spans allows some saving in weight of steel, although the pairs of spine beams may be heavier than using a single beam. The position of the rib beams above the floor beams adds some structural depth but both sets of beams are likely to be shallower than single-span equivalents and the ceiling level can be immediately below the rib beams. Parallel beam construction facilitates the installation of services and also simplifies fabrication and erection by eliminating many conventional brackets and cleats. The maximum Iength of individual beam sections is usually controlled by handling capacity during fabrication, transport and erection. Conventional framing Parallel beam construction 16 8007Framed Structures Bracing of multi-storey frames Horizontal forces may be resisted in one of four ways: 1 Braced bays on elevations. Bracing on elevations is usually unwelcome, as it can interfere with window locations. However, it can be concealed behind obscured cladding panels. In some recently constructed buildings it hs also been adopted as an architectural feature. 2 Braced frames in cores. If bracing is concentrated in core areas, this permits greater design flexibility in the remainder of the building, 3 Conerete cores. Concrete walls are usually slower to construct than the surrounding steel frame. 4 Rigidly jointed frames. If the joints within certain parts of a frame are designed as full ‘moment-resisting connections, braces can be eliminated, so that there are no obstructions between stanchions. This approach, however, can increase the complexity and costs of the connections In practice, many buildings utilise combinations of bracing systems, such as cross- bracing on gable ends and rigid joints on main elevations. Construction of steel frames In factory fabrication, economy is achieved by repetitive detailing. It is normal practice for cleats and brackets to be shop-welded to the beams and stanchions, leaving the final site connections to be made by bolting. Where specially stiff site connections are required, site welding can be undertaken but this demands access scaffolding and inspection or testing. An alternative is the use of high strength friction-grip bolts which give partial stiffness, ‘Small frames are usually erected by assembling the frame initially using ‘loose’ base connections and then plumbing the stanchions. It may be necessary to use temporary braces or Supports until the frame is fully braced. Steel shims are placed beneath the base plates to set them at the correct level, and when the frame is complete and checked, the spaces below the base plates are packed with grout or dry mortar. When the packing is fully cured, the holding down bolts are tightened to the correct torque. For larger frames it is normal to erect, align and check the frame section by section, to allow roofing, cladding and floor construction to follow closely. An accumulation of small fabrication errors could cause problems with overall alignment, but this can be avoided by making certain members slightly under-sized and including a variable thickness of packing shims in their end connections, to allow for adjustments at each stage. Painting Most steelwork is delivered to site ready primed. The priming paint may be damaged during erection, so should be touched up immediately. The specification for the initial preparation, and for the finishing coats, will depend upon the degree of exposure. If steel is to be encased in concrete, it may be left unpainted 7 8007Framed Structures Access and safety ‘Traditionally, steel erectors have worked at height without safety aids, but this approach is now being restricted by Health and Safety at Work regulations. In practice, a major risk in rapid steel frame erection is of the ‘following trades’ advancing faster than handrails are fixed at each floor level. Recent storms in the UK have also demonstrated the risk of lightweight sheet materials being blown off buildings by high winds. Advantages and disadvantages of steel frame construction (compared to concrete) 1 Materials. Standard steel sections and connectors are relatively expensive, and light in weight, but with limited selection. 2 Manufacturing requirements. Components are cut and prefabricated off site, which demands some investment in workshop capacity. It is also conventional for steelwork subcontractors to undertake part or all of the detailed design of the frame, so they must employ, or have access to, engineers and draughtsmen, possibly supplemented by CAD (Computer Aided Design) equipment. Conversely, a good subcontractor design capability may relieve the structural engineer of part of the design work. Sophisticated steelwork fabricators use a high degree of automation in both design and manufacture. 3 Lead times. Delivery times for the basic materials may become extended when the construction industry is busy. There must also be programme time allowed for fabrication. 4 Design flexibility. Stcelwork can be assembled into a wide range of structural forms but cladding is usually required to conceal complex assemblies, for the sake of appearance. ‘Complex assemblies usually necessitate complex calculations. Late alterations can be achieved by cutting and welding after erection. It is a fairly straightforward matter to connect future extensions to existing frames. 5 Large components. The size of prefabricated elements is usually limited by road transport. Site-made joints, to assemble prefabricated parts into larger units, may require site welding or special control of tolerance. 6 Site work. Assembly work is usually straightforward but site management must keep control of a large number of parts and connectors. Plant is simple but may be large (eg mobile cranes for heavy lifts). Erection is fast, although the overall rate of progress may depend on floor slab construction. work can be delayed by bad weather but such hold-ups are usually of short duration. 7 Quality. The high proportion of prefabrication favours good quality control. Accuracy is usually better than that of reinforced concrete, although it is limited by permitted deviations in the sections supplied by the rolling mills. Finish is predictable but not elegant, unless hollow sections are used. 8 Fire resistance. Steelwork usually requires protective cladding or finishes to obtain a specified fire resistance. However, in recent years, research has been directed at achieving fire resistance without full encasement. 18 8007Framed Structures Under present regulations, frames in many single storey buildings do not require full fire protection. 9 Durability. Exposed steelwork will rust unless protected (inherent or applied), but most structural frames are covered by roofs and cladding. Stee! sections have good resistance to minor impacts. 10 Structural performance. Structural steelwork has a high strength to weight ratio, so is effective for long spans. However, steel frames transmit vibrations well, which can cause Problems in some buildings, such as laboratories containing sensitive apparatus, The material is dimensionally stable and does not undergo long-term deformation or shrinkage. Note: The Empire State Building has a structural steel frame. During construction, erection proceeded at approximately one floor per week. Some time after completion, a Mitchell bomber crashed into the building; and bounced off! Precast concrete frames Like a steel frame, a precast frame consists of prefabricated units which are assembled on site. Both systems require off-site manufacturing capacity but offer quick erection and good quality control. Typical columns are simple, rectangular reinforced concrete units and are cast in lengths of up to four storeys, greater heights being obtained by splicing on additional units, Beams are generally made for single spans but the manufacturers are able to use sophisticated moulds to form complex cross-sectional shapes, which would be difficult and expensive to achieve with site-built formwork and insitu concrete. However, economy in the manufacturing process depends on good re-use of moulds, so designs should aim for a high degree of repetition, elements Joints between columns and beams are usually made by steel cleats or short structural steel sections, cast into the units and bolted or welded to one another during erection. Precast concrete floor units are commonly used with precast concrete frames. This combination simplifies contractual arrangements, as the whole of the work can be sub-let to a single company. Precast floor and stair units may simply rest on the beams, without mechanical connectors, but continuity can be achieved by a topping screed, or by grouted tie bars. Some floor systems use a structural screed to enhance performance and units with deep ribs are suitable for long spans. For example, ‘double-tee” units will span more than 20 metres, It is also possible to extend the sub-contract to include precast cladding, an approach which is greatly favoured by the precasting firms! Other precast elements which can be supplied include: 19 8007Framed Structures FIGURE 6 The Spanlight system The Spanlight system is based in four mein component groups: + Precast, reinforced columns with beam ‘connections: + Pretensioned, trough-shaped spine and edge beams. + Reinforced concrete gable ends. + Spanfior, pretensioned hollow-core flooring. These components connect together as iitustrated in Figure 6. The columns are erected, the temporary support placed around the ‘column below the beam connection area. The trough-shaped spine beams are placed on to the supports, Spantiar hollowcore flooring is then placed on to the spine beam, and prestressing Courtesy: Dow Mac Projects strand threaded along the trough, passed through the columns, and then anchored using normal barrels and wedges. ‘Spantior cross tie bars are then installed when the prestressing strand is tensioned up and locked off. A smal volume of 35 Nim the temporary support can be removed. Fast track construction Where the programme requires, itis possible to erect more than ane level on the same column ‘simultaneously, If this option is chosen, care ‘must be taken t0 avoid any incidental ‘construction loadings on the floor until the insitu concrete has reached the required 20N/ mm strength 20 8007Framed Structures * Ground beams. These provide a ground-level anchorage or support for the cladding, which can then commence before the ground floor slab, * Gutters. These usually combine the functions of gutters and eaves beams, thereby offering a saving in the number of components, + Purlins. Not necessarily more economical than steel purlins but may be part of the ‘manufacturer's standard package. Precast frames usually incorporate small but often vital areas of insitu concrete, generally where units are joined together, but also where it would be uneconomical to manufacture non. standard units to meet particular dimensional requirements. Some frame systems also utilise insitu concrete in composite construction. For example, the ‘Spanlight’ system (Figure 6) has hollow, trough-shaped prestressed beams which are erected on temporary supports. Additional restressing strands are threaded along the troughs and through the columns and are tensioned before the troughs are filled with concrete. When the concrete has cured, the composite beams have a high span/depth ratio and the beam-column joints are rigid Holes and voids for services are best allowed for at design stage but site-drilled holes are possible, provided that they avoid all prestressing strands and do not crack thin concrete webs, Large floor openings may need steel trimming beams to support edges of precast units. Threaded sockets and other anchorages are usually cast into the units, as their positions can be set out accurately in the moulds. Single storey industrial buildings Precast construction can be used for portal frames. A modern design is likely to have precast gutter units at eaves and valleys butto use steel sections for purlins, sheeting rails and trimmers. Column base connections may be flat steel plates to take holding-down bolts, but an alternative base detail sets the lower ends of the columns in tapered pockets, which are filled with grout after the columns have been plumbed and levelled. Multi-storey frames Most precast frames are braced by stiff joints, which may be grouted after the connections have been made. This method can be assisted by the use of very deep edge beams, which combine the functions of beams and spandrel wall panels. Itis also possible to use shear walls and cores, which can be formed from precast panels in order to avoid the delays inherent in insitu concrete work. Advantages and disadvantages of precast frame construction | Materials. As for insitu reinforced concrete, many of the basie materials are relatively cheap, although more mechanical connectors are used. Manufacturing. As for steelwork, off-site manufacturing capacity is required, This may actually be more elaborate than for basic steel frames, as the precaster must use moulds, cach of which is occupied while concrete is setting. Precast units are less robust than rolled steel sections, particularly while they are curing, so must be handled and stored carefully. Output can be improved by the use of steam curing plant, but that obviously involves more capital investment. Most precast frame manufacturers therefore specialise in the production of standard beam and column sections, in order to maximise the re-use of their moulds, 21 8007Framed Structures Manufacturers may sub-let the provision of certain components, such as prestressed floor units, to other firms who specialise in those items. [As with steel frames, most or all of the detailed design is undertaken by the manufacturer. Lead times, Basic materials are available at fairly short notice but manufacturing periods usually control start dates. Design flexibility. Special shapes can be produced but best economy is achieved by repetition of standard sections. Large components. Precast concrete is heavier than steelwork, so the maximum size of individual units may be controlled either by road transport or by crane capacity. Structural splices within spans are possible but are more commonly used in bridgeworks, as they would hinder the rapid construction of a building frame. Site work. The process of assembling a precast frame is generally similar to that of a steel frame. There are fewer individual components but cranage loads are greater and the units are more vulnerable to damage. Insitu concrete or prestressing can introduce extra administration and delays. Quality. Precast concrete units generally have a high standard of finish, and accuracy is better than that of insitu work. Fire resistance. Precast units possess good fire resistance and in this respect precast frames enjoy a notable advantage over steel. Durability. Like insitu concrete, precast concrete does not normally require protection against damp, although exposed elements can, in time, suffer from carbonation and reinforcement corrosion. Corrosion can also occur at joints, if moisture can reach the connectors. Structural performance. Precast frames have better sound attenuation and vibration damping characteristics than steel. Like insitu concrete, precast concrete can undergo long term shrinkage. However, in view of the greater precision of construction, movement joints and cladding connections are more likely to function correctly. Advanced timber frames ‘Timber-framed houses are normally constructed with studs and joists, braced by shear panels of plywood. For larger buildings and floor spans, rectangular timber sections are inefficient, and since wood is a heterogeneous material, containing knots, shakes and other defects, itis difficult to obtain large-section baulk timber of a uniformly high quality. Designers and manufacturers have addressed this problem by develo 1g a range of systems and composite products. 22 8007Framed Structures Composite joists and beams I sections and box sections are formed by using webs of plywood or other board between twin softwood flanges, the junctions being made with adhesive. Variations on this theme include Corrugated metal webs and light metal trussed webs. Such beams are usually very slender, requiring their top flanges to be laterally restrained by decking or bracing. FIGURE 7 Timber flanges Plan Trusses Timber trusses have been used for hundreds of years but modem, prefabricated units can be ‘grouped into two general categories: 1 Nail plate trusses. Most trussed rafters, as used in small, modern houses, are of this type but the technique can be used for rectangular trussed rafters and long spans. They are usually concealed above ceilings. 2 Jointed trusses. Traditional queen-post style trusses, and other types, are now jointed with timber connectors or alternative bolted fastenings. They are popular as atiractive features in open roof spaces and many pyramid roofs have been supported by three- dimensional timber space frames. Some designs incorporate tie rods and steel shoes at complex junctions. 23 8007Framed Structures FIGURE 8 Examples of laminated structures Simply supported beams _ |_| io eo Sl ———e rt Courtesy: Moelven/Toreboda 4 8007Framed Structures La Glued, laminated timber members can be manufactured in a large variety of shapes and sizes, including portal frames, and are used to achieve adventurous architectural effects. The manufacturing process introduces a degree of uniformity so that ‘Glulam’ is ‘more dimensionally stable than baulk timber and can be designed to carry higher stresses, lated timber Timber and glue Both timber and adhesives are potentially susceptible to dampness, during manufacture and in the Finished structure. Architectural detailing should protect timber members from dampness On if they are located externally, should prevent water accumulating against the end-grain, Preservative treatments can provide some protection against decay butare of limited effectiveness in thick timber and do not prevent damage to decorative finishes. The timber's moisture content should be maintained at a low level during storage and fabrication, and gluing processes require control of temperature and humidity. On site, timber components must be carefully handled and stored. Finished timber surfaces, destined for vamish or clear sealer, can be ruined by chain slings or by penetrating dirt stains. FIGURE 9 Modern timber structures Laminated 3-pin frame ‘Trussed frameworkFramed Structures Advantages and disadvantages of timber-framed construction 1 10 Materials. The raw material is readily available. The quality varies but stress-graded timber can be ordered. Control of moisture content is critical. Manufacturing, Composite beams and glulam require factory facilities, but for jointed trusses and space frames the timber can be cut and shaped on site and the only prefabricated components may be steel connectors. Lead times. Delivery periods for manufactured elements depend on the manufacturer's commitments. There may be temporary shortages of baulk timber in certain sizes and grades, Design flexibility. By using glulam or trussed frameworks, it is possible to form or support a wide range of shapes including complex curves. However, timber is a grained material and adhesive cannot be used in tension, so the designer must have regard to these properties. Large components. Itis difficult to obtain very long baulk timbers which are straight and sound, so glulam is appropriate for large members. Very long trusses can be delivered in sections and joined on site. Site work. In assembly, structural timber is comparable with light steelwork but is more susceptible to damage or deterioration. The construction of jointed trusses and frameworks may involve cutting, drilling and fabrication on site, so this carpentry should be supervised. Quality. Exposed structural timber is valued for its beauty. Its engineering qualities are more difficult to check and much depends on the degree of control which is exercised during manufacture. Fire resistance. Despite the fact that wood is flammable, its fire resistance in thick sections is surprisingly good. Itchars ata steady, known rate (the exact rate varies between species) and the outer layers insulate the core from the heat of the flames. Large timber sections, including glulam, can therefore possess useful fire resistance, butsteel connectors, if unprotected, may limit the resistance of framed structures. Durability. Timber frames can last for hundreds of years unless they are allowed to become damp. Structural performance. Glulam beams have a higher strength/weight ratio than rolled steel sections, soare suitable for light structures and long spans. However, the manufacturing process is expensive and so the material tends to be used for ‘prestige’ projects. Composite beams are cheap and light but inelegant. Timber trusses are economical for short spans and are capable of being used for very long spans (eg ‘Belfast’ trusses in aircraft hangers) Baulk timbers can suffer from long-term warping and deflection when used as beams, unless restrained. 26 8007Framed Structures Composite insitu/precast concrete frames {tis common for precast frames to include small sections of insitu concrete, where particular detail designed as combinations of the two systems, in order to take advantage of the best features of each. Is cannot be formed by standard precast units. However, some buildings are deliberately FIGURE 10 Stic tants al HIG are required in most buildings and when using the Double Toe, immer ‘beams and supporting structure must provided: The drawing oppesite shows ippieal arrangement where tne main bearer Beams used to support te stor High as wet Precast st intersection Courtesy: Dow-Mac Products Peripheral tie to external Steel trames The Double Tee can be eftectvely used witha structural ste! frame Minienury 50mm Wi tcc ea rare, Welded end imu Meing ee beseeen eee se nck esp frame structural seat ‘Neoprene bearing pad Precast floors to steel frame Courtesy: Dow-Mac Products 27 8007Framed Structures FIGURE 10 (continued) Dow-Mac Double Tees are shown here where a full moment Loose reinforcement ‘connection is required. Note that bY main contractor the top flanges cut back in line twit the outer face of the bearing flange of the support beam flowing the insita ng beam to be (ast around the rb ends. Minimum 50mm thick mesh reinforced Structural screed Hoops cast in Double boot bearer beam onmectors| Composite insitujprecast construction Insitu concrete beams and columns Precast concrete oor units Insitu structural topping to beams and floors Courtesy: Dow-Mac Products Insitu frames with precast floors A typical frame of this kind has insitu columns and floor beams, with prestressed floor planks spanning between the beams. ‘The insitu elements are relatively cheap to construct, and lightweight, precast units permit long floor spans. This approach allows some of the advantages of standard, precast floors to be applied to awkwardly shaped sites because the insitu beams are simply extended, as slabs, to infill any triangular areas between the rectangular planks. ‘Composite action between the insitu and precast sections can be achieved if the beams are initially concreted to only part of their depth. The precast units are then placed on the beams (propping may be required for this temporary condition); tie bars are placed across the beams; and construction is completed by casting the upper parts of the beams in conjunction with the structural topping of the precast floors. This form of construction tends to be slow, because of the large number of separate operations at each level. The omission of the insitu slabs does not save much time, because those slabs would normally be cast at the same time as the beams. Precast columns within insitu frames During the regular floor-by-floor construction cycle of areinforced concrete frame, there tends to be a delay at each level while columns and walls are cast and before the next level of formwork can commence. Some frame designers have sought to reduce this delay by using precast columns. Precast columns at the perimeter of the floor can also be more accurately located than insitu columns, so are less likely to give rise to tolerance problems in the fitting of cladding and windows. 28 8007Framed Structures Composite steel/concrete frames {thas already been noted that stel frames usually have concrete or composite floors, and may even have concrete cores. However, the two materials are sometimes combined in other ways. Steel frame above concrete This approach allows the designer to save weight on upper levels, Steelwork is also appropriate for irregular shapes, such as mansard roofs, which would be slow and expensive to construct in concrete. Precast columns and steel beams This arrangement is appropriate for single-storey industrial units. The precast columns are inherently fire-resistant for compartment walls and perimeter walls which are neat to boundaries ‘The stec! beams (which may be trusses) are efficient for long spans and do not usually have to be fire-resistant in this type of building. A precast frame manufacturer might also choose this combination in order to compete with steelwork fabricators on a long-span roof while supplying precast units for the columns, short beams and floors. Lift slab construction ‘This isa specialised form of frame construction in which all the floor slabs are cast at ground level directly above one another, and are then raised to their final level. The columns pass through holes left in each slab. Cold-formed steelwork (Figures 11 and 12) Cold-formed stcel sections have long been popular for secondary structural components, such as purlins and cladding rails. They possess high strength/weight ratios because they are pressed from very thin steel sheet, but are unsuitable for withstanding large, concentrated loads. ‘The basic sheeting is usually pre-galvanised. In view of their light weight, cold-formed components are casily handled. Notches are cut, and holes accurately punched in the workshop, so site assembly consists of making bolted and screwed connections. Subsequent sheathing or roof cladding can be attached by self-tapping serews or pop rivets. Cold-formed steel channels have also been widely used in lightweight partitions, generally supplanting timber studs for this purpose. From this, the system has been adapted for the internal leafs of cavity walls and for back-up walls behind other forms of external cladding, Finally, the roof and wall systems have been combined and some companies are able to construct complete buildings (of up to four storeys) in metal stud framing, 29 8007Framed Structures FIGURE 11Framed Structures Metal stud construction shares many of the characteristics of timber frame, in that itis Lightweight, eliminates most wet trades and can accommodate high insulation values, However, metal studs are more dimensionally stable than timber. Ifthe frame and its sheathing boards arrcovered by asuitable breather membrane, the building becomes substantially weatherproof, allowing intemal finishing trades to commence while the roofing and cladding are being ‘completed. FIGURE 12 Building frame constructed from cold-formed steel sections ‘Stee! framing systems can be used to construct eaves detail at the top of load bearing wall elements, oF if required, the entire roof ‘Structure Load bearing floor Structures can be used in conjunction with most types of floor construction All walling assemblies Wtilise the drywall method of construction. Brick ties an be fixed directly to the ‘tee! framing through the weatherproofing envelope The base of load bearing walling assemblies is, ‘secured typically to the Concrete floor slab Window and door openings cen be incorporated into a load bearing or non-load bearing wall using @ combination oF ‘studs and runners to form lintels, headers and clls Courtesy: Steel Framing Systems Ltd 3 8007Framed Structures Summary ‘This paper has examined the principles of framed construction, the materials which can be used, and the method of construction. The construction method may vary somewhat depending upon the size and nature of the building under construction. The next paper in this set examines frame details in greater depth. 32 8007