•Fermentation can be defined as a metabolic process in

which cheap raw materials such as sugar or carbohydrates

are converted into economically important products like
acids, gases and alcohols by micro-organism. This process
is carried out in a equipment called as fermentor.What is a
Fermentor?A Fermentor can be defined as a vessel in
which sterile nutrient media and pure culture of micro-
organism are mixed and fermentation process is carried out
under aseptic and optimum ImpellersImpellers are an
agitation device. They are mounted on the shaft and
introduced in the fermentor through its lid.They are made up
of impeller blades and the position may vary according to its
need.These impellers or blades are attach to a motor on
lid.3. BafflesBaffles are mounted on the walls of a
fermentor.The important function of baffles is to break the
vortex formed during agitation process by the
impellers.Inoculation PortInoculation port is a device from
which fermentation media, inoculum and substrate are
added in the fermentation tank.Care should be taken that
the port provides aseptic transfer. Spargers A Sparger is an
aeration system through which sterile air is introduced in the
fermentation pH Control device The pH controlling device
checks the pH of media at specific intervals of time and
adjusts the pH to its optimum level by addition of acids or
alkalis.Maintaining pH to its optimum level is very important
for growth of micro-organism to obtain a desired
product.Temperature.During the fermentation process,
various reactions take place in the fermentor. Heat is
generated and released in the fermentation media. This
increase in temperature is detrimental to the growth of
micro-organisms, which may slow down the fermentation
process. Foam controlling deviceFoam  is generated during
fermentation. It is necessary to remove or neutralize this
foam with the help of anti-foaming agents, lest the media
may spill out of fermentor and lead into contamination and a
mess.Bottom drainage system It is an aseptic outlet present
at the bottom of fermentor for removal of fermented media
and products formed. Types of Fermentors There are
various types of fermentors that are described below-
Continuous Stirred Tank Bioreactor Airlift  Bioreactor
Packed Bed  Bioreactor Fluidized Bed  Bioreactor
Photobioreactor Membrane Bioreactor Bubble Column
Bioreactors • Alcohol fermentation, chemically Ethanol
fermentation is a biological process in which sugars such as
glucose, fructose and sucrose are converted into cellular
energy and thereby produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as
metabolic waste products. Yeast perform this conversion in
the absence of oxygen, alcoholic fermentation is considered
an anaerobic process. In the developing countries,
microbial fermentation processes are preferred for the
production of alcohol. This is mainly because of the cheap
raw materials available. With increasing oil process, many
countries now realise the potential of alcohol production by
fermentation. • PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL BY
FERMENTATION Many countries have started production
of ethanol by fermentation process. The organisms and the
raw materials used, along with the production and recovery
processes for alcohol are briefly described below…
Microorganisms: Certain yeasts and bacteria are employed
for alcohol fermentation. The type of the organism chosen
mostly depends on the nature of the substrate used.
Among the yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the most
commonly used, while among the bacteria, Zymomonas
mobilis is the most frequently employed for alcohol
production. There are a large number of raw materials that
can serve as substrates for alcohol fermentation. They may
be broadly categorized as sugary materials (e.g. molasses,
whey, glucose, sucrose), starchy materials (e.g. wheat, rice,
maize, potato) and cellulosic materials (wood, agricultural
wastes). Microorganisms used in alcohol fermentations
Microorganism Source of carbohydrate Yeasts
Saccharomyces cereviciae Starch, sugar Kluyveromyces
fragilis Starch, sugar Bacteria Zymomonas mobilis Starch
Candida pseudotropicalis Lactose, whey o batch
fermentation. Industrial production of alcohol is carried out in
huge fermenters up to a size of 1,25,000 gallons. The ideal
pH is around 4.0-4.5. the initial temperature is kept between
21-26˚C. Ethanol gets evaporated at temperature above
27˚C. Aeration is initially required for good growth of the
organisms. Later, anaerobic conditions are created by
withdrawal of oxygen coupled with production of carbon
dioxide. It takes about 2-3 days for the fermentation to be
completed. As the fermentation is complete, the
fermentation broth contains ethanol in the range of 6-9% by
volume. This represents about 90-95% conversion of
substrate to ethanol. • The Fermentation Process peniclin
Fermentation is the technique used for the commercial
production of penicillin. It is a fed-batch process that is
carried out aseptically in stainless steel tank reactors with a
capacity of 30 to 100 thousand gallons. The fermentation
involves two to three initial seed growth phases, followed by
a fermentation production phase with a time cycle ranging
from 120 to 200 hours. Various carbon sources have been
adopted for this process – including glucose, sucrose and
other crude sugars. Approximately 65% of the carbon is
used for cellular maintenance, 25% for growth and only 10%
for penicillin production. Sugar is also used for the
regulation of the pH value during active penicillin production
phase.Mini-harvest protocols are usually employed in
penicillin fermentation. They involve the removal of 20-40%
of the fermentor contents and its replacement with fresh
sterile medium. This procedure can be repeated several
times during this process without yield reduction; quite the
opposite, it can enhance the total penicillin yield per
fermentor.Penicillin is excreted into the medium and
recovered at the end of fermentation. Whole broth extraction
is best performed at acidic pH, with a 2-5% improvement in
overall extraction efficiency. Solvent extraction of chilled
acidified broth is carried out with amyl, butyl or isobutyl
acetate.Present-day penicillin fermentations are highly
automated and computerized. All the necessary precursors,
ammonia, sugar, carbon dioxide, oxygen are controlled, with
thorough monitoring of temperature and pH for optimal
antibiotic production. The pH should be between 6.4 and 6.8
during the active production phase. Penicillin are compound
of the general formula C₁₆H₁₈N₂O₅S –R, in which R
represents the radical or group that is different for each day.
The structural formula of the most common type ( F, G, X
and k ) are given. Penicillin F, G, X and K are produced by
strain of the penicillin notatum – chrysogenum group of
molds ; flavicidin ( flavicin) by Aspergilus flavus ; and
dihydro F penicillin (gigantic acid ) by Aspergilus gigantic.
The basic structure of the penicillin's is 6- aminopenicillenic
acid (6- APA) , composed of a thiozolidine ring fused with a
β- lactam ring whose 6- amino position carries a variety of
acyl substituent's. • It is caused by ingestion of pathogenic
microbes that penetrate the intestinal mucosa and multiply
or migrate in to other tissues where they
multiply.Salmonellosis (Typhoid) Incubation period is 6
hours to 3 days. Major symptoms are nausea, diarrhoea and
fever which may last for several days. Foods implicated are
egg, meat and milk and their products Infection either
comes from product of infected animal like meat or milk or
from food handler who is a carrier of infection and has not
been following strict hygiene. Infection can be prevented by
strictly adhering to good cooking methods.Shigellosis
(Bacillary dysentery) Caused by bacteria of genus Shigella.
It can be destroyed by heating. Mostly caused by human to
human transmission, contaminated water, milk and salad
preparations. Incubation period ranges from 1-7 days.
Symptoms are bloody diarrhoea, fever nausea and cramps.
E. coli O157:H7 -- E. coli O157:H7 has a reservoir in cattle
and other similar animals. Illness typically follows
consumption of food or water that has been contaminated
with microscopic amounts of cow feces. The illness it
causes is often a severe and bloody diarrhea and painful
abdominal cramps, without much fever. But in 3 to 5% of
cases, a life-threatening complication called the hemolytic
uremic syndrome (HUS) can occur several weeks after the
initial symptoms, resulting in anemia, profuse bleeding, and
kidney failure. • Food Preservation Methods Food
preservation started long back in ancient times. Cooling,
freezing, fermentation, sun-drying, etc., are few age-old food
preservation techniques. With the advent of technology,
modern methods of food preservation were developed.
Chemicals and other natural substances were used for
preservation. These substances are known as
preservatives. Let us discuss some of the methods of
preservation in detail. Freezing is keeping prepared food
stuffs in cold storages. Potatoes can be stored in dark
rooms but potato preparations need to be frozen.Smoking
is the process that cooks, flavours and preserves food
exposing it to the smoke from burning wood. Smoke is
antimicrobial and antioxidant and most often meats and fish
are smoked.  Various methods of smoking are used like Hot
smoking, Cold smoking, Smoke roasting and Smoke baking.
Smoking as a preservative enhances the risk of
cancer.Vacuum packing creates a vacuum by making
bags and bottles airtight. Since there is no oxygen in the
created vacuum bacteria die. Usually used for dry
fruit.Salting and Pickling: Salting also known as curing
removes moisture from foods like meat. Pickling means
preserving food in brine (salt solution) or marinating in
vinegar (acetic acid) and in Asia, oil is used to preserve
foods. Salt kills and inhibits growth of microorganisms at
20% of concentration. There are various methods of pickling
like chemical pickling and fermentation pickling. In
commercial pickles sodium benzoate or EDTA is added to
increase shelf life.Sugar is used in syrup form to preserve
fruits or in crystallized form if the material to be preserved is
cooked in the sugar till crystallization takes place like
candied peel and ginger. Another use is for glazed fruit that
gets superficial coating of sugar syrup. Sugar is also used
with alcohol to preserve luxury foods like fruit in brandy.Lye
also known as Sodium hydroxide turns food alkaline and
prevents bacterial growth. Canning and bottling means
sealing cooked food in sterile bottles and cans. The
container is boiled and this kills or weakens bacteria. Foods
are cooked for various lengths or time. Once the can or
bottle is opened the food is again at risk of spoilage.Jellying
is preserving food by cooking in a material that solidifies to
form a gel. Fruits are generally preserved as jelly,
marmalade or fruit preserves and the jellying agent is pectin
that is naturally found in fruit. Sugar is also added.Potting is
a traditional British way of preserving meat by placing it in a
pot and sealing it with a layer of fat.Jugging is preserving
meat by stewing it in an earthenware jug or casserole. Brine
or wine is used to stew meat in and sometimes the animal’s
blood.Burial in the ground preserves food as there is lack
of light and oxygen and it has cool temperatures, pH level,
or desiccants in the soil. Used to preserve cabbages and
root vegetables. Pulsed Electric Field Processing is a
new method of preservation that uses brief pulses as strong
electric field to process cells. This is still at an experimental
stage. Modified atmosphere preserves food by operating
on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops that are difficult to
preserve are packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere
modified to reduce the oxygen concentration and increase
the carbon dioxide concentration. • Composition of Soil The
composition of soil varies from place to place, and hence
when we answer the question of what is soil, other
geographical factors also have to be taken into account. To
describe the composition of the soil, we must understand
that broadly speaking soil refers to any loose sediment, and
the importance of soil becomes more prominent when we
look at the types of soil. Clay soil, sandy soil, silt soil, and
loamy soil are all different types of soil with different
constituents and compositions. The composition of the soil
is 45% minerals, 5% organic matter, and 50% empty
spaces. The chemical composition of soil also varies. The
importance of soil is that it provides a medium of growth for
plants, provides a habitat for animals, and forms a crucial
component of the biosphere.Soil FormationSoil is formed
when the weathering of rocks takes place, and they break
down into tiny pieces that form the soil. The various
methods by which soil is formed include mechanical
weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.
So, when we describe the composition of the soil, we must
take into account how the soil has been formed. In
mechanical weathering, the rocks are broken down by
physical weathering such as wind or running water, or
temperature. Chemical weathering occurs when rocks are
broken down with the help of chemical reactions, and this
often ends up changing the chemical composition of the soil.
Biological weathering takes place when organisms weaken
and disintegrate rocks. For example, the roots of trees can
penetrate the cracks of rocks and end up breaking the rock.
The rhizosphere is the zone of soil influenced by the
presence of the plant roots. In this microenvironment, there
is an important interaction between plant, soil and
microfauna, which promotes plant growth. • Rhizosphere
microbial community varies from plant species to species
based on the soil types. It mainly consists of plant growth-
promoting rhizobacteria and mycorrhizae. Therefore,
rhizosphere microorganisms should be the main focus to
achieve success in nutrient management in soil. the
rhizosphere of a plant differs chemically and physically from
the bulk soil. Plant exudates are the main factors which
influence the growth of rhizosphere colonizers. It is because
plant exudates such as carbohydrates, amino acids and
vitamins, etc. are specific to plant species, and they greatly
influence the rhizosphere and its’ microbes. However,
rhizospheric microorganisms are beneficial to plant.  These
microbes promote plant growth by increasing the soil
nutrients that are accessible to plant. Moreover, they protect
the plant from root pathogens. Furthermore, rhizospheric
microbes participate in the production of plant growth
hormones. • Phyllosphere is the above-ground plant part
surfaces that provide habitats for microorganisms.
Generally, phyllosphere is a term that refers to the
microorganisms inhabiting the leaf surfaces. But, in a deep
sense, this term refers to the total above-ground surfaces of
plants microorganisms inhabit. Hence, there are
subdivisions of phyllosphere based on the plant part. They
are caulosphere (stems), phylloplane (leaves), anthosphere
(flowers), and carposphere (fruits). Phlyllosphere is mainly
inhabited by bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Their adaptations to
changing sunlight, temperature and moisture are high.
However, the population densities of phyllospheric microbes
differ with the age of the leaf. For example, higher
populations can be seen near the meristematic tissues.
ajority of the phyllospheric microorganisms do not show
direct involvement with the plant growth and function. But,
some are beneficial while some are pathogenic. Beneficial
microbes enhance the plant growth by producing plant
growth hormones and protecting the plant from pathogens.
Furthermore, pathogenic microbes that are on the plant
become a cause of food poisoning and transmission of plant
diseases among plants. nitrogen fixation, any natural or
industrial process that causes free nitrogen (N2), which is a
relatively inert gas plentiful in air, to combine chemically with
other elements to form more-reactive nitrogen compounds
such as ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites.Under ordinary
conditions, nitrogen does not react with other elements. Yet
nitrogenous compounds are found in all fertile soils, in all
living things, in many foodstuffs, in coal, and in such
naturally occurring chemicals as sodium nitrate (saltpetre)
and ammonia. Nitrogen is also found in the nucleus of every
living cell as one of the chemical components of DNA. •
Biofertilizers are substance that contains microbes,  which
helps in promoting the growth of plants and trees by
increasing the supply of essential nutrients to the plants. It
comprises living organisms which include mycorrhizal fungi,
blue-green algae, and bacteria. Mycorrhizal fungi
preferentially withdraw minerals from organic matter for the
plant whereas cyanobacteria are characterized by the
property of nitrogen fixation.Nitrogen fixation is defined as a
process of converting di-nitrogen molecules into ammonia.
For instance, some bacteria convert nitrogen to ammonia.
As a result, nitrogen becomes available for plants.Types of
BiofertilizersFollowing are the important types of
biofertilizers: Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Rhizobium
is one of the vital symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Here
bacteria seek shelter and obtain food from plants. In return,
they help by providing fixed nitrogen to the plants. Loose
Association of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Azospirillum is a
nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live around the roots of higher
plants but do not develop an intimate relationship with
plants. It is often termed as rhizosphere association as
these bacteria collect plant exudate and the same is used
as food by them. This process is termed associative
mutualism. • Symbiotic Nitrogen-Fixing Cyanobacteria Blue-
Green algae or Cyanobacteria from the symbiotic
association with several plants. Liverworts, cycad roots,
fern, and lichens are some of the Nitrogen-fixing
cyanobacteria. Anabaena is found at the leaf cavities of the
fern. It is responsible for nitrogen fixation. The fern plants
decay and release the same for utilization of the rice plants.
Azolla pinnate is a fern that resides in rice fields but they do
not regulate the growth of the plant. Free-Living Nitrogen-
Fixing Bacteria They are free-living soil bacteria that perform
nitrogen fixation. They are saprotrophic anaerobes such as
Clostridium beijerinckii, Azotobacter, etc. Among all the
types of biofertilizers, Rhizobium and Azospirillum are most
widely used. Components of Biofertilizers The components
of biofertilizers include: Bio Compost It is one of the eco-
friendly product composed of waste material released from
sugar industries which are decomposed. It is magnified with
human-friendly bacteria, fungi, and various plants. Tricho-
Card It is an eco-friendly and nonpathogenic product used in
a variety of crops as well as in horticultural and ornamental
plants, such as paddy apple, sugar cane, brinjal, corn,
cotton, vegetables, citrus, etc. It acts as a productive
destroyer and antagonistic hyper parasitic against eggs of
several bores, shoot, fruit, leaves, flower eaters and other
pathogens in the field.  Azotobacter It protects the roots
from pathogens present in the soil and plays a crucial role in
fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen is a very important
nutrient for the plant and about 78% of the total atmosphere
comprises nitrogen.Phosphorus Phosphorus is one of the
essential nutrients for plants growth and development.
Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms, hydrolyze insoluble
phosphorus compounds to the soluble form for uptake by
plants. Many fungi and bacteria are used for the purpose
such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
etc. Vermicompost It is an Eco-friendly organic fertilizer that
comprises vitamins, hormones, organic carbon, sulfur,
antibiotics that help to increase the quantity and quality of
yield. Vermicompost is one of the quick fixes to improve the
fertility of the soil • Importance of Biofertilizers Biofertilizers
are important for the following reasons: Biofertilizers
improve the soil texture and yield of plants. They do not
allow pathogens to flourish. They are eco-friendly and cost-
effective. Biofertilizers protect the environment from
pollutants since they are natural fertilizers. They destroy
many harmful substances present in the soil that can cause
plant diseases. Biofertilizers are proved to be effective even
under semi-arid conditions. Applications of Biofertilizers
Following are the important applications of biofertilizers:
Seedling root dip This method is applicable to rice crops.
The seedlings are planted in the bed of water for 8-10
hours. Seed Treatment The seeds are dipped in a mixture of
nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. These seeds are then
dried and sown as soon as possible. Soil Treatment The
biofertilizers along with the compost fertilizers are mixed and
kept for one night. This mixture is then spread on the soil
where the seeds have to be sown. The economic
importance of blue green algae (BGA), also known as
cyanobacteria primarily lies in their agronomic importance
as Biofertilizers due to their N2-fixing ability that helps them
to grow successfully in habitats with low or no combined
nitrogen. They are naturally found in most paddy soils and
improve the fertility and texture of the soil. Japanese
scientist Watanabe et al (1951) developed techniques for
mass cultivation of blue-green algae to be used as bio
fertilizer in paddy fields. Venkataraman (1961) coined the
term ‘algalizatiori to denote the process of application of
blue- green algal culture in field as biofertilizer. •
Cyanobacteria or blue green algae, are an ancient group of
gram negative prokaryotes. They are among the most
essential organisms on earth because of oxygen evolving
and nitrogen fixing ability using sunlight as the sole energy
source. They comprise of about 150 genera and 2,000
species, some of the predominant Nitrogen fixing genera
are Anabaena, Nostoc, Aulosira, Calothrix, Tolypothrix,
Aphanothece and Gloeotrichia. Although they mainly exist
as free living organisms, symbiotic relationship with some
plant and animal species has also been reported Soil
microbial populations play an influential role in the biological
management of soil fertility and productivity. They are
harnessed and processed in a way to hook the beneficial
effects on the soil and structure the soil-biological relation in
an ameliorating manner. Today’s farmers are interested in
using soil and plant microbial inoculants to maintain the
microbial equilibrium to enhance soil fertility and promote
agrocrop production. Microbes increase plant growth
promotion and enhance resistance against phytopathogens,
etc., which in turn influence the agro-production efficiency
as all are closely linked. Until now, increasing agro-
productivity was not correlated with sustainability or
ecofriendly behavior, but recent agro-trends have pointed to
the efficient use of soil microflora that yield enhanced
growth, productivity, and agriculture quality.The
mechanisms involved in enhancing agro-productivity include
nitrogen fixation, hormonal homeostasis, siderophore and
phytohormone production, phytopathogen resistivity,
nutrient availability, promotion of mycorrhizal functioning,
and decreasing pollutant toxicity (Glick et al., 1999). The
interactive nature of plants and microbes works in either
direct or indirect stimulatory processes. The direct
stimulatory processes include the phytohormones (auxin,
gibberellin, and cytokinin), siderophores, and enzyme
production along with elicitation of systemic resistance while
indirect stimulation comprises antibiotic and extracellular
enzyme production for further survival processes (Zahir et
al., 2004). There were many reports which investigates the
processes by which microbes can enhance the plant growth.
Dey et al. (2004) reports the production of 1-
aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, which
reduces the level of ethylene in the roots of developing
plants. Narula et al. (2006), Saleem et al. (2007), Ortíz-
Castro et al. (2008), and Mishra et al. (2010) reported the
production of phytohormones such as gibberellic acid,
ethylene, cytokinin, and indole-acetic acid, respectively.
Pathma et al. (2011) reported pathogen resistivity by the
production of siderophores, β-1,3-glucanase, chitinases,
antibiotics, fluorescent pigment, and cyanide. • A
genetically modified organism (GMO) is an animal, plant, or
microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic
engineering techniques. For thousands of years, humans
have used breeding methods to modify organisms. Corn,
cattle, and even dogs have been selectively bred over
generations to have certain desired traits. Within the last few
decades, however, modern advances in biotechnology have
allowed scientists to directly modify the DNA of
microorganisms, crops, and animals.Conventional methods
of modifying plants and animals—selective breeding and
crossbreeding—can take a long time. Moreover, selective
breeding and crossbreeding often produce mixed results,
with unwanted traits appearing alongside desired
characteristics. The specific targeted modification of DNA
using biotechnology has allowed scientists to avoid this
problem and improve the genetic makeup of an organism
without unwanted characteristics tagging along.Most
animals that are GMOs are produced for use in laboratory
research. These animals are used as “models” to study the
function of specific genes and, typically, how the genes
relate to health and disease. Some GMO animals, however,
are produced for human consumption. Salmon, for example,
has been genetically engineered to mature faster, and the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration has stated that these
fish are safe to eat.GMOs are perhaps most visible in the
produce section. The first genetically engineered plants to
be produced for human consumption were introduced in the
mid-1990s. Today, approximately 90 percent of the corn,
soybeans, and sugar beets on the market are GMOs.
Genetically engineered crops produce higher yields, have a
longer shelf life, are resistant to diseases and pests, and
even taste better. These benefits are a plus for both farmers
and consumers. For example, higher yields and longer shelf
life may lead to lower prices for consumers, and pest-
resistant crops means that farmers don’t need to buy and
use as many pesticides to grow quality crops. GMO crops
can thus be kinder to the environment than conventionally
grown crops.Genetically modified foods do cause
controversy, however. Genetic engineering typically
changes an organism in a way that would not occur
naturally. It is even common for scientists to insert genes
into an organism from an entirely different organism. This
raises the possible risk of unexpected allergic reactions to
some GMO foods. Other concerns include the possibility of
the genetically engineered foreign DNA spreading to non-
GMO plants and animals. So far, none of the GMOs
approved for consumption have caused any of these
problems, and GMO food sources are subject to regulations
and rigorous safety assessments. • Pests are insects that
damage crop plants and stored products. They feed on
leaves and roots or suck the sap of the plants causing
severe crop losses. Chemical pesticides sprayed on plants
can be detrimental to ecosystem if the usage is prolonged
and pests may develop resistance to the pesticides.The
term biopesticides refers to compounds that are used to
manage agricultural pests by means of specific biological
effects. It refers to products containing biocontrol agents like
natural substances such as plants, certain minerals,
animals, micro organisms including their genes or
metabolites.They are an important part of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) strategy in controlling the pest. They are
less toxic to humans and environment and they do not leave
harmful residues.They affect only the target pest.They
cause long term suppression of pest populations since they
persist in the environment.1. Bacterial Biopesticide Bacteria
like Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus papillae and Bacillus
lentimorbus have the potential to kill certain insect pests and
are entomopathogenic Fungal BiopesticidesThese
entomopathogenic fungi attack insects and cause diseases
in insect body which lead to insect death. Two prominent
fungi used as mycopesticide are    Beauveria bassiana
which causes white muscardine disease Metarhizium
anisopliae which causes green muscardine diseaseViral
Biopesticides Viral insecticides are pathogens that attack
insects and other arthropods. Viral pesticides are used to
control Lepidopteran larvae like Helicoverpa, Spodoptera sp
on Cotton, Corn, Sorghum, tomatoes. Baculoviruses are the
commonly used viral biopesticide. They are extremely small
and are composed of double stranded DNA. The genus
Baculoviruses contains 3 subgroups.   Nuclear Polyhedrosis
viruses (NPVs  Granulosis viruses (GVs)     Non occluded
viruses • Biomagnification refers to the condition where the
chemical concentration in an organism exceeds the
concentration of its food when the major exposure route
occurs from the organism’s diet. The term food web
biomagnification is used to describe trophic enrichment of
contaminants within food webs and refers to the progressive
increase in chemical concentrations with increasing animal
trophic status. For hydrophobic organic contaminants, the
terms biomagnification and food web biomagnification are
more narrowly defined to reflect the thermodynamic
condition where the chemical potential in an animal exceeds
its diet and environment and increases through successive
trophic levels. The first empirical data demonstrating food
web biomagnification was generated for the chlorinated
insecticide dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane in plankton, fish,
and birds from Clear Lake, California following multiple
applications of the pesticide in the 1950s. Food web
biomagnification for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane was
well established for multiple aquatic systems by the 1960s,
although it was not until the 1980s that the thermodynamic
criteria of biomagnification was tested and validated using
field data. A number of mechanisms have been proposed to
account for biomagnification. The gastrointestinal
magnification model and recent amendments to this model
are outlined as well as alternative, nondietary, mechanisms
that can lead to similar and potentially confounding
observations of biomagnification. • Bioremediation is the
process of removing or utilizing the pollutants from a
particularly polluted area (like soil, municipal water tanks or
sewage water, oil spills in water, or land) with the help of
microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and also plants. It is a
type of biotechnical waste management method which uses
no harmful chemicals and, in order, protects the Earth and
promotes a sustainable environment.  Pollution has grown
rapidly in the past years due to rising anthropogenic
activities. Our expert's team showcases bioremediation as
an appealing and good technique for cleaning and removing
toxic material from the contaminated environment.Vedantu's
team has explained superbly how bioremediation is highly
useful in eradicating, detoxifying, degrading, or immobilizing
varied physical dangerous material or other chemical
wastage from our surroundings using the actions of the
microorganisms. In the next few paragraphs, it would be
interesting for you to know how beautifully this entire
process works for removing toxic elements from the
atmosphere. • MICROBIAL SPOILAGE poilage of any
particular food will be by those organisms most suited to the
conditions in and around that food. The three main groups
of concern are  Bacteria: Bacteria are the main and an
important cause of food spoilage. They thrive where food
and water are present and the temperature is suitable, as in
the nose, throat, skin, bowel and lower urinary tract of man
and animals. They are single cell organisms usually having
a definite outer envelope or capsule for protection. They
multiply by dividing into two, which can occur very quickly,
(eg. every 20 minutes). They can actively move and some
link themselves together in chains or in bunches. Viruses:
Viruses are organisms much smaller than bacteria. In their
pre-infective stage they are just like a chemical with none of
the requirements for life, but once in a living cell they take
over and begin to multiply. They can grow only in living
tissue, but can be carried in food from one person to
another. Fungi: Yeasts are single cell organisms much
larger than bacteria and can be found in the soil, on plants
and on the skin and body of man. They multiply by forming
offspring as buds which grow and then detach themselves.
Some can produce disease, some cause skin infections in
man and others cause diseases in plants. Some yeasts
spoil food, but beneficial uses are in the making of beer,
wine and bread. Moulds grow as single cell filaments that
can branch together making a strongly knit structure like a
mat, that can often be seen with the naked eye. Usually they
look fluffy, being a familiar sight on foods like jam, cheese
and bread. They multiply by producing clusters of dry spores
which are blown by the air like seeds. Many moulds spoil
food and a few can cause disease in plants and man, but
beneficial uses are in the ripening of cheeses and
production of antibiotics Food may spoil as a result of
chemical changes within the food itself or by a reaction
between the food and the packaging material. Rancidity is
caused by a chemical reaction that breaks down the fatty
acids in fat to smaller molecular weight fatty acids and, at
the same time, releases certain odiferous products.
Washers, bolts, nuts and various other items have been
found in canned foods. This generally occurs when a
maintenance person makes a repair on the line and uses a
can for holding parts. The can stays on the line and is filled
with the product. Although the product is retorted and sterile,
it is aesthetically undesirable to find metallic parts in canned
foods. • Spoilage of meat under aerobic conditions: i.
Bacterial spoilage of meat:Surface spoilage:It is caused by
Pseudomonas, Acenatobacter, Streptococcus,
Leuconostoc, Bacillus and Micrococcus.Temperature and
available moisture influence type of microorganisms causing
slime. Change in color of meat: Red color of meat may be
changed into green brown or grey due to production of
oxidising agent, H2S, etc. by microorganisms. For example,
Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc cause greening of sausage.
Change in fat: Fat of meat may become rancid due to
lipase producing microorganisms such as Pseudomonas
and Achromobacter.