Review of Dependent Clauses

Verb + that + clause

Sometimes a that clause can be used after the main verb in place of a gerund or infinitive.
There is no change in meaning. That can be omitted.
He admitted (that) he had stolen the money.
She promised (that) she would help.
2 With suggest, these constructions are possible:
I suggested (that) he take a holiday.
I suggested (that) he took a holiday.
3 We don’t say:
*He wanted (that) I do it.

Choose the correct verb form. Say if both forms are correct.
1 He didn’t deny that he had steal / stolen the wallet.
2 Gill suggests getting / got there early to find a parking space.
3 Gill suggested that they get / got there early to find a parking space.
4 Hans promised coming / that he would come in early on Saturday.
5 Hattie wanted that I go / me to go with her to the dentist.

Reduced infinitives
We can use to instead of the full infinitive in replies.
‘Hasn’t Juan loaded the dishwasher yet?’ ‘No, he’s just going to.’
‘Shall we go into town today?’ ‘No, I don’t want to.’
The verb to be is not usually reduced to to.
Houses aren’t as cheap as they used to be.
They weren’t as comfortable as they’d hoped to be.
Complete the sentences with two words.
1 ‘Wouldn’t she come with you?’ ‘No, even when I begged _______.’
2 I asked Annie to get up early, but she didn’t ________.
3 I’m not as fit as I used ______.

Participles as reduced relative clauses

When participles come after a noun, they are like reduced relative clauses.
I saw the man driving the getaway car. (who was driving)
The jewels stolen from the bank vault were never found. (that were stolen)
The politician being questioned by the journalist is about to resign. (who is being
questioned)
Choose the correct option.
1 The girls wearing / worn uniform looked very smart.
2 The tablets prescribing / prescribed by the doctor made me better.
3 Visitors taking / being taken photos will be asked to leave.
Participles in adverb clauses
Participle clauses can describe actions that are going on simultaneously.
Jan sat by the pool sunbathing and sipping a cocktail.
I went to the graduation ceremony dressed in my hat and gown.
2 Participle clauses can describe actions that happen consecutively.
Opening her briefcase, she took out some papers.
Told to leave the class, he stood in the corridor.
3 If it is important to show that the first action has finished before the second begins,
the perfect participle is used.
Having finished breakfast, we packed our beach bags.
4 Participle clauses can express the idea of because.
Being rather poor, he couldn’t afford a car.
(Because he was rather poor, …)
Not understanding the menu, I ordered something awful!
(Because I didn’t understand…)
Damaged by flood water, the house had to be demolished. (Because it had been
damaged…)
5 Participle clauses can express the idea of result.
She behaved outrageously, totally spoiling the evening.
6 Participle clauses can express the idea of if.
Eaten often, oily fish can improve your intelligence.
Participle clauses can be introduced by while, when, after, by, on, and since.
While waiting for the bus, I started chatting to a stranger.
When leaving the plane, remember to take your belongings.
After paying the bill, we found there was a mistake.
I earned money as a student by working in a café.
On arriving in the US, I was interviewed by Customs.
Since moving to Budapest, I’ve met some very nice people.
In all participle clauses, the subject of the clause and the subject of the main verb
must be the same.
Complete with a present or past participle.
1 _________ the phone, he dialled her number. (pick up)
2 ________ at the hotel, we unpacked and went out. (arrive)
3 ________ she was on a diet, I served a salad for lunch. (know)
4 By ________ it through, they managed to solve the problem. (talk)
5 ________ for burglary, Guy tried to escape to South America. (want)
6 _________ in olive oil, potatoes can be delicious. (roast)
7 Sandra ran to the door, _________ Alec had arrived. (hope)
8 She was late for the train, _________ the job interview. (miss)
9 Since _________ our house up for sale we’ve been very stressed. (put)

Linking devices: Time and sequence

Linkers
The following linkers are conjunctions of time.
 When I arrived, everyone was already there.
As soon as I saw her, I knew she was the one for me.
As I was waiting, I listened to my iPod.
While/Whilst
After I had a shower, I got dressed.
Before I had breakfast, I went for a run.
Once he’d packed, he left for the airport.
I’ve been living here since I was a child.

as soon as and the moment

These emphasize the immediacy with which one event follows another (and are therefore
not used with continuous tenses).
As soon as she heard the alarm clock, she jumped out of bed.
The moment we met her, we liked her.
by the time
The meaning of by the time means that clauses containing it are often accompanied by
examples of the past perfect or future perfect.
By the time he’d left, we were ready for bed.
Dave will have graduated by the time we see him again.
meanwhile
Meanwhile is similar to while but introduces a new sentence.
Heat the oven while you are cooking the sauce.
Cook the sauce. Meanwhile, heat the oven.
in the end
In the end does not simply refer to a final action or event. It describes a final outcome that
was different from the one intended.
He wanted to go to the USA, but in the end he could only afford to go to Europe.
Participles
Participles can also express links of time.
Picking up my bag, I left the café.
Having left the café, I went home.
Complete the sentences with a word/phrase from the list.
as soon as before the time in the end meanwhile putting since moment
1 Andrew’s been a pilot for British Airways ________ he was 25.
2 ___________ you saw me, you fell in love with me, didn’t you?
3 ________ my arm round him, I led him away.
4 Be ready to leave by __________ I’ve finished my coffee.
5 ________ I started school, I could already read really well.
6 The USA were successful in space exploration, but __________ they cancelled the
programme because it was too expensive.
7 The ________ Melanie walked in, an argument started.
8 Sara pretended to like me. __________ , she was laughing at me behind my back.
Linking devices: Condition
The following linkers are used to express a condition.
If he’d like to stay with us, that’s no problem.
Providing you’re good, you can stay up late tonight.
Provided
As long as
So long as
Even if I’m there, I don’t mind.
I’ll arrive at 2.30 unless I hear from you.
Whether you enjoy it or not, you should go.
No matter who/what/when …
Supposing you ever won the lottery, what would you do?

in case/in case of
1 In case has a very different meaning from if.
I’ll do X if Y happens.
(Y must happen first in order for X to happen.)
I’ll do X in case Y happens.
(X happens first, and isn’t dependent on Y happening. It is a precaution.)
I’ll buy a new car next year if I can afford it.
He’s taken out insurance in case he has an accident.
2 In case of + noun is a formal construction which does mean the same as if. It is
usually found in notices and regulations.
In case of fire, leave the building by the nearest fire exit.
Correct the sentences.
1 Provided as Mona works hard from now on, she can keep the job.
Provided Mona works hard from now on, she can keep the job.
2 No matter if hard you work, you can’t keep the job.
No matter how hard you work, you can’t keep the job.
3 Supposed your wife left you, how would you feel?
Supposing your wife left you, how would you feel?
4 In case an emergency, leave the plane by the nearest exit.
In case of an emergency, leave the plane by the nearest exit.
5 They’ll buy a house in case they can find one they like.
They’ll buy a house if they can find one they like.
6 I’ll take a book to read whether I have to wait for ages.
I’ll take a book to read in case I have to wait for ages.

Linking devices: Result

so and such
So and such are linking devices which express result.
We were tired, so we sat down for a few minutes.
The book was so gripping that I couldn’t put it down.
It was such a gripping book that I couldn’t put it down.
as a result, therefore, and consequently/as a consequence
As a result, therefore, and consequently/as a consequence can also express the result of
something.
Her father was a millionaire. As a result, she inherited a huge house.
The pound has gone down against the euro. Therefore/ Consequently/As a
consequence, German products are more expensive for the British. (more formal)
thus
Thus is even more formal than therefore and is used in formal writing, often to draw a
conclusion resulting from certain facts and evidence.
The survey found that most people were not in favour of the proposed change. Thus,
we will not be going ahead with the reorganization.
Participles
1 Participles can also express result.
Rob fell off the ladder, breaking his arm and injuring his knee.
2 It is important to use a comma before so in order to produce the meaning of result.
Without the comma, this meaning of so can easily be confused with that of purpose
(when so is a shorter form of so that).
Stephen did a maths exam, so he could study science at university.
(The ability to study science is a (possibly unintended) result of doing a maths exam.
In this case, could is likely to be stressed.)
Stephen did a maths exam so he could study science at university.
(The ability to study science is the reason why he did a maths exam. In this case,
science is likely to be stressed.)
Choose the correct options. Say if more than one option is correct.
1 Everyone was feeling ill on the boat, so / such / as they gave us seasick tablets.
2 The film was therefore / so / such a success that they made a sequel.
3 Fred didn’t do any work for his exams. As a result, / Such / Consequently, he failed
them spectacularly.
4 Management and Unions failed to reach agreement. Therefore, / Thus, / As strike
action was called for.
5 Federico often played his violin around the town, sometimes earning / earned /
earns £200 per day.

Linking devices: Reason

as and since
As and since are used when the reason is already known to the listener/reader, or when it is
not the most important part of the sentence.
As the weather was cold, we decided to take our coats.
Since it was their anniversary, they organized a big party.
Both these clauses are quite formal. In an informal style, we would be more likely to use so.
The weather was cold, so we decided to take our coats.
because
1 Because puts more emphasis on the reason, and most often introduces new
information.
Because Flora couldn’t find a job, she moved back in with her parents.
2 When the reason is the most important part of the sentence, the because clause
usually comes at the end.
 Flora moved to London because she thought it would be easy to find a job.
for
For introduces new information, but suggests that the reason is given as an afterthought. A
for clause could almost be in brackets.
We should plan ahead carefully, for the future is almost upon us.
because of, as a result of, due to, and owing to
Because of, as a result of, due to, and owing to can also express the cause of something.
I decided not to travel this weekend because of the rail strike.
Food costs more this year as a result of inflation.
Due to the strong pound, travel abroad is inexpensive.
Owing to a lack of interest, the exhibition will close in July.
seeing as
Seeing as is an informal way of giving a reason for doing something, often used in spoken
English.
Seeing as you’re looking tired, I’ll give you a lift home.
Participles
Participles can also express reason (see 8.5).
Being a Spanish-speaker, I find travelling in Argentina easy.
Deprived of love, the child developed serious problems.

Make new sentences starting with the expressions below.

1 We had helped tidy up, so our teacher gave us sweets.
Since __________________________________________
2 The restaurant closed because of poor kitchen hygiene.
Due to _________________________________________
3 It was winter in Sydney, so we took warm clothes.
Seeing as _______________________________________
4 I was small for my age, so I was bullied by other kids.
Being __________________________________________
5 There was a strike, therefore we couldn’t take the train.
Owing to ________________________________________

Linking devices: Purpose

The infinitive
1 The infinitive on its own is the most common pattern in informal English for
expressing purpose. In order to is a longer form of the infinitive of purpose, and so as
to is a more formal version.
2 We cannot use the infinitive alone in the negative.
so (that)
1 We can use the linker so (that) + can/could or will/would to express purpose. The that
is often dropped in more informal contexts, in which case there is no comma before
the so.
Summer Time was introduced so that people could take advantage of the long
summer evenings.
I studied languages so I could live abroad.
 I left work at 3.00 so I could get to my appointment.
2 We also use so (that) when there is a change in subject.
Harriet took on an extra job so (that) her son could have music lessons.

Correct the sentences using expressions of purpose.

1 NASA built Apollo 11 order to land a man on the Moon.
NASA built Apollo 11 in order to land a man on the Moon.
2 NASA built Apollo 11 as to land a man on the Moon.
NASA built Apollo 11 so as to land a man on the Moon.
3 We sat at the back so as not be seen by our daughter on the stage.
We sat at the back so as not to be seen by our daughter on the stage.
4 I did an unpaid internship so could get some work experience.
I did an unpaid internship so I could get some work experience.
5 She worked when her kids were small that they could have nice things.
She worked when her kids were small so that they could have nice things.

Linking devices: Addition

also, and and
1 Also, and and are the most simple and common ways of adding a further point.
Contrary to widespread belief, it is perfectly good style to begin a sentence with And.
Slavery was the main cause of the American Civil War. And this is something that
many Americans still feel guilty about.
2 And can also be used together with another linking device that expresses addition.
This supermarket is one of the cheapest. And what’s more, its products are great!
furthermore, what’s more, in addition to, and as well as
Furthermore and in addition to are more formal equivalents of what’s more, and as well as.
The MegaPad is a great product. Furthermore, it’s one of the most stylish tablets you
can buy.
Yoga is one of the most effective ways to exercise. What’s more, it helps you relax.
In addition to the basic fare, there is an extra charge for baggage.
As well as being quite cheap, vegetables are good for you.
too
1 Also can be used at the end of a sentence, but too is more common in this position.
Sally’s going to a music festival this summer. Sam is going too.
2 The use of a comma before too at the end of a sentence is optional. By introducing a
pause, it tends to add emphasis.
The gym is very cheap – and it’s near work, too!
Which option in brackets cannot replace the word or phrase in bold?
1 He did a great interview. What’s more, he has a fantastic CV. (And, As well as)
2 Pilates is an enjoyable activity. Furthermore, it stretches most of your muscles.
(Too, Also,)

3 As well as helping after school, she organizes the football club on Saturdays. (In
addition to, What’s more)
4 Anthony shares a flat with Emma. Georgie does too. (and, also)
Linking devices: Contrast
But, although, though, and even though
1 But is the most common way of expressing contrast. Even though is more emphatic
than although. Though is more formal than although.
Even though the bus was late, I got there on time.
He persuaded her to come, though it wasn’t easy.
2 Though can be used as a comment adverb.
‘Our hotel was expensive.’ ‘It was great, though.’
However, nevertheless, yet, all the same, and even so
All the same and even so express contrast informally, while however, nevertheless, and yet
are more formal.

He wasn’t happy with the hotel, yet he didn’t leave.

She’s quite rude. All the same, I like her.
Even so,
He wasn’t happy with the hotel. However, he didn’t leave.
Nevertheless,
in spite of and despite
1 In spite of and despite can also express contrast.
Despite being over eighty, the President refused to resign.
2 If a verb form other than the gerund is used, despite and in spite of are followed by
the fact that + subject.
Despite the fact that we complained, nothing was done.
*Despite of the fact that…

The tennis tournament was fun despite the rain. in

spite of the rain. *despite of the rain.

while/whilst and whereas

1 While (or Whilst) is commonly used to make a contrast.
While I’d love to come on holiday with you, I have to get this work done.
2 However, while is avoided for contrasts if the meaning could easily be confused with
while for time and sequence.
While Sam loves football, Tom prefers rugby.
… is better expressed as a contrast using whereas.
Whereas Sam loves football, Tom prefers rugby.
3 While can be used to make contrasting statements about the same subject, or different
ones, but whereas always involves a contrast between two different subjects.
Whereas dogs tend to be very loyal, cats are far more independent.
1 In most contexts, however can be replaced with other contrast linkers (with a change
of form in some cases).
They knew that Japan was expensive. However/Nevertheless/Even so/In spite of this,
they decided to go there for a holiday.
2 Only however should be used when a contrast exists between two statements, but
there is no possible causative link between them.
I needed to be at work early. However, the train was late.
It would be wrong to say …
I needed to be at work early. *Nevertheless, the train was late.
 … because there is no reason why my wishing to be at work on time should affect the
punctuality of the train. Similarly, the train can’t be late in spite of my wishes

3 It isn’t necessarily bad style to begin a sentence with But. But can also be used along
with another contrast linker (with the exception of however). This can be a useful
way to avoid the need to begin a new sentence.
We didn’t sell many tickets, but nevertheless/even so/all the same, the people that
came enjoyed the event.

Choose one correct option in brackets.

1 Even though I got up late, I had time for a shower. (Although, Even so, But)
2 I managed to get to work by 9.00, though I didn’t have breakfast. (all the same,
although, nevertheless)
3 The meeting was useful. It was long, though. (–, despite, although)
4 A colleague gave me some bad advice. Even so, we completed the project
successfully. (While, All the same, In spite of)
5 I complained to my manager. Nevertheless, my colleague wasn’t sacked. (Whereas,
But, However)
6 Despite being bad at her job, she wasn’t asked to leave.
(In spite of, However, But)
7 While I’d love to stay at the company, I can’t work with her anymore. (Whereas,
Whilst, –)