UNIVERSITÉ OF YAOUNDÉ I UNIVERSITY OF YAOUNDE I

FACULTY OF SCIENCES
FACULTÉ DES SCIENCES
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
DEPARTEMENT DE PHYSIQUE

ENGLISH ORAL
Topic : QUANTUM THEORIE – QUANTUM STATES

GROUP MEMBERS
Noms Prenoms Matricules Options
Pouomegne Murielle 20S2742 Fondamentale
Kenmogne
Rane Ngoundam Hamed Yasser 20Q2071 Mecanique
IV
Schouame Barbara Ingrid 19E2731 Fondamentale
Oumoul
Schouame Sonia Estelle 19E2745 Fondamentale
Jacqueline
Signe Fosso Sebastien 20O2996 Mecanique
Simo Nathalie Larissa 20Q2301 EEA
Princesse Steffy Mekoudja Tsatia 20O2932 Fondamentale
Samba Meigali Yves Mathias 20Q2655 EEA
Ranedoupouo Hadamou 19O2546 EEA

Examinator : Mr
Sakwe , Mr
Musima
 Summary
Introduction………………………………………………………………………..
I. Quantum State………………………………………………………………
1. Quantum phenomenon: Mach Zehnder interferometer …………………..
2. State vector and probability ………………………………………………
3. Hilbert space and qubit …………………………………………………...
II. Measurement of quantum information……………………………………
1. Spin measurement stern and Gerlach experiment ………………………..
2. Linear operators and matrix representation……………………………….
3. Spectral decomposition……………………………………………………
III. Postulates of quantum theory ……………………………………………...
1. Postulates 1 and 2 ………………………………………………………...
2. Postulates 3 and 4…………………………………………………………
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………
Introduction
Quantum mechanics is the study of the matter and its interactions with energy on
the scale of atomic and subatomic particles. By contrast, classical physics explains
matter and energy only on a scale familiar to human experiences, including the
behavior of astronomical bodies such as the moon. Classical physics is still used in
much of modern science and technology. However, towards the end of the 19 th
century, scientist discover phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small
(micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain. The desire to resolve
inconsistencies between observed phenomena and classical theory led to two major
revolutions in physics that created a shift in the original scientific paradigm, the
theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics.

I. Quantum State
1. Quantum phenomenon: Mach Zehnder interferometer
* Description
A Mach Zehnder interferometer is a device that highlights the strange behavior of
the quantum particle commonly called quanton. This device consists of:
- A source Sx which individually emits the particles in a very specific
direction (x or y);
- A beam splitter which split a beam coming out from the source or
emission;
𝜋
- A perfect mirror which introduces differences of phase of
2

* Highlighting the quanton phenomena

the weirdness of the quantum world remains a mystery to most of great scientists.
As a result, several experiments were carried out to be able unravel this mystery:
these are the experiments of
- Mach-Zehnder 1 and Mach-Zehnder 2 (MZ1, MZ2) which chow us that
we can determine by which path the particle passed. We say that there is
discernibility, the particle behaves like a classical object.
 - Mach-Zehnder 3 and Mach-Zehnder 4 (MZ3, MZ4); in these experiments
we do not know by which path the quantum particle passed. There is therefore a
phenomenon of indiscernibility and a measurement (observation) carried out may
disturb the system.
Ultimately, the quantum phenomenon underlined indiscernibility leading to
the great phenomenon of indeterminism thus contradicting the classical phenomena
of determinism which stipulates that the quantum particles prepared in the same
initial states must have the same final properties.

2. State vector and probability

The purpose of this section is not to explain why there us strangeness at the
quantum level, but rather to define the rules for understanding this strange
behavior. It is for example a question of understanding by which mechanism, a
quanton coming from SX chooses to be transmitted or reflected on a semi-
transparent mirror. this requires a new formalism so as to overcome antinomic
between the notions of wave and corpuscle. For this purpose, let us study the
unbalanced Mach-Zehnder interferometer.
In Mach-Zehnder interferometer, we will have to deal with transitions. For a given
experiences, a transition is a set of initial and final states. The object of quantum
theory is to predict whether this transition as taken place or not. In Mach-Zehnder
interferometer, transition is for example the passage of a quanton from separator to
one of two detectors. We denote by:
• |𝑥⟩ the state vector which represents the quanton which propagates in the
directions of x
• |𝑦⟩ the state vector that represents the quanton which propagates in the
directions of y.
The coefficients of reflection (r) and transmission (t) of the quantons on a semi-
mirror reflective are interpreted as the probability amplitudes (or waves of
probability) of reflection and transmission. Thus, the probability of finding the
transmitted quanton by a single BS is 𝑇 = |𝑡|2 and the probability of finding it
right is 𝑅 = |𝑟|2 . these probabilities must if course satisfy the completeness
condition: |𝑡|2 + |𝑟|2 = 1.
Since the BS of the Mach Zehnder interferometer are balanced, we have by virtue
1 1
of the MHZ experiment: |𝑡|2 = |𝑟|2 = 𝑑 ′ 𝑜𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑟 = .
2 √2

3. Hilbert space and qubit

* Qubit (quantum information)
In quantum computing, a qubit or quantum bit is a basic unit of quantum
information. The quantum version of the classic binary bit physically realized with
a two-state device. A qubit is a two state (or two level) quantum – mechanical
systems one of the simplest quantum systems displaying The peculiarity of
quantum mechanics.
Examples include the spin if electron in which the two levels can be taken as spin
up and spin down. In a classical system, a bit would have to be in one state or the
other. however, quantum mechanics allows the qubit to be in a coherent
superposition of both states simultaneously.
* Hilbert Space
The mathematical space where quantum calculations take place is the Hilbert space
note H. which is a complex Euclidean space provided with a scalar product. It is an
infinite dimensional space.
Definition
A Hilbert space is a real or complex inner product space that is also a complete
metric space with respect to the distance function induced by the inner product.
To say that it is a complex inner product space means that H is a complex vector
space on which there is an inner product ⟨𝑥|𝑦⟩ associating a complex number to
each pair of elements x, y of H that satisfies the following properties.
Properties of Hilbert space
1. The inner product is conjugate symmetric, that is, the inner of a pair of
elements it equal to the complex conjugate of the inner product of the
swopped elements 〈𝑦, 𝑥〉 = 〈𝑥, 𝑦〉† .
 2. The inner product is linear in its first argument. For all complex number a
and b, 〈𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑥2, 𝑦〉 𝑎〈𝑥1, 𝑦〉 + 𝑏〈𝑥2, 𝑦〉.
3. The inner product of an element with itself is positive definitive: 〈𝑥, 𝑥〉 >
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0, 〈𝑥, 𝑥〉 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0.
It follows from properties 1 and 2 that a complex inner product is antilinear, also
called conjugate linear, in its second argument meaning that 〈𝑥, 𝑎𝑦1 + 𝑏𝑦2〉 =
𝑎̅〈𝑥, 𝑦1〉 + 𝑏̅〈𝑥, 𝑦2〉
A real inner product space is defined in the same way, except that H is a real vector
space and the inner product takes real values. Such an inner product will be a
bilinear map an (H, H, 〈. , . 〉) will form a dual system.

The norm is the real-valued function ‖𝑥‖ = √〈𝑥, 𝑥〉, and the distance d between
two points x, y in H is defined in terms of norm by

D (x, y) = ‖𝑥 − 𝑦‖ = √〈𝑥 − 𝑦, 𝑥 − 𝑦〉.

II. Measurement of quantum information

1. Spin measurement stern and Gerlach experiment
In quantum physics, spin is one the internal properties of particles in the same way
as mass or electric charge. it has important theoretical and practical implications; it
influences the physical world as a whole. Spin is the intrinsic angular momentum
of quantum particles. therefore, the spin is a Hermitian vector operator 𝑆̂
comprising three components usually denoted Sx, Sy, SZ by reference to the three
axes of cartesian coordinates usable in physical space. We can perform a spin
measurement using the experiment of stern a Gerlach. Knowing that a
measurement is the result of an interaction between the system and a measuring
device.
In the experiment of Stern, a Gerlach, a beam of silver atoms having zero total
orbital angular momentum passes through an inhomogeneous magnetic field.
These atoms are collected on a photographic screen. At the source, silver atom is in
1
any spin state |𝜑⟩ = 𝛼|+⟩ + 𝛽|−⟩ = (|+⟩ + |−⟩) , 𝛼 and 𝛽 describes the
√2
orientation of the spin in three-dimensional space. The effect of the measuring
device is described by the operator Sz which operates on the states |𝜑⟩ to
give|+⟩ 𝑜𝑟 |– ⟩) eigenstates of Sz with eigenvalues +h/2 or -h/2.

2. Linear operators and matrix representation

The postulates of quantum mechanics are built on the operator’s concept. a
quantum mechanical state is represented by a unit vector in a complex Hilbert
space. The temporal evolution in this vector space is given by the application of the
temporal evolution operator. The matrix of an operator is other than a
representative form which makes it easy to understand the calculus of this operator.
an operator is in quantum mechanics, a linear application of a space of Hilbert dans
in itself. All observables, an amount that can be measured by an experiment, must
be associated with a self-assistor linear operator. The operator must produce equity
values, since it must be corresponding to the experimental measurements. For this
the operator must be Hermitian. the likelihood that these values are observed is
related to the projection of the physical state on the under worthy corresponding to
these own values.
3. Spectral decomposition
We investigate the spectral decomposition of symmetric forms. The forms are
parameterized by weighting functions for levels and derivates of a class of test
functions. Our interest in these forms is that they are associated with operator semi
groups from underlying Markov processes. We establish the existence of a discrete
spectrum by restricting the forms. these weighting functions have explicit
interpretations in the Markov environments that interest us. They are built from the
diffusion matrix, the stationary density for the diffusion and a state dependent
decay rate used in representing the Markov semi group. We provide primitive
sufficient conditions for the existence of eigen functions, and we characterize the
limiting behavior of the associated eigenvalues, the objects used to quantify the
incremental importance of the eigen functions. we use our results to provide
sufficient conditions for the spectral decomposition of Feynman Kac operators and
Markov semi groups.

III. Postulates of quantum theory

 1. Postulates 1 and 2
Postulate one state space.
The physical state of a system is entirely if finite at each instant by element that is
to say, the quantum state can be represented as at each instant by extra vector in a
space of Hilbert. |ψ⟩= ∑𝑛 |𝜑𝑛⟩ ⟨𝜑𝑛|𝜓⟩= ∑𝑛 αn|𝜑𝑛⟩ .
• The state vector usually denoted mathematical suit reality of individual of a
quantum state physical being thus a consequence of quantum be picking is
that of the principle of superposition states of spin. Of the dent states
overlay. In other words, if |𝜑1⟩ and |𝜑2⟩ are two state vectors any linear
combination from |𝜑1⟩ and |𝜑2⟩ is also a state vector α1 and α2 𝜖 ℂ
• The kets are normalized states vectors has a those near.

Postulate two: Born Ruler

If |ψ⟩ and |𝜑𝑛⟩ represents the physics state of a system, the probability for that |𝜑⟩
pass the test |𝜑𝑛⟩: P (𝜑𝑛 ⟵ ψ) = |⟨𝜑𝑛|𝜓⟩|2
• αn = ⟨𝜑𝑛|𝜓⟩ is the transition probabilities amplitude for the system that was
in the state to be in the state |𝜑𝑛⟩.
• Pn = |𝜑𝑛⟩⟨𝜑𝑛| is the projection operator based on {|𝜑𝑛⟩}

2. Postulates 3 and 4
Postulate 3: physical quantities and operators.
To any measurable physical quantity, A (position, speed, polarization etc.) is
associated a Hermitian linear operator A acting in Hilbert space. A is the
mathematical representation of this quantity A.
In Stern Gerlach, the operator S is the representation of the quantity magnetic
momentum of spin S.

Postulate 4: principle of spectral decomposition I

The measurement of a physical quantity A can only give as result one if the
eigenvalues of the corresponding Hermitian operator A.
If {|𝜑𝑛⟩} is the basis of the eigenvectors with eigenvalues an, namely
A|𝜑𝑛⟩=an|𝜑𝑛⟩, then the spectral decomposition (diagonalization) of A is written
A = ∑𝑛 |𝜑𝑛⟩an⟨𝜑𝑛| . the set of a forms the spectrum of A.

• principle of spectral decomposition II

the probability P(an) of obtaining as result the eigenvalue an of the Hermitian
operator A is P(an) = |⟨𝜑𝑛|𝜓⟩|2
if a large number of measurements or test are carried out, the average value of the
physical quantity A in state |ψ⟩ is: ⟨𝜓|𝐴𝜓⟩

• principle of spectral decomposition III

in stern Gerlach, the operator can be written Sz = |+⟩(+h/2) ⟨+| + |-⟩(-h/2) ⟨−|
the eigenvectors |+⟩ and |-⟩ of Sz form a complete basis in Hilbert space, +h/2, -h/2
together form the spectrum of S. this result is analogeous to classical predictions.

Conclusion
The mention of the phrase “quantum physics, immediately invokes a response of
something quite weird and incomprehensive and perhaps in very special conditions
in nature, competing in a race to develop quantum computing, which will also be
of use to a few specialist quantum physicists or quantum engineers.”
Due to its capital important in almost all fields, there are many applications of
quantum physics. We can list a thing which depend upon quantum physics for their
operation. Toaster, fluorescent light , computer and mobile phone, biological
compass, transitor , laser , micro copy, global positioning GPS system,
telecommunications .