A Self-Reproducing Interstellar Probe

Robert A. Freitas Jr.

100 Buckingham Drive, No. 253, Santa Clara, California 95051, USA.
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 33, pp. 251264 1980.
Note: This web version is derived from an earlier draft of the paper and may possibly
differ in some substantial aspects from the final published paper.

Bracewell [1, 2] and Freitas [3] have discussed the possible superiority of interstellar probes in missions
of galactic exploration and recently Calder [4] and Boyce [5] have raised the issue of self-organizing
machines in related contexts. In this paper a preliminary sketch of a self-reproducing starprobe is
presented, with generation time ~103 years given a ~ 10-fold improvement in current human
space/manufacturing technology.

 
1. INTRODUCTION
The first serious proposal to use material space probes for interstellar exploration is properly credited to
Bracewell [1,6]. According to his calculations, if the Galaxy is heavily populated with extraterrestrial
civilizations (~10 light-years average separation then it makes sense to communicate using radio waves.
if the Galaxy is only very thinly populated (~1000 light-years separation) communication is virtually
impossible because of time lag and acquisition difficulties. However, if the Milky Way is populated at
some intermediate level (~100 light%ears separation) then the best way to explore and contact other
races is by automated messenger probe.

In the classical "Bracewell probe" contact scenario [2, 7], the automated device enters our Solar
System, detects radio emissions of an unnatural character emanating from Earth, and
subsequently positions itself in some convenient parking orbit around our planet. Upon receiving
some arbitrary human transmission, the intelligent probe beams an identical copy of the message
back to the transmitter site in hopes of gaining our attention. Once accomplished, language
lessons soon follow; hopefully, meaningful discourse and cultural exchange between humanity
and the automated alien ambassador ultimately take place.
Project Daedalus, a preliminary design study of a flyby probe mission to Barnard's star recently
completed by members of the British Interplanetary Society [8], has demonstrated the feasibility
of this approach to interstellar exploration and communication using foreseeable human
technology sometime in the next century. The automated probe strategy has received further
support from Freitas [3], who shows that transmission of information across interstellar distances
using energy-markers (photons) or matter-markers (probes) may be energetically and alternatives
for highly developed technological civilizations Only such advanced societies realistically can
afford either radio beacons or starprobes, and secondary distinguishability criteria suggest the
possible superiority of intel ligent automata for contact and communication missions between
extraterrestrial civilizations. The search for alien space artifacts in our own Solar System has
already begun [9].
A major alternative to both the Daedalus flyby and "Bracewell probe" orbiter is the concept of
the self -reproducing starprobe. Replicating spacefaring machines recently have received a
cursory examination by Calder [4] and Boyce [5], I but the basic feasibility of this approach has
never been seriously considered despite its tremendous potential. In theory, each self -
reproducing device dispatched by the launching society would become an independent agent,
slowly scouting the Galaxy for evidence of life, intelligence and civilization. While such
machines might be costlier to design and construct, given sufficient time a relatively few
replicating starprobes could search the entire Milky Way.
The present paper addresses the plausibility of self-reproducing starprobes and the basic
parameters of feasibility. A subsequent paper [10] compares reproductive and nonreproductive
probe search strategies for missions of interstellar and galactic exploration.
 
2. THEORY OF SELF-REPRODUCING AUTOMATA
There is little disagreement among cyberneticians that full machine self -reproduction is possible
in principle. Quite a number of techniques have been explored by modern theoreticians;
however, it was von Neumann [11][12] who first investigated several different models of
automata replication.
The simplest of these schemes is usually called the "tessellation model." Space is divided into
cubical cells, and each part of the machine and each piece of raw material from which it
constructs itself occupies exactly one cell. All processes are quantized in time as well as space 
activity occurs in step with regular clock cycles. In the tessellation model examined by von
Neumann, space becomes two-dimensional for simplicity, with the machine occupying a
connected set of squares. Each square is in one of a specified set of states. The machine is
surrounded by inert squares which it must organize into an exact duplicate of itself.
Von Neumann's simplest example calls for a box consisting of 80x400 contiguous cells plus a
long linear "tail" of coded instructions 150,000 squares in length. The box consists of a specific
arrangement of three kinds of parts  neurons, transmission cells, and muscle cells  and
performs two primary functions. First, it follows the instructions encoded in the tail, in sequence.
Second, it copies the tail, which contains a coded description of a tailless box. Reproduction is
complete when the box organizes the inert units around it into a copy of the tailless box, then
copies its own tail and attaches this to the second box.
The second von Neumann scheme, commonly known as the "kinematic model," is somewhat
more abstract and generalized. It involves the activity of a Universal Turing Machine, a device
designed conceptually by Turing [13] which is able to process any specific algorithm. Since -its
output is pure information, von Neumann conceived of a Universal Automaton capable of
building material objects using any specific construction algorithm.
Imagine three Universal Automatons A, B, and C. If the description of A is fed into B, the output
of B is the behaviour of A. If the behaviour of A is the construction of C then the output of B is
the machine C. But if C is identical to B, then B is producing copies of itself  in essence, it is
reproducing. Of course, for B to function properly it must have access to a stockroom well
supplied with all component parts necessary to build each Universal Automaton.
It may be argued that the above is merely a design for a general purpose assembler robot, whose
output happens to be copies of itself. This may be true, but still the process is properly termed
"self -reproduction." Given access to the proper environment, B can indeed replicate itself. This
is not cheating, for human beings also must have access to a very specialized environment in
order to reproduce  a chemical "stockroom" full of air, water, and food containing assorted
proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and so forth. Lifeforms, like Universal
'Automatons, cannot produce order out of complete chaos. Rather, each can only transform more
simply organized matter into more complexly organized matter.
An example of a modern approach is given by Laing [14] who has investigated two machine
reproduction schemes involving complete self -inspection. In the first version the original
machine is visualized as a one-dimensional string of components consisting of a constructor
sequence (initially active) and a sequence containing the instructions to build an analyzer
(initially passive). The constructor operates on the passive set and builds a working analyzer
which, acting independently, produces a complete description of the original machine. Using this
description, the original constructor builds an exact duplicate of the original machine, and
reproduction is complete. In the second version the original machine consists of two parallel
strings, each containing a working constructor and analyzer. The first string to be activated
analyzes its passive partner and reconstructs a copy of it; the second string is next activated,
resulting in a copy of the first. Thus the system has reproduced itself without recourse to an
external self -description.
Much has appeared in the literature affirming the possibility of automata replication and
development [1527]. Computer programs and numerical patterns that reproduce themselves
have been created [2829] and several simple but ingenious physical machines capable of self-
reproduction in specialized favourable environments have already been designed, constructed,
and successfully operated by Penrose [3032], Jacobson [33] and Morowitz [34]. Other
machines have been built over the years which demonstrate the ability to feed, metabolize, learn,
respond to stimuli, recognize the self, and move about in physical space with goal-oriented
behaviour [3538]. Surprisingly, many of these devices are quite modest in complexity,
sometimes requiring as few as 30 bits [39] for complete physical description.
A sophisticated self -reproducing starprobe must be able to function in highly generalized
environments. It will not be able to pick up its parts (or bits of structural information) "free" from
the environment, hence it must carry with it much more descriptive data than any replicating
machine built to date. But there is little doubt that such a machine can, in theory, be designed.
 
3. MISSION PROFILE
The self -reproducing probe (REPRO) presented in this paper is intended primarily as a simple
demonstration that such a thing is plausible. It is not a set of blueprints for the construction of a
replicating starprobe. The basic design for REPRO closely follows the general plan of the Daedalus
starship vehicle created by the BIS study group mentioned earlier.

REPRO is designed from the payload up. To contain the necessary reproductive equipment the
payload of the original Daedalus probe was approximately doubled, causing the vehicle mass to
increase from 5.45x107 kg to 1.07x108 kg. While Daedalus is a flyby mission, REPRO must slow
to a halt in the target solar system so that reproductive activities may commence. The double-
Daedalus configuration must be used to decelerate the 106 kg payload from interstellar cruise
velocity down to parking orbit velocity. Hence, to accelerate double-Daedalus up to interstellar
cruise velocity will require a "0th Stage" much larger than Daedalus itself. Using the same
vehicle launch mass to payload ratio as the BIS starship, about 100:1 [40], the total fueled mass
of REPRO must be 1.07x1010 kg.
Assuming humanity is the launching civilization, REPRO is constructed and fueled in Jovian
orbit much like Daedalus. After inspection and certification for flight readiness the Oth Stage is
ignited, propelling REPRO to about 12%c after a burn time of 4 years. Following a coast phase
of 43 years to Barnard's star, the empty Oth Stage hulk is jettisoned and the remaining vehicle
structure is rotated 180° so that it points backwards along the direction of flight. Stage I and
Stage 2 are ignited in turn, dropping the payload down to interplanetary velocities (<10 km/sec)
in about 4 years.
REPRO has a number of subprobes much like Daedalus but these are not constrained to perform
simple flyby explorator~ missions since REPRO has fully decelerated. Orbiter, balloon/floater,
rocket plane, and even surface lander missions on interesting planets or moons in the target solar
system are possible. Detailed planetological data may be accumulated and processed, and a
variety of xenobiological investigations under taken in the search for alien life and intelligence
[41]. Sophisticated messenger probes of the kind envisioned by Bracewell could eventually be
dispatched to parking orbits around selected planetary bodies in the target system.
Theory suggests that most single star systems should be accompanied by at least one jovian
planet, possibly more [42]. In order to reproduce itself, REPRO needs 1.01x1010 kg of fusion fuel
mined from a jovian atmosphere and 5.60x108 kg of nonfuel mass. Upon arrival in the target
system, the vehicle uses its remaining 2nd Stage fuel to guide itself into orbit around a small
moon of a jovian gas giant. About half the payload, 4.43x105 kg, is designated SEED. SEED is
deorbited to the surface of the jovian moon where, over the next 500 years, it builds and launches
a number of interplanetary probes. Its primary function, however, is to produce FACTORY, an
automated manufacturing complex whose output (following rearrangement of its modular
building-blocks [43]) is exactly one new REPRO every 500 years.
 
4. ESTIMATION OF REPRO ELEMENT INVENTORY
In order to plan the replication of REPRO the material requirements must be determined with
some specificity. This requires a detailed knowledge of the structure of the vessel to an accuracy
of definition at least as good as the Daedalus vehicle. Unfortunately, no such design study exists
for a star ship the size of REPRO, so its ultimate feasibility remains unknown. However, since a
fleet of ~200 Daedalus vehicles could place 106 kg of payload in orbit around Barnard's star or
one of its planets, then assuming we accept as valid the techniques and conclusions of Project
Daedalus the basic plausibility of REPRO cannot seriously be questioned. The technical details
are not yet available, but apparently the mass/energy/time requirements are satisfied adequately
by the gross physical parameters suggested above for the REPRO vehicle.
To determine an element inventory for REPRO the various Oth Stage component masses were
calculated from the basic Daedalus starship model on the reasonable basis of comparative
propellant mass ratio. This procedure was deemed acceptable in lieu of a sophisticated 10,000
man-hour design study since about 2/3 of the nonfuel Daedalus mass is directly related to the
handling of fuel or the distribution of propulsive force. If M0, M1 and M2 are the REPRO
propellant masses for the 0th, 1st and 2nd Stages and C0, C1 and C2 are specific component
masses in the three Stages, respectively, then the scaling for C0 given C1 and C2 is:

(1)

Taking M0 = 1010 kg from the previous calculation involving mass ratios, and M1 = 9.20x107 kg
and M2 = 8.16x106 kg as estimates from the figures given by White and Parfitt [44] the above
expression reduces to:
  C0 = 8.86 (C1/C2) (C1 + C2) (2)

The estimator given in Eqn. (2) was applied to every major component system in the Daedalus
design. The results are in Table 1. No detailed analysis of the technical feasibility of these
derived masses was attempted, although a quick check of two particular subsystems (engine
reaction chamber, fuel tank mass and refrigeration hardware) indicated substantial agreement
with the engineering constraints assumed for Daedalus.
The material requirements for a new REPRO are determined by breaking down the vehicle mass
distribution into its elemental constituents. In many cases the precise alloys and materials to be
used for a Daedalus component are specified in the summary report [4448], and these values
are adopted for REPRO. However, about 55% of nonfuel REPRO mass is unspecified in this
fashion. Unspecified mass is treated in two categories: (1) Unidentified nonfuel "Vehicle Other"
(labeled V.O. in Table 1), and (2) unidentified SEED or "FACTORY Other" (labeled F.O. in
Table 1).

Table 1. Estimated Mass of Starprobe Components,

Comparison of Daedalus and REPRO
Daedalus REPRO
Starship Component  Component Mass Component Mass
(kg) (kg)

PROPULSION SYSTEM 1.54x106 1.43x108

0th Stage 1.40x108

Reaction Chamber(s) 4.22x107

Excitation Field Coils 8.51x106

Titanium Coil Supports 1.56x107

Ignition Assembly 2.61x107

Charging Circuit Supports 1.70x106

Pellet Injector

Capacitors 2.04x107

Al Superconducting
2.69x104
Coils

Uncommitted Mass (V.O.) 2.56x107

1st Stage 1.23x106 2.46x106

Reaction Chamber(s) 2.19x105 4.37x105

Excitation Field Coils 1.25x105 2.49x105

Titanium Coil Supports 2.41x105 4.82x105

 Ignition Assembly 3.07x105 6.14x105

Charrging Circuit Supports 2.10x104 4.20x104

Pellet Injector

Capacitors 2.96x104 5.96x104

Al Superconducting
3.66x101 7.32x101
Coils

Uncommitted Mass (V.O.) 2.87x105 5.74x105

2nd Stage 3.15x105 6.30x105

Reaction Chamber(s)  2.21x104 4.42x104

Excitation Field Coils  4.36x104 8.72x104

Titanium Coil Supports 9.06x104 1.81x105

Ignition Assembly  8.10x104 1.62x105

Charging Circuit Supports 5.90x103 1.18x104

Pellet Injector

Capacitors 7.90x102 1.58x103

Al Superconducting
9.05x101 1.81x100
Coils

Uncommitted Mass (V.O.) 7.08x104 1.42x105

THRUST STRUCTURE 7.50x104 2.81x106

0th Stage 2.66x106

1st Stage 5.00x104 1.00x105

2nd Stage 2.50x104 5.00x104

SERVICE BAY 8.91x105 1.10x108

0th Stage 1.08x108

Core 9.47x107

Thermal Shielding

Gold 1.19x105

Rhodium 5.89x105

Iconel Base 4.28x106

Power Supplies

Buffer Capacitors 5.85x106

 Nuclear Reactors
2.74x106
(V.O.)

1st Stage 7.59x105 1.52x106

Core 6.45x105 1.29x106

Thermal Shielding

Gold 5.78x102 1.16x103

Rhodium 2.89x103 5.78x103

Iconel Base 2.00x103 4.00x103

Power Supplies

Buffer Capacitors 3.00x104 6.00x104

Nuclear Reactors
6.00x104 1.20x105
(V.O.)

2nd Stage

Core 1.32x105 2.64x105

Thermal Shielding

Gold 5.51x101 1.10x102

Rhodium 2.75x102 5.50x102

Iconel Base 2.00x103 4.00x103

Power Supplies

Buffer Capacitors 3.00x103 6.00x103

Nuclear Reactors
3.80x104 7.60x104
(V.O.)

PROPELLANT SYSTEM

0th Stage 1.03x1010

Helium-3 Fuel 6.00x109

Duterium Fuel 4.00x109

Insulation

Fuel Tanks 1.46x106

LH2 Tanks 1.54x104

Fuel Tanks 2.12x107

Uncommitted Mass (V.O.) 2.75x108

 1st Stage 4.74x107 9.49x107

Helium-3 Fuel 2.76x107 5.52x107

Duterium Fuel 1.84x107 3.68x107

Insulation

Fuel Tanks 3.15x104 6.30x104

LH2 Tanks 4.07x102 8.14x102

Fuel Tanks 9.85x104 1.97x105

Uncommitted Mass (V.O.) 1.30x106 2.60x106

2nd Stage

Helium-3 Fuel 2.45x106 4.90x106

Deuterium Fuel 1.63x106 3.26x106

Insulation

Fuel Tanks 1.95x104 3.91x104

Manoeuvre Tanks 4.60x102 9.20x102

LH2 Tanks 3.60x102 7.20x102

Fuel Tanks 8.87x103 1.77x104

Uncommitted Mass (V.O.) 1.19x105 2.38x105

PAYLOAD BAY 5.07x105 1.00x106

Committed Bay Structure 5.00x104 7.50x104

Sensing and Communications (V.O.) 1.10x105 1.0x105

Subprobes(V.O.) 2.45x105 1.00x105

Service Wardens (V.O.) 4.50x104 2.25x105

Shield Cloud (V.O.) 5.00x103 5.00x103

Dust Bugs (V.O.) 2.00x103 2.00x103

Beryllium Payload Shield 5.00x104 5.00x104

SEED (F.O.) 4.43x105

TOTAL MASS ESTIMATE 5.45x107 1.07x1010

To estimate the F.O. element distribution, the entire material consumption of the United States (the
world's largest factory) per annum was averaged over the years 19721976 [49, 30] and reduced to an
element-by-element distribution with fractional abundances by weight, normalized to 1. A few minor
adjustments were made to the gross data to render them more appropriate in these circumstances.
Carbon black was omitted, as this substance is produced in vast quantities in the U.S. primarily for
making automobile tyres and various dyes. Feldspar, sand, gypsum, titanium slag and rutile, and several
other large-volume substances also were eliminated because they pertain to the construction and dye
industries and are of no conceivable relevance in the design of a starprobe intended to operate in low
gravity airless environments. Coinage silver was deleted from the totals, but the figures for industrial
and artistic usages were retained. Consumption data for the rare gases Kr, Ne, and Xe were not
available, so these were estimated on the basis of relative abundance in the terrestrial atmosphere as
compared to Ar, whose annual consumption was known. The final tabulation of F.O. abundances
appears in Table 2.

The elemental distribution of V.O. is determined in a similar manner. Each element was
carefully considered on the basis of its most common use and classified either as
aerospace/electronics/optical Or as nonaerospace/electronics/optical. Elements in the latter
category were arbitrarily demoted to 0.1% of their annual US consumption value. Elements in
the former category retain their original consumption values, as these substances are more likely
to comprise a larger relative fraction of the starprobe vehicle mass. The revised consumption
figures were again reduced to fractional abundances by weight for each element.
The final element inventory estimate for REPRO appears in the last columns of Table 2. These
totals were obtained by summing the following three quantities: (1) Mass of specific elements
specified in the Daedalus report, plus (2) Mass of unspecified "Vehicle Other" (3.08x108kg)
multiplied by each of the V.O. element abundances, plus (3) Mass of unspecified "FACTORY
Other" (the 4.43x105 kg SEED) multiplied by each of the F.O. element abundances.
 
5. MATERIALS ACQUISITION STRATEGIES
The most demanding material requirement to be faced by REPRO is the acquisition of 1.01x1010 of He3/D
fusion fuel. As Parkinson [51] has pointed out in connection with the propellant supply for Daedalus,
jovian atmospheric mining with aerostat balloon factories is the preferred technique (see Section 6.2).
Fusion breeding using the DD or Li 7n reactions is not feasible due to the high temperature of the DD
process, the low natural abundance of lithium, and the tremendous quantities of waste energy released.
Solar wind collection likewise is not feasible for REPRO. To satisfy the mass flow requirements, a
collector in Earth-orbit would need a scoop area of at least 10 18 m2, a circle measuring 90 Earth-
diameters. A physical collector only 104 in thick with the density of water would have a mass of 10 17 kg,
seven orders more massive than REPRO. Nonphysical magnetostatic or electrostatic scoops are
conceptually possible, but it is not clear that the entire mechanism can be designed to operate within a
mass budget of 107  108 kg.

An interesting alternative to jovian propellant acquisitionis the cometary capture technique. In

this scheme, REPRO must seek out and rendezvous with a large long-period (> 100 years)
cometary body in a low-eccentricity solar orbit. While cometary nuclei are believed to average
110 km in diameter, a few exceptionally large objects (P/Schwassmann-Wachmann I, Haley's
Comet) are known to have diameters from 50  100 km and masses from 1017-1018 kg. The exact
chemical composition is unknown but is thought to represent original. condensate from the
protostellar nebula at roughly "cosmic" abundances, perhaps with a slight depletion of volatiles.
The main body of the nucleus may consist of perhaps 74% ices (water, ammonia, methane, and
solid clathrate hydrates) and 26% stony-iron dust, for a net density of about 1100 kg/m3 [52].
The cosmic abundance by mass of He3 may be computed from Cameron [53] as 2.67x105 and as
2.50x105 for deuterium. Even assuming the helium isotope is depleted by as much as three
orders of magnitude, a large comet might still contain 1010 kg of He3 and 1013 kg of D, enough to
permit reproduction of at least one REPRO vehicle. Further comparison of nonfuel materials
requirements with cometary "cosmic" abundances indicates that all needs may be satisfied by
completely cannibalizing one large body of the kind discussed above.
It seems likely that there are two main cometary belts, an Inner Cloud within 40 AU and the Oort
Cloud out to about 100,000 AU. Recent estimates place the total population Of the Inner Cloud
at about 3x106 bodies [54]. These remain in relatively circular orbits until deflected into the inner
Solar System by planetary gravitational perturbations. Orbital inclinations of Inner Cloud
members are random [55], so starprobes arriving along arbitrary trajectories should be able to
find suitable candidates reasonably close to the plane of entry. Assuming one comet of every
thousand is sufficiently large for utilization by a reproductive probe, then about 3000 suitable
objects exist within a heliocentric search volume of radius 40 AU. If REPRO must locate at least
one large comet within 5 years of target system entry, starprobe sensors must be capable of
scanning 106 AU3 sec1, necessitating a field diameter of at least 1 arcsec scanning to a depth of
40 AU with an integration time of 100 seconds. Within this range a 100-km-wide comet with
albedo 0.1 has an apparent magnitude of +23 or brighter, observable using a 2-metre search
telescope somewhat smaller than NASÁs 2.4-metre Space Telescope [56] or Daedalus's 5-metre
optical telescopes [41].

Table 2. Estimated REPRO Element Inventory

REPRO
F.O. V.O. F.O. V.O. REPRO
Elemen Element Elemen
Abundanc Abundanc Abundanc Abundanc Inventor
t Inventor t
es es es es y (kg)
y (kg)

He (6.06x109
7.13x106 1.48x104 Y 2.49x107 5.17x106 1590
(~He3) )

(4.04x109
(~D) 4.87x104 1.01x102 Gd 2.49x107 3.13x106 964
)

AI 4.04x102 8.38x101 3.63x108 Pt 5.80x198 1.20x106 370

Mo 1.56x104 3.23x103 6.39x107 In 5.30x108 1.10x106 339

Ti 6.68x104 1.38x102 4.18x107 Ge 5.00x108 1.04x106 320

0 3.88x102 8.04x104 1.90x107 Sb 3.81x105 7.89x107 260

Cr 2.68x103 5.56x102 1.17x107 Sr 2.79x105 5.78x107 190

Be 6.23x107 1.29x105 1.04x107 Ga 2.01x108 4.16x107 128

Mg 1.45x103 3.00x102 9.53x106 As 1.73x105 3.60x107 199

Fe 7.32x101 1.52x102 5.89x106 Ce 1.36x105 2.82x107 92.9

Cu 1.38x102 2.85x104 5.87x106 Ag 1.34x105 2.77x107 91.2

C 3.48x104 7.22x103 3.50x106 Cd 1.28x105 2.65x107 87.3

Ni 4.00x104 8.30x103 2.59x106 Er 1.00x108 2.08x107 64.1

Sn 1.67x104 3.46x103 1.75x106 Dy 1.00x108 2.07x107 63.8

B 2.44x104 5.06x103 1.56x106 Tb 9.97x109 2.07x107 63.8

Zr 1.79x104 3.72x103 1.18x106 Eu 9.92x109 2.06x107 63.4

Rh 4.06x109 8.43x1011 5.95x105 La 7.12x106 1.48x107 48.8

Na 5.09x102 1.05x103 3.46x105 Re 6.41x109 1.33x107 41.0

Nb 3.22x106 6.67x105 3.13x105 Nd 5.67x10-ô 1.17x107 38.5

Mn 3.53x103 7.32x105 2.65x105 I 5.55x106 1.15x107 37.9

N 2.96x102 6.14x104 2.56x105 Hg 4.91x106 1.02x107 33.6

W 3.68x105 7.62x104 2.35x105 Cs 4.04x109 8.37x108 25.8

si 1.04x103 2.16x105 2.00x105 Ru 3.79x109 7.86x108 24.2

S 2.68x102 5.55x104 1.83x105 Bi 2.59x106 5.37x108 17.7

ci 2.33x102 4.83x104 1.59x105 Xe 2.52x109 5.23x108 16.1

Hf 9.16x108 1.90x106 1.38x105 Rb 2.42x109 5.02x108 15.5

Au 4.29x107 8.89x109 1.20x105 Pr 1.73x106 3.58x108 11.8

Co 1.85x105 3.84x104 1.18x105 Ir 1.73x109 3.59x108 11.1

V 1.33x105 2.76x104 8.50x104 Sm 6.00x107 1.24x108 4.09

K 1.05x102 2.18x104 7.17x104 Te 3.91x107 8.11x109 2.67

P 8.52x103 1.77x104 5.83x104 Os 1.20x1010 2.48x109 0.764

Li 6.30x106 1.31x104 4.03x104 Th 9.56x108 1.98x109 0.652

Ta 4.13x106 8.55x105 2.63x104 Pd 6.24x108 1.29x109 0.425

Zn 3.76x103 7.80x105 2.57x104 Kr 5.05x108 1.05x109 0.345

Pb 3.39x103 7.03x105 2.32x104 U 4.41x108 9.15x1010 0.302

Ba 2.96x103 6.14x105 2.02x104 Se 3.43x1011 7.11x1010 0.219

6.89x10
F 1.53x103 3.16x105 1.04x104 Lu 1.01x108 2.09x1010 2

6.89x10
Se 1.37x106 2.83x105 8720 Yb 1.01x108 2.09x1010 2

6.86x10
Ne 1.01x106 2.09x105 6440 Tm 1.01x108 2.08x1010 2

Ar 5.94x104 1.23x105 4050 Ho 1.00x108 2.08x1010 6.45x10

 2

1.41x10
Ca 5.14x104 1.07x105 3530 TI 2.06x109 4.27x1011 2

Br 4.84x104 1.00x105 3290 Ra 2.27x1012 4.71x1014 1.55x105

Although the cometary capture technique appears plausible, much more information on the size,
abundance, distribution and composition of comets must be obtained before the feasibility of such an
approach can be properly assessed. For the purposes of this paper we choose to parallel the Daedalus
study and select the jovian mining scheme as the most promising alternative at the present time.

Once it has been decided that the bulk of the mass of REPRO must be drawn from a jovian
planet in the target star system, efficiency dictates that the base site be located somewhere in
jovian orbit. Heavy elements comprising the nonfuel mass can most easily be drawn from one of
four sources - atmosphere, jovian moon, jovian trojan asteroids, or the asteroid belt [52, 5758].
Element abundances for "average asteroidal" material were assumed to include 74.7% silicate,
19.6% nickel-iron, and 5.7% troilite after Mason [59], and appear in Table 3. Data for the rare
gases AT, He, Kr, Ne, and Xe are estimated from Heymann [60], and the value for H is averaged
from data in Heide [61] and Brown [62]. A recent study of four large Trojan asteroids of Jupiter
and two of the outer Jovian moons Himalia (J6) and Elara (J7) indicates an abnormally low
surface albedo a result which calls into question the validity of the current "ice model" for these
bodies [63]. Although the blackening may be only a surface effect, the highly irregular shape of
Hektor, the largest Trojan body, implies that it cannot be composed of solid ice because ice has
insufficient structural strength to support the irregular shape against collapse. Hartmann [64]
calculates that if Hektor is composed of chondritic material it should be stable against internal
crushing. If this conclusion is applicable to Himalia and Elara, smaller bodies but similarly low
in albedo, then asteroidal capture becomes a more likely explanation for the origin of the outer
Jovian moons.
Jovian atmospheric heavy element abundances generally fall about two or three orders below
"average asteroidal, " assuming "cosmic" abundances [53] for the gas giant. (See Table 3). There
are only eight elements for which jovian abundance may be higher than the asteroidal; Ar, C, H,
He, Kr, N, Ne Xe. Extraction of these elements thus should be delegated to the aerostat balloon
factory system.
Transportation out to the asteroidal belt or to the trojan clusters from the target system jovian is
far more expensive if time and fuel than transportation of an equal mass to an outer jovian moon.
In our Solar System, there are four known such moons orbiting at a distance of about 1.1x107 km
from Jupiter with diameters 170 km (J6), 80 km (J7), 40 km (J10), and 20 km (J13); another five
moons orbit about 2.2x107 km from Jupiter, with diameters 50 km (J8, J11), 40 km (J9), 30 km
(J12), and 20 km (J14).
In this paper it is assumed that a jovian moon about 100 km in diameter having "average
asteroidal" composition can be located and colonized by REPRO.

Table 3. Jovian and Jovian Lunar Element Abundances, and Mass

 Flow Rates for REPRO
Jovian Jovian
"Cosmic" Mass "Cosmic" Mass
Elemen Moon Eleme Moon
Abundance Flow Abundanc Flow
t Abundanc nt Abundanc
s" (kg/s) es (kg/s)
es es

Jovian Jovian
Moon Moon
(Avg (Avg (Avg
(Avg Jovian) Ore or Ore or
Asteroidal) Asteroidal) Jovian)
(Jovian (Jovian
Atm) Atm)

He3 5.04x1013 2.67x105 (14,500) N 5.90x107 1.26x103 1.29x102

D 1.41x108 2.50x105 (10,300) Ce 5.10x107 3.97x109 1.16x102

Mo 1.60x106 9.22x109 2540 Cd 5.00x107 4.00x109 1.11x102

Bc 1.00x106 1.75x1010  662 Dy 3.70x107 1.40x109 1.10x102

Rh 2.00x107 9.89x1010  189 Ni 1.68x102 6.77x105 9.82x103

Sn 1.00x106 1.03x108  111 La 3.30x107 1.48x109 9.41x103

W 1.40x107 7.06x1010  107 Mn 2.00x103 1.23x105 8.44x103

7.52x10
Ta 2.00x108 9.13x1011     83.8 Co 1.00x103 3.13x106
3

B 2.00x106 9.09x108     49.7 Pr 1.20x107 5.04x1010 6.26x103

Nb 5.00x107 3.12x109     39.9 Pt 5.00x106 6.56x109 4.71x103

Au 3.00x107 9.56x1010     25.5 Mg 1.39x101 6.20x104 4.37x103

In 1.00x109 5.21x1010     21.6 Nd 6.30x107 2.70x109 3.89x103

Pb 1.50x107 1.99x108         9.85 O 3.30x101 8.26x103 3.67x103

Hf 1.40x106 9.00x1010        6.28 Na 6.80x103 3.31x105 3.24x103

Cu 1.00x104 8.24x107        3.74 P 1.30x103 7.14x106 2.86x103

Ti 8.00x104 3.19x1000        3.33 As 2.00x106 1.19x108 2.79x103

2.30x103
Zr 3.30x105 6.13x108       2.28 Ar 2.00x108 1.12x104
)

Al 1.10x102 5.51x105       2.10 Tl 4.00x1010 9.42x1010 2.25x103

Li 2.00x106 8.25x109       1.28 Ge 1.00x105 2.00x107 2.04x103

Ba 3.40x10l-6 1.58x108 3.78x101 Te 1.00x107 1.97x108 .70x103

Bi 3.00x109 7.18x1010 3.76x101 Ga 5.00x106 9.04x108 1.63x103

 Cr 3.00x103 1.59x105 3.63x101 Ru 1.00x106 4.61x109 1.54x10-3

Gd 3.40x107 1.12x109 1.81x101 Ir 5.00x107 3.31x109 1.41x103

Sb 1.00x107 9.24x1010 1.66x101 U 1.40x108 1.50x1010 1.37x103

Cl 1.00x104 4.85x106 1.01x101 Fe 2.86x101 .11x103 1.31x103

V 6.50x105 3.21x107 8.33x102 Sm 2.20x107 8.16x1010 1.18x103

Tb 5.10x108 2.10x1010 7.97x102 Sr 1.10x105 5.66x108 1.10x103

6.56x102
C 4.20x104 3.40x103 Th 4.00x108 3.23x1010 1.04x103
)

Se 9.00x106 1.27x107 6.17x102 S 2.07x102 3.85x104 5.63x104

I 4.00x108 3.32x109 6.04x102 Rb 3.00x106 1.21x108 3.29x104

(6.03x10 (2.46x10
Xe 6.00x1012 1.70x108 2 Ne 3.00x1010 1.67x103 4
) )

(2.33x10
Ag 1.00x107 1.17x109 5.81x102 Kr 4.00x1012 9.42x108 4
)

Eu 8.30x108 3.10x1010 4.87x102 Lu 3.60x108 1.51x1010 1.22x104

K 1.00x104 3.94x106 4.57x102 Tm 3.80x108 1.38x1010 1.15x104

Zn 5.00x105 1.95x106 3.27x102 Si 1.70x101 6.75x104 7.49x103

Re 8.00x108 2.37x1010 3.26x102 Ho 7.50x108 3.13x1010 5.48x105

Y 4.00x106 1.02x108 2.53x102 Os 1.00x10-6 3.43x109 4.87x105

F 3.00x105 1.12x106 2.21x102 Pd 1.00x106 3.32x109 2.71x105

Hg 1.00x107 1.93x109 2.14x102 Yb 1.90x107 8.98x1010 2.31x105

Br 1.00x105 2.59x108 2.10x102 Ra 5.00x1011 ???? 1.97x105

Er 2.10x107 9.04x101 1.94x102 Ca 1.39x102 6.94x105 1.62x105

Cs 1.00x107 1.24x109 1.64x102 Sc 9.00x106 3.78x108 1.55x106

 
6. FACTORY AND SEED
Upon arrival in jovian lunar orbit, the first step in the reproductive process is to deorbit SEED,
all remaining functioning wardens, most of the 412 MW Stage 2 power supply, and other
miscellaneous equipment totalling ~5x105 kg to the surface of the jovian moon. In the weak 7
milligee gravity field this manoeuvre should require 290 MJ from an orbit 100 km above the
surface. an eight hour trip using a 10 kW propulsion system. This is a deceleration of 4 milligees,
well below the 13113 milligee design limit [44] for all powered flight phases of the Daedalus
mission.
Following moonfall, SEED and its wardens unpack and proceed slowly to erect FACTORY
during the next 500 years. SEED operates under the direction of its own autonomous computer
system which is activated upon landing, in coordination with the flight computer which remains
in orbit aboard the 2nd Stage hulk. The 4.43x105 kg SEED grows into a 3.46x108 kg FACTORY,
which is reorganized, then produces a 1.07x1010 kg REPRO starprobe during the second 500-
year period. The mass growth rates are 1.3%, and 0.690%, respectively, fairly modest for
modern automated industrial systems and an order lower than typical rates for biological
organisms.
The actual reproductive apparatus consists of 13 distinct robot species, including Chemists,
Aerostats, Miners, Metallurgists, Computers, Fabricators, Assemblers, Warehousers, Crawlers,
Tankers, Wardens, Verifiers and Power Plants. These collectively perform all of the functions of
a living system [65]. SEED carries representatives of only the first nine species mentioned.
Several aging wardens are provided "free" from the derelict Stage 2, together with its 412 MW
power supply. All Tankers and Verifiers must be constructed in situ from scratch.
 

6.1 Chemists

Chemist robots are responsible for the processing of jovian moon ore and the extraction of most
nonfuel heavy elements required for the construction of FACTORY and REPRO. Most of this processing
can be done chemically, using highly efficient automated refineries of compact design constructed with
"universal" modular components [43] of several different basic types. A scheme involving high-
performance electromagnetic isotope separators [6667]  1 ampere ion current [68], 104 kg units  has
been considered for especially difficult extractions such as the separation of Zr/Hf mixtures, rare earth
elements, and so forth. Expected mass flow requirements indicate that such devices will represent no
more than a few per cent of the total FACTORY Chemist mass.

A subsidiary function of Chemists is to combine various elements and simple molecules into
perhaps 100 basic reagents needed for SEED and FACTORY extraction, manufacturing and
testing processes. Johnson and Holbrow [69] describe an aluminum processing plant for which
13% of the total refinery mass consists of five nonelemental process chemicals (H2O, H2SO4,
Na2SO4, NaCl, and LiCl. Preparation of industrial process chemicals generally is quite easy in
comparison with element extractions from ores. Most of these substances, both inorganic and
organic, are one or two step preparations, so the additional mass of SEED and FACTORY
Chemists to perform this function should again represent only a few per cent of the total Chemist
mass.
FACTORY must produce essentially all nonfuel REPRO mass in 500 years. The mass flow
requirements for each element, based on the REPRO inventory in Table 2, are divided by the
jovian moon elemental abundances in Table 3 and the total production time of 500 years to
obtain the lunar ore throughput rates tabulated in Table 3. The total mass flow rate is 3860
kg/sec, so in 500 years FACTORY Chemists must process 6.06x1013 kg of jovian moon ore.
Fusion breeding [7071] of the most troublesome elements from more abundant precursors was
considered in an attempt to reduce Chemist mass. flow rates. Plausible breeding pathways were
found for the production of Mo from Zr (4.24x10-2 mole/sec), Rh from Ru (3.68x104 mole/sec),
W from Hf (8.14x105 mole/sec), Au from Pt (3.88x105 mole/sec), Ta from Hf (9.26x106
mole/sec), In from Cd (1.88x107 mole/sec), Cu from Fe (5.88x103 mole/sec), Ti from Ca
(5.56x102 mole/sec), and Al from Mg (8.57x101 mole/sec), for a total of 9.61x101 mole/sec
breeder throughput. Utilization of all nine processes reduces the mass flow rate from 3860 kg/sec
to 1110 kg/sec of jovian moon ore.
Setting aside technological difficulty, the main problem appears to be energy. Each of the
proposed breeding pathways requires each precursor atom to absorb 27 neutrons to achieve
majority conversion, coupled with continuous extraction of desired isotopic species to prevent
degradation. If on average 100 2.45-MeV neutrons must be liberated by a DD fusion reactor to
transmute one precursor atom into one rare atom (27% transmutation efficiency), then to breed
all nine elements requires a power supply of 2.27x1013 watts. Even assuming 10,000 watts/kg for
the higher temperature DD reactor the mass of this supply is 2.27x109 kg, nearly seven times the
mass of FACTORY. It is concluded that fusion breeding is not feasible within REPRO mission
constraints.
Current ore processing technology for aluminum, REPRO's most-needed element, permits a
4750-ton refinery to produce 1.74 kg/sec Al metal using soil from Earth's Moon [69]. This
material is only 5.6%, A] by weight so the factory must process 31 kg/sec soil to achieve the
stated output. This is a net processing rate of 6.53x106 (kg ore/sec)/kg refinery. Assuming one
order improvement from technological advances, then if the values given for the aluminum plant
are typical for element extractions FACTORY may be able to process jovian moon ore at the rate
of 6.53x105 (kg/sec)/kg. This gives a total FACTORY Chemist mass of (3860)/(6.53x105) =
5.91x107 kg, equivalent to about 124 individual 475-ton refineries. The power requirement for
the original aluminum plant is 40 watts/kg; adopting this value, the total for FACTORY
Chemists is 2360 MW.
SEED Chemists must process enough jovian moon ore to produce the entire FACTORY mass of
3.46x108 kg. However, replacement mass must be added to take account of break downs and
repairs. Daedalus carries 20 tons of repair shops and spare parts to service a 450-ton payload for
50 years, or 8.9x104 (kg spares/kg serviced)/year. The REPRO-building phase lasts 500 years,
so the extra mass of shops and spares needed to maintain FACTORY is estimated as (8.9x104)
(500)(3.46x108)=1.54x108 kg. The FACTORY-building phase also lasts 500 years; the
logarithmic average mass of the growing SEED during this time is 1.24x107 kg, so the extra
mass of shops and spares needed to maintain SEED is estimated as 5.52x106 kg by the same
method as above. Including main tenance support, SEED Chemists must produce a total
FACTORY mass MF = 5.06x108.
It will be noted that the function of FACTORY is to produce REPRO, hence production of
REPRO must be linear; on the other hand, since the function of SEED is to produce FACTORY,
and since FACTORY consists of "universal" modular components of the same types used in
SEED, then in effect SEED is building more SEED, hence production of FACTORY must be
exponential. If M(t) is the mass of the growing SEED at time t, then the rate of growth dM(t)/dt
= XM(t), where X is the mass of new SEED generated per unit time interval, per unit mass of
existing SEED at time t. The equation of growth may be written as:
M(t) = Ms· exp (Xt), (3)

where Ms is the mass of the Original SEED at t = 0.

The value of X and the FACTORY mass Mf are determined as follows. From Eqn. (3) we have
M() =Ms · exp(X) = Mt, where  is the 500-year production time of FACTORY. Also, X may
be fixed by assuming that the SEED mass at t = , it is not reorganized into FACTORY hardware
capable of pro ducing REPRO, but rather retains its structure as fully mature SEED. This non-
reconfigured SEED can produce more SEED components instead of new REPRO mass at a rate
of Mt/ kg/sec, where Mt is nonfuel REPRO mass. However, this fraction must be corrected for
the difference in element abun dances between the output of FACTORY (new REPRO, with
REPRO abundances) and the output of the mature SEED (more SEED, with F.O. abundances).
To obtain a relation for X, the above production rate must be multiplied by the ratio of the
appropriate output abundances relative to pvian moon soil, and divided by the mass of existing
SEED at t = . Hence, X = (Mt/)(Rt/Rf)/Mf, where Rt = {(REPRO abundances)/(jovian moon
abundances)} and Rf = (SEED or F.O. abundances)/(jovian moon abundances)}. Since Mt
(5.60x108 kg), Ms (4.43x105 kg), and  (1.57x1010 sec) are flyby mission parameters, and Rg
(Rg(1.10x105) an Rf(2.68x104)2.68x104) are readily calculated from the data in Tables 1, 2, and
3, this leaves two equations and two unknowns.  Solving simultaneously, Mf = 3.46x108 kg and
X = 6.66/.
The same value of the rate constant X may be used to calculate the individual SEED mass of
each exponentially growing component robot species. The most general definitionof the
component rate constant X. is mass flow output 01 component per unit mass of existing,
component, so Xc = (Mt) (Rt/Rf)(Mfc/Mf)/Mfc where Mfc is the mass of the particular component
in FACTORY. The dependence on Mfc drops out so Xc = X  for all components. Since SEED
components must produce MFrather than Mf, SEED component mass Ms is given by:
Msc = MFMf-1Mfc· exp(-Xt) (4)

Plugging in Mfc = 5.91x107 kg, from Eqn. 4, Msc =1.11x105 kg for SEED Chemists. The initial
power requirement is 4.4 MW.
 

6.2 Aerostats

The aerostat concept, developed for Project Daedalus by Parkinson [51], permits jovian atmospheric
mining. An Aerostat robot floats like a hot air balloon in the jovian air, using heat from a small onboard
reactor to generate lift. This provides a relatively stationary collection plant able to separate and store
REPRO propellants and other necessary isotopes. About once a week an Aerostat ascent ferry unloads
the accumulated store of fusion fuel and carries it into low jovian orbit to rendezvous with a waiting
Tanker; after disgorging its contents, the ferry returns to the Aerostat, secures itself to the factory by
means of a docking trapeze, and awaits the end of the next processing cycle.

Aerostats designed for operation on Jupiter for Project Daedalus have an empty mass of 180.2
tons, including ascent ferry mass, and consume 10 MW of power, all of it generated by the
onboard reactor. Each factory can process 680 kg/sec of gas giant atmosphere, and is designed
for fully automatic operation in the high-radiation, turbulent jovian environment.
From the jovian throughput rates in Table 3 it is clear that the mass flow for He3 is controlling. A
total Aerostat fleet of (14,500)/(680) = 21.3 units must on average operate continuously for 500
years to provide all the He3 and D propellants for a single REPRO starprobe. Although Parkinson
suggests a lifespan minimum of 8 years, industrial factories generally are assigned a maximum
working life of 30 years. If the average of these is taken as typical for Aerostats, 19 years, then in
500 years of FACTORY operation the entire Aerostat fleet must be replaced 26.3 times. A total
mission fleet of 560 units must therefore be constructed in order to maintain an average working
fleet of 21.3 units in continuous operational status. The total mass of FACTORY Aerostats is
1.01x108 kg.
Parkinson has suggested that workable devices might be designed on a somewhat smaller scale.
If SEED carries two small Aerostats (each one 15% normal mass) to gather -fuel and other
isotopes during the FACTORY -building phase, then the total mass of SEED Aerostats is 54.1
tons.
One minor difference between Daedalus and REPRO Aerostats is the incorporation in the latter
of additional facilities for the extraction of the elements Ar, C, Kr, NN, Ne, and Xe because of
their expected greater abundance in the jovian atmosphere than on the jovian moon. The extra
production requires the continuous service of only about 104 Aerostat, a negligible additional
production load for the FACTORY fleet. All six elements are readily obtained using simple cold
traps, since the extraction processes for recovering them need an efficiency of only ~106
compared to He3 and D processors. Each full load of fusion fuel, 16.8 tons, thus is accompanied
by ~260 gm of the six specified elements.
 

6.3 Miners

The Miners are semi-intelligent general purpose excavation robots, charged with the
responsibility of locating and digging up jovian moon material for processing by Chemists.
Physical functions include drilling, blasting, dozing, shoveling, stripping, and lifting large
quantities of ore. Search functions are highly specialized, confined to locating surface ore veins
and local pockets of mineralogical enrichment (survey satellites do most of the finding  see
Section 6.5).
FACTORY Chemists must process 3860 kg/sec of jovian moon ore, so the Miners must dig it
up. Typical performance figures for power shovels, bulldozers and shovel dozers are (3x103 (kg
excavated/sec)/kg machine and 4 watts/kg machine during continuous operation [72]. These
values, derived from experience working in the 1 -gee terrestrial environment. may be somewhat
pessimistic when directly applied to the 7 milligee jovian moon environment, but hopefully not
unduly so. If they are taken as appropriate, with a duty cycle of 50% to account for delays due to
the finding function, then the total mass of FACTORY Miners is 2.57x106 kg with a power
consumption of 10 MW.
SEED Miners must locate and excavate enough jovian lunar ore to provide the entire mass of
FACTORY plus shops and spares. Using Eqn. (4), for Mfc = 2.57x106 kg Msc = 4820 kg with an
initial power requirement of 19.3 kW.
 

6.4 Metallurgists

Metallurgist robots accept purified metal, semiconductor, and non-metallic substances from the
Chemists to prepare alloys, amalgams, cermets, plastics, and many other material compositions
required in the construction of FACTORY and REPRO. These robots also perform simple cutting,
extruding. rolling, annealing, molding, milling, and shaping functions. The operation of Metallurgists is
roughly analogous to that of the glass processing refinery described by Johnson and Holbrow (69) for
use in a proposed lunar manufacturing facility. The factory, designed. within the limits of present-day
technology, has a mass of 400 tons and an output of 40 tons/day of annealed, trimmed, and pressed
plate silica glass, a production rate of 1.2x106 (kg/sec)/kg plant. The refinery uses 890 kW of power, or
2.2 watts/kg which compares favourably with the projection of 4.2 watts/kg obtained from [73] for an
automated materials processing package suggested as a possible future Space Shuttle payload.

FACTORY Metallurgists must produce Mt/ = 3.57x10--2 kg/sec in order to complete REPRO on
schedule. Taking the glass refinery figures as typical, the total mass of FACTORY Metallurgists
would be 29.7 tons. However, a subspecies of Metallurgist robots handles electronic-gade
materials of the highest purity, performing specialized functions such as ultrapure crystal growth,
bulk wafer fabrication, and selected doping and drifting prelithographic operations. Although the
mass flow is low, machine complexity is high because of the extreme standards of purity. If
electronics Metallurgists also have a mass of 29.7 tons, then the total mass of FACTORY
Metallurgists is 59.4 tons with a power consumption ~130 kW.
SEED Metallurgists must process the entire mass of FACTORY plus shops and spares. From
Eqn. (4), M.= I I I kg; this is probably below the minimum feasible mass for a working system of
Metallurgist robots using present-day technology, so Msc is arbitrarily taken to equal 1000kg
with an initial power requirement of 2.2 kW. With more than an order of magnitude extra
starting mass, SEED Metallurgists should be able to complete their tasks in only 335 years, well
ahead of schedule.
 

6.5 Computers

The computer system designed for Daedalus is extremely complex. It must be able to engage in
autonomous activity during a 50100 year mission, varying the operational goals embedded in
its own software and designed in black box modular form to permit a "repair-by-repair" strategy
[74]. It must also be capable of heuristic functions, including lateral thinking and intuition.
FACTORY and REPRO Computers are at least an order of magnitude more complicated. They
must guide a vehicle equal in mass to ~200 Daedalus vessels to another star. Then, rather than a
comparatively simple flyby manoeuvre, they must select an appropriate jovian moon by remote
sensing and enter orbit around it. Once SEED deorbits and its Computers are activated, it must
erect virtually from scratch an automated factory system over the course of 500 years, and then
operate it successfully for at least another 500 years. All aspects of production, scheduling,
operations, repairs and inspections must be coordinated by the Computers, as well as various
peripheral functions including target system reconnaissance, transmission of updated status
reports back to the home planet .or sending civilization, and various responses to emergencies
and unexpected events. Computers must supervise the launch and control of a network of remote
sensing survey satellites placed in low orbit around the jovian moon to help map the terrain and
to scout ore deposits to evaluate mineral reserves.
The Daedalus computers have a mass of 10 tons and service a payload of 450 tons, with a power
consumption of 1 kW. If FACTORY and REPRO Computers must be an order more complex, if
we assume one order technological improvement this gives 2.2x102 (kg Computer)/kg serviced)
and 0.1 watts/kg Computer. Hence, to service the entire FACTORY complex requires a total
FACTORY Computer mass of 7.61x101 kg, using 761 kW.
Applying the same ratio to the mass of SEED gives a Computer mass of 9.75 tons. However, this
ignores the Caches, a feature unique to REPRO. SEED carries a total of six Memory Caches,
each permanently impressed with a readonly description of the entire starprobe together with the
appropriate instructions and algorithms for building it, SEED, and the FACTORY complex. A
typical value for the information content of automobiles, spacecraft, and other machines is ~104
bits/kg as compared to ~106' bits/kg for encyclopedias and ~109 bits/kg for moving surface
magnetic data storage devices (disks, tapes, drums). The sum of nonfuel REPRO mass and
FACTORY mass is 9.06x108 using the ~104 bits/kg estimate, each Cache must hold 9.06x1012
bits. Six moving surface magnetic storage Memory Caches thus have a mass of 54.4 tons, so the
total mass of SEED Computers is 64.1 tons, with power consumption 6.41 kW.
Three Caches remain near the FACTORY site, physically separated but data-linked to SEED and
FACTORY Computers. These Caches are activated only for very brief periods to transfer large
blocks of information into the data banks of the main Computers. Two Caches are selected at
random for information transmission in parallel; in case of disagreement the third Cache is
polled to break the tie vote. The three remaining Memory Caches are carried by Crawlers to the
opposite side of the jovian moon and buried in small individual rock vaults so the data cannot be
lost even if a major catastrophe befalls the FACTORY. Before a new REPRO is launched, six
clean Caches stored in its SEED are impressed with Cache data polled from at least three of the
original memory stores. The probability that the same memory position is damaged in at least
two original Caches (via cosmic rays, internal radioactivity, thermal fluctuations, etc.) is
exceedingly small. Much like von Neumann, tessellation model, no Cache contains a full
description of itself but each contains instructions which permit a Computer to copy the contents
of a Cache onto a clean unit. Data movement is rapid - moving surface memories can transfer up
to 10' bits/sec, so the contents of an entire Cache may be transcribed in ~250 hours.
 

6.6 Fabricators and Assemblers

Fabricator robots convert raw material stocks produced by the Metallurgists into working parts
of all description, from hull sidings and double-walled reaction chambers to threaded bolts and
semiconductor chips. These parts are then passed to the Assemblers, who assemble the parts into
the working black box modules which comprise most of FACTORY, and later into the
completed sections of the REPRO starprobe itself. The functions of Fabricators and Assemblers
are closely related, hence. will be discussed together. More significant is the type of fabrication
and assembly labour involved, whether bulk material or electronics material.
Johnson and Holbrow [69] give 50 tons/person-year as the typical productivity in bulk
processing and heavy industries on Earth. If each person can be replaced by a semi-intelligent
1000 kg robot, the mass flow for bulk Fabricators and Assemblers may be about 1.6x106
(kg/sec)/kg robot. Human beings have a specific power consumption of about 2 watts/kg.  If
robots can be designed which are 10% as energy efficient, bulk processor robots may consume
20 watts/kg.
Estimates from Oldham [75] suggest that a typical value for the production of microelectronic
chips in average size semiautomated factories is ~106 (kg/sec)/person. Again assuming each
person is replaced by a 1000 kg robot, the mass flow for electronics Fabricators is ~109
(kg/sec)/kg robot. Assembly of chips into functional circuitry should proceed somewhat faster,
but testing and debugging time may offset this gain since a circuit of chips has more states than
any individual chip and thus more ways to go wrong. The value of ~109 (kg/sec)/kg is adopted
for electronics Assemblers as well. A power requirement of 20 watts/kg is assumed for both.
FACTORY bulk Fabricators and Assemblers must process Mt/ = 3.57x102 kg/sec, so total
FACTORY mass of each robot species is 22.3 tons. To produce the REPRO Computer in 500
years requires FACTORY electronic Fabricators and Assemblers to produce the REPRO
Computer, its included SEED Computer, and siz Caches in a time , a rate of 4.72x106 kg/sec
This requires 4.72 tons of electronics robots. so the FACTORY total mass of Fabricators or
Assemblers is 27.0 tons, consuming 540 kW of power each.
SEED bulk Fabricators and Assemblers must produce Mcf kg of FACTORY mass exponentially
in 500 years; from Eqn. (4), Msc = 50.6 kg. If a minimum feasible working mass of Msc = 1000
kg is arbitrarily adopted these robots can finish their jobs in only 276 years. However, a
FACTORY electronics mass equal to the FACTORY Computer plus shops and spares must also
be produced by the electronics Fabricators and Assemblers of SEED. This presents a problem,
since it represents a rate of 1.11x107/ = 7.09x104 kg/sec which implies a SEED mass of
Fabricators or Assemblers of 7.09x105 kg. nearly twice the mass of SEED.
The strategy used to overcome this difficulty relies upon the modular character of FACTORY
robot species. Bulk Fabricators and electronics Fabricators, in other words, are made of much the
same basic components. To solve the problem posed above, the allotted electronics Fabricator/
Assembler mass is divided into two parts. The first part consists of extra bulk processing robots
which proceed to build only more of their own components for a time T, after which this initial
mass plus the new exponentially created mass is reorganized as electronics Fabricator/Assembler
robots to begin contributing to FACTORY Computer mass. The second part produces Computers
continuously from  = 0. Lin ear optimization calculations indicate that minimum SEED mass is
achieved when the two parts are equal in mass. In this case, T = 267 years and each part has a
minimum mass of 40.7 tons. Adding the 1 ton for bulk processors, SEED Fabricato, or
Assembler mass is 82.5 tons, requiring 1.65 MW initially.
 

6.7 Warehousers

Warehousers are automated inventory robots permanentl% installed in large storage facilities. Their
primary duty is to maintain under proper conditions all processed elements. chemicals, alloys, fabricated
stocks, electronics components, spares and finished modular units prior to final assembly as FACTORY or
REPRO. Also, fusion fuel is deposited in REPRO propellant tanks manufactured during the REPRO
building phase and filled as Tankers bring deliveries from the Aerostats.

Warehousers are designed to contain ~108 kg nonfuel material and ~1010 kg fusion fuel for
REPRO. The nonfuel mass may be contained within a FACTORY Warehouse' mass of 106 kg, if
the ratio of structure volume to contained volume is 10-2 and the densities of the structural
material and the stored matter are approximately equal. From Eqn. (2) the mass of the
refrigeration equipment required to maintain III,: He3 and D fuel pellets at the proper temperature
is 3.68 x104 kg. the value of 0.5 kg/Kw for refrigeration hardware give" by White and Parfitt [4],
the power required by Warehouse" to perform the cooling function is 73.5 MW. Hence, the
maximum mass of FACTORY Warehousers is 1.04x106 kg with a consumption of at most 2080
MW.
SEED Warehousers initially must store ~5x105 kg deorbited with SEED, which should require a
mass of no more than 5 tons since little of the contained mass is fusion fuel requiring careful
refrigeration. The maximum power draw is 10 MW.
 
6.8 Crawlers

Crawlers are responsible for all surface hauling, and thus are equipped with various attachments to
facilitate loading such as cranes, jacks, winches and so forth. The FACTORY Crawler fleet must haul the
entire FACTORY mass at least once (5.06x108 kg with shops and spares), all jovian moon ore harvested
by Miners (6.06x1013 kg), all of the slag and other wastes ~6.06x1013 kg), and all of the output of the
Chemists, the Metallurgists, the Fabricators, the Assemblers, and the Warehousers of FACTORY
(2.53x109 kg nonfuel mass), for a net hauling rate of 7.72 tons/sec over a period of time .

To dig out the necessary ore the Miners must carve an annular pit 20 metres deep and at least 20
km in radius on the jovian lunar surface around the base site. If the mean one-way trip distance
for a Crawler is 15 km at a speed of 10 km. /hr, the mean travel time is 5400 see so the fleet load
carried each trip is 4.17x107 kg. A properly designed carrier vehicle easily can carry its own
weight in a 1-gee gravity field. In a 7 milligee field, Crawlers should be able to haul (7x10-3)-1 =
143 kg/kg, so the fleet mass of FACTORY Crawlers is 292 tons. A typical power consumption
figure for surface vehicles on Earth is 20 (joules/metre)/kg, direct application of which gives a
FACTORY Crawler fleet requirement of 16.2 MW.
To carry the entire deorbited SEED mass of ~5x105 kg requires a mass of SEED Crawlers of 3.5
tons, with an initial power requirement of 194 kW.
 

6.9 Tankers

Robot Tankers must transport the entire 1.01x1010 kg of fusion fuel needed by REPRO and extracted by
Aerostats, from the upper jovian atmosphere (R1 ~ 7x104 km) out to the distance of the jovian moon
where REPRO is being constructed (R2 ~ 1.6x107 km). The fleet of Tankers numbers 100 units, each of
which has a storage capacity of exactly 21.3 Aerostatloads (ml = 358 tons). This is also the mass of two
Aerostat robots, replacements which could be ferried out to the jovian on the otherwise empty return
leg of each Tanker trip.

One Tanker arrives at the jovian every 6.44 days. The ascent ferries from all Aerostats arrive
closely spaced in time to facilitate rapid cargo transfer. A total loading and unloading time of 10-
2
year is allowed each Tanker per circuit. If the mass of the fueled but unloaded Tanker is twice
the mass of the load it may carry, then the total fleet mass of FACTORY Tankers is 7.16x107 kg.
On a single round trip lasting 1.77 years, each Tanker consumes a total of 2.5GMjml(R1-1-R2-1) =
1.61x1015 joules, about 33 kg of fusion fuel. The mean power output is 29 MW continuous and
the mean acceleration 0.14 milligees, a power/thrust ratio within the limits of current technology
(76) although fusion propulsion engines have not yet been constructed.
SEED carries no Tankers.
 

6.10 Wardens

As described in the Project Daedalus final report, the Wardens are a manipulator subsystem of
the Computers [4], 77]. Their duties include maintenance and repair as well as rearrangement
and restructuring of instruments and ship components. Wardens have a high degree of
operational autonomy and mobility. Each 5-ton unit deployed by REPRO on the jovian lunar
surface can transport ~ 108 kg from surface to orbit on a single charge of 7500 kg propellants
(assumed to deliver 1.34x107 joules/kg, the value for LH2/LO2 combustion).
The original Daedalus design calls for two Wardens to service a 901-ton payload plus-2nd-Stage
over a nominal 50-year mission. The equivalent REPRO mass (double-Daedalus) is about 119
times greater over the same flight time, which would seem to demand 238 Wardens to achieve
the specified Daedalus reliability figure of 99.99% [77]. However, if a reliability of 99.9% is
acceptable during the 50-year flight portion of the mission (a mere 5% of each reproductive
cycle) then REPRO can get by with as few as 10 operational Wardens. The 99.99% reliability is
retained for the remaining 95% of the reproductive cycle.
If two Wardens are required to service a 901-ton mass for 50 years to achieve 99.99% reliability,
then 7700 Wardens are required to service FACTORY for 500 years with 99.99% reliability, a
total mass of FACTORY Wardens of 3.85x107 kg. Most of these, perhaps 99%, are ground units
travelling on tracks or wheels, drawing power from onboard fuel cells energized by electrical
energy provided by FACTORY Power Plants. Each Daedalus Warden has a total propellant
energy resource of 1.01x1011 joules expended during 50 years of service, or 64 watts/Warden.
(This is comparable to the estimated 350500 watts required for human EVA during the Apollo
missions [78].) A FACTORY Warden fleet of (99%) (7700) units thus requires 4.88 kW of
power. The remaining 1% of the Warden fleet must have space manoeuvring capabilities, which
requires an adequate supply of propellants. Each Daedalus Warden carries 7500 kg fuel for a 50
year service lifetime, so a fleet of (1%) (7700) units needs 578 tons of Warden propellants. This
subfleet is capable of hauling ~1010 kg into jovian lunar orbit (100 km altitude), which is
approximately the mass of REPRO.
 

6.11 Verifiers

Verifier robots serve a unique testing and inspection function for REPRO. While Wardens are largely
responsible for maintenance and repair of production robots, Verifiers actually sample the output of
each species and verify that these are within tolerance limits and adequately in compliance with
specifications. Miner's ore loads are randomly checked for appropriate mineral content; Chemists's
product is sampled for purity using a Viking-style CCMS and other devices; Fabricator output is
examined for flaws and structural weaknesses to ensure quality control; and so on. Verifiers provide
additional performance feedback and thus serve as an extra line of defence against costly delays, robot
malfunctions, and error and mismangement by SEED and FACTORY Computers.

Since their primary function is the gathering of information rather than bulk processing of
matter-energy, the FACTORY Verifier fleet should have a fairly low mass. A first-cut estimate
is 1%, of the Warden fleet, about 3.91x105 kg. Total power requirement is about 4.88 kW.
 

6.12 Power Plants

Power Plants must provide energy continuously and reliably to all SEED and FACTORY users. This may
involve a number of moderate size units widely dispersed rather than a few huge centralized facilities.
SEED carries no Power Plants of its own  it remains parasitic on the 412 MW sources deorbited from
Stage 2 of the original REPRO starcraft.
Table 4 gives total mass and power requirements for each major robot system comprising SEED
and FACTORY. A power supply of 4470 MW is necessary for minimum FACTORY operation;
a 5000 MW Power Plant is assumed, with 11% of the energy uncommitted as a generous
allowance for losses, accidents, special uses, and unforeseen circumstances.
The fission power plants of Daedalus are replaced by compact, high-technology fusion reactors
in REPRO, SEED and FACTORY. The original Stage 1 and 2 thermonuclear propulsion systems
designed for Daedalus require reaction chambers with power densities of 31,000 watts/kg and
50,800 watts/kg, respectively [45]; the Daedalus Ist Stage power supply, using less-efficient
fission fuel, achieves a power density of 14,300 watts/kg less shielding and about 1000 watts/kg
for the total shielded system using current technology [46]. Allowing for one order of magnitude
improvement it is not unreasonable to expect that fusion power supplies eventually may be built
with a power density of ~10,000 watts/kg. Using this figure, the mass of FACTORY Power Plant
is 500 tons. Allowing an additional 10% for transmission lines and other peripherals raises the
total to 5.5x105 kg.
The large uncommitted share (95%) of the SEED Power Plant permits maximum deferral of
FACTORY Power Plant construction so that early priority may be given to other robot
component systems.
Table 4. Mass and Power Requirements for SEED and FACTORY

SEED Mass FACTORY Mass

SEED Power FACTORY Power
Robot Species
Consumption Consumption
(kg) (kg)

Chemists 1.11x105  4.4 MW 5.91x107 2360 MW

Aerostats 5.41x104 0 1.01x108 0

Miners 4.82x103 19.3 kW 2.57x106 10 MW

Metallurgists 1.00x103 2.2 kW 5.94x104 130   kW

Computers 6.41x104   6.41 kW 7.61x107 761 

Fabricators 8.25x104 1.65 MW 2.70x104 540 kW

Assemblers  8.25x104  1.65 MW 2.70x104 540 kW

Warehousers  5.00x103  10 MW  1.04x106 2080 MW 

Crawlers  3.50x103  194 kW  2.92x105  16.2 MW 

Tankers 0 0 7.16x107

Wardens 0 0 3.91x107 488 kW

Verifiers 0 0 3.91x105          4.88 kW

Power Plants 0 0 5.50x105 0

SUBTOTAL 4.09x105 17.9 MW 2.83x108 4470 MW

Uncommited 3.40x104 (7.7%) 394 MW (95 %)  6.30x107 (18%) 530 MW (11%)

 TOTAL 4.43x105 412 M W 3.46x108 5000 MW

 
7. DISCUSSION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE STARPROBE CONCEPT

7.1 Rationale for a FACTORY Intermediate

The primary rationale for the construction of a large factory complex from SEED, rather than building
REPRO directly,. is to harness the tremendous power of exponential growth. If SEED, immediately upon
moonfall on the jovian lunar surface, commenced construction of REPRO using only the machines it had
packed along the total reproduction time would be (MtRt)/(MsRfX)=390,000 years, an unacceptably long
period using current or reasonably foreseeable human technology. By patiently building up a giant
FACTORY system for 500 years SEED multiplies itself into a machine ecology able to cut REPRO
duplication time to only 500 years, an improvement of roughly three orders of magnitude.

A simple extension of the basic REPRO mission is the possibility that FACTORY might
continue to produce copies of REPRO at the steady rate of one every 500 years. This could
continue until irreversible errors and defects reached a lethal level. It is conceivable that with
suitable planning, error correction and verification procedures the lifetime of a FACTORY might
be extended from 1000 years to perhaps 5000 years, permitting a total of 9 REPRO starships to
be born and launched to neighbouring solar systems.
It is also possible to imagine that the data stored in the ultrasecure Cache memories could be
used to entirely rebuild a FACTORY once its defects have reached the lethality stage. This
approach is conceptually equivalent to a scenario in which the last viable REPRO built by the
aging FACTORY is retargeted to land back at the site of its parent, using its SEED to build a
new FACTORY either by overhauling or by cannibalizing the remains of the old (as a
supplement to normal reproductive activities). Such a mission would be limited in the number of
REPRO starcraft it might ultimately produce by only two major factors: (1) The total accessib4e
mass on the jovian moon, enough for ~40,000 REPROs assuming a 100 km-diameter body; and
(2) the maximum number of viable generations permitted the lineal descendants of the original
REPRO, depending on the stability of the Cache data stores (i.e., each FACTORY could
regenerate itself for as many generations as remained to its offspring). Viability may be
enhanced by multiplying the number of Caches.
Another interesting possibility is that SEED could simply be allowed to grow for, say, 2 rather
than only t to take even better advantage of exponential growth. Maturation for 2 would result
in a FACTORY of mass 2.70x1011 kg, capable in theory of churning out REPROs at the
astonishing rate of three every two years. Maturation for 3 would produce a FACTORY so
large that its production of REPROs would consume the resources of the entire jovian moon in
only 33 years.
REPRO could also be tested in our own Solar System before we launch one to the stars. The
advantages are threefold, First. we get a free test, a full dress rehearsal of the most important part
of the mission, and an opportunity to debug the design. Second, we get a free source of REPRO
starprobes, assuming multiple reproduction is feasible as suggested above. Third, our total initial
monetary and material investment in the project is just one SEED, far less even than the price of
a single complete starship. The principal disadvantages of this approach are that in testing the
probe our Solar System gets cannibalized (why not let some uninhabited star system bear this
burden?), and also that we must wait ~103 years for testing to be completed and the first "free"
offspring to leave the Solar System. Humanity today may balk at these difficulties, but the costs
and delays may prove acceptable to an extraterrestrial civilization with a serious long-term
commitment to the exploration of their galaxy.
 

7.2 Cost Effectiveness and Alternatives

The final report of Project Daedalus offers no cost estimates for the construction of the flyby starprobe,
remarking only that the craft must be built by "a wealthy (compared to the present day) Solar System
wide community, probably sometime in the latter part of the 21st century" [40]. However, related
estimates by Parkinson [51] suggest a total cost for Daedalus of ~$10 12 and ~$1014 for REPRO. Thus
REPRO is cost-effective ultimately only if it can return data from at least 100 times as many solar
systems as Daedalus during its lifetime of the lifetime of its lineal descendants. A comparison of the
effectiveness of reproducing and non-reproducing starprobes is the subject of a subsequent paper [10].

To augment economic viability, smaller self- reproducing probes may be conceived. For
example, one simple alternative is to redesign REPRO with an element distribution more closely
matched to that expected to be found on the jovian moon. The abundance ratios calculated in
Section 6.1 are a measure of the "exotic" character of the structural materials as compared with
their source ore. Thus REPRO, with Rt = 1.10x105, is about four times "more exotic" an
extraction from jovian lunar soil than FACTORY, with Rf = 2.68x104. Engineers frequently
optimize for low cost, light weight, reliability, maintainability, or a hundred other factors, so
there is no reason why elemental distribution could not be treated similarly. If the extraction
ratios Rt and Rf could be designed down as low as 102-103, the mass or replication time (and
hence the cost) of REPRO would drop an order of magnitude or more.
Another remote possibility for downscaling involves using the Daedalus vehicle itself without
any modifications. In this scheme, a maximum of 200 tons is set apart from the subprobe
payload mass, equipped with a fusion engine with a 100:1 vehicle launch mass to payload ratio
similar to Daedalus, and fired backwards at exactly 12.2%c as Daedalus sweeps through the
target solar system on its normal flyby mission. Correctly executed, this manoeuvre would
suffice to place a payload of 2000 kg in orbit around any planet in the star system. Forward (79)
has suggested that a 100 kg payload at relative rest might be sufficient for near-interstellar
missions of exploration, so it is certainly plausible to view Daedalus as a prototype delivery
vehicle for Bracewell probes. However, a successful SEED design in under 2000 kg would
require micromechanical engineering techniques more than an order of magnitude beyond
current technology. For instance, preliminary estimates indicate that the total mass of SEED
Chemists would be ~400 kg; if 124 individual refineries are required this gives 3.2 kg/refinery.
We cannot say this is an impossible figure to reach; however, it lies. many orders beyond the
technology otherwise assumed for Daedalus and for REPRO.
 

7.3 Starprobe Evolution

In theory, to the extent the offspring of REPRO are imperfect replicas of the original, natural selection
may occur via differential reproduction. Those starprobes with the most accurate duplication
mechanisms and the most reliable Verifiers should produce more viable lineal descendants than
machines not similarly favoured. If the Galactic reproducing population is large enough. chance
construction errors and Cache data  "mutations" conceivably could give rise to a superior mode of
operation, though, as is the case with biological lifeforms, benign mutations are highly unlikely if the
original design has been optimized for reproducibility. Significant evolution in this manner will require at
least IV generations (taking as typical the gene mutation rate for lifeforms of ~10 6), a minimum of 106 
~ 109 years. This is two orders longer than the estimated exploration time for the entire Galaxy (~10 7
years), so little evolution may be expected in the first waves of self -reproducing starprobes.

The situation improves markedly if provision is made for sexual, rather than asexual,
reproduction. This alteration of the basic REPRO replication strategy permits the acquisition of
variation in parallel, not serially as in the original starprobe design. Assuming a sufficiently
dense population, significant evolution could occur in as few as 103-104 generations (80), or
~106-107 years. This is of the order of the exploration time of the Galaxy, enough time for
machine speciation to occur. Niche specialization is plausible and there is a remote possibility
that a simple machine ecology might have time to arise, complete with predators and prey.
Sexual starprobe designs may be imagined as REPRO vehicles preprogrammed for target star
overlap every few generations. The usual reproduction scenario might then include two
starprobes landing on opposite sides of the same jovian moon and jointly engaging in the
construction of two FACTORY complexes and two REPRO offspring. Memory Caches could be
compared, evaluated and edited "consciously," offering the exciting possibility of yet faster
development by means of intelligent participative evolution.
 

7.4 Ethical Considerations

A number of fundamental ethical issues are raised by the possible existence of REPRO-like vehicles in
the Galaxy. Is it morally right, or even fair, for a self -reproducing starprobe to enter a foreign solar
system and convert part of that system's mass and energy to its own purposes? Does an intelligent race
legally "own" its home sun and planets? Does it make a difference if the planets are inhabited by
intelligent beings, and if so, is there some lower threshold of intellect below which a system may
ethically be invaded or appropriated? If the intelligent inhabitants lack advanced technology, or if they
have it, should this make a difference? Should REPRO be programmed to make some appropriate
response upon discovery of lifeforms or intelligence, perhaps akin to Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics?

On a strictly material basis, the presence of a single REPRO in a star system represents a de
minimis mass loss to the native inhabitants thereof. A typical jovian atmosphere will contain
enough fusion fuel to fill ~1013 self -reproducing starships, and a single large jovian moon (100
km in diameter) may contain sufficient molybdenum to construct ~105 REPRO machines. Even
if 10100 offspring are generated by each FACTORY the mass loss is negligible. Nevertheless,
it is highly unlikely that humanity would take kindly to an alien starcraft landing on one of the
Jovian moons Himalia or Elara and reproducing itself there without at least first asking our
permission. Probably we would regard it as one of Dyson's "technological cancers loose in the
Galaxy" and attempt to destroy or disable it.
The theory of interstellar colonization ethics is discussed elsewhere in greater detail [8185].
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Dr. Francisco Valdes, for helpful discussions and criticism of the
manuscript, and Dr. Ronald Bracewell, whose scepticism in discussions with the author provided
the initial impetus for the present paper.
 
REFERENCES

1. Ronald N. Bracewell, "Communications from Superior Galactic Communities," Nature, 186, 670-
671 (1960). Reprinted in A. C. W. Cameron (ed.), Interstellar Communication, W. A. Benjamin,
Inc., New York, 1963, pp. 243-248.
2. Ronald N. Bracewell, Galactic Club: Intelligent Life in Outer Space W. H. Freeman & Company,
San Francisco, 1975.
3. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Interstellar Probes: A New Approach to SETI," JBIS, 33, 103-109 (1980).
4. Nigel Calder, Spaceships of the Mind, The Viking Press, New York, 1978.
5. Chris Boyce, Extraterrestrial Encounter: A Personal Perspective, David & Charles, Newton Abbot,
London, 1979.
6. Ronald N. Bracewell, "Life in the Galaxy," in S. T. Butler, H. Messel (eds.), A Journey Through
Space and the Atom, clear Research Foundation, Sydney, Australia, 1962. Reprinted in A. C. W.
Cameron (ed.), Interstellar Communication, W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, 1963, pp. 232-242.
7. Ronald N. Bracewell, "The Opening Message from an Extraterrestrial Probe," Astronautics and
Aeronautics, 11, 58-60 (1973).
8. A. R. Martin (ed.), Project Daedalus - The Final Report on the BIS Starship Study, JBIS
Supplement, Unwin Brothers Ltd., London, 1978.
9. Robert A. Freitas Jr., Francisco Valdes, (1980) A Search for Natural or Artificial Objects Located at
the Earth-Moon Libration Points. To be published.
10. Francisco Valdes, Robert A. Freitas Jr., (1980) Comparison of Reproducing and Nonreproducing
Starprobe Strategies for Galactic Exploration. In preparation.
11. John von Neumann, Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata, University of Illinois Press, Urbana,
1966.
12. John C. Kemeny, "Man Viewed as a Machine," Scientific American, 192, 58-67 (1955).
13. A. Turin "On Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entscheidungs Prohlem," Proc.
London Math. Soc., 42, 230 (1936)
14. Richard Laing, "Automaton Models of Reproduction by Sell Inspection," J. Theor. Biol., 66, 437-
456 (1977).
15. Edward F. Moore, "Artificial Living Plants," Scientific American, 195, 118-126 (1956).
16. Robert Rosen, "On a Logical Paradox1mplicit in the Notion of a Self-Reproducing Automaton,"
Bull. Math. Biophys., 21, 387-394 (1959).
17. Edward F. Moore, "Machine Models of Self-Reproduction," in Symposium on Mathematical
Problems in the Biological Sciences, New York, 1961.
18. Lars Löfgren, "Kinematic and Tessellation Models of Self-Repair," in Eugene E. Bernard, Morley
R. Kare eds.), Biolo cal Prototypes and Synthetic Systems, Vol. I, Plenum Kess, New York 1962,
pp. 342-369.
19. Robert Rosen, "Self-Reproducing Automaton," Bull. Math. Biophys. 24, 243-245 (1962).
20. W. R.. Stahl, "Self -Reproducing Automata," Perspect. Biol. Med., 8, 373-393 (1965).
21. Burton S. Guttman, "A Resolution of Rosen's Paradox for SelfReproducing Automata," Bull.
Math. Biophys., 28, 191-194 (1966).
22. Michael A. Arbib, "Simple Self-Reproducing Universal Automata," Information and Control, 9,
177-189 (1966).
23. Michael A. Arbib, "Automata Theory and Development: Part I," J. Theor. Biol., 14, 131-156
(1967).
24. Lars Lofgren, "An Axiomatic Explanation of Complete SelfReproduction," Bull. Math. Biophys.,
30, 415-425 (1968).
25. Michael A. Arbib, Theories of Abstract Automata, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1969.
26. J. W. Thatcher, Essays on Cellular Automata, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1970.
27. Otto E. Rossler, "Self-Reproduction and Serial Message Transfer; Two Related Problems," Bull.
Math. Biophys., 34, 343-353 (1972).
28. Michael J. Apter, Cybernetics and Development, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1966.
29. Jon Reed, Robert Toombs, Nils Aall Barricelli, "Simulation of Biological Evolution and Machine
Learning 1. Selection of SelfRe roducing meric Patterns by Data Processing Machines, Effects of
Heredity Control, Mutation Type and Crossing," Theor. Biol., 17, 319-342 (1967).
30. L. S. Penrose, R. Penrose, "A Self-Reproducing Analogue," Nature, 179, 1183 (1957).
31. L. S. Penrose, "Mechanics of Self -Reproduction," Ann. of Human Genetics, 23, 59-72 (1958).
32. L. S. Penrose, "Self-Reproducing Machines," Scientific American, 200, 105-114 (June 1959).
33. Homer Jacobson, "On Lodels of Reproduction," American Sci., 46, 255-284 (1959).
34. Harold J. Morowitz, "A Model of Reproduction," American Sci., 47, 261-263 (1959).
35. W. C. Walter, The Living Brain, Norton, New York, 1953.
36. E. B. Carne et al., "A Self-Organizing Binary Logical Element," in Eugene E. Bernard, Morley R.
Kare (eds.), Biological Prototypes and Synthetic Systems, Vol. 1, Plenum Press, New York, 1962,
311-330.
37. Nicholas V. Findler, Wiley R. McKinzie, "Computer Simulation of a Self-Preserving and Learning
Organism," Bull. Math. Biophys., 31, 247-253 (1969).
38. M. F. Huber, "Free Roving Machine," Wireless World, 78, 593
39. Homer Jacobson, "The Informational Content of Mechanisms and Circuits," Information and
Control, 2, 285-296 (1959).
40. Alan Bond, Anthony R. Martin, "Project Daedalus," in A. R. Martin ed.), Project Daedalus, 1978,
pp. S5-S7.
41. C. M. Webb, "Project Daedalus: Some Principles for the Design of an Interstellar Flyby Mission,"
in A. R. Martin (ed.), Project Daedalus, 1978, pp. S149-S161.
42. Stephen H. Dole, "Computer Simulation of the Formation of Planetary Systems," Icarus, 13, 494-
508 (1970).
43. Robert Rosen, "Subunit and Subassembly Processes," J.Theor. Biol., 28, 415-422 (1970).
44. A. C. A. White, J. A. fitt, "Project Daedalus: The Structure," in A. R. Martin (ed.), Project Darellus,
1978, pp. S104-S115.
45. Alan Bond, Anthony R. Martin, "Project Daedalus: The Propulsion System, Part II; Engineering
Design Considerations and Calculations," in A. R. Martin (ed.), Project Daedalus, 1978, S63-S82.
46. Alan Bond "Project Daedalus: The Auxiliary Power Supplies," in A. R. Martin (ed.), Project
Daedalus, 1978, pp. S126-S129.
47. J. A. Parfitt, A. C. A. White, "Project Daedalus: Structural Material Selection," in A. R. Martin
(ed.), Project Daedalus, 1978, pp. S97-S103.
48. Alan Bond, "Project Daedalus: Target System Encounter Protection," in A. R. Martin (ed.), Project
Daedalus, 1978, pp. S123-125.
49. "Metals, Minerals, and Fuels,' Minerals Yearbook 1976, Vol. 1, prepared by the Staff of the U.S.
Bureau of Mines, GPO, Washington, D. C., 1978.
50. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States. 98th Annual Edition,
Washington, D.C., 1977, and 99th Annual Edition, Washington, D.C., 1978.
51. R. C. Parkinson, "Project Daedalus: Propellant Acquisition Techniques," in A. R. Martin (ed.),
Project Daedalus, 1978, pp. S83-S89
52. David W. Hughes; J. Brit. Astr. Assoc., 84, 272 (1974).
53. A. C. W. Cameron, "Abundances of the Elements in the Solar Sy stem, " Space Science Reviews,
15, 121-146 (1973).
54. Mid W. Hughes, "The Direct Investigation of Comets by Space Probes," JBIS, 30, 3-14 (1977).
55. William K. Hartmann,' The Smaller Bodies of the Solar System," Scientific American, 233, 142-
159 (1975).
56. Geoffrey Hugh Lindop, "The Space Telescope," Spaceflight, 20, iii-viii (Sept.-Oct. 1978).
57. Michael J. Gaffey, Thomas B. McCord, "Mining the Asteroids," Mercury, 6, 1-6, 9 (Nov.-Dec.
1977), and "Mining Outer Space," Technology Review, 79, 50-59 (June 1977).
58. Brian ÓLeary "Mining the Apollo and Amor Asteroids," Science. 197, 363, 366 (1977).
 59. Brian Mason, Meteorites, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1962.
60. D. Heymann, "The Inert Cases He, Ne10, Ar18, Kr36 and Xe54". in Brian Mason (ed.), Handbook
of Elemental Abundances in Meteorites, Gordon and Breach Science Publ., New York, 1971. 29-
66.
61. F. Heide, Kleine Meteoritenkunde, 2nd Edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1957.
62. Harrison Brown, "A Table of Relative Abundances of clear Species, " Rev. Mod. Phys., 21, 625-
634 (1949).
63. Dale P. Cruikshank, "Radii and Albedos of Four Trojan Asteroids and Jovian Satellites 6 and 7,"
Icams, 30, 224-230 (1977).
64. W.V. Hartmann, "Discussion," in T. Gehrels (ed.), Physical Studies of the Minor Planets, NASA SP-
267 (1971), pp. 162-163.
65. J. G. Miller, Living Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 978.
66. C. P. Keim "Enriching Stable Isotopes Electromagnetically," Appl Phys. , 24, 1255-1261 (1953).
67. F. A. White, Mass Spectroscopy in Science and Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1968.
68. A. T. Forrester, J. Perel, J. Mahoney, "A Critiaue of the Throughput Limit Mass Spectrographs," J.
Appl. Phys., 49, 3046-3048 (1978).
69. Richard D. Johnson Charles Holbrow (eds.), Space Settlements: A Design Study, NASA SP-413
(1977).
70. Donald D. Clayton, Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1968.
71. R. J. Tayler, The Origin of the Chemical Elements, Springer-Verlag New York, 1972.
72. Herbert L. Nichols, "Excavation," Encyclopaedia Britannica 8. 938-941 (1963).
73. Walter E. Crosmer, Oakley T. Neau, James Poe, "Automation Of ace Processing Applications
Shuttle Payloads," in W. J. Bursnall. W. Morgenthaller, C. E. Simonson (eds.), Advances in the
Astronautical Sciences: Space Shuttle Missions in the 80s Volume 32. AAS 75-264 (1977).
74. T. J. Crant, "Project Daedalus: The Computers," in A. R. Martin (ed.) Project Daedalus, 1978, pp.
S130-S142.
75. William C. Oldham, "The Fabrication of Microelectronic Cif cuits," Scientific American, 237, 110-
128 (1977).
76. Hughes Laboratories; reported by J. Pournelle in Galaxy, 38. 132. Oct. 1977).
77. T. J.. Grant, "Project Daedalus: The Need for On-Board Repair." in A. R. Martin (ed.) Project
Daedalus; 1978, pp. S172-S179.
78. S. C. White, C. A. Berry, R. R. Hessberg, "Effects of Weightlessness on Astronauts - A Summary,"
in W. Vishniac (ed.), Sciences and Space Research (COSPAR), 10, 47-56 (1972).
79. Robert L. Forward, "A Program for Interstellar Exploration," JBIS, 29, 610-632 (1976).
80. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Belknap Press, of Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Mass- 1975.
81. Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell, Ivan A. Vlasic, Law and Public Order in Space, Yale
University Press, New Haven. Conn., 1963.
82. Ernst Fasan, Relations with Alien Intelligences, Berlin Verlag,
83. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "The Legal Rights of Extraterrestrials,", Analog, 97, 54-67 (April 1977).
84. Robert A. Freitas Jr., "Metalaw and Interstellar Relations," Mercury 6, 15-17 (March-April 1977).
85. Robert A. Freitas Jr., Xenology: An Introduction to the Scientific Study of Extraterrestrial Life,
Intelligence, and Civilization. To be published.

Created: August 6, 1998

Last Modified: April 29, 1999
HTML Editor: Robert J. Bradbury