KAMKUS COLLEGE OF LAW

B.A.LL.B. IIND SEM

SOCIOLOGY-II
CODE (BL-2002)
UNIT-Ist

Long Question Answers:

Q1. Define caste system with features?

Ans. Origin of the Caste system

The caste stratification of the Indian society has had its origin in the ‗Chaturvarna‘
system. The Hindu Society was divided into four main Varna namely: the
Brahmins, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya, and the Shudras. The Varna system which
was prevalent during the Vedic period which was mainly based on the division of
labour and occupation.

Caste meaning and some definition Caste is so complex a phenomenon which is

difficult to define. Hence caste has been defined variously.

(i) C.H. Cooley :when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a
caste.
(ii) A. W. Green :caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and
down the status ladder, at least ideally may not occur.
(iii) D. N. Majumdar and T. N. Madan: have said that caste is a ‗closed
group‘.

Features of Caste System

1. Caste- As a Hierachical Division of Society: the Hindu society is

graditional one. It is one divided into several small groups called castes
and subcastes. A sense of highness and lowness or superiority and
inferiority is associated with this gradation or ranking. The Brahmins are
placed at the top of the hierarchy and are regarded as ‗pure‘. The

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 degraded caste or the so called ‗untouchables‘ have occupied the other
end of heirachy.
2. Caste- As a segmental Division of Society: the Hindu society is a caste
ridden society. It divided into a number of segments called ‗caste‘.
3. Restrictions on social Relations: the caste system puts restrictions on
the range of social relations also. The idea of ‗pollution‘ makes the point
clear. It means a touch of lower caste man would pollute or defile a man
o higher caste. Even his shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher
caste man.
4. Restrictions on food :the caste system has imposed certain restrictions
on the food habits of the the members, they differ from caste to caste.
Who should accept what kind of food and from whom?- is oftendecided
by the caste.
5. Restrictions on marriage: the caste system imposes restrictions on
marriage also. Caste is an endogamous group. Endogamy is a rule of
marriage according to which an individual has to marry within his or her
group.Each caste is subdivided into several subcastes, which are again
endogamous.
 Sapinda and sagotra exogamy: sapinda and sagotra marriages
have been generally forbidden by the upper castes and sapinda and
sagotra exogamous marriages have been insisted upon.

6. Restriction on occupational choice: in the caste-ridden society there is a

graduation of occupations also. Some occupations are considered to be
superior and scared while certain others degrading and inferior. For long
time, occupations were very much associated with the caste system. Each
caste had its own specific occupations. The caste members were
expected to continue the same occupations. Occupations were almost
hereditary.

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Q.2 Define social class and characteristic?

A social class is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory
centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of
hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower
classes.

Ans. Social class–social class is a principal type of social stratification found

especially in the modern civilised countries. If the caste system is found to be
unique to india, the class system is universal in nature. The word ‗class‘ is used to
represent groups of professors, artists, engineers, doctors, students and so on. But
the concept of ‗social class‘ is more used in sociology representing a kind of social
stratification than anything else.

Characteristics of social class

1. Class-A status group: A social class is essentially a status group. Class is

related to status. The consideration of the class as a status group makes it
possible to apply it to any society which has many strata. The idea of social
status separates the individual not only physically sometimes even mentally.
2. Mode of feeling: In a class system we may observe three modes of feelings.
(i) there is a feeling of equality in relation to the member of one‘s own
class(ii) there is a feeling of inferiority in relation to those who occupy the
higher status in the socio-economic hierarchy.(iii) there is a feeling of
superiority in relation to those who occupy the lower status in the hierarchy.
3. Element of prestige: each social class has its own status in society. Status is
associated with prestige.
4. Mode of living: A social class is distinguished from other classes by its
customary mode of behaviour or mode of behaving.
5. Element of stability: A social class is relatively a social group. It is not
transistory nor unstable like a crowd or mob.
6. Social class-an economic group: the basis of social classes is mostly
economic, but they are not mere economic groups or divisions.

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 7. Class consciousness: class system is associated with class consciousness. It
consist in the realisation of a similarity of attitude and behaviour with
member of other classes.
8. Class consciousness and class struggle: karl Marx, who championed the
cause of workers, laid great emphasis on ‗class consciousness‘ among the
working classes. According to Marx, the rise of class consciousness among
the workers leads to their class identification, class solidarity andfinally to
class struggle.

Q.3 Concept of varna? different between varna and caste.?

Ans. The term varna literally means colour. Originally it has been used to refer the
distinction between Aryan and Dasa .the word varna is evolved from the Sanskrit
root ‗vri‘meaning choice. In this sence varna means anything chosen by an
individual according to his choice.varna system is as old as the arrival of the Arya
culture.

Defination-

M.N SRINIVAS: the first three varnas are called dwijas or twice born as only
they are entitled to don the sacred thread at the ceremony of upanayana which is
interpreted as second birth.

Acounding to Laymen:

'Varna' defines the hereditary roots of a newborn, it indicates the colour, type,
order or class of people. Purusha is the primordial being, constituted by the
combination of the four Varnas. Brahmins constitute its mouth, Kshatriyas its
arms, Vaishyas its thighs, and Shudras its feet.

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 Concept of Varna

The term ‗varna’ literally means colour. Originally it has been used to refer the
distinction between Aryan (Gaura varna) and Dasa (Shyam varna). The word
‗varna’ is evolved from the Sanskrit root ‗vri’ meaning choice. In this sense varna
means anything chosen by an individual according to his choice. Varna system is
as old as the arrival of the Arya culture. It states that the four uarrtas came into
being from the body of the primeval man. From his mouth issued the Brahmins.
who became priests and scholars. From his arms came the Kshatriyas, warriors and
rulers, from his thighs came the Vaishyas, tradesmen, and from his feet rose the
Sudras, cultivators. Manu Smriti also explained similar origin of varnas.

The object of creating varna system in India was the division of labour, i.e.,
Brahmins to teach, Kshatriyas to govern. Vaishyas to do business and Sudras to
perform physical labour and to provide services to upper varnas.

Varna and Caste

Varna and caste though confused to be one are absolutely different from one
another.

(1) Varna is assigned according to one‘s capabilities of action and

mental tendencies, whereas caste is acquired by birth.

(2) Varna system Is flexible, while caste system is rigid.

(3) Vai-nas are four in number but, castes are many.

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 (4) In varna system, there were no restrictions as regards particular
occupations for persons belonging to a particular varna. But in caste
system occupations have been fixed for particular castes.

(5) Varna system is of ancient times, while caste system is of modem

period.

(6) Varna refers to racial differences, but caste indicates the birth.

Object of varna

The object of creating varna system in india was the division

Of labour, Brahmins to teach, Kshatriyas to govern, vaishyas to

Do business and sudras to perform physical labour and to provide servives to upper
varnas. According to bhagavat gita, varna system find its basis in the inherent
qualities and mental tendencies of the individuals, satvika, Brahmins, satvika-
rajasika, kshatrriya,rajasika-tamasika,vaishya and tamas, shudras. The four varnas
observed dr. radhakrishnan, were originally occupational, the division soon
become hereditary.the four varnas were recognised as distinct. Varna system is not
rigid and narrow but a developed social order.

Short Questions:

Q4. Distinguish between Caste and Class?

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Ans.
Caste
1. Particular: the system with all
its peculiarities is unique to
india.
2. Ascribed status: status is
ascribed to the individual by
birth.
3. Closed system: caste is a closed
system. It restricts social
mobility.
4. Divine origin: the caste system
is believed to have had a divine
origin.
5. Purity and impurity: the idea of
purity and impurity is
associated with the caste.
6. Regulation of relations: the
caste system controls the
activities and regulates the
relations of its members to a
great extent.
7. Greater social distance: there is
comparatively greater distance
being kept between different
castes.
8. Conservative: the caste ridden
system tends to become
conservative, orthodox and
reactionary.
9. Endogamous group: caste is an
endogamous social unit.
10.Complexity: the caste system is
a complex system.
11.Caste consciousness: caste
consciousness is most
Class
Universal:the class system is
universal in nature.
Achieved status: status is achieved by
the individual. There is scope for
achievement.
Open system: class is an open system.
It provides for social mobility.
Secular: the class system is secular. It
has nothing to do with religion.
Feeling of disparity: there is a feeling
of disparity on the part of the member
of a class.
Limits relations: the class system on
the other hand, limits the range of
contacts and communications of its
members.
Less social distance: there is a less
social distance between different
classes.
Progressive: the class laden system is
regarded as more progressive.
Not endogamous: A class is not an
endogamous unit.
Simplicity: the class system is known
for its simplicity.
Class consciousness: class
consciousness is not inimical to
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 dangerous to democracy. democracy. Class and democracy go
together.

Q4. Discuss the problems of Schedule Caste.

Ans. Problems of the schedule caste

1. Social Restrictions and disability of schedule caste: the schedule Caste or

the harijans suffered for centuries from a number of social disabilities among
which the following:-
(a)Lowest status in hierarchy- In the caste hierarchy the schedule castes
are ascribed the lowest status. They are considered to be unholy, inferior and
low and are looked down upon by the other castes.
(b) Education disability- The harijans were forbidden from taking up to
education during the early days. Sanskrit was denied rom them. Public
Schools and other educational institutions were closed for them.

2. Religious Disability: The harijans also suffer from religious disabilities

even today. They are not allowed to enter temples in many places. The
Brahmins who offer their priestly services to some lower castes, sre not
prepared to officiate in the ceremonies of the ‗untouchable‘ castes.

3. Economic Disabilities: The harijans are economically backward and have

been suffering from various economic disabilities also.
(a) No right of property ownership- for centuries the harijans were not
allowed to have land and business of their own. It is only recently their
ownership to the property has become recognised.
(b) Selection of occupation limited- the caste system imposes restrictions
on the occupational choice of members. The occupational choice was very
much limited for the harijans.

4. Political Disabilities: the untouchables hardly participated in the political

matters. They were not given any place in the politic, administration and the

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 general governance of india. They were not allowed to hold any public post.
Political rights and representation were denied for them.

Explain characteristics of tribes?

Characteristics of Tribes

A tribal life has the following essential characteristics:—

(1) Each tribe has a distinct name of its own.

(2) Members of a tribe have a definite sense of unity.

(3) Members of a tribe speak a common dialect.

(4) The members are close and near to each other and have blood relationship.

(5) Tribal people generally marry outside their tribe and they are an endogamous as
they marry within their group.

(6) The members of tribe protect each other and work in the spirit of unity.

(7) The leader of the group is very powerful man and as such he exercises control
over its members.

(8) They follow primitive occupations such as gleaning, hunting and gathering of
forest products. They have a notion of joint ownership of property.

(9) They are largely meat eaters and they love food and drink.

(10) Common culture produces a life of homogeneity among the tribals.

(11) Many clans constitute together to form a tribe.

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(12) Members of a tribe believe in the law of reciprocity.

(13) Its origin is mystical.

Very Short Questions:

Q5. Write in brief about ascribed status and achieved status?

Ans.

Ascribed status Achieved status

Status is ascribed to the individuals
by birth. Birth is the criterion of
status and not achievement. Status
can neither be changed for be
improved.
Status is achieved by the individuals.
There is a scope for achievement.
Hence, status can be changed or
improved.

Q6. Discuss Distribution of the tribes.

Ans. The tribal population is divided into three zones, namely: North Eastern
Zone, Central Zone and Southern Zone.

1. North Eastern Zone: This zone consists of the sub-himalayan region and
the hills and mountain ranges of north eastern frontiers of india.
2. Central Zone: The tribal group of this zone are scattered all over the
mountain-belt between the rivers Narmada and Godawari.
3. Southern Zone: This zone falls south of the river Krishna. The tribals of
this zone are regarded as the most ancient inhabitants now living in india.
Q7. Define Untouchability offences.

Ans.Article 17 of constitution of indiastates that ―untouchability is abolished and

its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out
of untouchability shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law. The
parliament passed the untouchability (offences) Act, 1955 which was later
substituted by the protection of Civil rights act, 1978.

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(i) Committing any kind of social injustice
(ii) Preventing a person on the grounds of untouchability
(iii) Refusal to sell goods or render services
(iv) Enforcing occupational, professional, trade disabilities in the matter of
enjoyment of any benefit under a charitable trust, etc.

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 UNIT- IIND
LONG QUESTION
Q. 1 IS A Law Sub System of Society.?

ANS. Law is rooted in social institutions, in socioeconomic network. These social

factors influence the course of law or the direction of legal change. This is the
outcome of personal and social interactions which are variable and often
unpredictable.
Definitions
1) ―Law is an order, the validity of which is a guaranteed by the
probability that deviation will be met by physical or psychic sanction by a
staff.‖ -------Max Weber
2) ―The Law is a social norm, infraction of which is sanctioned in thread
or in fact by the application of physical force by a party possessing the
socially recognized privileged of so acting.‖ ---- Hobel.
Nature of Law
1) Analytical school - Bodin, Hobbes, Bentham, Austine, Barker -
Command of the sovereign

2) Historical school – Soveigny - Formed by customs & traditions & public

opinion.
3) Philosophical – Joseph Koehler - Based on feeling of justice
4) Sociological school – Gumplowis, Crab be, Roscoe pound, Holemel. -
Law is gift of social forces. Should meet the needs of the society and its
conditions.
Source OF Law
Customs

Custom is one of the oldest source of law. A custom as a law is not written, but is a
rule whereby if a practice can be shown to have existed for a very long time, such
as "since time immemorial', it becomes a source of law. These are general customs.

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Particular (or "private") customs may arise when a family or a district or a group or
tribe, has from long usage obtained the force of law.

Salmond said that ‗Custom is the embodiment of those principles which have
commended themselves to the national conscience as the principles of justice and
public utility‘.

Keeton said that ―Customary laws are those rules of human action, established by
usage and regarded as legally binding by those to whom the rules are applicable,
which are adopted by the courts and applied as a source of law because they are
generally followed by the political society as a whole or by some part of it‖.

Ingredients of Custom

1. Antiquity

2. Continuous in nature.

3. Peaceful Enjoyment

4. Obligatory Force

5. Certainty

6. Consistency

7. Reasonableness

Legislation

Legislation is the prime source of law. and consists in the declaration of legal rules
by a competent authority. Legislation can have many purposes: to regulate, to
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authorize, to enable, to proscribe, to provide funds, to sanction, to grant, to declare
or to restrict. A parliamentary legislature frames new laws, such as Acts of
Parliament, and amends or repeals old laws. The legislature may delegate
law-making powers to lower bodies.

Case Law

Judicial precedent ( case law, or judge-made law) is based on the doctrine of stare
decisis, and mostly associated with jurisdictions based on the English common
law. Precedent is the accumulated principles of law derived from centuries of
decisions. Judgements passed by judges in important cases are recorded and
become significant source of law. When there is no legislature on a particular point
which arises in changing conditions, the judges depend on their own sense of right
and wrong and decide the disputes from first principles.

Equity

Equity is a source of law peculiar to England and Wales. Equity is the case law
developed by the Court of Chancery. Equity prevails over common law, but its
application is discretionary. Equity's main achievements are: trusts, charities,
probate, & equitable remedies. There are a number of equitable maxims, such as:
―He who comes to equity must come with clean hands‖.

Types Of Law:

1) Constitutional law

2) Ordinary law

3) Public law

4) Private law
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5) National law

6) International law

7) Administrative law

Role of law in social control

1) Brings about social stability.

2) Responsible for social upliftment.

3) Exercises Omani-direction control.

4) Brings about socialization.

5) Protests and observes fundamental basic rights.

6) Basis of Governmental administration.

7) Fear of punishment between citizens.

8) Controls the aggressiveness.

9) Lays down behavioral norms.

10) Uses force.

11) Preserves what is valuable for the society.

RESULT:

A law society is an association of lawyers with a regulatory role that includes the
right to supervise the training, qualifications, and conduct of lawyers. A society
registered under the Act enjoys the status of a legal entity apart from the members
constituting it. A society so registered is a legal person just as an individual but

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with no physical existence. As such it can acquire and hold property and can sue
and be sued.

Q2.Define the legitimacy.discuss Source of legitimacy accorting to weber.

ANS. Legitimacy - Meaning

The ability of a social system to effectively implement its authoritative values in

the society, and the support that a political system, its authority-holders in
particular, get from the people depends to a large extent on the degree of
legitimacy that the political system as a whole and the group in power in particular,
enjoys. The effectiveness of a political system as such, depends upon the degree of
legitimacy that it has at its back. That is why each political system has to be
legitimate and the people must regard it as legitimate, only then it is tolerated and
accepted by the people. A political system devoid of legitimacy is bound to remain
inefficient and a system infested with crises, and even with instability and
revolutions. Legitimacy is as such centrally important to a political system, that is
why it stands accepted as an impportant concept in Modern Political Analysis.

Legitimacy - Definition

How to Judge the Legitimacy of a Political System

1. Nature and level of popular voluntary and active political participation.
2. The degree of support that the Political System habitually receives.
3. Rational attitude of the people towards authority.
4. Respect enjoyed by the power holder.
5. The nature and level of political conflict.
6. The faith of the people in the objectives, goals, values and basic structure of the
constitutional system.
7. Credibility of the authority holders and decision-makers.
8. Willing popular support towards the authoritative values being made and
implemented by the authority holders.

Sources of Legitimacy

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The legitimacy of a political system or the groups or the group in power, results
from three different sources-(i) Ideology, (ii) Structure, and (iii) Personal qualities.

1) Ideology as a Source of Legitimacy - Ideology is a set of principles which

explain a particular phenomenon or phenomena rationally and philosophically. It
consists of a set of articulated ideals, end purposes which help the members of the
system to interpret and evaluate the policies and actions of the past and present
groups and to develop a future vision. Ideology describes the aims for which the
political power is being used or should be used. In every political system some
general ideologies and several ideological principles are used by different groups.
The political system, the authority holders, the groups, in particular, the group in
power and the group in opposition, use ideologies groups try to maintain or
develop their legitimacies. The ideology or ideological to maintain or develop their
legitimacies. The ideology or ideological principles which are used by the regime
are called legitimating ideology.

Several ideological principles or an ideology are used by the authority holders and
their regime to increase the legitimacy of their policies, decisions and actions. The
opponents of the regime and the authority-holders also use the same or a different
ideology to secure legitimacy for their opposition to the system as well as for their
actions. Ideologies of Democratic Socialism and Secularism are used by the Indian
regime and by almost all political groups to maintain or secure legitimacy.

Ideology is used by the leaders to secure support for their policies, for controlling
the behaviour of their supporters, and for criticizing the policies and actions of the
opponents. However, success in the use of ideology for securing legitimacy
depends upon the ability of the leaders to make an effective use of the set of
principles for justifying their policies and actions. The structure of a regime, the
constitutional system and its norms also depend upon ideology for maintaining and
increasing its legitimacy.

The capacity of ideologies to mobilize legitimacy for the political system or its
parts or groups depends upon two factors (i) The relationship of ideologies to the
performance, and (ii) their appeal on broader psychological grounds. The first
factor means that if the people of the system consider that their ideologically
inspired expectations are being fulfilled by the Political System, they get attached
to the political system and start rendering willing support to it. This increases the
legitimacy. Conversely, if the people feel that the expectations are not being
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fulfilled, the legitimacy of the system decreases. The second factor relates to the
success of ideology in capturing the imagination of most of the members and in
fostering a faith in the ability and qualities (legitimacy) of the authority-holders
and the regime.

Further, the role of ideology as a source of legitimacy depends upon both its
capacity to enable its adherents to express their needs and wants and its
effectiveness as an investment of control of its components and ideas to move
people into action.

2) Structural Sources of Legitimacy

- The degree to which the authority holders exercise their roles as parts of various
structures successfully and efficiently also acts as a source of legitimacy. The
degree of legitimacy attaching to the authorities will vary with the extent to which
they are perceived to occupy valid roles in the political structure, to have been
selected in accordance with the norms of the regime and to wield their power in the
manner prescribed by these norms and by the regime goals. If they are seen to meet
the norms of law and procedure their legitimacy gets confirmed.

Every political system has roles through which authority is exercised. When a
person takes up the performance of a role through the established process, his
legitimacy gets accepted by the people. The due performance of role in a just and
right manner acts as a source of increase in the legitimacy of authority.

Thus, when an individual comes to occupy a role in a legitimate structure, his

legitimacy gets confirmed.

It is called structural legitimacy. The validity of the authority stems from the
acceptance of the legitimacy of the role a member holds in the structure of
authority and his conformity with the norms defining rights and obligations of that
position.

3) Personality as a Source of Legitimacy-

The personality of the authority-holder is always an input of legitimacy. When the

personality of the person holding an office enjoys respect and moral approval, the
legitimacy of the role he performs gets confirmed and increased. The personal
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charisma of the authority holder, and the recognition of his qualities by the people
is always a source of legitimacy for the role he performs and the structure whose
part he is. Personal legitimacy is a strong source of legitimacy. When the people
love, support, and respect the person holding an office, even some violations of the
norms and procedures are well tolerated by the people and the legitimacy of the
system remains intact.
For the masses, personalities of the top leaders, particularly personality of the
topmost leader is the most determining factor of the legitimacy of the political
system or the group in power. The masses cannot understand and appreciate fully
the qualities of ideologies or ideological principles. Their knowledge of the
political structures and their functions is also limited. But the vision of charismatic
person exercising power over them always attracts them. Hence personality as the
source of legitimacy sometimes overshadows the other two sources.

Types of Legitimacy
Basis
Kinds
Source of Legitimacy
Objects of Legitimacy I
Ideology

Q.3 Define law in relation of social order in Indian society?

Ans.
Law is a set of rules that plays an important part in the creation and
maintenance of social order. John Austin's definition: Law is a command
issued from a Sovereign power to an inferior and enforced by coercion. The
law is important for a society for it serves as a norm of conduct for citizens.
The law is important because it acts as a guideline as to what is accepted in
society. Without it there would be conflicts between social groups and
communities. Relation of social order in Indian society

Within the field, it refers to the organization of many interrelated part of a

society. Social order is present when individuals agree to a shared social

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contract that states that certain rules and laws must be abided and certain
standards, values, and norms maintained. The outstanding fact of society is
the interdependence of men. People have common needs, which require
concerted effort; they have also dissimilar needs, which require mutual
adjustment and accommodation.
Social order refers to a set of connected social structures, practices and
institutions that maintain and set methods for relating and behaving. In a
social order, individuals within a society mingle, interact and live together
within unique and stable arrangements of institutions. Example of social
order- Marriage, family, customs, norms, values, award, cooperation,
competition etc. all are the best example there are so many examples. ...
This, social order is a tool to run a society.
It is necessary for every society or group to maintain its social order and this
is possible only when its members behave in accordance with that social
order. An important objective of social control is to maintain the old order.
Family helps in the realization of this objective.

Categories of law-

Four Categories of Law:

Corporate Law – Lawyers who take care of a business‘ legal boundaries.
Criminal Law – Lawyers ensuring every citizen to abide by the laws.
Energy Law – Lawyers to oversee the taxation of energy and approving
licenses to industries.
International Law – Lawyers improving relations of one nation with the
other.

Durkheim's Theory
Through his study of the role of religion in primitive and traditional
societies, French sociologist Émile Durkheim came to believe that social
order arose out of the shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a given
group of people.

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His view locates the origins of social order in the practices and interactions
of daily life as well as those associated with rituals and important events. In
other words, it is a theory of social order that puts culture at the forefront.

Durkheim theorized that it was through the culture shared by a group,

community, or society that a sense of social connection—what he called
solidarity—emerged between and among people and that worked to bind
them together into a collective.

Durkheim referred to a group's shared collection of beliefs, values, attitudes,

and knowledge as the "collective conscience."

In primitive and traditional societies Durkheim observed that sharing these

things was enough to create a "mechanical solidarity" that bound the group
together.

In the larger, more diverse, and urbanized societies of modern times,

Durkheim observed that it was the recognition of the need to rely on each
other to fulfill different roles and functions that bound society together. He
called this "organic solidarity."

Durkheim also observed that social institutions—such as the state, media,

education, and law enforcement—play formative roles in fostering a
collective conscience in both traditional and modern societies.

According to Durkheim, it is through our interactions with these institutions

and with the people around us that we participate in the maintenance of rules
and norms and behavior that enable the smooth functioning of society. In
other words, we work together to maintain social order.

Durkheim's view became the foundation for the functionalist perspective,

which views society as the sum of interlocking and interdependent parts that
evolve together to maintain social order.
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Conclusion. The causes of social change are diverse, and the processes of change
can be identified as either short-term trends or long-term develop Conclusion. The
causes of social change are diverse, and the Conclusion. The causes of social
change are diverse, and the processes of change can be identified as either
short-term trends or long-term developments. Change can be either cyclic or
one-directional. ... To the degree that change processes are regular and
interconnected, social change itself is structured.

SHORT QUESTION:

Q.4. Types of custom?

A custom is define as a culture idea that Describes a regular, patterned way of

behaving that is considered characteristic of life in a social system. Shaking hands,
bowing and kissing all custom. They are ways of greeting people that help to
distinguish one society from another.

Sociologists speak of at least four types of norms:

1. folkways

2. mores

3. taboos

4. and laws.

Folkways, sometimes known as ―conventions‖ or ―customs,‖ are standards of

behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant.

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Importance of custom:

Customs preserve our culture and transmit it to the succeeding generations. They
have added stability and certainty to our social life. They bring people together and
develop social relationships among them. They provide for a feeling of security in
human society.

Q.5. Define basis of legitimacy?

Max Weber suggests that legitimacy stands based on three different grounds:
a) Rational grounds-Legitimacy resting on a belief in the legality of patterns of
normative rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules
(Legal Authority).
b) Traditional grounds-Legitimacy resting upon an established belief in the
sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of the status of those
exercising authority under them (Traditional Authority).
c) Charismatic grounds-Legitimacy resting upon devotion to the specific and
exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person,
and of the normative order revealed or ordained by him (Charismatic
Authority).

Q. 6 what is legal system?

Defination:

A legal system is a procedure or process for interpreting and enforcing the law.
Overview. There are hundreds of legal systems in the world.
Legal system refers to a procedure or process for interpreting and enforcing the
law. It elaborates the rights and responsibilities in a variety of ways. Three major
legal systems of the world consist of civil law, common law and religious law.

There are generally considered to be five legal systems

1.civil law

23
2. Common law

3. customary law

4. Religious law

5. Mixed legal system

Purpose of law:

The Nature of Law. The purpose of a legal system is to provide a systematic,

orderly, and predictable mechanism for resolving disagreements. In order to do its
job, any such system must perform three closely connected, but nevertheless
distinct, functions: adjudication, legislation, and execution.

Very short question:

Q.7. Define society?

Society is a term used in everyday life with a particular meaning. A layman often
defines society as an aggregation or collection of individuals. But in sociology, the
term is used in a different sense. It is not just a congregation of collectively of
several individuals. It refers to the sum total of the relationships existing between
them. In term of common sense, society is understood as a tangible object, whereas
in sociology it refers to an intangible entity. In their book on ―Society‖, MacIver
and Page define: ―Society is a system of usage and procedure, of authority and
mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of control of human behavior and of
liberties. This ever-changing, complex system, we call society. It is the web of
social relationship and it is always changing.

Some Definition of Society –

24
Giddings, Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal relations
in which associating individuals are bound together.

Q.8. Different between custom and law?

1.Laws are purposively established, whereas customs tend to grow naturally over
time. The custom of using fireworks to commemorate our nation's independence
isn't something that's required for us to do.

2. customs are widely accepted expectations of behavior that are particular to a

specific place, time, or society. Laws, on the other hand, are formal sets of rules
that govern the behavior of a group of people.

3. Law is specific, customs are not. Law is specific, definite and clear. One can
know what the laws of the land are. But as Maine opined, it is only known by a
privileged minority. Customs, on the other hand, are not definite or clear. They are
not codified in any single book so that it becomes difficult to know all the customs
of the land.

4. Law is more flexible and adaptable than custom. Law can readily adjust itself to
changing condition: whereas customs cannot be readily changed. Customs are
relatively fixed and permanent.

Q.9. Types of legitimacy

1. The first type discussed by Weber is legal-rational authority. ...

2. The second type of authority, traditional authority, derives from long-established

customs, habits and social structures.

3. The third form of authority is charismatic authority.

25
 UNIT – IIIRD

Q.1 Define occupation and profession with definition?

Occupation is your job or the way you spend your time or one country maintaining
a military Profession means a declaration. Telling someone you did something
wrong is an example of a profession of guilt.

Definition of occupation:

A person's usual or principal work or business, especially as a means of earning a

living; vocation: Her occupation was dentistry. Any activity in which a person is
engaged. Possession, settlement, or use of land or property.

Definition of profession:

The definition of a profession is a job, or what you do for a living. A lawyer is an

example of a profession. When you work as a teacher, this is an example of a
situation where education is your profession.resence in another.

There are many different types of professionals.

Types of Professionals

1. Accountant,

2. Teacher

3. Technician

4. Laborer

5. Physical

6. Commercial Banker
26
7. Engineer

8.Lawyer

Types of occupation:

1. Occupation

2. Prestige

3. Working Class

4. Career Development

5. Vocation and Identity

6. Socioeconomic Status

7. Women in the Labor Force

8. Class Structure

9. The Lower Class

Prestige: The job of professor is an example of an occupation that has high

prestige even though many professors do not earn incomes in the top economic
bracket.

The Working Class: The working class consists of individuals and households
with low educational attainment, low status occupations, and below average
incomes.

Career Development: Vocation and Identity

A vocation is an occupation to which an individual is particularly drawn. A

vocation is a term for an occupation to which a person is especially drawn or for
which he or she is suited, trained, or qualified.

Socioeconomic Status

27
There are a variety of ways to measure SES, including educational attainment,
income, wealth, and occupational prestige.

Prestige used to be associated with one's family name, but for most people in
developed countries, prestige is now generally tied to one's occupation.

Women in the Labor Force

Economic dependency upon men has had the same impact, particularly as
occupations have become professionalized over the 19th and 20th centuries.

Historically, women's lack of access to higher education had effectively excluded

them from the practice of well-paid and high status occupations.

As gender roles have followed the formation of agricultural and then industrial
societies, newly developed professions and fields of occupation have been
frequently inflected by gender.

Class Structure

American society is stratified into social classes based on wealth, income,

educational attainment, occupation, and social networks.

Social classes are hierarchical groupings of individuals that are usually based on
wealth, educational attainment, occupation, income, or membership in a subculture
or social network.

This model has gained traction as a tool for thinking about social classes in
America, but it does not fully account for variations in status based on
non-economic factors, such as education and occupational prestige.

The Lower Class

Their occupations are largely unskilled and consist of repetitive tasks, and they
achieve only a meager income.

Those who are employed in lower class occupations are often colloquially referred
to as the working poor.
28
Two of the most common causes are low educational attainment and disabilities,
the latter of which includes both physical and mental ailments that preclude
educational or occupational success.

Social Class

Society is stratified into social classes on the basis of wealth, income, educational
attainment, and occupation. Social classes are groupings of individuals in a
hierarchy, usually based on wealth, educational attainment, occupation, income,
and membership in a subculture or social network.

Q. 2. Define work and leisure? Distinction between work and leisure?

Work, in sociology, is defined as the carrying out of tasks, which involves the
expenditure of mental and physical effort, and its objective is the production of
goods and services that cater to human needs.

Work - A Definition

Work, from a sociological perspective, is anything that a person undertakes with a

goal of being productive in a way that meets human needs. Work includes mental
and/or physical exertion but does not always have to include an exchange of
money. An occupation is a type of work that is performed for the express purpose
of monetary reward (a wage).

History of Work

The purpose of work has always been to provide for human needs; however the
way this has been accomplished over time has changed.

1. Early Man: In man's earliest endeavors, work was performed for the sole
purpose of survival; hunting, gathering and shelter building. Those that did not
work did not survive.

Ancient Times

In ancient civilizations work was seen as menial tasks that stole one's ability to
think. Mental exertion was not considered work; however to enjoy the leisure of
29
philosophical pursuit (for the Greeks) or supreme leadership (for Egyptians) those
in the lower classes were forced to work. Some Greek philosophers (such as Plato)
believed that the purpose of work for the majority was so that the minority (elite)
could pursue higher contemplation.

In the height of the Roman Empire, agriculture and big business were the only two
socially acceptable forms of work for free men; slaves or servants did the rest.

Reformation and Industrial Revolution

During the Reformation (1500s), work became a badge of honor in itself. Working
hard was seen as pious and God-loving. Work was no longer seen as something the
poor did, but something that all people should be proud to do. Craftsmanship was
lauded.

Modern Workers

In modern day work, the information age has created an environment where not
only are workers less loyal to their employers, but they are often actively head
hunted, (recruited to leave their current positions by a different company).

Culture of Work

While the general out look of work has changed, so has the culture of work. Since
the beginnings of time, work has had severe gender separation with clear women's
work and men's work. Even in the earliest times, men were charged with hunting
while women gathered food.

Meaning of leisure:

Sociology of leisure or leisure sociology is the study of how humans organize their
free time. Leisure includes a broad array of activities, such as sport, tourism, and

The playing of games. Leisure in the United States hold a self-involved worldview,
it is up to the individual to make it and determine their life.

Introduction

30
Leisure has been common in people‘s lives throughout history. As a behavior,
involvement in enjoyable games and activities has existed since humans first
inhabited the earth. The first writings about leisure were done in ancient Greece,
with individuals such as Aristotle arguing that the right use of leisure was the first
principle of human activity. He believed that character developed only in leisure.
However, only the wealthy and educated male citizens were entitled to leisure.

Importance of Leisure:

Participating in leisure and recreation activities can help you better manage stress
and reduce depression. Leisure provides you the chance to find balance in your
life; it also puts you in control of how you're spending your time, which is an
important consideration because you may feel overwhelmed by obligations.

Types of leisure:

Baseball

Boxing

Golf.

Gridiron football.

Football.

Bullfighting gardinig

Different between work and leisure:

Leisure on the other hand, is something we do to relax and enjoy ourselves.

Leisure may have something to do with work, depending on what we enjoy, but
often it is put aside from work. Growing up, I was told to always get a job in
something you enjoy. This way, you may get your leisure time while at work.

31
Q. 3. .Define jajmani system and discuss its demerits.

ANS. JAJMANI SYSTEM

The Jajmani system is an expression of the independence of different castes. It is

also considered as an arrangement of different catse groups for exchanging goods
and services based on religious consideration.

In almost all the villages of India, the caste system pre-dominates; linked with the
caste system is the Jajmani system. Caste system in the village is based on
economic needs and structure of the society. In villages, people of a particular
caste take one profession. Members of the other caste are not allowed to take the
profession of a particular caste. In a village the carpenter does wood work, the
blacksmith does the things pertaining to the iron implements of the people of the
village. The washerman washes clothes, the barber shaves them. These belong to
different castes and carryout these provisions on the basis of the age old' customs.
There are certain classes or castes who are entitled to these services. Those who
serve are known as "Praja" or "Kami" while those who get these services are
known as Jajman. Oscar Lewis has defined it in the following words.

Under this system each caste group within a village is accepted to give certain
standardized services to the families of other castes e.g. a Khati (carpenter) repairs
tools and a Nai (Barber) cuts hair but they do not necessarily perform these
services for every one and each man works for a particular family or a group of
families with which he has hereditary ties.

The term of Kami or Praja is used in different places. Although the term Kami is
not a very respectable term, it does not mean that the people who do all these
things are less respectable. It is the economic condition that has changed their
status. Oscar Lewis has made an elaborate study of the Jajmani system in India.
The studies that were carried out in different states and provinces reveal that this
institution was to be found in various states of the country. This system was
established as a result of provisional relationship between various castes. It was the

32
division of labour amongst castes which had been sanctioned by religions and
social tradltions and customs.

This institution is to be found in India only because the division of the profession
and occupation is hereditary only. There has been no division from the hereditary
professions and this Jajmani system has continued in this country for all these
years. It has now become an accepted part of the social life.

Etymological Meaning of Jajmani

theword "jajmani" has been derived from the term "jajman" which has been taken
from the Sanskrit term "yajman". According to Sanskrit terminology, 'yajman'
means a person who performs a yojna or hires the services of a Brahamin to do it.
With the passage of time this term came to be applied to everyone who hired
services of persons who were prepared to offer those services. That was why a
farmer who engaged a carpenter or a blacksmith who offered the services was
known as praja or kami. The relationship between the praja or prajana or kami and
the yajona was based on heredity and tradition. The jajman is expected to secure a
variety of services by various categories of praja or kami and reward their services
by making payments.

Horton & Hunt - A Social movement isa collective effort to promote or resist
change.

Rudolf Herberle - A social movement is a collective effort to transform

established relations within a particular society.

1. Change in occupation
2. Payment in f6rm of cash
3. Change in economic condition
Short Question
Q. 4. Different between profession and occupation.?

Difference Between Occupation and Profession

33
occupation-vs-profession

1.Occupation is an activity undertaken by the person to earn his livelihood. It can

be business.

2. profession or employment that a person undertakes to make money. Many think

that occupation and profession are synonyms, but the fact is they are different.

2.Occupation is your job or the way you spend your time or one country
maintaining a military presence in another.

3. Profession is an activity that requires specialised training, knowledge,

qualification and skills.

4. Occupation exists only where it is recognizable as such, and where the occupant
has a sufficient measure of control that prevents interference from strangers.

5. It implies membership of a professional body, and certificate of practice. The

individuals who undertake a profession of rendering personalised services are
called professionals, who are guided by a certain code of conduct, set up by the
respective body.

6. The line of demarcation between occupation and profession is thin and blurred.
When a professional is paid for his skill or talent, it is known as occupation. Check
out the article to know some more differences.

Q.5 Define division of labour.?

Division of labor refers to the range of tasks within a social system. This can vary
from everyone doing the same thing to each person having a specialized role. ...
The division of labor became an important part of society after the Agricultural
Revolution when humans had a food surplus for the first time.

Concept:

34
division of labor. Dividing a job into many specialized parts, with a single worker
or a few workers assigned to each part. Division of labor is important to mass
production.

Kinds of division of labour:

The division of labour has been divided into different forms by the economists
which can be explained as follows:

1.Simple Division of Labour

2.Complex Division of Labour

3.Occupational Division of Labour

4.Geographical or Territorial Division of Labour

Important of division of labour:

Division of labor is important in any economic system because it allows for the
maximization of efficiency in a manufacturing process, as well as in other
economic sectors.

Division of labor is essential to economic progress because it allows people to

specialize in particular tasks. This specialization makes workers more efficient,
which reduces the total cost of producing goods or providing a service.

Q.6. What is legal profession in India – an introduction?

Introduction:

Legal Profession. The legal profession refers to all the occupational roles
purposely oriented towards the administration and maintenance of the legal system.
... The aspiration to maintain occupational autonomy is one of the legal
profession's most critical and sociologically challenging characteristics.

35
Meaning of legal profession:

Legal profession is a profession, and legal professionals study, develop and apply
law. Usually, there is a requirement for someone choosing a career in law to first
obtain a law degree or some other form of legal education. It is difficult to
generalize about the structure of the profession, because.

Importance:

Professional ethics consist of those fundamental values on which the profession

has been built. Legal ethics is one of the professional ethics which lays down
certain duties for the observance of its members, which he owes to the society, to
the court, to the profession, to his client and to himself.

Ethics of legal profession:

Ethics are principles and values, which together with rules of conduct and laws,
regulate a profession, such as the legal profession. They act as an important guide
to ensure right and proper conduct in the daily practice of the law. Areas covered
by ethical standards include: Independence, honesty and integrity.

VERY SHORT QUESTION:

Q.7. Define occupation?

a person's usual or principal work or business, especially as a means of earning a

living; vocation: Her occupation was dentistry. any activity in which a person is
engaged. possession, settlement, or use of land or property.

Example: An example of occupation is when you are a doctor or a lawyer. An

example of occupation is when the United States maintains military troops in Iraq
to keep control and order.

Characteristics of an Occupation: (1.) Job Satisfaction. (2) Career-Family Balance

36
(3.) Occupational Perception( 4.) Wage Potential (5.) National Alliance for
Partnerships in Equity.

Q.8. Characteristics of jajmani system?

1. the relationship between jajman and praja or kamins pardicals or halyasetc.

2. jajmani system is hereditary relationship in the sence that the son inherits the
occupation from his father.

3. the jajmani system provide protection to the hereditary occupation.

4. in jajmani system, payment for service rendered is made in grains and other
agriculture yields.

5. By jajmani system, the farmes were assured of the services while the pajama
were seured of their livelihood.

Q.9 write short note on profession?

Definition: Person formally certified by a professional body of belonging to a

specific profession by virtue of having completed a required course of studies
and/or practice. And whose competence can usually be measured against an
established set of standards.

Characteristic:

The most commonly recognized characteristics of a profession are:

1.university education and advanced degrees.

2. altruism and accountability.

3. Code of Ethics and professional organizations.

37
 Types of profession

Architecture clergy engineering law medicine

UNIT- IV

Long question:

Q.1. Explain main factors of social change?

ANS. Law and Social Change

Meaning of Social Change - Social change is the change in society. Society is a

web of social relationships. Hence social change is a change in social relationships.
MacIver and Page, writing in this context, have observed correctly, "It is the
change in these which alone we shall regard as social change". What are social
relationships? Social relationships include social processes and social interactions.
These include the mutual activities and relations of the various parts of society. In
the words of Jones, "Social change is a term used to describe variations or
modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interactions,
or social organizations." Thus social change is a change in the social organization.
38
It is in this sense that Davis has written that "Social change can De observed in
every society". Describing social change in detail, Merrill and Eldredge have said,
·Social change means that large number of persons are engaging in activities that
differ from those which they or their immediate forefathers engaged in some time
before. Society is composed of a 'last complex network of patterned human
relationships in which all men participate. When human behaviour is in the process
of modification, this is only another way of indicating that social change is
occurring," Human society is constituted of human beings. Thus whatever apparent
alteration in the mutual behaviour between individuals takes place is a sign of
social change. This fact of social change can be verified by glancing at the history
of any society. Man is a dynamic being. Hence society can never remain static. It
undergoes constant variation.
nalism is a complex problem. If it is to be solved it must be attacked from all sides
and furthermore such a task requires co-operation from the government and the
people. Only then can this problem be solved.

Historically, no universalistic legal system based on the principle of equality

existed in ancient India. In ancient India there was a close connection between law
and religion. A rule of law was not different from a rule or religion. It was
maintained that all laws were contained in the Dharmshastras. The legal system
was primarily based on the social position of castes and classes. No uniform
standards were applied in providing justice to people. There was no uniform legal
norm at an all-India level. Local customs and regional practices defined and
determined these norms. Another important feature of the ancient legal system was
its orientation towards the group. Legal norms applied more to the group as a unit
rather than to the individual. This characteristic of legal system continued even
during the medieval period.

It was only during the British rule that radical transformation took place in the
legal and judicial systems of the country. The British introduced numerous changes
in the traditional legal system. The new legal system was based on the principle of
universalism. The notion of equality before law was recognised and received legal
sanction. Law courts were established at different levels. The enactment of the
Indian Penal Code and the Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure produced a
strong system of judicial administration. This legal system was, however, not
confined to criminal justice alone. It even brought domestic and personal life of the
people under its purview. Several social legislations came into operation which
39
covered areas like collective bargaining, social security and employment contract.
A continuous rationalisation of law was introduced by codification of customary
law. It increased the separation of law from religion.

Moreover, some legislation in relation to prevailing conservative and orthodox

social practices were also passed during the colonial period which acted towards
social reform. Indian society in the nineteenth century was under the grip of
inhuman customs and practices. Untouchabilitywas practised throughout the
country. The position of women was most degraded. Child marriage, widowhood
and the cruel practice of sati put women to life-long misery and humiliation. These
in-human practices were, however, challenged by social reformers and the British
Indian Government responded by enacting several social legislations.

The practice of sati (widow burning) was declared illegal in 1829. The Hindu
Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 legalised the remarriage of the Hindu widows.
When the members of the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal started facing problems in
marriage, a Native Marriage Act was passed in 1872. The Brahmos claimed that
they did not belong to any religious groups in India. This Act worked like a civil
marriage law under which people outside any religious fold could marry. Another
important legislation linked with marriage was the Age of Consent Act of 1891.
The Act prohibited the performance of marriage for girls below the age of twelve.
During the closing years of the nineteenth century, besides personal laws, several
other laws relating to land and industry were also enacted.

The Factory Act of 1881 addressed the issue of the welfare of factory workers. The
Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 introduced reforms in land tenure system. Similarly,
the Press Act of 1878 was a landmark in the field of mass communication. These
legislations not only advanced the cause of cultural change but also contributed
towards transformation of the agrarian structure.

Social Legislation in Post-Independent India

The nature and extent of social change in India has been influenced largely by
radical social legislation introduced after the independence. They pertain to
subjects ranging from economy, polity, trade and commerce to marriage, family
and inheritance. Legislations impact upon every aspect of people's lives. The
number of legislations enacted after the independence is, however, so large that all

40
of them cannot be discussed here. Therefore, we have selected only some
important legislation to highlight their role in social change.

Laws have been passed to eradicate social evils. Under Article 17 of the Indian
Constitution, untouchability is prohibited and its practice in any form is made
punishable. A comprehensive legislation called the Untouchability (Offences) Act,
1955 was passed later. This Act was further amended as the Protection of Civil
Rights Act in 1976. According to this Act, an untouchable (Scheduled Caste) has
access to all public places including places of worship. Though this legislation has
not been fully able to eradicate the practice of untouchability, it has definitely
attacked caste prejudice.

Similarly, a number of laws have been enacted for the upliftment of women and
children. These Acts have brought about a perceptible improvement in their
position in society. The Special Marriage Act of 1955, the Hindu Succession Act
of 1956 and the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 have initiated changes in the very
structure of Hindu society. Most of these legislations have further been amended to
accommodate more radical and relevant issues. For example, the Hindu Marriage
Act of 1955 was amended in 1976 to provide the right to a girl to deny marriage
before attaining puberty. In fact the original Act itself was radical because it
enforced monogamy and permitted divorce among the Hindus. The Dowry
Prohibition Act of 1961 was also amended in 1984 that made cruelty towards
women a cognisable offence. The socio-economic changes that have been brought
about through legislations have created a favourable situation regarding the status
of women.

A number of legislations have also been passed to safeguard and protect the rights
of children. Some of them are the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, the
Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, the Person as with
Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation Act,
1996), the Juvenile Justice Act, 2000 and so on.

The role of legislation in transforming the socio-economic condition of tribals is

even more explicit. We may throw light on this issue by citing the example of
north-eastern India, which is home to a large number of tribals. The tribal
communities of this region have experienced remarkable changes in their
traditional economy, cultural life and political systems.
41
Q.2. Define law and social change in India?

Meaning:

Social change is the process of becoming different in anything observed over some
period of time. Change is the law of nature. Change is the law of life. All nature
testifies to the pervasiveness of change. Social change is the change in the society.
Social change is a concept many of us take for granted or don't really even
understand. Sociologists define social change as changes in human interactions and
relationships that transform cultural and social institutions. These changes occur
over time and often have profound and long-term consequences for society.

Define law:

A binding custom or practice of a community : a rule of conduct or action

prescribed or formally recognized as binding or enforced by a controlling
authority. the whole body of such customs, practices, or rules The courts exist to
uphold, interpret, and apply the law.

Types of law:

There are four different types of law

1.criminal

2. civil

3. common

4. statuate

In this first task I will explain briefly each one: Criminal Law: This is the kind of
law that the police enforce. Murder, assault, robbery and rape are all included
within the boundaries of criminal law.

Source of law and social change:

42
1.Law as a means of social control:

Two fold objectives of law to serve is, firstly, to keep up stability and afford
orderly life in the society. Secondly, to persuade social change by changing itself
according to the needs of the changing society. Thus, law is an important agency of
social control. The society supervenes the law for better most socialization. Rule of
law in any constitution is the bedrock for democracy. By putting fear in the minds
of public, the law is a helpful agency for social control.

2.Law as an instrument of social change:

To understand the social change through law and legal system, it is pertinent to
understand that the working of legal system in the light of political, social,
economic perspectives which can be seen in the constitution of India.

3.Law and Public opinion:

The law , which is molded through public opinion is thus the result of state action
in accordance with the public opinion. Here it is necessary to remember that when
Rajiv Gandhi government wanted to bring defamation bill, because of the
opposition to the bill in the public, the government dropped the idea.

4.Social change and the constitution of India:

Preamble is a key to open the statute and consists of source and objectives of the
statute. Literally preamble means preliminary statement in writing or in speech or
an introductory part of the statute.

Conclusion:

A systems perspective must acknowledge that social problems are interconnected

rather than isolated. People should be advocates for radical perspectives defensible
on both psychological and political grounds, in keeping with values such as
dignity, autonomy, equality, and justice.
43
Q.3. Define modes of sanskritization and westernization.?

Sanskritisation (Indian English) or Sanskritization (American English, Oxford

spelling) is a particular form of social change found in India. It denotes the process
by which caste or tribes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility
by emulating the rituals and practices of the upper or dominant castes.

DEFINATION:

M.N SRINIVAS a pioneer in Indian sociology has used the term In short ,
sanskritization enables a caste to obtain a higher position in hierarchy. It is in
reference with Hindu society according to which caste is the structural basis of the
society.

PROCESS:

Sanskritization is a process of imitation in Indian society, the social status of an

individual is fixed on the basis of caste hierarchy. There are many lower castes
who suffer from economic, religious or social disabilities.

Basic elements

Imitation closeness social mobility

1.IMITATION: the lower class imitate the custom, values and behavior patterns

Of the upper castes.

44
2.CLOSENESS: the lower caste through sanskritisation come nearer to the upper
caste. there is such change in social relation among various caste.

3.SOCIAL MOBILITY: generally, sanskritisation helps the lower caste to move up

in the social ladder. they share the status of the upper caste.

Define westernization:

the social process of becoming familiar with or converting to the customs and
practices of Western civilization. Synonyms: Westernisation Type of: absorption,
assimilation. the social process of absorbing one cultural group into harmony with
another.

Important:

In short, Westernization was as much a part of Southeast Asian regional processes

as it was an encounter between cultures. Because of its history of direct
colonialism and the disruption of its most important cultural institutions, Burma's
postcolonial history has viewed Western influences with considerable hesitation.
Westernization is a process or changing life style of the Indians towards the west.

Types of Westernization: On the basis of influence on the both little and great
tradition, westernization took place in two phases.

1.Primary Westernization

2.Secondary Westernization

SHORT QUESTION:

Q.4. Define characteristics of social change and pattern.?

1. social change is a universal phenomenon.

45
2. it is community change.

3. the spread of social change is different from time to time.

4. the speed of social change is not uniform.

5. it may occur either in the nature efforts.

6. it occurs as an essential law.

7. it result from interaction.

8. it is the consequence of factors.

9. it may be in the form of modification.

Patterns of social change:

1.social change in particular direction:

2.change in up-war direction with varying angles of assent:

3. wave like change:

4. cyclical change:

Q.5. Write short note on urbanization.?

Meaning:

Urbanization is a word for becoming more like a city. When populations of people
grow, the population of a place may spill over from city to nearby areas. This is

46
called urbanization. Maybe tall apartment buildings spring up on what had been the
outskirts of town, bringing more people there to live and work.

Defination:

Urbanization is a word for becoming more like a city. When populations of people
grow, the population of a place may spill over from city to nearby areas. This is
called urbanization. ... Urbanization can also apply to how people live.

Advantages of Urbanization:

The cities are known to be efficient in that less effort is required to supply basic
amenities, for example, electricity and fresh water. People who migrate to the cities
enjoy these amenities, which are difficult to access in rural areas.

Types of urbanization

Sub-urbanization (SU) this is spread of people, services and industry to the edge of
the existing urban area. Hollywood and Boucher. ...

Counter Urbanization. This is the movement of urban workers from a city to rural
towns and villages within commuting distance of the city.

Causes of Urbanization:

i. Industrialization

ii. Social factors

iii. Employment opportunities

iv. Modernization

v. Rural urban transformation

vi. Spread of education

47
vii. Positive effect

Q.6. Define characteristic of westernization.?

Some of the important charac-teristics of westernisation included by Srinivas are

discussed below:

1. Humanitarianism:

Westernization is loaded with certain value preferences. ―A most im­portant value,

which in turn subsumes several other values, is what may be broadly characterized
as humanitarianism.

2. Equalitarianism:

Westernization has another value of equalitarianism. It is a democratic value and

stands for minimizing inequality, removal of poverty and liberty to all.

3. Secularization:

Both the British rule and at a later stage the Constitution of India in-troduced a new
value of secularization.

4. Initiation of social reforms:

The idea of westernization which was propagated by the British rule struck hard on
social evils which eroded the Indian society.

4. Predominance of science and technology:

The British rule also introduced science and technology in Indian soci-ety. This
brought railways, steam engines and technology.
48
VERY SHORT QUESTION:

Q.7. Types of social change.?

Type of Social Change:

(1) Evolutionary Social Changes

(2) Revolutionary Changes

(i) Social Movement and Social Revolution

(ii) Common Motivation

(iii) Common Need

(iv) Long Standing Suffering due to Suppression and Oppression

(v) Impact of Communication

(vi) Education

Q.8. Difference between westernisation and modernization.?

1. Westernization is about the adoption of ―Western‖ values.

2. On the other hand, Modernization has a wider connotation.

3. In fact, Westernization is a sub-process of Modernization.

4. Accepting or adopting the modern style or modern ways and ideas of thinking,
living, etc. is 'Modernization'.
49
 Conclusion:

In a nutshell, Westernization is living by analogy, doing something that a set of

people do. Being modern by definition is thinking primarily by principles rather
than by analogy.

Q.9.Define urbanization.?

Urbanization is the study of the social, political, and economic relationships in

cities, and someone specializing in urban sociology studies those relationships.
There is no strict dividing line between rural and urban; rather, there is a
continuum where one bleeds into the other.

Defination:

Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural areas to
urban areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas,
and the wa

Nature and Characteristics of Urbanization

1.)Setting boundaries on urban area, which means there, have boundaries in urban
areas.

2.)Saving open space.

3.)creating new town.

4.)Environment educations restore a damage of area.

5.)Community based solid waste management‘s in which each society adapts to

this change.

50
 UNIT-V

Q.1. Define social movement. Discuss various types of movements.

ANS.
SOCIAL MOVEMENT

The social behaviour is one of the major forms of collective behaviour. A social
movement is informally defined as "a collective acting with some continuity to
promote or resist change in the society or group of which it is a part.

Turner & Killins state "Less formally, a social movement is a collective effort to
promote or resist change in the society or group of which it is a part."

The term" social movement" is being used to denote a wide variety of collective
attempts to bring about a change in certain social institutions or to create an
entirely new order.

Social movements are an essential part of societies. While in some societies they
are more pronounced and apparent, in others they are latent. The study of social
movements is primarily a study of the social or cultural change on a social
movement which is an organized attempt on the part of a section of society to bring
about either partial or total change in society through collective mobilization based
on ideology.

The term "Social Movement" is being used to denote a wide variety of collective
attempts to bring about a change in certain social institutions or to create on
entirely new order. Sometimes the term is used in distinction from religions or
political movements and from movements among particular groups e.g. the
women's movement or youth's movement. As all of these movements occur in
society and tend to affect the social order it would be permissible to apply the term
social movement to all of them.

51
Emergence of social movement –

If all members in a society feel satisfied about every thing there is no possibility of
a movement emerging. That is, emergence of a movement is indicative of the
dissatisfaction people have about an unintegrated or ill-integrated society.
Deprivation in itself may not lead to the emergence of movements. Only when
people believe that these deprivations are man made which can be effectively
tackled through collective actions would social movements emerge.

According to Herbert Blumer (1951)- Social movement involves after-stages in its

formation.

1) The preliminary stage- This stage can also be called "the unrest stage". In this
stage we find some confusion or discontentment among people. Hence they are
restless. In fact as N.J. Smelser has pointed out, "All social movements begin with
some feeling of discontent with the existing social order. Discontent is always a
product of a relationship between objective conditions and ideas about those
conditions."

2) Popular stage - In the popular stage the movement begins to rally around a
figure or a leader who promises to alleviate the sufferings of the people. This
leader may be a diplomatic leader with some extra ordinary qualities who is
capable of giving a leadership to the movement. He may speak of reform,
revolution, resistance or express himself in such a way that the followers are made
to feel that he will do some thing or the other to find solution to their problem. If
the message of the leader is appropriate and very much appealing people would
definitely rally around him.

3) The formation stage - (The stage of formal organization) This is the stage in
which programmers are developed alliances are forged and organizations and
tactics are developed. In this stage, a party, organization or group of individuals
may put toward an alternative vision, world view or ideology, to undersign,
analyses and solve a prevailing crisis. Once the ideology gains acceptance among
people, efforts must be made to translate it into a programmer which calls for
collective action. This leads to the birth of the movement.

52
4) The stage of institutionalization of the movement - If the movement becomes
successful, then it destroys itself in its last stage of development when it becomes
an institution. "At this point it is no longer collective behaviour, because it is
organized, follows accepted norms of society and has replaced its emotional base
with the assumption that change will take time." (Wallace and Wallace). When
once, it assumes this stage of the institution it begins to bring down the wrath of
the people and assures them that things would become normal in the course of time
and the active life of the movement may come to an end.

In the stage of institutionalization as Horton and Hunt have pointed out the
movement almost becomes rationalized. They have said that in an
institutionalization stage "as organization take over from early leaders, bureaucracy
is entertained and ideology and programme become crystallized after ending the
action life of the movement."

5) The Dissolution stage - Horton and Hunt have spoken of the last stage of social
movement, "the dissolution stage". When the movement becomes an enduring
organization (like the Indian National Congress or the YM.C.A.) it fades away,
possibly to be received sometimes later, it can be said to have enclosed this last
stage of dissolution.

Types of Social movements in India

Religious movement in India can be broadly divided into three in term of their
response to and consequences for Hinduism.

(1) Movement which started essentially as protests against Hinduism and came to
be established as independent religions such as Jainism and Buddhism (2) Bhakti
movements which attempted to purify Hinduism of it "evils" and fought against the
tyranny of caste system but subsequently emerged as sects such as Veerasaivism,
Arya Samaj etc. and got absorbed into the rubric of Hinduism. (3) Movements
oriented to opting out of the Hindu fold through conversion to other religions.
The emergence of Jainism and Buddhism in 6th Century B.C. challenging the
authority of Brahaminism is reckoned as the first major religious protest movement
in India. Jainism denied the authority of the Vedas and revolted against Vedic
sacrifices. Buddhism while accepting the essential teaching of the Upanishads
joined hands with Jainism in denouncing Vedic sacrifices and Brahaminism and
non-vedic Jainism, in propagating religious ideas. Both Jainism and Buddhism
53
followed the same path, orienting it to the cause of the common people, asserting
the common spiritual right of all men, acknowledging comparison and love for all
life, preaching in the language of the common people and rejecting the authority of
the arrogant 'Brahamin.

The second major religious protest movements, vaishanavism and Shaivism,

sought to abolish the intermediary between men and God, the Brahamins. The
movements initiated by Kabir and Chaitanya represent this trend. Although
sectarian movements started as protest movements against idol worship,
untouchability etc. they also succumbed finally to the same evils decried by them.
These movements underwent a process of institutionalization leading to the
emergence of a codified ideology, hierarchical organization and religious
bureaucracy. These developments inevitably led to a compromising and
reconciling rather than an opposing attitude towards Hindu orthodoxy. Inevitably
many of these movements ended up as Hindu sects. At any rate, it seems clear that
these movements were not successful in reconstructing the prevalent system, at
best they led to an elaboration of the existing status hierarchy. Conversion to a
religion is essentially an individual act. However, in India it was inevitable that it
should become a group phenomenon largely because of the fact that the social
location and interaction of individual caste status was impossible. Therefore, it was
collectivities-tribes, castes, kin graph for conversion. Hence, group conversion
from Hinduism to other religions is often described as movements. From the above
description it is very clear that religions movement took a lot of changes in the
Indian society. Religion is a very important factor which influences human beings.

Caste Movements - Protests against Brahaminical supremacy and the tendency to

opt out of the mainstream of Hinduism either through the formation of new
religions and sects or through conversion to other religions were known in India
since early times. However, by the turn of the 19th century, a qualitatively
different type of movement, the backward classes movement emerged in different
parts of India among the various depressed caste groups.
The critical difference between the current caste movements and the erstwhile
religious movements is that while the latter attacked or opposed Hinduism and
wanted its adherents to opt out of the Hindu fold, the former beckons its followers
to adapt to Hinduism and seek solutions to their problems within its frame-work,
without rejecting their religion. We can differentiate between three types of caste
movements based on their good orientation. They may be designated as (a) status
mobility movement (b) caste unity movements (c) caste welfare movements.
54
However, a particular movement may shift its goal over a period of time either
because the critical goal is achieved or because it has become redundant or because
the goal can not be achieved.

The oppressive as well as elastic character of the caste system and the failure of
earlier attempts to escape caste-based discrimination by opting out of Hinduism
seem to have prompted many caste groups with low ritual status to improve their
position through adopting the shy style of life of the norm setting group in their
respective regions. This process is usually referred to as sansritization. It is
important to note here that while the initial tendency was to view sanskritization as
an initiative process, protest orientation and counter mobilization are necessary
attributes of sankritizing movements because the low castes did it in a spirit of
recalcitrance and the upper caste invariably opposed such attempts. Further, the
mechanism of caste movements was not confined to sanskritization. The
introduction of census by the British and the arrangement of castes in terms of
presumed or established social and ritual superiority also gave birth to mobilization
for higher status usually by untouchables, and studies and some Muslim graphs
through census authorities.

The central tendency in social behaviour in India has been that the caste Hindus
take to certain innovative behaviour and others follow "Suit. But it seems for once
the backward castes have offered a model of collective action to the forward
castes, informing the caste association which formed the core of their
mobilizational activities. But the problems of the forward castes were different and
most of the associations formed by them were oriented towards social
reforms-opposing child marriage, approving widow remarriage, encouraging
women's education, promoting occupational diversification and modern education,
breaking the social barriers between numbers, Jatis etc. That is, caste unity or
consolidation for political or social purposes was the objective of the associations
formed by upper castes. Several social scientists have called attention to these
movements of Jusion of sub castes, several of the upper caste movements ended up
by establishing a series of voluntary associations for the welfare of their clients or
got limited into caste federations which provided them a platform for political
consolidation or acted as bridges between tradition and moderating. It seems that
most of these caste associations could provide their clientele with instrumental
payoff but emotional unity has scarcely been achieved through them. The
introduction of the policy of protective discrimination, the welfare of scheduled
castes which recognized ritual inferiority as the criteria for entering economic and
55
political benefits to them, changes the character and the strategy of mobilization.
Instead of census appeals and sanskritization they are getting organized politically
(a) for getting enlisted as scheduled caste/backward classes (b) to wrest as much
benefits from the state as possible (c) to insist that the constitutional guarantees are
extended for a longer time period and implemented faithfully. The upper caste
response to these movements is not always favourable and occasionally hostile as
revealed by anti-reservation mobilizations in same states.

Tribal Movement - Tribal movements in India have two main geographical and
political anchorages, movements among the encysted tribes of central and eastern
India have been making oriented to their betterment within the Indian union and
movements among some of the tribes of Northern Eastern frontier have shown
secessionist tendencies. The tribal movement among the encysted tribes may be
broadly divided into two types. Those which emphasize the socio-religious aspects
and those which turn on the political, political-separatist orientation. The studies on
said religions movements suggest that local tribal leader-initiative movements for
revitalization, reform or status mobility and a number of factors are in operation
for their success or failure. Jharkhand movement is the arch type of the
political-separatist movement among the encysted interests in Dihotangpur region
and others.

The main elements of the distinctiveness of the region and the people are:-

(1) The historical/physical isolation of the people till the British conquest, the
official colonial policy of non-interference with the society and culture of
the people, the ambivalent policy pursued by the Government of India in
perpetuating a sense of isolation and autonomy among the people along
with the policy of drawing them into the mainstream of national life (2) the
location of the region on the international frontiers Burma, former Pakistan
and present Bangladesh. China which facilitates the acquisition of foreign
arms and ammunition, helps in military training programme, extending
protection to insurgents by permitting and encouraging the crossing over
the national boundaries etc. (3) The nature of the physical terrain which
facilitates guerrilla warfare (4) the ethnic difference between the people of
North East and the plains (5) the difference in religion between the people
of the region and the rest of India.

56
Agrarian Movement

Although India is predominantly an agrarian country it has been argued by some

(e.g. Barrington Moore) that the tradition of peasant movement is weak in India.
The man reasons listed for this are (1) the caste system (which hinders
mobilization of class categories) and (2) the pacifying influence of nationalist
leadership particularly Gandhiji, on peasantry; as against this Kathleen Gough
argues that India has had a long tradition of peasant movement. Moore seems to
focus on the different dimensions of movements. The main focus on the question
of who are the participants and taking peasants as an occupational/class category,
he excludes those movements in which the mobilization of participants is attached
invoking their identities based on religion, caste, region etc. Inevitably he finds that
the number of peasant movements in India has been too few considering her vast
rural population. In contrast, Gough asks the question, why do people participate in
movements? Having found that most mobilizations were against exactions of
landlords, bureaucrats, merchants, moneylenders, the police and the military. She
concludes that these are "peasant" movements, although their mobilizations were
initiated by c1arislimatic heroes and rebellious prophets involing the participants,
regions, caste and similar sentiments, symbols and idioms. Admittedly, Gough
finds ample evidence to conclude that India has had a long tradition of peasant
rebellions. Two authors arrive at diametrically opposed conclusions.

It is important to recognize that three identities are basic to all movement

participants. Primordial/ ascriptive, a class/occupational and political/ideological.
The frequent tendency on the part of analysis to ignore this multiple identity of
participants (as Moore seems to do)and emphasize only one or another of these,
has cluttered our understanding of the real character of social movements.
Secondly, it is not that the goal orientations of movements are always unlinear as
Gough seems to imply, after it is multi pronged. To emphasize just one of these
goals to the neglect of all others is to do violence to the nature of social reality.

Q.2. What do you understand by regionalism? Discuss the measures for

checking regionalism.?

ANS. REGIONALISM
57
Of course, regionalism has always been present in India in one form or the other
but never has it attained such magnitude as it possesses today and neither was it
ever as detrimental to any national interest as it is in the present context. When
there are many states in the country it was not harmful to have regionalism in them
but when the entire country is one nation regionalism poses a serious threat to
national unity and integration.

What is Regionalism?
Regionalism is the sense of affection and attachment for people belonging to one's
own region and hatred for those who belong to some other region. As a result of
this, people of one region in India have started looking at people from some other
part of the country in the same light in which they are prone to regard foreigners.

Causes of Regionalism
There are many causes at the root of this regionalism in the country, the major ones
being the following:

1) Geographical causes - The main cause of regionalism is geographical. There is

some essential difference between the food habits, language, life, etc. of every
region and the people who live there. By virtue of these differences they come to
regard each other as foreigners and they acquire an attitude of fear and hatred for
each other.
2) Historical Cause - As has been indicated earlier, there are some historical
causes also at the root of regionalism. For example, there have been some
differences between the people of the north and south and ever since the time of
the Aryans it has continued. Many of the kings of the north have won over the
south while there have been a few kingdoms in the south which have extended to
the northern part of India as separated from southern India.

3) Political cause - But if the situation is carefully and minutely observed, it will
be seen that the main cause as to the root of regionalism present in the country is of
a political nature. In different regions some people have demanded the formation
of regional governments and in this they have been inspired by regional interests
and by aims of gaining power. In this direction, a major part has been played by
the revolutionary Naga part guided by Phizo, the Akali party of Punjab, the
D.M.K. party of the south and other political parties. The truth is that the leaders of
these political parties are responsible for having propagated regionalism in their
58
respective areas. Not only this, but even some representatives of different areas
who are members of political parties give prime importance to the interests of their
own regions even in the face of national interests which are disregarded by them.

4) Psychological causes - Finally, the psychological causes have contributed no

less to the development and stability of regionalism. It is the wish of most of the
persons that it be their area that progress as the most. This idea in itself in neither
bad nor detestable but when they disregard the national interest and those of other
regions for the attainment of this, this feeling takes on the form of regionalism.
Besides this, there are many individuals encouraging regionalism who express the
hatred, jealousy, fear, anger and other feelings contained in them in this manner.

5) Other causes - There are some other causes besides those-Retention above that
promote regionalism. For example, it is only rarely that one comes across married
couples among whom one belongs to Bengal and the other to Punjab or to
Rajasthan or to Tamil Nadu for that matter. As a general rule, people belonging to
different regions do not marry and hence the occasion for close contract between
the two does not arise. In addition to these there are some economic causes of
regional tension. In the country there are some regions that are backward in
comparison with some other regions. As a result, they are often seen to be
particularly successful in some vocations. For example, in India, the most
successful businessmen are seen to belong to Marwar, Gujarat and Punjab, and in
this sphere they have a practical monopoly. In this too they are hated by some
people who try to turn them out from their own regions.

Means for the Abolition of Regionalism

The following means can help to end regionalism or at least to dilute it to some
extent:

1) Encouragement to transport and communication - If regionalism is to be

c1iminated, the people should be encouraged to indulge in travel and to increase
contact with people belonging to different regions of the country. Recently, a train
of religions hermits toured the country and similarly many farmers belonging to
Rajasthan traveled all over the country. In India, the tradition whereby people are
induced to visit places of religious importance is a good one in as much as it helps
people to travel all over the country and meet different people. In going to different

59
corners of the country the people realize that India is a large country by
encouraging transport and communication in the country.
2) Propaganda of the National history - The history of the nation should be
propagated all over the country so that the people may clearly realize that the
history of the individual regions of the country is only a part of the history of the
nation to which all the regions have made an important contribution. The
propagation of the national history will help to eradicate the sense of regionalism.

3) Prevention of regional political parties - It is essential for national unity and

integration that the political parties propagating regionalism and regional interest
should be prevented from doing so. If they indulge in unrestricted campaigns for
promoting regional interests they should be declared illegal. Although in a
democracy every individual has the right to form a political organization in order
to express his views yet if it tends to liar the interests of the nation this right should
be curbed.

1) Propagation of the national sentiment - Finally, in order to remove the

psychological causes at the root of regionalism an effort should be made to
propagate the sentiment of nationalism in the country. It is necessary to
resort to all the various media of propaganda to obtain results in this
direction. Efforts should be made to remove the rationalistic tendencies from
all spheres such as government services, educational institutions, etc. and the
sentiment of nationality should be encouraged.

Q.3. What is Casteism? Meaning of Casteism

ANS. CASTEISM
Caste ism is a social problem associated with the caste system. Just as the caste
system is exercising its influence in all the fields of social life casteism too has
become all pervasive.

60
Casterism is understood as a partial or one-sided loyalty in favour of any particular
caste. It makes members of the caste to become conscious of their membership of
the caste and look at everything from the standpoint of the caste.

1. According to D.N. Prasad, " Casteism is loyalty to the caste translated into
politics."
2. According to Kaka Kalelkar, "Casteism is an over-riding, blind and
supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy social standards of justice,
fairplay, equity and universal brotherhood.
It is clear from the above that casterism is a blind group loyalty towards one's own
caste or sub-caste which does nor care for the interests of other castes and their
members.

Cause of Casteism

Casteism which exercises a negative influence on the network of social relations is

caused by several factors of which the following may be noted.

1) Endogamous Nature of the Caste - Casteism is often the result of restrictions

imposed on the marriage that takes place in the Hindu society. Each caste and
sub-caste is endogomous in nature. It means that member of a caste or sub-caste
has to marry within his or her own caste or sub-caste. Because of this rule of
endogamy, marital relations are confined to a small circle/section of the people.
Individuals are more prone to develop their loyalties and admirations to their own
caste or sub-caste people. This practice of endogamy makes the people to become
somewhat narrow-minded.

2) Strong Desire to Enhance Caste Prestige - People belonging to a particular

caste or sub-caste have the tendency of developing loyalty to their caste or
sub-caste and to become more conscious of its relative prestige in society. Every
member thus tries his level best to see that his caste prestige is safeguarded and
enhanced. This type of loyalty towards the caste makes the members of the caste to
favour their own members of the caste wherever they get the opportunity.
Excessive caste loyalty tends to keep other caste people at a distance.

3) Improvement in the Means of Transport and Communication Leading to a

Better Organization of Caste - Advancement that has taken place in the field of
transport and communications has helped the members of the caste to be in touch
61
with one another regularly. It has also helped them to strengthen their caste
organization and conduct activities on caste lines. Caste organization and
caste-get-togethers are on the increase now.

4) Urbanization Indirectly Favouring Casteism -Industrialization and

urbanization have been attracting people in a large number towards the cities.
When the rural people go to the cities they naturally search for their nearer and
dearer ones on the basis of the caste. They consider their own caste people as their
potential friends and well-wishers. Hence the-city atmosphere has also contributed
to the strengthening of caste feelings and caste-mindedness.

5) Powerful Hold of the Caste Over the Members - Caste is a strong cohesive
group. It has a powerful hold over is members. Members of the caste also look to
the caste to obtain the needed help and assistance in times of crises, difficulties and
emergencies. Dependence of the members on the caste in this way has further
added to the problem of casteism.

Consequences of Casteism

Though casteism has certain benefits to the members of the caste on the individual
basis, it has several harmful effects on the society as a whole. Some of the major
harmful consequences of caste ism can be noted here.

1) Hindrance to the Development of National Feeling - Members of the caste

imbued with the spirit of caste ism are more prone to show their loyalty to the caste
rather than to the community at large. Casteism divides people in the name of caste
and encourages intolerance, jealousy, rivalry and conflicts among members of the
caste. Caste clashes and tensions that arise in society for one reason or another
wrecks the unity of society and damages social harmony.

2) Dangerous to Democracy - Strictly speaking, caste and democracy cannot go

together. Caste is based on inequality, whereas democracy assures equality and
equal opportunities to one and all. Since democracy and caste system are
co-existing in India clashes between them are inevitable. Indian politics has
become very much complicated because of the caste interference. Caste plays its
role in the processes of selection of candidates to the election, electioneering,
formation of cabinet distribution of portfolios, and so on. It means at every stage in

62
politics caste creates tensions, misunderstandings, infights, rivalries, etc. It is in
this way national interests are undermined and national unity is underscored.

3) Encourages Moral Degeneration - Caste ism contributes to the moral fall. It

encourages nepotism. It makes one go out of the way to help and favour people of
one's own caste. People of the same caste also look to the caste leaders to favour
them in all the situations. This kind of favour damages the moral values and
encourages corruption.

4) Casteism Leads to the Negligence of Talents and Efficiency - If candidates

are selected and appointments are made on the basis of caste, it definitely damages
talents, abilities and efficiencies of the people. When unwanted and inefficient
people are selected for high offices in the name of caste, honesty, efficiency and
duty consciousness become the first casualty.

5) Casteism may even Lead to Brain-Drain - It is has been observed that some of
the most efficient and talented persons have left India and gone abroad for the
simple reason that their merits and talents are not properly recognized. Casteism
which comes in the way of the recognition of merit and efficiency indirectly
promotes brain-drain.

It is clear from the above that caste ism has dangerous effects on the society.
Though people know casteism is bad they have become the victims of that. Even
those who condemn it in public are practicing it privately. Prof. M.N. Srinivas has
rightly said that the caste "is so tacitly and so completely accepted by all including
most vocal elements in condemning it, that it is everywhere the unit of social
action."

More than the common people, politicians seem to be contributing much to the
survival of casteism. "Political leaders belonging to different castes seem to secure
political and other advantages for themselves at the expense of others, and to this
end they utilize the caste sillltiment. Caste consciousness and caste prejudices
which exist among the masses are thus turned by politicians into caste passions.

One of the seasoned politicians of India by name Namboodiripad himself has

stated "The existence of caste consciousness creates prejudices, discontent on the
basis of caste inequalities-all these are impediments in the way of the development
of the country as a whole, and therefore, of the development of "lower" and
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"backward" castes themselves. Caste separatism, therefore hinders rather than
helps the advancement of the "lower" castes themselves."

SHORT QUESTION:

Q.4. Discuss solutions of the Problem of Casteism.?

Casteism is no doubt a social evil that has to be counteracted and removed. Some
have even gone to the extent of telling that even caste system is to be wiped out.
But removal of caste and casteism is not an easy thing. Caste has very strong roots
in our social set up and hence it cannot be uprooted from our society. It is the need
of the hour that the ugly face of the caste, that is casteism, is to be wiped out. We
can suggest some solutions in this regard to counteract the problem of casteism.

1) Education - Education seems to be the most ideal solution to the problem of

casteism. People must be properly educated about the dangers of practicing
casteism. Parents, teachers, elderly people, political leaders should take precautions
against contaminating the young minds with casteism.

2) Encouragement to Intercaste Marriages - Marital relations represent the most

intimate relations between men and women. Encouragement and promotion of
intercaste marriages will help young men and women of different castes to coma
closer and to develop healthy relations among them.

3) Minimum use of the term "Caste" - Necessary precautions must be taken to

see that the word "caste" is used only in limited context. The young generations
must be encouraged to give the least importance to it. This is possible only when
we make lesser and lesser use of the term "caste."

4) Promotion of Economic Equality - Wide economic gap is found between the

upper caste people and the lower caste people. This economic gap widens the
social distance and contributes to the development of caste prejudices. Hence,
efforts must be made to provide equal economic opportunities for the lower caste
people to attain economic prosperity.

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Q.5. Define features of social movement.?

1) Group consciousness and a sense of belonging is essential for a social

movement. This consciousness is generated through active participation.

2) The classic concept of social movement implies the creation of an entirely new
social economic and political order, especially as it concerns the institutions of
property and the distribution of power.

3) All major social movements undoubtedly develop more or less consistent set of
ideas which its members must accept.

4)Social movement tends to spread beyond the boundaries of states or national

societies.

5) A social movement undoubtedly involves collective action as distinct from

individual action. However only when the collective action is somewhat sustained
as distinct from sporadic occurrence, does it take the form of movement. This
collective action however, need not be formally organized but should be able to
create an interest and awakening in a sufficiently large number of people. Hence a
social movement essentially involves sustained collective mobilization through
organization, either informal or formal.

6) A social movement is generally oriented towards bringing about change, either

partial or total in the existing system of relationships, values and norms, although
there are efforts which are oriented towards resisting change and maintaining the
status quo. The latter are more in the nature of counter attempts which are
defensive and restorative. They are organized efforts of an already established and
reutilized order to maintain itself.

Q.6. Define characteristic and causes of communalism.?

Ans:
Characteristics of communalism:

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(a) Communalism is an ideological concept.

(b) It mostly rests on prejudices.

(c) It has a broader base which encompasses social, economic and political aspects
for its manifestations.

(d) It causes rivalry and violence among masses.

(e) It is used by the higher class people and elites as an instrument for division and
exploitation.

(f) It strikes at the roots of secularism and national integration.

Causes of communalism

(a) Design of the leaders

(b) Formation of political parties and organizations on the basis of religion

(c) Orthodoxy and obscurantism

(d) Organized and militant fundamentalist organizations

(e) Poor economic conditions

(f) Geographical causes

(g) Misrepresentation of historical evidences

(h) Psychological causes

(i) Failure of the government machinery

(j) Lack of strong and effective international relations

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communal violence in India has a long history and deep rooted causes. It is the
result of mutual distrust and ill-will between the communities.

Q.9.write short note on social evils.?

Social evils are actions committed by a large group within society that is
controversial or in conflict with the morality shared within a society such as the
drug trade, human trafficking and corruption of government officials.

The main causes of social evils:

1.Unemployment.

2.Poverty.

3.Rapid population growth.

4.Urbanization.

5.Lack of education.

6.Superstitious beliefs.

7.Gender discrimination.

8.Caste discrimination.

VERY SHOET QUESTION:

Q.7. Types of social change.?

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Type of Social Change:

• (1) Evolutionary Social Changes

• (2) Revolutionary Changes

• (3) Social Movement and Social Revolution

• (4) Common Motivation

• (5) Common Need

• (6) Long Standing Suffering due to Suppression and Oppression

• (7) Impact of Communication

• (8) Education

Q.8. What is the difference between communalism and casteism?

1. A Communalism means that people of the same religion have common cultural,
economic, political and social interests. Thus religion based communities form the
as the primary unit of a society. Like communalism.

2. A casteism also believes that interests of one caste is mutually different from
those of another castes.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to examine the various central law, constitutional
provisions, rules, guidelines etc. and some other issues relating to communal
violence. The study shows that the problem of

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