Types of WIRES
At are manufactured with little
Wires employed in general purpose
applications can be classified into
five
types. They are,
Vulcanized Insulation Rubber (VIR)
wires or Rubber covered, taped
braided and compound wires ii)
Lead Alloy sheathed wiresiii) Cab
Tyre Sheathed (CTS) wires or Tough
Rubber Sheathed (TRS) wires.iv)
Weather-proof wires ) Flexible wires
VIR wires manufactured (or) Single
core. Except VIR wires, all
mentioned wires can be of 1, 2, 3 or
dual core with earth continuity
conductors. Vulcanized Insulation
Rubber (VIR) wires (or) Rubber
covered, Taped, Braided,
Compounded wires This type of wire
is classified as (a) Single braid (250
V) and (b) Double braid(600 V).a)
Single Braid (250 V)
single braid VIR wires. In this
wire,tinned copper (or) aluminium
conductor.The conductor is insulated
with vulcanized rubber and them
protectively covered with cotton tape
braid and saturated with moisture
resistant and fine stranded copper
conductors are ased Cotton layer is
used as protection cover over each
copper conductor to restricts the
sticking of rubber and conductor. A
loose cotton braiding covers the
rubber insulation and at last
conductors are placed side by side.
Finally silk insulation covers these
overall substance as shown in figure
2.24.
b) Twin rubber insulated cord
Here also, dual core with number of
stranded copper conductors is
covered with cotton layer for
prevention from sticking of rubber
and copper conductors. Solid mass
of rubber insulation fully covers the
two conductors and paves no way
for any other insulation. These
conductors covered with rubber
insulation are placed as to create a
depression in the center portion of it
separates two conductors at the
termination of the wire in the
receptacles. The rubber insulation is
made, at higher grade than that of
ordinary insulation used, Figure 2.25
shows the picture of twin rubber
insulated cordTwin twisted r
zero. With such resonant earthed
systems, care should be taken to
keep the earth faultneutralised tuned
to the system capacitance to
minimise the development of
transient over-voltages.Arc
suppression coil or Paterson coil
earthing
In this method, it is an iron cored
reactor connected in the neutral
earthing circuit. The reactance of the
suppression coil is such, that on an
earth fault, it is turned with the
capacitance of the healthy phases to
produce resonance.
By this method the arching is
extinguished self. When the earth
fault on one of the line persists, this
flame retarding compound.
proof wires are used Copper is
last, for cleanliness it is finished
with a wax. This willhelp in pulling
action of it into the conduits. This
type of wire is called as Single
Braid Rubber Covered (SBRC)
wire. Depending upon 250 V or
600 V, rubber insulation thickness
can be variedb) Double Braid
(600 V)These type of wires are
used for higher current flow
applications. Copper is preferred
as conductor. For this kind of
stranded wires. Two cotton braids
are used for protective cover and
hence it is called as Double Braid
Rubber Covered (DBRC)
stranded wires.
Lead Alloy Sheathed Wi
For places with lite moisture
content, three types of wires are
preferred. In contract to SBRC
wires which are used in dry
locations, this kind of wires are
protectively covered with a
continuous sheath of lead for
implementation in damp locations.
Generally, 1.25 mm thickness of
lead covering is used.
oppeUsually, thesfine scotton
braided flexible wire
Dual core with number of fine
stranded copper conductors
covered with cotton layer
protection is insulated with strong
mass of rubber. The whole mass
in now braided with loose cotton
which acts as single conductor.
Now, two numbers of such
conductors with rubber insulation
of black and red colour
are-twisted togethe
Solid earthing
A power system is said to be
solidly earthed when the neutral
of a generator, power transformer
or earthing transformer is
connected direct to the station
earth. As the generator or
transformer would have its own
reactance in series with the
neutral circuit.If the impedance of
the generator is too low, direct
earthing of the generator without
any external impedance may
cause an earth fault current from
the generator to exceed the
maximum 3-phase fault current
which the generator can driver
and this may exceed the short
circuit current for which its
windingarea reflection point for
the travelling waves.
Safety Handling and Storage of
Diesel
⚫ Diesel to be stored in an
isolated place under cover.
• Shall be stored in separate
rooms with proper ventilation.
"No Smoking" boards should be
displayed inside as well as
outside the
storage buildings. • No naked
mechanical protection. If it is
preferred for underground
implementation, its mechanical
protection strength can be made
higher. Four types of availability of
lead alloy sheathed wires are (a)
single core lead-sheathed, (b)
Flat-twin load alloy sheathed
(Figure 2.20), (c) Flat lead alloy
sheathed 3-core, (d) Flat twin lead
alloy sheathed with earth
continuity conductors.
In comparison to lead alloy
sheathed wires, TRS wires are
cost-economie but have the same
properties of those wires. TRS
wires have tough rubber
compound protective cover in
order to withstand against long
exporture to moisture The cables
are available in single core, dual
core, 3-core and rwin core with
earth continuity conductors As
these wires are highly moisture
resistant, it can be preferred in
wet location Weather Proof Wire:
For usage at higher altitude
location and in between buildings
raideat outdoor weath to earth
through one or more resistors. A
system properly earthed in this
way is not subject to destructive
over-voltages.
Resistance earthing reduces the
effects of burning and melting in
faulted electrical equipments,
reduces mechanical stresses in
circuits carrying faul; currents,
reduces electric shock hazards to
personnel caused by stray earth
currents in the earth return path,
and also reduces the momentary
line voltage dip caused by the
occurrence and clearing of the
earth fault. The value of
resistance to be used in the
neutral to be earthed is such as
will limit the earth fault current to a
value which will produce minimum
damage at the point of fault. In
general, the earth fault current
may be limited to 5% to 20% of
that which occur with a 3-phase
fault.
Reactance earthing
In this method, a reactor is
connected between the machine
neutral and earth. Since the earth
current which may flow is a
reactance earthed system is a
function of the neutra, drainage
system to clear
the neutralized acid.
2.10.10 Electrical Safety
Electricity and Fire are friends of
none, thereby avoid electrical
accidents with proper knowledge
of electrical safety. Electrical
accidents mainly happen
due to many of the following
reasons.
used as conductor but tinning
process is not necessary. These
copper conductors are covered
with 3 braids of fibrous yarn.
Brided conductors are fully
saturated with a water-proof
compound. Hence, it can be used
in varying atmospheric conditions
at very low priceFlexible Wires
To increase durability and to
prevent wires from break,
flexibility of wires can be
increased Flexible wires are also
known as lamp cords, Stranded
conductor are separately double
insulated in these, wires, These
are called as 162/0.0076 or
14/0.0076 which indientes
number of strands of copper i.e.,
152 or 14 strands of copper with
diameter of 0.0076 inch (36
SWG). These wires are used in
household appliance such as
lumps heaters, washing machine,
iron boxes, refrigerators, TV etc.,
Flexible wires are furthermore
classified as
a) Twin silk cord
b) Twin rubber insulated cord
c) Twin twisted cotton braided
flexible wire
reactance, the magnitude of the
earth fault current is often used as
a criterion for the various system
characteristics rather than
referring to the neutral reactance
directly.When a generator neutral
is to be connected to the earth,
sometimes a low reactance is
connected is series with the
neutral to limit the earth current
through the generator. This
should not be greater than the
3-phase fault current of the
generator.
In order to minimise transient
over-voltages, the earth fault
current
in a reactance earthed system
should not be less than 25% of
the 3-phasefault current. This is
considerably more than the
minimum current desirable
is resistance earthed
systems.Earth fault neutralizer
earthing
which would flow in to the line to
earth fault if the system were
operatedwith the neutral
unearthed. The reactance of the
neutralised balances the system
capacitance so that the net earth
fault current is practically
line circuit and without knowing
the cause of blowing
• Don't attempt to remove a
person who is in contact with the
wire without insulating your self or
switching off the power supply.
• While working in high voltage
line, use high voltage safety
shoes and
gloves.
coil reduces the short circuit current
to a very low value, thus the healthy
phases are kept in operation.
Voltage transformer earthing
In this system, the neutral is earthed
through voltage transformer and its
operational characteristics are
similar to an neutral coiling system.
One of the major defects in this
system is that the earthed neutral
acts as a
points mentioned, e d
Magnetic frame
The magnetic frame or yoke serves
two purposes. 1. It acts as a
protecting cover for the whole
machine and provides mechanical
support for the poles.2. It carries the
magnetic flux produced by the poles.
The flux per pole divides at the yoke
so that the yoke carries only half the
flux produced by each
pole.Armature slot
Shunt field coil
Main poleArmature
Figure 3.2 Sectional view of 4 pole
DC machine In small machines
where cheapness is the main
consideration and weight is not a
critical factor, the yoke is made up of
cast iron. But for large machines
where weight is the main
consideration, cast steel or rolled
steel is used. Since the permeability
of steel is double that of cast iron,
the area of cross section of yoke,
and hence the weight is reduced by
half.
PolesThe poles consist of (i) pole
cores (ii) pole shoes and (ii) pole
coils. The pole cores and pole shoes
form the field magnet. The end of
the pole core towards the armature
is often c
A bipolar junction transistor is a
three layer, two junction and three
terminal semiconductor device. Its
operation depends on the interaction
of majority and minority carriers.
Therefore, it is named as bipolar
device. The word transistor was
derived from the two word
combination, (TRANsfer reSISTOR
TRANSISTOR. Transistor means,
signals are transferred + from low
resistance circuit (input) into high
resistance (output) circuit..Transistor
consists of two back to back PN
junction joined together to form
single piece of semiconductor
device. The two junctions gives
three region named as emitter, base
and collector There are two types of
transistors such as PNP and NPN.
The arrow on the emitter specifies
whether the transistor is NPN type
or PNP type. This arrow also
indicates the direction ofcurrent flow,
when the emitter base junction is
forward biased. Figure 4.28 shows
the circuit representation and
symbols of NPN and PNP transistor
a) PNP transistor and its symbol b)
NPN transistor and its
Operation(valves)
pressure is supplied down the
stream. Thus, valve located in
hydraulic circuit effects the reduction
flame is allowed near storage
Smoking should not be permitted
within 500 m of storage area.
2.10.6 Safety in storage and
Handling of Gas Cylinders
Storage
To be stored safely in a dry well
ventilated room.
• Oxygen cylinder to be stored
separately
. Cylinder to be stored always in a
vertical condition
A first-aid box containing
medicines should be always
available at work-
site. The storage handling area
should
f shoe to reduce the reluctance of
the air gap since the cross section
becomes larger at the bottom.
Since the poles are
electromagnets, a field winding is
wound over the pole core. The
pole coils are made up of copper
wire or strip. When current is
passed through these coils the
pole becomes an electromagnet
and starts establishing a magnetic
field in the machine. The flux
distribution through the pole,
airgap, armature core and yoke is
shown in figure 3.3.For very small
machines, the poles are made up
of cast iron. For largermachines,
cast steel is used. To minimize
eddy current losses, the pole is
aminated. Sheet steel laminations
are used for this.Interpoles
in modern DC machines,
commutating poles or interpoles
are provided to improve
commutation. Just like the field
winding, the commutating poles
also have exciting coils which are
connected in series with the
armature. Since they carry full
armature
It is more heavily duped than any
of other regions because, its main
function is to supply majority
charge carriers (either electrons
or holes) to the base.The current
through the emitter is emitter
current. It is noted as Base is the
middle section of the transistor: It
separates the emitter and
collector, it is very lightly doped. It
is very thin as compared to either
emitter or collector. The current
flows through the base section is
base current. It is denoted as
collector
JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTOR (JFET)
The operation of conventional
transistors depends on the flow
oftype of charge carriers. Due to
this reason it is called as bipolar
junction transistor. The BJT has
two main disadvantages.1. It has
low input impedance because of
forward biased emitter junction2.
Unsafe equipment/installation.
Unsafe work-place.
• Unsafe work-practices.
• Protect people from electrical
shock caused by improper
insulation.
improper guarding of electrical
installation and improper
grounding. • Improper safety
devices viz fuse, auto shut off
device, protective relays
etc. • Display warning for any
installation dealing with more than
220 V.
• Don't replace fuse i
current, the coils are made
expanded in the form oup of fewer
turns of thicker conductor to
reduce the resistance.
ArmatureThearmature consists of
an armature core and armature
windings.
The armature core houses the
armature conductors or coils. The
armature
along with the conductors rotates
under the poles and hence, the
flux produced
by the field magnets is cut by the
armature conductors
When the conductors rotate, they
alternatively come under the
influence of north and south
poles. This causes high
hysteresis losses in the armature
core. To reduce losses, low
hysteresis steel containing a few
percentage of silicon is used in
the armature..
When the armature core rotates in
the pole flux, eddy currents are
also produced in it. If a solid iron
armature is used, an emf is
induced in an axial direction and
iron being a conductor would
result in large circulating current
called eddy current to
field effecttransistors, The FET is
a three terminal semiconductor
device in which current is
controlled by an electric field. The
conduction or operation of FET
depends only on the majority
carriers.
There are two types of FET
1) Junction Field Effect Transistor
(JFET)
2) Metal Oxide Semiconductor
FET (MOSFET)
or) Insulated gate field effect
transistor (IGFET) TheMOSFET
in further subdivided into two
types such as.) Depletion and
Enhancement
MOSFETMOSFETii)
Enhancement - only MOSFET (or)
E-only- MOSFET
Construction of JFET
A FET consists of a P type or N
type silicon bar containing two PN
junction at the sides as shown in
figure 4.46. If the bar is 'N' type
then it is named as 'N' channel
• Don't throw water on line,
electrical item, in case the dress
is wel. • Don't operate electrical
circuit/switches when hand/dress
is wet.
• In case of fire, fight fire after
switching off the circuit..
Never remove earthing from an
electrical installations, it is an
essential
part
Ensure non-availability of power
supply in socket while connecting
to it.
expanded in the form oup of fewer
turns of thicker conductor to
reduce the resistance.
ArmatureThearmature consists of
an armature core and armature
windings.
The armature core houses the
armature conductors or coils. The
armature
along with the conductors rotates
under the poles and hence, the
flux produced
by the field magnets is cut by the
armature conductors
When the conductors rotate, they
alternatively come under the
influence of north and south
poles. This causes high
hysteresis losses in the armature
core. To reduce losses, low
hysteresis steel containing a few
percentage of silicon is used in
the armature..
When the armature core rotates in
the pole flux, eddy currents are
also produced in it. If a solid iron
armature is used, an emf is
induced in an axial direction and
iron being a conductor would
result in large circulating current
called eddy current to flow in the
core.
narrow bar af N
typesemiconductor material is
taken On the opp site sides of its
middle part, two
heavily doped P type regions are
formed by diffusion
This forms P-N junction called as
gate. The area of width between
the gate is called a channel
Actually the two P regions are
internally connected and single
lead is taken out, which is called
as gate junction
Ohmic contacts are made at the
two ends of N type semiconductor
bar
One lead is called as source
terminal 'S' and the other as drain
terminal D
VALVESThe pump contains high
pressure oil which enters to the
inlet port (Port A). Spool remains
or regulation of pressure. lii)
Sequence Valve which lies in line
with relief valve in all aspects. It is
meant for sequencing the system
operation. i.e., for establishing
sequence and time delay between
primary and secondary lines.
Pressure at desired set point is
maintained in the primary line
upstream in the circuit using this
valve. In the secondary line, it
conducts function by properly
sequencing the downstream
pressure/Once set pressure is
attained in primary 11 function),
spool is lifted which diverts the flow
to secondary circuit and then next
function is to be sequenced and this
operational process continues
Flow Control Valves
Needle Valve
. Movement of popet with tapering
needle occurs in the bore of
manifold bore Spring force fitted at
the back actuates the popet. The
tapering needle is projected towards
the inlet passage. Outlet port is
emerged from the bore chamber in t.
There is considerable noise is
present in the transistor These
drawbacks have been overcome
to great extent in the
he manifold. Desired flow rate can
be set by screw provided against
spring force thus making the
valve, a variable type.
Check Valve
. The bore of a housing contains a
ball. Actuation force exerts on this
ball by means of a helical spring
held in between the ball and wall
of housing.
Figure 5.61 shows the schematic
diagram of spool valve. There are
five ports are present in the
manifold bold. Out of 5, two ports
are connected to the actuator and
other two ports are to be
connected to the pump line.
Remaining one port is connected
to the return line t 2000
operations/hour
the LVDT output voltage is a
function of the core position. The
amount of voltage change in
either secondary winding is
proportional to the amount of
movement of the core. Hence, we
have an indication of amount of
linear motionBy noticing which
output voltage is increasing or
decreasing, we can determine the
direction of motion. Any physical
displacement of the o
FET and if the bar is 'P' type, then
it is named as P channel FET The
structure of N channel field effect
transistor and P channel FET is
shownFor the fabrication of N
channel JFET, a
core causes the voltage of one
secondary winding to increase
while simultaneously reducing the
voltage in the other secondary
winding. The amount of output
voltage may be measured to
determine the displacement.. The
curve is practically linear to small
displacements. Beyond this
range, the curve starts to deviate.
In practice, output voltage is not
zero at null position but, some
residual voltage exists at output
terminals of LVDT but it is usually
less than 1% of maximum value
of output voltage in linear range
The residual voltage may be
either due to magnetic unbalance
Advantages of LVDT
1. The output of LVDT is
practically linear for
displacements up to 5 mm.
2. LVDT has infinite resolution as
it gives stepless output and it has
no mechanical element to change
output in discrete steps.3. LVDT
has high sensitivity. It usually
varies from 10 mv/mm to 40 4.
The LVDT gives a
immovable until oil pressure is
less than the set point. Once the
pressure increases beyond set
point, spool started moving
against the spring which allows
extra flow of oil. As the power
(product of flow rate and
pressure) is to be maintained
constant, increase in flow rate
reduces the pressure. Therefore,
desired .
high output and many a time,
there is no need for amplification.
5. LVDT can be used on high
frequencies up to 20 kHz.
Disadvantages of LVDT1. Large
displacements are required for
differential output. 2. They are
sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
3. Sometimes, the transducer
performance is affected by
vibrations. 4. The receiving
instrument must be selected to
operate on AC signals required.
or a demodulator network must be
used if a DC output is 5. The
dynamic response is limited
mechanically by the mass of the
core and electrically by the
frequency of applied voltage
Applications
LVDTs are used to
measure1.Displacement2.
Force3. Weight 4:
Pressure5.Position
SolenoidsSolenoid has a fixed
ferrous body with a coil for
excitation. It is a device to
translate ON/OFF positions of
electrical signals to ON/OFF
positions of
mechanicalmovements.
Generally, it is preferred as a
linear actuator