Internship Report Christian Schlager-Desperados

Game and Level Development of Desperados 2
Internship Report
at the
Faculty of Computer Science
Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg
and
Spellbound Entertainment AG, Kehl am Rhein
Name: Christian Schlager

Date of birth: 18th October, 1980
Place of birth: Horb am Neckar, Germany
Matriculation number: 162953
Period of internship: 1st August, 2005 - 31st March, 2006

Report delivery: 18th August, 2006
Tutor at University: Prof. Dr. Maic Masuch

Tutor at Spellbound Studios: Jochen Hamma
Jochen Pfannstiel
Statement of Authorship
I the undersigned confirm that the attached report is entirely my own work.
Reference to, quotation from, and discussion of the work of any other person
has been correctly acknowledged within the report.
Christian Schlager
18th August, 2006
Abstract
Level design is an area which has not received very much attention in the past.
Often, creating and designing levels is only a secondary task. German game
developer Spellbound Studios, though, has formed a level design department
for its real-time strategy game Desperados 2. This report is the detailed
description of my internship in said level design department and describes
objectives and responsibilities related to level design.
The game design framework Patterns in Game Design describes recurring
elements of the gameplay by defining a pattern for each element. Some of
these elements can be found in Desperados 2 and will be described in this
report.
The framework Emotioneering by game designer and game writer David
Freeman proposes the integration of emotional experiences into games. Some
techniques from the framework can be detected in Desperados 2. These
techniques are described and the suggestions brought up in this framework
are discussed.
Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Structure of this Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Spellbound Studios: A German Game Developer . . . . . . . . 6
2 Game Development of Desperados 2 8

2.1 Game Development Teams in the Game Industry . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Team Hierarchy at Spellbound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.2 Career Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Getting into the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Documenting the Game Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Game Development Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Concept Stage Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 Design Stage Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.3 Production Stage Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Level Development 34
3.1 Level Design Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.1 Level Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.2 Testing and Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1.3 Level Implementation for Level 04: Fort Wingate . . . 39
3.1.4 Redesign of Level Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2
CONTENTS 3
3.1.5 Scripting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 The Role of the Level Design Department . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Principles of Level Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.1 Escapism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.2 Entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.3 Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.4 Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Level Development Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.1 High Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.2 Level Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4.3 Level Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.4 Level Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4.5 Level Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4 Game Design Frameworks in Desperados 2 57

4.1 Patterns in Game Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1.1 Game Component Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1.2 Patterns for Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1.3 Patterns for Game Mastery and Balancing . . . . . . . 62
4.2 Creating Emotion in Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.1 The Emotioneering Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.2 Tying Story to Gameplay and Mechanics . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.3 Enhancing Emotional Depth Through Symbols . . . . 67
5 Conclusion 70
5.1 Game Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2 Level Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3 Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3.1 Discussion of Game Design Patterns in Desperados 2 . 72
5.3.2 Discussion of Emotions in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . 73
5.4 Personal Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4 CONTENTS
A Screenshot Gallery 77
B Desperados 2 Demo 81
Chapter 1
Introduction
In the last two decades, the scope and available budget for game developers
has increased significantly. Even German game developers such as Crytek or
Related Design have more than one hundred employees working on a single
game and a budget of more than ten million euros at their disposal1 . With
team sizes of 40 to 400 game developers and with now affordable middleware
such as graphics, physics and AI engines2 , the focus of game development can
move away from programming, towards content creation and artistic areas
such as game design, interface design and level design.
Spellbound Studios has realized this trend and has formed a level design
department for its current project team with interns and graduates. Being
a part of this department, I created levels and missions for the real-time
strategy game Desperados 2 during my internship.
1.1 Structure of this Report

In the introduction of this report, the game developer Spellbound Studios is
introduced.
In chapter 2, development teams in the game industry are discussed, followed
by a short statement about documenting the game development, which then
1
Article about Crytek in [Kne06]
Press Release: http://www.sunflowers.de/english/news.php?id=125
[08/13/2006]
2
For instance, the Vision engine by Trinigy, Havok Physics engine and Kynapse for
games, an AI engine by Kynogon
5
6 Chapter 1. Introduction
leads up to the description of game development stages with examples and

documents from the development of Desperados 2 in section 2.3.
In chapter 3, the report takes a detailed look at tasks in the level design
department. Subsequently, the principles of level design are explained. These
are integrated in the level development stages, which are described in the final
section of the chapter.
Chapter 5 introduces frameworks of game design that proved useful during
the level development which is why they receive special attention.
In the conclusion of the report, the described elements of game development
are analyzed and their possible future integration in game development is
discussed. The report closes with a personal statement.
1.2 Spellbound Studios: A German Game De-

veloper
Spellbound Studios was founded in 1994 and is one of the oldest indepen-
dent game developers in Germany. The owner, Armin Gessert, was one of
the developers behind the Jump’n’Run game Giana Sisters. The first game
completely developed in-house was Airline Tycoon, which was published in
1997.
The development of Spellbound Studios’ most successful game began De-
cember 1998. The realtime-strategy game called Desperados - Wanted Dead
or Alive(Desperados 1) received top ratings in major pc game magazines
(Gamestar: 86%, PCGamer: 81%). The bestseller’s cinematics, which tell
the story of bounty hunter John Cooper and his companions, won the Ani-
mago Award in 2001.
It is the company’s philosophy
”to entertain and be a great joy to players. An entertaining

game comes into existence, when the connection between game
play, graphic, sound and language is correct. Only this way ten-
sion can be created and only this way a game can cast a complete
spell over the player. Spellbound Studios feels obliged to this
ideal.”3
Spellbound Studios’ website: http://www.spellbound.de/web/en/sb.php?
3
m0=history&r0=contact_menu&id=2&id2=1&pageNr=4 [05/08/2006]
1.2. Spellbound Studios: A German Game Developer 7
Desperados 2 - Cooper’s Revenge is Spellbound Studios’ first game to use

a 3D engine. Although ratings in the German press were above average
(Gamestar: 80%, Computerbild Spiele: 1.76), the game does not sell well.
Unfortunately, the international press rates the game not as positive. Spell-
bound Studios intends to improve the ratings with the Desperados 2 add-on
which is currently in development.
Chapter 2
Game Development of
Desperados 2
In the first section, development teams in the game industry are discussed.
The necessity for up-to-dateness and completeness of the development’s doc-
umentation is demonstrated in the second section. It is followed by a de-
scription of game development stages in general supported by examples and
documents from the development of Desperados 2.
2.1 Game Development Teams in the Game

Industry
Two decades ago, a game could be created by one single game developer
who accomplished programming, artwork and game design on their own.
Since then, game development has become a million dollar business where
development teams with 25 members -such as the one depicted in figure 2.1-
belong to smaller companies in the game industry. This section takes a closer
look at the development team at Spellbound.
8
Figure 2.1: Team hierarchy at Spellbound Studios (July 2005)
2.1. Game Development Teams in the Game Industry
9
10 Chapter 2. Game Development of Desperados 2
2.1.1 Team Hierarchy at Spellbound
Figure 2.1 shows that game developing teams have a flat hierarchy. There are
at most two layers between the change board team members and development
team members. Flat hierarchies make sense since they reduce information
loss which might occur during communication between departments. The
information exchange with other departments does not have to go via many
people. [Nac05] also points out that in flat hierarchies the mostly young
game developers work more innovatively and flexibly.
The departments as seen in figure 2.1 can be sorted into three main categories:
• Project Management
The Project Lead instructs the quality assurance department. Aside
from quantitative and qualitative testing, the department’s responsi-
bilities also concerned assets management such as localisation and val-
idation of external asset deliveries. The position of the Sound Manager
existed outside of the categorization and was filled by a long-time em-
ployee. He mainly dealt with administrative tasks.
• Programming
At Spellbound, AI, physics and game programming was supervised by
the Technical Director and later on by the Programming Director. He
was responsible for maintaining task lists and version builds.
• Content Creation
The Creative Director was responsible for supervising the work of the
content creation departments. Aside from writing XP-Cards during
the production stage, he attended level design meetings and directed
motion-capturing and dialogue recordings.
2.1.2 Career Opportunities
According to Jochen Hamma1 , there are at present about 100 level designers
employed by the top 20 game developers in Germany. Stages of a typical
career in level design, as well as in other departments are depicted in table
2.1. Normally, with ambition and compassion one’s skill level increases
1
Jochen Hamma is a German game developer and Project Lead at Spellbound Studios
2.1. Game Development Teams in the Game Industry 11
Skill Level Background Experience Salary(brutto) in e

Top Top 20 Top 3
100
Intern Students or grad- Minimum >500 ca. 500 <500
uates from game of 2 years
design schools of game
(i.e. Games development
Academy) theory and
practise
Graduate Students, IT, Me- 4-5 years of >1000 ca. 800 <800
dia Design, Game development
Design theory and
practise
Junior prior involvement 4-5 years of >1500 >1250 >1000
in development of development
released games theory and
practise
Senior 3-5 years of >2000 >2000 >2500
game indus-
try
Lead leadership and 5 years of >3000 >4000 >5000
management game indus-
skills try
Table 2.1: Career opportunities in the game industry

2
during an employment which might then be rewarded with a pay raise. For
instance, after the Desperados 2 beta milestone at the end of December I,
as well as a colleague, received a pay raise as our share in the department’s
finished work was the most significant.
In level design career opportunities are rare. Someone who aims at gaining
influence and creative input should consider a transfer into the game design
department.
2
It is striking that a beginner (intern or graduate) can achieve a higher salary at a low
profile company. Of course major game developers tend to pay more money to experienced
people and less to people who have to be familiarized with the proceedings first. Smaller
game developing companies, that do not have the budget to hire skilled workers, are
interested in keeping the people they have trained by baiting them with a higher starting
salary.
2.1.3 Getting into the Industry
Starting out in the games industry is incredibly difficult. Students do not

have a real chance to attain an internship if they do not have at least a
minimum of experience in the field. This can be achieved by attending ap-
propriate lectures and seminars at university as well as projects of one’s own
initiative. It is not advisable to take up a career within the computer game
industry merely based on being a fan of computer games, but playing as many
games as possible is an essential part of keeping up with the developments
on the global market.
As story telling is the major aspect within the level design department, gen-
eral knowledge as well as expertises within the fields of literature and film is
essential. During the development of Desperados 2, for example, knowledge
of classic westerns proved to be a valuable source of inspiration.3
2.2 Documenting the Game Development

Documentation is an essential part of the game development. In an online
feature Tim Ryan4 has established a rough guideline for documentation (cf.
[Rya99a]), from which I have devised the following five goals of documen-
tation (in a form, in which they have also applied to the development of
Desperados 2 ):
Communicating the vision The work and creativity of programmers and

artists is directed into the direction the Creative Director intends. This
reduces wasted efforts, since results, which do not meet the game de-
signer’s demands, are less likely to occur.
Integrating the work of employees Employees refer to the documenta-

tion to see how or if their work fits into the overall design and how well
it corresponds with the work of others. During the development of Des-
perados 2, programmers had to consult the level designers repeatedly
as to how a feature would actually work in the game. For instance, the
implementation of the level minimap required multiple meetings and
design changes. Figure 2.2 depicts the final minimap.
3
Spellbound Studios’ DVD collection includes westerns such as Maverick, High Plains
Drifter, Dances with Wolves.
4
Tim Ryan is an independent game designer who has published several articles at
www.gamasutra.com
2.2. Documenting the Game Development 13
Figure 2.2: Final version of the level minimap in Desperados 2
Reducing confusion about responsibility Because the Creative Direc-

tor has the creative control over the project, he is the principle author
of all documentation and is responsible for tracking the development
and keeping documents up to date. Therefore, he also supervises the
authoring of other designers and of the game writer. His responsibili-
ties range from the creation of storyboards to the writing of XP-Cards.
Once his authority is established team members know where to turn to
when decisions concerning the design have to be made.
Eliminating the vagueness, increasing clarity Documentation gives

the game developer a clearer idea of the intended function of features.
For instance, in Desperados 2 Hawkeye’s Warcry was not documented
properly, therefore no situations were designed in which Hawkeye’s
Warcry would have been the ideal solution.
Helping to comment and edit ideas in the documentation The doc-

umentation is the common basis from which discussions about feature
and story changes can start and return to. Frequently, meetings in
the level design department threatened to turn into Wouldn’t it be cool
chats or pointless arguments. Keeping closer to the documentation
could have helped to focus more on results.
2.3 Game Development Stages
Figure 2.3: Game Development Stages and Documents of Desperados 2
In the following section different stages of game development are discussed

using examples and documents from Desperados 2 (See figure 2.3). When
my internship started, the game development was already in the production
stage, therefore, in this report the first two stages can only be described by
referring to their documentation. The production stage, however, is depicted
in more detail by describing the use of an implementation schedule and XP-
Cards in a process flow diagram.
2.3. Game Development Stages 15
2.3.1 Concept Stage Document
During the concept stage, features and functions are sketched out. The
accompanying document, i.e. game concept, is the first official document
created during the development. If the game idea has originates in the com-
pany (opposed to contract work), the concept is generated by the creative
core of the company. This consists of the Creative Director, game designers,
level designers, of course, but the input from other long-time employees is
valued as well.
The game concept is relatively short (about 8 pages), to inform the reader
in a fast and entertaining way about the game. There are no rules for the
structure of a concept. However, a game concept can be divided into several
sections (cf. [Rya99a]).
Each section of the document has a separat aim, which may not be directly
related to the game development. As it is supposed to appeal to people
from marketing and investors as well, it bears characteristics of a marketing
document. The concept communicates the game’s quality to publishers and
points out its complexity and feasibility to employees and investors. Gener-
ally a concept document contains the following sections:
Introduction On the first page, the reader is introduced to the title and
genre of the game. It is advisable to use the common genre classification
such as real-time strategy, first-person-shooter, edutainment, etc. If
the game is a sequel to an already well-known game, this would be
of course the information to start with instead. The setting of the
game is also announced and can be classified as well: Science-Fiction,
Medieval and Fantasy are some examples. In the case of Desperados 2,
the setting is the wild West, as it is popularized by films and on TV.
Additional information should be given concerning the edge and the
intended platform. The edge is what sets the game apart from other
games in the genre.
The introduction is very short and can be done in one sentence. But this
is not a mandatory rule as can be seen in figure 2.4, which represents the
introduction in the Desperados 2 concept. The idea of an introduction
is to sell the concept to the reader by introducing the game in an
exciting manner. The Desperados 2 concept already accomplishes this
effect with an exceptionally good headline. It mentions Desperados 1
and refers to its quality, while at the same time promising equal success
for the second installment. This section of the document might appeal
to new employees and generally to people who have not heard about
the game yet.
Figure 2.4: Introduction of Desperados 2 in the concept document
Background The background section expands on the information given in

the introduction. The use of licenses and technologies is mentioned
there. If, for instance, a sequel uses its predecessor’s code base, it would
be mentioned there. Other items in the document might be influences
from games, what kind of game engine is used and the prospect of
sequels or other products. By giving more information, the background
section further develops the scope of the project in the reader’s mind.
It is interesting for people who have heard about the project, but want
to know more about it.
The Desperados 2 concept does not have an introduction or background
section in this sense, it rather relies on the concept art from Desperados
1 and the continuous storyline.
Gameplay Description The description shapes the intended gameplay by

describing the possible play experience in the second-person perspec-
tive. It should be written as an exciting narrative and might be a
task for the team’s game writer. Specifics such as mouse clicks and
keystrokes should be avoided to immerse the reader. The Desperados 2
concept has another approach: Instead of written description, gameplay
features and how they work is communicated with screenshot sequences
(Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: Gameplay screenshots in the Desperados 2 concept document
Regardless of the way the description is presented, it makes the content

and the entertainment value of the game obvious and convincing. As
suggested by the screenshots the most effective way to do this, is by
giving an idea of the gameplay experience.
Key features The key features are what the buyer would find on the game’s
box as the enticements for purchase. Most of the time, this would be a
bullet point list of the most attractive features, which requires careful
selection. Too many items would water down the concept of the game,
too few items will not suffice if the game’s concept is rather complex.
The key feature list makes the game easier to compare to other games
from the same genre. It suggests possible starting points for marketing
strategies for the game and is therefore interesting for a publisher’s
marketing department. Figure 2.6 shows the key feature list from the
Desperados 2 concept.
Figure 2.6: Facts & Features list in the Desperados 2 concept document
Genre and platform This section of the document elaborates on the in-
tended genre and platforms. The game is usually described with a
combination of the existing genre classification if necessary. It is also
indicated for which platforms the game is intended and if there is mul-
tiplayer support.
Information about the genre and platform is important to publishers

and console manufacturers. On the one hand it shows publishers how
the game might fit into their portfolio, on the other hand it might invoke
a conole manufacturer’s interest, because a successful game increases
interest in the console as well.
Concept art Concept art can be used to convey unique or complex ideas.
For instance, screenshots and mockups such as figure 2.7 might help
sell the game far better than any text.
In the case of Desperados 2 it was also possible to reuse the interface
graphics from the first installment since the gameplay would not differ
significantly from the predecessor. See figure 2.13 for a comparison. By
using the interface art the reader can already tell from screenshots and
mockups, how the player is going to control the game. Other art from
Desperados 1 was reused in the creation of the concept as well.
Concept art goes a long way in helping sell the idea and putting the
reader in the right frame of mind, as it appeals to the reader in a more
direct way than text.
Figure 2.7: Mockup gameplay screenshot in the Desperados 2 concept doc-

ument
2.3.2 Design Stage Document
The separation of the development into design and production stage is un-
clear, because many design choices are not decided until the production stage.
Therefore, depending on the company and the project, the stages might over-
lap or even merge. The combination of design and production stage will
receive more attention in section 2.3.3.
Several terms have to be defined, since they are used in the following para-
graphs. The process of game design can be defined as the drafting, deter-
mining and refining of objects and processes of the game in regard to three
attributes (cf. [Ham06]):
Behaviour The design of the behaviour is the modeling of actions on the

player’s side and the reactions of the system.
Aesthetics When designing aesthetics, the designer has to take all senses
into consideration. The visual and audio senses are the most obvious.
But other senses are possible as well. For instance, force feedback input
devices appeal to the feeling sense.
Content The content communicates the behaviour of objects and processes.

For instance, text on buttons and icons.
The term design choice is defined as a concept of how to meet the require-
ments of a given situation and set of criteria (the design specification). (cf.
[Wik06])
The central document, which was created to outline the design, is the Des-
perados 2 game treatment. Although the game treatment’s actual purpose
is to inform the publisher of the game development’s state, it points out all
important design choices, which had to be made during the development and
can be used to represent the design stage of Desperados 2.
The gameplay receives the most attention in the design document, since it is
the most important part of the design. It is described in several sections:
1. Rules of the Game

The central concept of Desperados 2 is defined in the introduction of
this section:
The most important question a Desperados player will

have to ask himself again and again is: ”How do I get my
hero safely from A to B?”
All design choices for the gameplay relate to this concept. For instance,
the AI receives visual and audio stimuli. This means that the gameplay
involves concepts such as Staying Unseen and Staying Inaudible, which
emphasize the character of the gameplay, that is stealth rather than
open confrontation. Another aspect is that the player can make the AI
work for themselves by distracting NPCs and luring them into traps.
An important design choice faced here concerns the content communi-
cating the behaviour of the AI: How should the game communicate to
the player what a NPC sees and hears?
Another important point, which is covered in this section, is the level of
difficulty of Desperados 2, which is described by lists of parameters and
figures such as figure 2.8. The design choices faced here regard proba-
bilities (probability of a successfull hit, of being seen, etc.), character
attributes of opponent types, the effect of bonus items and additional
obstacles.
Figure 2.8: Design of difficulty levels in Desperados 2
2. Features
This section covers all features intended for the game. Most features
are accompanied by artwork such as sketches and mockup screenshots,
which sometimes origin from the concept document. Major features
such as Switchable Views or Quick Actions are described in great de-
tail, since they are unique selling points and very important for the
gameplay.
A feature with a strong relation to the Staying Unseen gameplay aspect
is the sight beam. The sight beam of an NPC defines the area where
they can receive visual stimuli. Figure 2.9(a) depicts the first draft of
the sight beam, which was implemented as a three-dimensional volu-
metric light. Figure 2.9(b) shows the final sight beam. But this design
choice proved impractical, as the testers could not determine, wether a
PC was inside the sight beam or not. Therefore, the volumetric light
was replaced with a more precise two-dimensional representation.
(a) Volumetric sight beam
(b) Flat sight beam
Figure 2.9: Versions of the sight beam in Desperados 2
The feature that set Desperados 1 apart from its competitors was the
Quick Actions system. The player can record commands which are
executed by the PCs when they press a button. For example, when
the player wants to take out two NPCs simultaneously, he records the
attack command for two PCs and then triggers the quick action. The
PCs attack at the same time. This feature has been enhanced and
expanded for Desperados 2. The player can use up to five quick actions
per PC and set a trigger, either per click or on sight. The latter means,
that the quick action is performed only, when the PC spots an NPC.
The description of this feature is relatively long, because of the many

design choices necessary to communicate its behaviour.
Some design choices concerned the behaviour of the system, for in-
stance, if a PC is interrupted while performing a quick action. Re-
garding the aesthetics, it had to be decided how the execution of quick
actions is presented to the player.
Very difficult design choices needed to be made for the communication
of the quick actions interface items: How is each step of planning the
quick actions communicated? How is communicated what options the
player has?
3. Heroes’ Abilities
The first part of this section lists and categorizes the basic actions all
PCs can perform, such as walking, running and shooting. It is also
described which design choices are necessary for each action. Apart
from the obvious aesthetic design choice of appropriate animations,
the behaviour has to be designed as well. For instance, the reaction
of the AI to a walking PC should be different from the reaction to a
running PC. This is covered by a feature, which rates actions according
to their level of suspiciousness.
The second part lists the special abilities of each PC. For each ability
the behaviour, the aethestics and the content had to be chosen. For
instance, some abilities such as Hawkeye’s Warcry influence NPCs and
make AI programming necessary. Other special abilities such as healing
or carrying corpses can be designed in a straightforward way or can be
copied from Desperados 1 as they did not differ very much from the
abilities there.
4. NPC’s Behaviour
This section describes the AI features of Desperados 2. Figure 2.10
depicts the AI as a perceptual system comparable to the human per-
ceptual system. In such a system stimuli are received through sensors
and translated into decisions. A stimulus can be defined as the re-
ception of information about a game element in the NPC’s visual or
auditory sensor range.
Since the human brain interprets different types of stimuli differently,
the visual and auditory perception has to be modeled separately (cf.
Perceptual Modeling in [Rab02]). Figure 2.11 shows that an auditory
stimulus raises the State of Alert instantly, whereas a visual stimulus
slowly increases the State of Alert over a period of time. This represents
a realistic approach, since the human brain receives auditory stimuli
more directly than visual. This kind of perceptual modeling is common
in first-person sneaker games such as Thief: The Dark Project and
Splinter Cell.
Another kind of perception, which is covered by the AI in Desperados
2, is the perception of tactical stimuli. The realtime evaluation of the
level geometry for its tactical value would be well outside the budget
and scope of the AI programming. Therefore, the level designer places
several elements in the level, which support the AI in tactical decision-
making:
• Search Points
Search points define places in the level where an NPC would search
for a PC, when an alarm is raised.
• Lurk Points
Lurk points can be placed at corners, behind doors and wherever
a PC might hide. A patrolling NPC checks these places for PCs,
making it harder for the player to ambush NPCs.
• Cover Areas
Cover areas are wrapped around objects and corners and wherever
an NPC can take cover. When under fire, the NPC retreats to the
nearest cover area.
• Defend Points
Defend points can be assigned to an NPC who then defends the
area defined by the radius of the defend point when he is alarmed.
This is important, for instance, when the NPC is guarding some-
thing relevant to the player such as a bonus item or a mission
goal.
Important design choices concerning the AI relate to the interpretation

of stimuli under the influence of attributes such as intelligence and
courage. These choices can be very complex, as figure 2.12 shows.
Figure 2.10: Schematic structure of NPC AI in Desperados 2

Figure 2.11: Complexity of AI in Desperados 2

Figure 2.12: AI states in Desperados 2

5. The User Interface

The interface receives actions by the user and returns the system’s re-
actions. The part which receives the user’s input is called the graphical
user interface (GUI). Figure 2.13 shows the GUI of both Desperados
games. The first part of this section describes the GUI, which the
player uses in the tactical isometric view to control the game.
Design choices for the User-Interface depend on human factors, for
example, Time to learn and Speed of Performance, which influence
the quality of the interface. For a complete list and description of the
factors, see [Shn98]. However, many critical design choices were decided
by reusing the GUI elements from Desperados 1 with modifications to
include the enhancements of the quick actions feature. The interface
art displayed in figure 2.13(a) was updated to current technological
standards for Desperados 2.
(a) Ingame interface of Desperados 2
(b) Ingame interface of Desperados 1
Figure 2.13: Desperados interfaces
Some design choices concern the player’s views of the game world. The
isometric view was designed in such a way that it provides the player
with a better view of the terrain and the possibility of better tactical
planning. During testing this design choice proved to be problematic,
because high objects in the level geometry obstructed the player’s view
of the terrain. Figure 2.14 shows feedback from Ralf Adam5 related to
this problem.
Another view the player can choose, is the third-person view which lets
them take direct control of the selected PC. Using this view, the camera
5
Ralf Adam is a German game developer, who produced Desperados 1 and was con-
sulted during the development of Desperados 2
Figure 2.14: Ralf Adam’s feedback on obstructed view in Level 02: Eagle’s
Nest
follows the hero looking over his shoulder. The important design choices
here are to provide an immersive action view without destroying the
tactical character of the game.
Another user interface feature are context-driven actions. When a

context-driven action such as picking up a body or opening a door
is possible, the player is notified by an icon and can trigger the action
by pressing a button. This is a very critical design choice, because it
involves assumptions as to what the player wants. For example, when a
body lies near a door, there are two possible actions for the PC: Either
opening the door or picking up the body.
2.3.3 Production Stage Documents
The production stage is the process of the implementation of the game’s

features and functions. For Desperados 2, the Project Lead managed this
process by arranging features and functions in an implementation schedule.
The information about required manpower and time is added by the Pro-
gramming Director.
The production can be described as an iterative process of the game’s feature
list and the implementation schedule. With each iteration, more items in the
schedule are implemented and the implementation of further items on the
feature list can be scheduled. However, the implementation of a feature or
function may take longer or shorter than anticipated. This causes a resource
deficit or surplus which has to be considered in the implementation schedule.
When the schedule is changed, the items are reordered in relation to their
priority. The priority of a feature or function depends on its due date, i.e.
the date of an internal milestone.
The structure of the process differs depending on the project and team. In
more experienced teams, decisions can be made intuitively without requiring
meetings. In follow-up projects, such as sequels or add-ons, some processes
may be redundant.
The iterative process, which was formed during the development of Despera-
dos 2 at Spellbound Studios, is displayed in figure 2.15. It shows a continuous
chain of processes and decisions. The following list elaborates on each link
of that chain.
Process: Prioritizing of Features At the beginning of each iteration cy-

cle, the feature list is devised from the game design document and
sorted by the Project Lead and the department leads according to pri-
ority. Priorities might differ from milestone to milestone. For instance,
when the AI and editor milestone of Desperados 2 was due, AI and
editor features received the highest priority. After the prioritizing the
features are placed in the implementation schedule.
Decision: Time, Resources and Budget The features with the highest
priority are evaluated by their demand of time, resources and budget.
Time and resources depend on the required manpower. For the im-
plementation schedule of Desperados 2 levels, the Level Design Lead
planned with six level designers (instead of the eight actually present)
to anticipate illness and other pitfalls. The budget is critical in case
Figure 2.15: Production stage of Desperados 2
features require additional software. For the physics features in Desper-

ados 2 the responsible programmer was consulted for the licensing of a
physics engine. After proposing the use of a physics engine to the pub-
lisher and being given the green light, the features were implemented
with the acquired software. Features, which demand more resources
than available, are cancelled or have to be scaled down.
Process: Design of Features The game designers create XP-Cards for

each feature using game design documents such as the game treatment.
Figure 2.16 shows different versions of the header for the Desperados
2 XP-Card (Extreme Programming) format. The header might differ
from team to team and project to project. The body of the XP-Card
gives precise instructions for the implementation. It is subject to con-
stant change and might continue to change during future development.
XP-Cards traverse the production stage and are signed after every pro-
cess and decision. The game designer signs the field XP Card written
in the header after finishing design.
(a) Early version of the XP-Card header
(b) XP-Card header for Desperados 2 add-on
Figure 2.16: Evolution of XP-Cards for Desperados 2
Decision: Design fits resource allocation The created XP-Cards have

to be checked for the allocation of time, budget and resources. If the
XP-Cards require more resources than available, they have to be mod-
ified. This decision is made by the Programming Director and the
Project Lead. If the XP-Cards pass, they are signed in the appropriate
header fields.
Process: Implementation The final XP-Cards are assigned to the respon-

sible programmer who implements the described feature within the
scheduled timeframe. Often the programmer creates an unofficial build
of the game with the created code or assets.
Decision: Quantitative Testing During the quantitative testing the Qual-

ity Assurance department checks the build for bugs. Consequently, it
can also be called a process. Several fields in the XP-Card header
serve this process. The responsible tester tests the functionality of the
feature and checks it for conflicts with the serialization.
Process: Committing of source / assets When the QA department lets

the implementation pass, the programmer is allowed to create an official
build of the game.
Decision: Qualitative Testing An experienced QA department is able to

perform qualitative testing as well. However, the responsible game
designer has to sign the XP-Card if the implementation’s quality has
passed. If the implementation does not meet the requirements of the
game designer, level designer or producer the design has to be refined.
In the worst case, the XP-Cards goes back to the game designer to be
redesigned from scratch.
Process: Committing of source / assets If the feature is tested and con-

sidered validated, the game designer signs the XP-Card to confirm its
implementation.
Decision: Review of Consumed Resources The consumed time,

resources and budget are reviewed. If there is a resources surplus,
cancelled features can be reactivated. However, if features have unex-
pectedly required more resources than estimated, the deficit must be
considered in the next iteration.
Chapter 3
Level Development
Much of the storytelling of a computer game originates from elements already

established in other storytelling forms such as filmmaking or theatre.
In filmmaking the most basic unit is the shot, which is a continuous recording
from one optical transition to the next. Scenes are sequences of interrelated
shots. The plot of a film is split into many scenes, which can take place at
separate locations (cf. the definition of shot and scene in [Bea94]).
Consequently, the most common way to express a story in a game is to split

the plot into missions, which are played in separate levels. The missions
are connected by cutscenes, which serve as optical transitions. Due to this
analogy to filmmaking, it is obvious that levels resemble the locations which
occur in the story. Table 3.1 shows the resulting plot structure of Desperados
2.
The following sections focus on the process of developing levels.
3.1 Level Design Tasks
During my job interview I was given a rough schedule by Jochen Hamma, the
Project Lead, for the following three months. For this qualifying period it was
intended that I would do preliminary work for the level design department.
34
3.1. Level Design Tasks 35
Level Location Story

Level 01 Santa Fe Night John Cooper and Kate O’Hara enjoy them-
selves in town. They find John’s murdered
brother and John swears revenge.
Level 02 Eagle’s Nest Cooper sends Doc McCoy to Sanchez and Sam
to ask for their assistance. However, by the
time he arrives, they have been overthrown as
gang leaders and McCoy must help them.
Level 03 Eye of the Needle The heroes escort a settler treck through Indian
territory where they discover that the recent
attacks were not carried out by Indians, but by
a corrupt officer named Clark and his soldiers
in order to discredit the Indians.
Level 04 Fort Wingate The heroes follow Clark and his soldiers to
their fort, where they free the captured In-
dian Hawkeye. They find proof for the officer’s
crimes and notify the General. Clark’s soldiers
try to take over the fort and the heroes help
the General to defeat the renegades.
Level 05 Santa Fe Day Following a hint, the heroes return to Santa
Fe and discover that a Mr Goodman, owner
of a railroad company, is behind the conspir-
acy to acquire the land owned by Hawkeye’s
tribe. When they break into a local bank vault
to find proof, Goodman appears, kidnaps Kate
and escapes in a train. The heroes fight their
way to the railroad station and Cooper chases
Goodman in a second train, leaving his friends
behind.
Level 06 Sacred Mountain Cooper arrives at Sacred Mountain, but his
train derails and he is captured. Hawkeye and
Doc arrive as well and liberate the Indian vil-
lage. They join up with Sanchez and Sam and
save Cooper from the gallows. Together they
free Kate. The heroes escape, shortly before
Goodman’s headquarters explode.
Table 3.1: Levels, their locations and the related plot in Desperados 2
36 Chapter 3. Level Development
3.1.1 Level Editing

In the beginning of the internship I was mainly occupied with level editing.
Objects in levels and missions are stored in xml-files. Level editing is the
modification of the content of these files to the needs of the level design de-
partment. This was accomplished by the use of the in-house developed level
editor. See figure 3.1 for a screenshot of the level editor. Editing pathfinding
objects is a typical assignment in level editing. Pathfinding objects are mo-
tion areas and motion obstacles. They are stored in a separate xml-file. The
creating and editing of these objects is accomplished by extending a polyg-
onal net across the level geometry and the positioning of its nodes. These
objects are loaded by the engine at the start of a mission. The storage in
xml-files makes it possible to do repetitive tasks such as replacing a model
type more easily in a powerful text editor.
Level editing is an undemanding task and became tedious very quickly. On
top of that, there were no error recognition tools (they were implemented
only near the end of the development). Therefore, tasks such as pathfinding
editing and path editing had to be done by visual judgement. For example,
it was not possible to determine whether an NPCs could reach a path node
without trial and error. Additionally, structures had to be adjusted or rebuilt
again and again, since level geometry was constantly modified and the be-
haviour patterns of a structure were changed or expanded or new behaviour
patterns were added.
Apart from pathfinding objects, other types of entities had to be placed and
edited in each level as well. Figure 3.1 shows the level editor with all entity
types visible. Since the window with the game engine became very crowded
with entities, a filter window was added (on request of the leveld design
department) to toggle the display of entity types.
The following list sorts the entity types according to their purpose.
• Marker Points
A marker point is an entity type to reference coordinates in the game
world.
• Motion Areas, Motion Obstacles, Modifiers and Ladders
These are the pathfinding objects. They determine where a PC or
NPC can move in the level. Modifiers are placed at doors and can
be adressed by the script interface to lock or unlock doors. They also
connect motion areas. Ladders are defined by a path, which determines
start and end point of the ladder.
Figure 3.1: The Desperados 2 level editor
• Cover Areas, Lurk Points, Seek Points, Defend Points
These entities support the tactical decision-making of the AI. They

were discussed in 2.3.2.
• Ground Areas
Ground areas define the ground consistency. On different grounds,

walking and running sounds differently.
• Level Boundary Areas, Camera Boundary Areas
These entities define the borders of a mission. Camera boundaries were

added in response to Ralf Adam’s feedback (See figure 2.14). When the
camera is moved between level boundary and camera boundary, it tilts
forward to avoid high level geometry objects.
• Roof Areas
The roof area is normally wrapped around a building. When the mouse
cursor enters the roof area, the assigned roof object is omitted to allow
a look into the building.
• Script Areas
Script areas execute an assigned script when a PC or NPC enters the
area.
• Dead Zone Points

Dead zone points are areas where NPCs do not react to auditory stim-
uli. For instance, close to a loud waterfall.
3.1.2 Testing and Documentation
Two months into my internship, a preliminary version of Desperados 2 was

due for presentation at Atari’s Go Play event of 2005 in Lyon, France1 . In
preparation for that, I was searching bugs and testing bugfixes together with
the Quality Assurance Lead.
Due to the overwork in the QA department, testing soon became one of the
main tasks of the level design department, even after the QA department’s
staff was increased, since the level design department had the most playtime
(See subsection 3.4.4). In exchange, several tasks concerning asset manage-
ment were dealt with by the QA department. Later on, level designers helped
out with testing missions concerning playability and gameplay. Playability
tests were obligatory, especially when the operation of milestone candidates
for the publisher had to be ensured.
Gameplay tests were done primarily in the level design department. These
playing sessions, which took place on a regular basis, included constructive
feedback using written reports, commented screenshots and meetings, where
the responsible level designer would present the designed mission to the other
departments. All level designers took part in these meetings as well as other
department leads and external producers. For instance, Ralf Adam. The
items on the agenda were the discussion of missions as well as feedback and
input from the other departments.
1
Press Event in Lyon: http://corporate.infogrames.com/IESA/
pressreleases_story.html?sid=629 [06/05/2006]
As an introductory example for newly employed level designers I was also

instructed to create a documentation on level editing while I learned the
subject myself. These tutorials were used to optimize the training period
for new level designers. Later on, new chapters were added concerning the
scripting editor, the bugtracking and the file system tool. I also added guide-
lines integrating my experience and also hints to optimize the workflow with
the editor:
• Spot-on positioning is possible when looking at the level from right

above. But the projection is still perspective, resulting in high objects
occluding the ground. So you may have to move around a little to put
the corners in the right place.
• When creating areas use as few corners as possible (the less corners the
easier the computation).
• Make areas as convex as possible.
• It is better to exclude perfectly walkable areas instead of using many

corners to make every place reachable.
• With few corners the units don’t get stuck.
• When creating motion areas and obstacles, leave a little space between
the geometry and the borders so units don’t get stuck.
• Don’t leave to much space between geometry and motion area borders.
That looks unnatural.
• A hallway may look perfectly walkable on the ground, but a unit can
collide with low hanging lamps or roofs as well (remember that poor
stormtrooper?).
• Don’t forget that steep hills and rocks can’t be climbed. It is left to your
judgement how steep an incline may be.
3.1.3 Level Implementation for Level 04: Fort Wingate
Because the alpha milestone for Level 04: Fort Wingate was due at the begin-
ning of October, I started delivering, while still working on my editing tasks,
preliminary work for the second level designer at the beginning of September.
Soon I was given sole responsibility for a mission in Level 04: Fort Wingate.
The necessary knowledge in handling the editor I had already gained and the
skills in LUA2 were easy to acquire, especially since no complex scripts were
needed at that point.
At the beginning of November, Ralf Adam was consulted as an external
producer. After looking through the already implemented levels he spotted
one major handicap: The level size and the frequency of meeting an enemy
did not match. The missions did not offer enough gameplay, because the
player could move PCs through entire parts of the level without having to
deal with a single NPC. This represented such a tremendous flaw that the
entire level design content was abandoned and the concepts for each level
were redesigned.
Other problems in the level design department concerning the asset man-
agement, level concepts and performance would not have been discovered
had it not been for the expertise, which the department gained through the
addition of trained game developers.
However, these problems were solved when the tasks of the other depart-
ments were adjusted to the needs of level design. For instance, the transition
between missions relied on sequences scripted by the level designer. The
sequence consisted of scripting the unloading of all NPCs and objects from
the game, then displaying a cutscene and loading NPCs and objects for the
new mission. Although most level designers considered this to be too time-
consuming and error-prone, the change board (consisting of all leads) would
not make the necessary changes until Ralf Adam intervened. The new (and
final) concept allowed several files for missions with the loading and unload-
ing done automatically by the engine.
3.1.4 Redesign of Level Concepts
For the redesign the level designers were split into pairs and each pair was
assigned a mission. Ralf Adam’s suggestions for good level design consisted
of three aesthetic directions:
• Levels have to teem with enemies
• Several possible ways of solving a mission
• Exciting mission goals

2
LUA is a free scripting language widely used in the game industry (cf. [IdFC06])
To regard these directions, missions were split into single situations which
were separated from each other geographically. See figure 3.2 for a schematic
representation. The required level geometry already existed or had to be
added. This helped working with the directions, because levels gained more
structure and coherence and it was easier to increase the number of NPCs.
New situations were planned with screenshots of the level geometry, then
Figure 3.2: Hierarchy of level elements in Desperados 2
sketched out in Photoshop, including additional level geometry and Event

Animations3 .
Together with other level designers I was responsible for several new concepts.
The refining of all concepts gave us the opportunity to have greater influence
on the story, dialogues and gameplay. Especially Level 02: Eagle’s Nest
benefitted from the redesign (See appendix B). Before, the the player had
not had the opportunity to play in major parts of the levels and solutions
overlapped. In the new concept of Eagle’s Nest, spectacular localities and
solutions were included, which integrated Ralf Adam’s directions. Figure 3.3
shows two examples.
3
Event Animation are animations of the level geometry which can be triggered by
script. An exploding tower or a train rushing into a station are event animations.
(a) The rope bridge is destroyed in a cutscene
(b) A pathway carved into the rock
Figure 3.3: Spectacular localities in Level 02: Eagle’s Nest

3.2. The Role of the Level Design Department 43
3.1.5 Scripting
Many scripts which were used in one mission could be used in other levels
as well. To avoid redundant work, we created a script library with functions
such as randomly distributing a group of NPCs in an area or have NPCs carry
out gunfights or conversations. These gunfights and conversations had to be
randomized very carefully. Randomization fulfilled Ralf Adam’s ”teeming”
direction as it resulted in more interesting actions to watch. However, players
have to be able to predict the NPCs’ behaviour. For instance, in one mission
a script was added, that has an NPC leave his post in random intervals.
However, because the player could not predict the NPC’s position anymore,
the randomization had to be removed in this particular situation.
A more technical function helped storing arrays. The script interface offered
a memory stack for the storing of variables to exchange information between
scripts. Because the script interface did not offer such functionality for arrays
(and the programmers were reluctant to implement such functionality for per-
formance reasons), the level design department scripted analogous functions
which proved to be extremely helpful when handling groups of NPCs.
But the script interface functions, provided by the programming department
were powerful as well. When the programming task for a sniper NPC -
which some mission concepts included- seemed unlikely to be implemented
because of time pressure, it was possible to write a script which delivered the
functionality as it was designed on the XP-Card.
The areas Editing, Testing, Concepting, and Scripting I mentioned so far, all
play important parts in the implementation of a situation. With a printed
screenshot of a situation it was possible to implement a situation in a few
hours.
Level implementation was my main occupation in the second half of the
internship. It will be described in more detail in section 3.4.
3.2 The Role of the Level Design Department

During the crucial stage of developing Desperados 2 (approximately eight
months prior to the release) the entire production centred on the level design
department.
The final shape of the gameplay is mostly influenced by the level design, i.e.
difficulty level, the uniqueness of the levels, the different challenges a level
offers, depend on the level design.
The level design is therefore the topmost layer of the game development
process, because when level design starts, the game is practically finished.
That is why level designers have to work and exchange ideas with practically
everyone who is involved in the game development. It is also the reason why
compared to other departments level designers spend the most time playing
the game.
The level design department was responsible for various other areas of content
creation in addition to level design:
Game Design Since level design relied on PC abilities to work as written

down in the design document, game design decisions could not be made
later on without hearing from the level design department first. For
instance, the PC Hawkeye’s Warcry ability was put to special use in
mission one of Level 06: Sacred Mountain which I designed and imple-
mented: The necessary scripting for the Warcry was also done by me.
Therefore, I worked together with the game design department on the
Warcry’s design.
Adjustment of parameters (”tweaking”) While mapping out situations

parameters for NPCs and equipment, such as range of sight for NPCs,
fire range of a PC’s standard weapon, etc. were used and adjusted.
There was some confusion as to whether level design or game design

was responsible for these adjustments. Several times testers reported
the level of difficulty being too hard or too easy. This was caused by
game designers who had adjusted certain parameters without clearing
it with the level design department first. For instance, the difficulty
level of mission three in Level 03: Eye of the Needle was well balanced
for the Gatling, Sanchez’ special weapon. When the game designers
removed the overheating of the Gatling, the mission became too easy.
Story editing Because of milestone pressure from the publisher, the num-
ber of levels was reduced from eight to six. However, the storyline was
not adjusted to that change in time. Since the implementation of Level
05: Santa Fe was already in progress and concepts for Level 06: Sacred
Mountain had to be designed, it was necessary to create a satisfying
finale within the level design department.
3.3. Principles of Level Design 45
3.3 Principles of Level Design
Tim Ryan sees the level designer mainly responsible for the quality of the
gameplay. In his opinion, the level designer has to consider four principles
(cf. [Rya99b]) while creating a level, to satisfy the expectations the player
has towards the game.
• Escapism
• Entertainment
• Challenge
• Uniqueness
These principles are also important in the level development, because each
principle influences a different stage of the development.
3.3.1 Escapism
Escapism is the habitual diversion of the mind to purely imaginative activity

or entertainment as an escape from reality or routine.4 When playing a
computer game, the player wants to escape from reality. It is therefore the
level designer’s task to allow the player to fully immerse in the game and
create a sense of escapism. Of course, this is not the responsibility of the
level designer alone. Graphical glitches or crashes in the game can destroy
immersion as well and must be fixed by the programming department. Still,
from the level design point of view it includes everything that might appear
as inappropriate content. In the case of Desperados 2, this meant of course
anything not related to the wild West or the 19th century.
As a general rule for us at Spellbound Studios, that meant anything remind-
ing the player of the real world had to be avoided. For instance, a joint mar-
keting strategy between Spellbound Studios and the Desperados beer brand5
was hypothetically considered. The player would find Desperados bottles in
the game world. However, finding a real-life beer brand could destroy the
player’s immersion in the make-belief world.
4
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/
escapism
5
Desperados beer website: http://www.desperados.tv
3.3.2 Entertainment
According to Tim Ryan, an entertaining level keeps the player interested

and makes him look forward to the next level. Entertaining quality can be
induced into a level in several ways:
• Revelations of Settings and Story

For instance, when new areas or new missions are made available to
the player, the player’s curiosity is inspired.
• Level of Difficulty
To preserve the entertaining value of a level, the level designer has to
avoid frustrating elements such as too difficult missions and traps that
the player cannot avoid by skill or other challenges which the player
cannot overcome.
• Acquisition
The acquisition of new assets is a popular way to entertain, which is,
for instance, implemented in the gameplay of Diablo 2. A major part
of the fun consisted in collecting items.
In Desperados 2, upgrades were planned which the player could collect
throughout the levels. Unfortunately, it was not designed which PC
abilities would improve how much by the upgrades. Consequently, the
idea of upgrades was dropped when time grew short towards the end.
• Conflict
Introduction of conflict is entertaining, when the player is challenged
to overcome the conflict. This way is covered by the next principle in
more detail.
3.3.3 Challenge
Most games present the player with a system of rules and ways to control
their character in the game. Therefore, mastering the system is the challenge
which the player has to meet. As they progress, the level of difficulty of the
game increases to test the increasing skill of the player with increasingly
difficult situations.
To keep the player interested in the game, the challenges have to be difficult
enough not to bore them, but also not that difficult to always have them
3.3. Principles of Level Design 47
failing and be disappointed. The ideal level of difficulty can be described by

the flow channel, a concept from flow theory (cf. [Csi94]). The application
of flow theory to game and level design was analyzed by a graduate level
designer at Spellbound Studios [Pfa05].
3.3.4 Uniqueness
Uniqueness is closely linked to the principle of entertainment. Repetitive
situations quickly bore the player. Therefore, uniqueness of levels is crucial.
It is created by integrating variation in plot, location and the like. Two
reasons for the necessity of uniqueness can be identified:
1. Players do not like being forced to play the same game or level twice.
Therefore, it should be avoided to have players play in one area more
than once. This proved to be difficult for the level design department,
because many levels in Desperados 2 were built in a nonlinear way.
In Level 05: Santa Fe the player can move everywhere in the level. This
means, the player plays the first mission in a new environment, but for
the following three missions he already knows the location. This could
violate the uniqueness principle of the level and by doing so diminish
the entertainment value, because he has nothing to look forward to in
the next missions. A better way would be to make areas accessible to
the player only after they have completed a particular goal.
2. The second way is that levels have to offer unique and spectacular
locations to surprise and astonish the player. See figure 3.3.
These are variations that are integrated through the use of level geometry.
Other variations can sufficiently distinguish levels from each other as well:
Plot Variations Plot variations may require the player to reach a waypoint
or kill all enemies. Other variations used in Desperados 2 are more
inventive. For instance, in Level 05: Santa Fe the player has to find
and knock out the bank director and carry him into the bank to open
the safe.
Challenge Challenges may not only vary in difficulty, but in content as well.
In some missions the player must not kill or harm NPCs. In another
the PCs must not be seen by anyone. In Level 03: Eye of the Needle
the player has to protect settlers from an Indian attack. In Level 06:
Sacred Mountain they have to resolve a hostage situation to save Kate.
Setting Variations of the setting can be easily achieved by changing the

level. But also day and night changes can be used as a variation.
In Desperados 2 the player visits the town Santa Fe twice: Once at
night in the first level, when saloons are open and people are enjoying
themselves on the streets. The second time in the fifth level during
daytime, when people go about their work.
The game Prince of Persia: The Warrior Within uses a very unique
kind of variation: Through portals the player can visit the same loca-
tion at different times.
Characters Variations of characters are very easy to implement. For Des-
perados 2 the level designer would turn to the character schedule, which
defined which NPCs should appear in which levels. Certain characters
were connected to more difficult situations, because their AI settings
were more advanced.
But the composition of the PC characters varies within missions, too.
In Level 02: Eagle’s Nest the player starts off with Doc McCoy, who
rescues Sanchez. After they have freed Sam, all three characters are
playable in the next mission.
3.4 Level Development Stages

The integration of the level design principles can be found in each of the
successive steps of level development. These steps will be called level de-
velopment stages in analogy to game development. Figure 3.4 depicts the
sequence of level development stages.
3.4.1 High Concept
For the high concept of a level the level designer turns to the locations, to
where the story takes place. Each of the locations in table 3.1 is represented
by a level in Desperados 2. The first and fifth level share the same locality,
a Wild West town, but vary in setting. By using powerful editors artists
can modify both levels at the same time, saving time and effort. While
selecting locations, the level design principles of escapism, entertainment
and uniqueness have to be regarded.
The game designer, level designer or game writer suggests the geographical
layout and shape of the location by sketches such as figure 3.5. Apart from
3.4. Level Development Stages 49
Figure 3.4: Level development stages of Desperados 2
aesthetic choices such as setting and atmosphere, a level sketch has to show
positions of key points and facilities, which are necessary for the plot to
advance. For instance, in Level 05: Eagle’s Nest the objectives are to rescue
Sanchez and free Sam. Therefore, the level has to feature facilities to hold
characters captive such as a prison or buildings, which are easy to guard and
difficult to reach. The sketches can be supported by picture collections and
references from movies and other games. The level sketch is submitted to
the artists, along with text descriptions and storyboards.
Figure 3.5: Level sketch for Desperados 2
For the redesign of the levels, actual screenshots from the level geometry were
available. Compositions of screenshots, created in image processing software
such as Adobe Photoshop, were used as sketches.
3.4.2 Level Concept
The created level geometry is used as a basis for the level concept. It should
cover the principle of escapism by creating immersive level goals and quests.
While some of the goals are already determined by the high concept and the
plot, additional quests can be added here. For instance, in some missions
of Desperados 2 Sam’s TNT ability6 is needed. To make the mission more
interesting, the player would have to find the TNT in a different part of the
level first.
In this stage, the level designer also has to come up with several possible
ways of reaching the mission objectives. Furthermore, adding quests and
6
The PC can place a TNT package at predefined places in the level. When Sam shoots
at the package, it explodes and an event animation is played.
goals requires the writing of mission objective texts, formulating quest names
and creating mission objective images. The level concept must include lists
for these items.
3.4.3 Level Design
The level designer designs the mission course with screenshots of the level
geometry. In this stage, the actual gameplay of the level is shaped. By
mapping out paths, placing objects and NPCs and planning actions the NPC
executes at each node, situations are designed according to the principles
discussed in the previous section:
Challenge The range of options to define the level of difficulty of a situation

depends to some degree on the creativity of the level designer:
• Number of NPC
The more NPCs in a situation, the more difficult it becomes.
• Resources
The amount of bonus items the player receives. The more re-
sources are provided in a situation, the easier it can be solved.
• Sound Dead Zones
In sound dead zones, the player can shoot without being heard by
NPCs.
• Links between NPCs
The communication of NPCs with each other. The more NPCs
cover each other, the more difficult the situation becomes.
Entertainment Many scripts were only written to make situations look

authentic and plausible. For instance, NPCs who watch a box fight in
Level 04: Fort Wingate do not remain stock-still, but cheer and chant
for their favored boxer.
Ralf Adam suggested that every situation should to tell a story. This
would improve the entertainment value and the coherence of the situ-
ation and would also help setting it up.
Uniqueness This principle was less important during the level design stage,
because the level geometry already made sure that one situation would
not resemble another. A way to distinguish situations from each other
visually was to alternate the composition of NPC models in a situation.
3.4.4 Level Implementation
Each change in the level design influences the game’s aesthetics and might
also make a change in the level geometry necessary. For that the level designer
regularly consults the Creative Director as to whether the level still fits in
the overall atmosphere of the game. They also have to suggest their level
geometry changes to the artists and discuss feasibility and scope with them.
The artists will then remodel the level objects.
The level designer can simultaneously begin with the implementation of the
situations (the separation of level geometry and level content allows this).
For the implementation, the level designer refers to several level design doc-
uments. For instance, the reward schedule determines in which level and
mission the player can find an upgrade. Another schedule determines in
which level and mission NPC models appear for the first time. Some of these
documents, such as level of difficulty figures (Figure 2.8), are part of the
game treatment, which the player has to consult as well.
Level implementation is the actual setting of entities and scripting. The
implementation process can be split into the following steps:
1. Level Editing
During the level implementation, level editing was always required.
Flaws in the pathfinding objects were discovered while play testing.
The situations required the setting of sound dead zones, defend point
and marker points. Often, clearing out level editing bugs was accom-
plished by another level designer who was not busy at that moment.
2. Setting paths
The level designer sets paths in the level editor by positioning a se-
quence of nodes, sketching out the course of the path. The pathfinding
engine then sends the NPC from one node to the next when they are
on patrol duty, for example. Later on, one-node-paths were added for
NPCs who are supposed to remain at one place (NPCs guarding an
entrance or a bonus item, for instance). This made sense, since NPCs
automatically return to their paths after an AI-induced action.
3. Placing NPCs and assigning paths

At first, placing NPCs in the level was solely an aesthetic decision. It
would have looked odd, if the same enemy type appeared too often
on the screen. Later on, NPCs were replaced when the level designer
wanted to create a certain challenge. For instance, if the level designer

wanted to suggest a solution with Sanchez using his tequila bottles, he
would place NPCs, which are tempted by tequila.
4. Writing paths scripts

The next step consists of writing scripts which would be assigned to
the paths. An NPC who walks along the path, executes the commands
in the path script at the referred path node.
--[[
.lua
Sample path script
]]
-- test node amount;
-- have to be equal to mission xml
function test()
local path_node_amount = 0; -- INSERT CORRECT VALUE HERE
return path_node_amount;
end
--------------------------------------------
-- execute_node_script
--------------------------------------------
function execute_node_script( actor, node )
si = scriptinterface;
assert (si);
-- Todo : Insert implementation here
local seq = si:SequenceCreate();
if(node==0)then
end
si:SequenceInsert(seq,actor);
return false;
end
Listing 3.1: Template for path script
Writing path scripts required very little effort. The editor provided
a template library for the creation of specialized scripts such as path
scripts, AI scripts and actor scripts. Listing 3.1 shows the path script
template.
Features of the editor helped as well. Every selection in the game win-
dow prompts the loading of the appropriate menu. In the path menu,
a script can be created using the template and is thereby automatically
assigned to the path and opened for editing in the script editor.
The workflow was also optimized by masking script interface functions,
which were widely used by the level designers. For instance, in the
ActorPlayAnimation function several parameters depended on another.

We used this dependancy to create our own masked function, which
would require only a single parameter. Listing 3.2 shows the header of
the script interface function, listing 3.3 its masked counterpart.
ActorPlayAnimation( Sequence* pSequence, D2::Actor* pActor, const char*
pcPosture, const char* pcActionState, const char* pcItem, const char*
pcName, float fTime ) const;
Return Value: void
Description: This function can be used to let an actor play an animation.
Listing 3.2: The script interface function ActorPlayAnimation
-- actorPlayAnimation( D2Actor, sAnimationName)

-- function which lets an actor play an animation and automatically sets
the right state, posture and item parameters for this
-- animation
--***by Joerg Friedrich
function actorPlayAnimation(seq, actor, sAnimationName, fDuration,
sExpression)
Listing 3.3: The actorPlayAnimation function with less parameters, but more
functionality
Later on, more functionality was added to this function, such as a

duration for the animation and an expression from a table of dialogue
lines, which the actor utters while executing the animation.
With these functions dozens of path scripts were created to have NPCs
look around, smoke a cigarette, whistle at other NPCs, etc. The final
versions of some levels made use of up to 500 scripts.
5. Writing global scripts

This step required elaborateness, time and extensive testing. Global
scripts in Desperados 2 control variations of the gameplay. A good
example are the missions in Level 04: Fort Wingate. In most missions
the heroes must not be seen. If a PC is spotted by a soldier, the latter
would not attack, but run to his superior officer and report. The officer
would then ring the alarm (which is tantamount to losing the mission).
This way the player still had a chance to intercept the running soldier
and thereby avert losing the mission.
6. Creating sound sources

In Desperados 2 different sound sources are implemented to create an
immersive atmosphere. For sound sources the editor offers several pa-
rameters defining the range of the sound and the volume at different
distances. In Desperados 2 two different types of sound sources exist:
• Ambient sound sources

Ambient sounds have no range restriction and can be heard in
the entire level. Examples are the rushing of a waterfall (Level
06: Sacred Mountain), wind howling through a canyon (Level 02:
Eagle’s Nest) or the chirping of crickets (Level 03: Eye of the
Needle).
• Directional sound sources
Within a smaller circle around the directional sound source, the
sound can be heard at full volume. In a second, outer circle the
volume drops proportional to the distance.
The level concepts included lists of appropriate sound effects, which

were ordered at an external supplier. Additionally, sound effects from
Desperados 1 were used. Due to overwork in the level design depart-
ment, the setting of sound sources was done by the art department
which had been responsible for this task in Desperados 1 as well.
7. Testing situations
As a final step the level designer repeatedly tests the situation. He
pays special attention to the NPCs’ field of vision and the timing of the
NPCs’ movements and tweaks these factors if necessary. At this stage
they influence the difficulty of the situation and whether the situation
is solvable the most.
3.4.5 Level Testing
A level is submitted to the QA department, when all situations are imple-

mented. The department intensively checks the level for bugs, playability
and level of difficulty. During this stage, the level designer waits for feedback
from testers, game designers and producers and changes the level according
to the criticism.
While testing for playability, two different factors are important:
Exploits The mentioned gameplay variation in Level 04: Fort Wingate,

where a soldier alarms his superior officer, can be exploited. The player
might knock the officer and every soldier running to alarm the officer,
walks into the PCs and is knocked out as well. However, this exploit was
not removed, because the level of difficulty did not suffer significantly
and ambushing the reporting soldiers proved to be fun.
Stability Stability is important for the playability of a mission. For in-

stance, when two path scripts exchange information. If one NPC is
busy with an action induced by the AI and is knocked out, the infor-
mation exchange is not taking place. In the worst case, the mission is
not solvable anymore.
An example from Level 04: Fort Wingate: Kate must infiltrate the
prison to talk to the captured Hawkeye. However, the prison door
is only unlocked, while the soldiers, patrolling around the prison, are
inside the building. If the patrol soldiers are knocked out outside the
prison, the door cannot be opened and Kate cannot reach the mission
end trigger.
These cases may not occur in every game session. It is therefore necessary
that several testers play the missions and try out new and even unorthodox
strategies, anticipating possible ideas by future players.
Chapter 4
Game Design Frameworks in

Desperados 2
This chapter introduces two frameworks of game design and how they can
be used in Desperados 2.
Patterns in Game Design The collection of game design patterns by

Staffan Björk and Jussi Holopainen1 is used to describe some of the
design choices made for Desperados 2.
Creating Emotion in Games Some techniques from David Freeman’s
framework Emotioneering, which can be found in Desperados 2, are
described here.
4.1 Patterns in Game Design

A game design pattern is the description of a commonly recurring part of
the design of a game. They focus on the gameplay as the most essential part
of the game design (cf. [BH04]). For instance, Desperados 2 encourages the
player to plan his actions by providing him with the Quick Actions feature.
The pattern which describes this aspect of the gameplay is called Stimulated
Planning:
”Games that encourage players to plan about certain aspects

of the game”
1
Staffan Björk is a Swedish game designer, who teaches and researches game design.
Jussi Holopainen is head of the Game Design Group at Nokia Research Center, Finland.
57
58 Chapter 4. Game Design Frameworks in Desperados 2
By offering this feature Desperados 2 not only stimulates planning but also
gives the player a tool for doing so.
Patterns can also require the presence of other patterns or influence the
behaviour of another pattern. This creates interdependent relationships be-
tween patterns.
Game design patterns can be used by game designers as a tool to make design
choices during development, but also increase the understanding of how other
games works. The authors even propose to use them as inspiration for new
game ideas, for instance, by selecting random patterns and forming a game
out of them.
4.1.1 Game Component Framework

Because they relate to gameplay, game design patterns are an activity-based
framework for describing games. Figure 4.1 shows the framework and its
components.
Figure 4.1: The components of the framework
The framework sorts game components such as rules and modes of play into
four categories. Each category describes the activity of playing a game in a
different way. The following list explains each category and its components.
Boundary Components This category contains components which limit

the possible actions in the game.
• Rules
Rules are the most obvious component which limits actions. For
instance, chess has very explicit rules about the movement of its
pieces.
4.1. Patterns in Game Design 59
• Modes of Play
Modes of play in Desperados 2 are defined by the view of the
game world: The isometric view supports tactical gameplay and
the third-person view direct action.
• Goals and Subgoals
Goals and subgoals motivate the player to keep playing the game.
Virtually every game has goals. In Desperados 2 the major goal is
to finish a level by achieving subgoals defined as mission objectives
in the mission screen.
Temporal Components Temporal components describe game state changes.
• Events
Game state changes perceivable to the player are called events.
They are triggered by player actions.
• Closures
Closures are meaningful player experiences, which usually go along
with a game state change. Closures can occur on many different
levels: In Desperados 2 the killing of an NPC, triggering a cutscene
or achieving a goal can be a closure.
• End conditions and evaluation functions
End conditions and evaluation functions define requirements for
game state changes. In Level 06: Sacred Mountain, for instance,
the player has to kill all hostile NPCs. A scripted AI function
checks for every killed hostile NPC if it is the last one, before
ending the mission.
Holistic Components The holistic components deal with the aspects of

a game that are relevant when one looks upon the activity of playing
games as an undividable activity (cf. [BH04]).
• Game Instance
A game instance describes everything that occurs while playing a
game. For a chess game that would include positioning the chess
pieces and later putting them back in the box, but also the players,
the pieces, the chessboard, even the audience. A game instance
of World of Warcraft begins and ends with the startup and final
shutdown of its server.
• Game Session and Play Session

The game session is the complete activity of playing the game,
whereas in long and complex games the game session is divided
into several different play sessions. For instance, in Desperados
2 a game session would last from the start of the campaign to
finishing it. Because of the playtime, the player splits the game
session into several play sessions, where each play session might
start with loading a saved game state and ends with saving the
current game state.
• Extra-game activities
Extra-game activities such as entering the player’s name into the
highscore list or creating modifications to a game.
Structural Components Structural components are manipulated by the

player and can be real-world or imaginary objects and people, but also
abstract attributes and values. They are easy to recognize in traditional
games:
• Interface
The interface of chess, for instance, is represented by the chess
board. The user interface of Desperados 2 is described in subsec-
tion 2.3.2.
• Game Facilitator
A game facilitator maintains and synchronizes the game state. In
pen & paper roleplaying games, the game master has this function.
In computer games the computer has this function.
• Game Elements
The chess pieces are game elements, where the king is a special
element: He is the player’s avatar, that means if the king falls, the
player looses. Because the story of Desperados 2 involves every
PC, each one is an avatar of the player.
• Actions
The player can manipulate the game state by performing actions
on the game elements.
• Game Time
In most games, time plays a critical role in the gameplay. When
playing chess with time limits for each move, the game time influ-
ences the way the game is played.
4.1.2 Patterns for Resource Management
Resources in a computer game are game elements, which are consumed by

player actions. Although NPCs and level geometry can be consumed by
actions as well, bonus items are the most obvious resources. They have an
ownership attribute which means only some PCs can use a certain type and
other PCs cannot. For instance, only Doc can use gas phials, only Kate can
collect makeup bonus items, etc. In Desperados 2, bonus items are made more
noticeable with auras (See figure 4.2). By integrating Resource Management,
Figure 4.2: Bonus item in Desperados 2
some solution courses can be layed out for the player. Beginners would work
their way from medipack to medipack while advanced players can go shorter,
more difficult ways. In mission one of Level 02: Eagle’s Nest the placement
of bonus items is a hint that a part of the level can be solved by either Doc,
who finds sniper ammo or Sanchez, who collects tequila bottles.
The resource management of bonus items also relates to the standard ammo.
Although the PCs use the same ammo, the PCs’ standard weapons have
different attributes. The player has to consider, which weapon he is going

to need most in the following situations and pick up the ammo with the
appropriate PC.
Resources also integrate the pattern Investments. The player invests re-
sources without knowing whether the outcome is going to be positive. For
instance, in mission one of Level 02: Eagle’s Nest the player shoots down a
hay bale. He can assume that he can knock out one enemy with it and he
may or may not consider one sniper bullet (which come very rarely) worth
the outcome. However, if he invests the sniper bullet the game awards him
with a scripted sequence.
Limited resources are used repeatedly in Desperados 2 to lead the player
along a solution course. By introducing limited resources the solution course
is extended (the player has to retrieve the resources first before using them),
for instance, when Sam Williams has to retrieve a TNT bonus item, since
using his special ability is part of a mission objective. This stretches the play
time and creates a specific goal for the player to reach.
4.1.3 Patterns for Game Mastery and Balancing
Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman2 raise the expression of meaningful play,
which emerges when the player has to make meaningful choices (cf. [SZ03]).
Meaningful choices are integrated, for instance, through the pattern of Trade-
off, which describes situations in which the player must choose between sev-
eral different options and weigh up their consequences. The most important
tradeoff, which determines the gameplay of Desperados 2 concerns stealth
and open confrontation. The player can choose whether to confront the en-
emies in combat or to try and sneak around and take out NPCs one by
one. Being offered this choice, the player can determine the level of difficulty
themselves.
The pattern of Randomness is defined as an instrument to take pressure off
the player. By making the outcome of an action not solely depend on the
player’s skills, but also on chance, the player is less likely to be frustrated
when the action fails.
In Desperados 2 the player has to plan their actions beforehand. Desperados
2 is therefore a game that implements another pattern called Stimulated
2
Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman are American game designers who also teach game
design at university and design schools
Planning. The pattern of Randomness should not make it impossible for the
player to anticipate the NPCs’ behaviour. Otherwise the success or failure of
the player’s plans depend on chance too much and the player gets frustrated.
A good example for this are ragdoll effects in Desperados 2. For the player it
is hard to judge if he can savely take out an NPC when they cannot predict
the ragdoll’s behaviour. In a play session, this might result in saving-loading
cycles until the ragdoll shows the behaviour the player whishes.
A well-designed implementation of Randomness can be found in common

ego-shooters. In sniper mode the longer the player is aiming, the more the
crosshair is trembling, making it harder to hit the target. However, the player
can still determine his chance of hitting the target.
The pattern of Risk / Reward determines that actions must have the potential
for both advantageous and disadvantageous effects to be considered risky
and worth a reward. One way of creating this potential is by introducing
randomness which was discussed before.
The Risk / Reward pattern emerged in the level design process of Desperados
2 almost automatically. Players may choose to approach a situation stealthy
by taking out NPCs one by one. Taking out a single NPC creates only a
small risk for the action to fail. But the advance in the game is comparably
small. Taking out several NPCs simultaneously means more planning for
the player, more randomness and more complexity, resulting in a higher risk.
Consequently, the reward is higher, because the player advances a larger step
in the game.
By offering this tradeoff between low risk and high risk the player can choose
the right level of difficulty for himself.
In Desperados 2 the gameplay aspect described by this pattern was discussed

controversially in the level design department. During playtesting, a partic-
ular situation in Level 03: Eye of the Needle was considered too difficult,
since it was not solvable by attacking several NPCs simultaneously. Other
testers approached the situation stealthily and found it to be solvable. On
the one hand this conflict consisted in letting the player choose the right level
of difficulty and on the other hand forcing the player into a certain way of
playing.
4.2 Creating Emotion in Games
The first section describes the Emotioneering framework and points out sev-
eral beneficial effects of making a game emotionally engaging. However, this
is not an evaluation of the framework Emotioneering, but rather a review of
how emotions in games are received by the press and by consumers.
The following sections describe different sets of techniques, which were used
or could have been used in Desperados 2 to improve the emotional experience
of the game.
4.2.1 The Emotioneering Framework
David Freeman3 proposes in his book Creating Emotion In Games, his writing
classes and at game conferences the integration of emotional experiences into
games through his copyrighted framework Emotioneering. In [Fre03], David
Freeman defines Emotioneering as follows:
”The vast body of techniques created and/or distilled by David

Freeman, which can create, for a player or participant, a breadth
and depth of emotions in a game or other interactive experience,
or which can immerse a game player or interactive participant
in a world or a role. [...] The goal of Emotioneering is to move
the player through an interlocking sequence of emotional experi-
ences.”
Furthermore he identifies several economical and artistic reasons for putting

emotions in games:
• Better Press
Games such as Fahrenheit and Shadow of the Colossus, which are im-
mersive in a new and unique way receive more press coverage than
games, which are not as emotionally engaging. For instance, the action-
adventure game Shadow of the Colossus was featured on Spiegel On-
line, a news portal, where reviews on computer games are still rare (cf.
[Stö03]).
3
David Freeman, freelance game designer and writer, is the head of the game design
and writing consultancy The Freeman Group
4.2. Creating Emotion in Games 65
• So Games Don’t Seem Amateurish

Books and especially films have the ability to evoke emotions. As games
share more and more similarities with films, the emotional sophistica-
tion of games has to increase as well.
The creators of the action-adventure game Fahrenheit, for instance,
accomplish this by leaving the player as ignorant as the main character
about what is happening to him. Fahrenheit has been praised by critics
for its ability to envoke emotions as strongly as films do.
• Consumer Loyality to the Brand, Which is Worth a Fortune

Many games based on popular films and books sell particularly well de-
spite a lack of quality in many cases. The Enter the Matrix videogame
sold extremely well, altough it received less than average ratings in the
press. A reason for this situation might be that players seek out the
computer game adaption of films, they have already seen (such as The
Matrix Trilogy) and then hope for an equally emotional experience.
It should be a game developer’s personal ambition to live up to their
expectations.
For instance, the The Lord of the Rings has entertained readers for
ages and the films reached the same emotional depth. Many fans seek
out the Lord of the Rings videogames as well, because they want to
continue being involved in the brand. A point, which David Freeman
fails to mention is that a game with an established brand from tv or
cinema is more likely to be advertised in the media than a brand which
origins from a computer game alone.
4.2.2 Tying Story to Gameplay and Mechanics
In most games story and gameplay have a natural relation. In a Spiderman

game the player flings on a string from skyscraper to skycraper. A Western
game like Desperados 2 should feature horses and the possibility of riding.
However, in many games, story and gameplay seem to be separated from each
other. Especially first-person-shooter games may have quite different plots,
but the gameplay is more or less identical. Creating connections between
story and gameplay is a good opportunity for the designer to emotionally
engage the player. As David Freeman puts it: ”What the player does should
enhance the story, and vice versa”.
A first person shooter which ties the two areas in a very immersive way is
Halflife 2. The anti-grav gun, the player receives during the game in a beau-
tifully scripted sequence, is artfully woven into the storyline. In Desperados
2 several PC abilities are connected with the story as well. One of them is
John Cooper’s musical watch which is discussed in more detail later. Another
one is the tracking ability which was for some time in discussion as one of
Hawkeye’s abilities.
This special ability was already mentioned in the game concept:
”Hawkeye can see his enemies’ footprints around him, which

means he soon spots enemy patrol routes!”
The following reasons point out, why this ability stands out as an excellent
possibility to integrate story and gameplay:
• In wild West films and literature Indians often have exceptional track-
ing knowledge. Making this knowledge available as a PC ability would
improve Hawkeye’s character by displaying his deep and almost mysti-
cal understanding of nature.
• Because of their tracking and stealth abilities, Indians often take the
role of scouts. The player would use Hawkeye to explore new levels and
situations which would increase his value as a playable character.
• The success in Desperados 2 often depends on observing NPCs and

planning actions ahead. With the tracking ability the player would not
need to observe NPCs to learn their paths (which often causes pauses
in the gameplay), he would instantly see the NPCs’ paths.
During the final phase of the development, time and effort are critical re-
sources. The tracking ability offers several advantages, because it would
have been easy to implement:
• Graphical Representation
A side effect of the ingame level editing was that the graphical represen-
tation of paths was already implemented. For using this representation
in the game it would have needed an appropriate texture, for instance
foot prints.
• AI Programming
Many PC abilities required additional AI programming to work prop-
erly. Hawkeye’s Warcry was such an ability. Consequently, the AI
programmer was the busiest towards the end of the development. The
tracking ability on the other hand was a passive ability with no require-
ments to the AI.
• Level Design
While planning levels and situations the level designers have to take
all PC abilities into account. A situation would often be created with
a certain ability in mind which has to be used to solve it. But many
abilites need further effort: For instance, Sam’s TNT ability requires
an event animation in the level geometry. Doc McCoy’s gas which
alarms horses, needs specially scripted situations. Hawkeye’s tracking,
on the other hand, could have been implemented rather effortlessly in
situations because it is a passive ability.
But not only the PC abilities can integrate story and gameplay. The story can
also force or inspire a variation of the gameplay, for instance, in mission three
of Level 03: Eye of the Needle. The settler’s treck forms a corral, because an
attack by fake Indians is imminent. See figure 4.3 for a screenshot. Indians
attacking a corral is a setting well known from many wild West films and
comics.
In the Desperados 2 level, the PCs cannot leave the corral. This was a neces-
sary restriction, because the gameplay could be exploited by standing outside
of the corral. When in third-person view, the player has to turn around con-
stantly to follow the Indians. This made hitting the Indians particularly dif-
ficult. Although the player can plan ahead and put PCs with Quick Actions
on guard, the mission is very difficult to solve. These difficulties contributed
to the atmosphere of the mission, since it gives an understanding why this
attack was used by Indians. To add a strategic challenge the settlers have
to be healed by Doc in between attacks, because the fake Indians shoot at
them as well.
4.2.3 Enhancing Emotional Depth Through Symbols
Symbols are used in many areas as a mean to transport a message. In

advertising, symbols connect products with pleasing attributes in the con-
sumer’s mind. In fiction symbols are used because they are quite powerful at
Figure 4.3: Indians attack the settler corral in Level 03: Eye of the Needle
transporting emotions. For example, in Hamlet the skull of Hamlet’s jester

symbolizes his lost childhood and innocence.
In games, symbols are used for their ability to resonate with emotion as well.
In Level 06: Sacred Mountain, the Indians of Hawkeye’s tribe are tortured
by bandits. In this part of the level, scourched ground and cut-down trees
symbolize the sadness and desperation of the tribe as well as the destruction
of the natural habitat of the Indians. Unfortunately, these symbols did not
make it into the game, because the artists objected very strongly to the
removal of the vegetation. In their opinion, it would have changed the setting
of the level too much.
The interactive character of games offers an opportunity that films do not.
We have already seen that symbols can enhance the player’s emotional ex-
perience of a level. But additionally, symbols can be used by the player or
can have a function in the gameplay.
In Desperados 2, such an usable symbol is introduced, when John Cooper
receives the musical watch from his dying brother. Figure 4.4 is a screenshot
from the cutscene.
Marshall Ross Cooper was murdered, because he had been in someone’s way.
In this scene, the PC experiences what David Freeman calls a Change in
Condition:
Figure 4.4: John Cooper receives his brother’s musical watch
The inheritance of the watch symbolizes the change in John Cooper’s atti-
tude. He was a bounty hunter, who would take any job as long as the money
was right. But now that his brother died, he takes over his cause and bring
his murderers to justice. It is therefore also a symbol for John Cooper’s
revenge.
The motif of revenge is a very popular one in westerns. For instance, in
High Plains Drifter Clint Eastwood’s character takes revenge on an entire
town. The musical watch as a symbol also appears in the western For A Few
Dollars More by Sergio Leone. The bounty hunter played by Lee van Cleef
and the bandit El Indio carry musical watches, which play the same tune.
Their connection is revealed towards the end of the film.
In Desperados 2, the musical watch becomes an Usable Symbol, when it turns
into one of John Cooper’s abilities. The player can order the PC to put the
musical watch on the ground. The watch begins to play after a countdown
has run down, which the player can observe by an interface overlay. NPCs
with appropriate AI settings react to the watch and are distracted.
Although the emotional connection of a symbol may be very obvious, it is
not necessary for the player to be explicitly aware of the connection to be
emotionally effected by it. According to David Freeman, symbols which are
too obvious or complex, will lead the player to think about its meanings and
by doing so counteract the intention of the symbol to evoke emotions which
are felt more unconsciously, without thinking.
Chapter 5
Conclusion
In the conclusion of this report, game development, level development and

game design frameworks are evaluated and their future use is discussed.
5.1 Game Development
Today, hardly any German game developer uses the game design document as
the only implementation instruction. Game design documents can be obso-
lete one week into development and team members do not read it. Addition-
ally, the maintenance of design documents is very time-consuming. Never-
theless, given certain premises the game design document can be successfully
used to reduce development time:
• Creating sequels or add-ons

Sequels or add-ons for already existing games can be produced with a
game design document when no technological advances or changes are
made. This is quite noticable in game series such as the Tomb Raider
series (Figure 5.1). The technological improvements to the engine were
minimal and the additions to the gameplay from game to game hardly
innovative. Although this resulted in the stagnation of the series, the
Tomb Raider games were still economically successful.
• Experience
Another premise is that the developing team has experience in creating
games of the same kind and genre. Ideally, the game designer who was
70
5.1. Game Development 71
Figure 5.1: Evolution of the Tomb Raider series (1996-2000)
responsible for a predecessor, also works on the addon or sequel and is

thereby experienced in maintaining the documents.
To create the entire implementation schedule beforehand, the team

members should have worked on predecessors or similar titles as well.
Based on their experience, they can assess how many resources their
tasks will require, which is important if the implementation schedule is
fixed before the production begins.
There are several aspects of game development where processes can be op-
timized. The loss of information inbetween departments is still a significant
problem. At Spellbound Studios this was counteracted by the use of proper
tools.
For instance, Locaman is a localisation database tool, which is used at Spell-

bound Studios to manage text and speech assets in different languages. How-
ever, the game writer relied on Excel tables to collect assets, which resulted
in information loss during the development and the final migration to the
database.
The use of game industry specific tools, which are not created inhouse can
save a lot of development time and could be integrated even more into the
development process. The licensing of a tool should include staff training as
well to ensure team members use it.
72 Chapter 5. Conclusion
5.2 Level Development
The development of Desperados 2 bears witness to how the focus on con-

tent creation is intensifying. In Desperados 1 level design was done by game
designers and artists, in Desperados 2 an entire department was formed the
influence of which reached into game design, programming and testing. With
the focus on content creation tools such as the in-house level editor, the con-
tent creation departments will continue to gain independence and responsi-
bility.
5.3 Frameworks
5.3.1 Discussion of Game Design Patterns in Desper-

ados 2
During the development of Desperados 2 it was often essential that problems

and conflicts were addressed as soon as possible. Several level design tasks
such as placable sound sources required programming features before the task
could be accomplished by the level design department. Game design patterns
can help to spot uprising conflicts sooner by looking at the interdependen-
cies between different patterns. For instance, in Desperados 2, no coherent
concept for difficulty levels can be identified. By consulting the appropriate
game design patterns for game mastery and balance (See subsection 4.1.3),
this could have been detected.
The authors themselves point out that the application of game design pat-
terns can be disadvantageous when they are merely used to remove unwanted
effects in the gameplay. In that case they could even inhibit the creative de-
sign work. Such a negative effect occurred due to the treatment of bonus
items in Desperados 2. Bonus items in Desperados 2 were designed as Re-
wards and the corresponding game design pattern reads as following:
”The player receives something perceived as positive, or is

relieved of a negative effect, for completing goals in the game”
However, bonus items are consumed by the PCs’ special abilities and can
therefore be identified as Resources. During play sessions it became apparent
that the bonus items have to be placed very rarely to be perceived as rewards
5.3. Frameworks 73
by the player. Consequently, the player were not able to use the PCs’ special
abilities and situations became very difficult to solve. Such a situation could
not have been avoided by game design patterns, because at the beginning
of the game development both patterns are equally applicable and are not
necessarily conflicting with each other, but later on could turn out to be a
problem.
It is therefore advisable to consult game design patterns during the design and
production phase to avoid disregarding conflicting interdependencies between
features.
5.3.2 Discussion of Emotions in Desperados 2
An evaluation of a subjective matter as the perception of emotion in games

is difficult. This starts with the lack of a benchmark to measure the quality
of a game’s story, because each player experiences a story differently.
Concerning the framework Emotioneering, David Freeman has yet to par-
ticipate in the development of an outstanding emotionally engaging game.
Therefore any effect the proposed framework might have remains to be
proven. A possible solution might be widespread surveys, but when look-
ing at literature or films as a paradigm, where the success of a film or a book
cannot be predicted either, a technique to measure the quality of a game’s
story seems unfeasible.
However, Emotioneering can be used to create a general concept for emotion
in games. To create a story titled Cooper’s Revenge it is not sufficient to
present the player with a plot of one man taking revenge. The emotions that
make him take revenge have to be expressed by elements of the game and the
story. For instance, the motivation for revenge can be hate and righteousness.
This can be expressed by cruelity towards enemies, indifference to the pain
of others or disregard of one’s own well-being.
The latter would drive the protagonist to irrational behaviour such as try-
ing to fight battles although he is hopelessly outnumbered. The film Kill
Bill 1 , depicted in figure 5.2, and The Punisher 2 comics use this plot device
repeatedly.
1
Directed by Quentin Tarantino. Uma Thurman plays an unnamed assassin, who takes
revenge on her former associates.
2
The Punisher is the ongoing omic series of a vigilante who takes revenge for the murder
of his family.
In Level 05: Santa Fe John Cooper rushes forward to save the kidnapped
Kate, leaving his other friends to fight against bandits. In his desire to save
Kate and punish her kidnappers, he hijacks a train and produces a crash.
This plot device was created by the level design department to set up the
final level. It required long discussions with game writer and game designers
until it was finally implemented.
Figure 5.2: Protagonist taking revenge in the film Kill Bill
Other less noticable ways of expressing emotions are idle animations and
communications. Figure 5.3 shows the character sheet for John Cooper,
which provides the basis for several concent creation choices:
• the selection of an actor for motion capturing
• the selection of voice actor for John Cooper
• gestures and idle animations of the character
• the character’s movement styles
• the character’s vocabulary
Actors, speakers and animators can draw inspirations from the character
sheet to create emotionally appealing characters.
5.3. Frameworks 75
Figure 5.3: Excerpt from the Desperados 2 character sheet of John Cooper
However, the strict application of Emotioneering techniques might result in

sterile storylines which fail to appeal to the player. In Prince of Persia
- The Warrior Within the player is confronted with many Emotioneering
techniques. They play a character who faces undeserved wrongs. A mystery
is introduced. He has to fight NPCs, who might just as well be his friends
which creates ambivalent emotions towards the NPCs. Although these tech-
niques are implemented very artfully, the story still seems emotionally not
very appealing.
However, this judgement cannot be generalized for every player, because of

the subjective character of the perception of emotions. Therefore, Emotion-
eering is a game design framework which depends on subjectivity and should
not be regarded as indisputable.
The most important results, which can be gathered from Emotioneering,

is that expressing emotions is an indisputible necessity. With this premise
in mind the game designer can create ways to invoke emotions by using
computer game techniques such as graphics, animation and speech.
Although David Freeman rejects the comparison of computer games to other

media, it is apparent that advances in computer game storytelling are more
likely to origin from other areas such as theatre, literature and film. For
instance, the game Fahrenheit uses the analogy of film to a great extent and
is considered the most emotionally compelling game of the last years.
5.4 Personal Statement

After the job interview my expectations were low. The tasks I was intended
to work on did not seem to be very demanding or challenging. Therefore,
I considered it a very welcome challenge when I gradually received more
responsibility in the level design department. The amount of influence I had
on the level development was the most surprising and satisfying aspect of
the internship.
An absolute height was the release of the Desperados 2 demo which I designed
together with a colleague. To find your work evaluated in computer game
magazines and on websites is something which you do not often experience
at university or even any other work place.
The teamwork experience was far more satisfying than anything I had pre-
viously experienced and presented a surprising amount of motivation to me.
Apart from the teamwork aspect, it was interesting to train soft skills such
as dealing with frustration and pressure.
I’m thanking Andreas Speer and Jochen Hamma from Spellbound Studios,
Giovanni in the level design department for the superb teamwork and for
his and Jochen’s help in drafting my internship paper and the guys from the
Games Academy; without them it would not have been the same.
I had a immeasurably valuable time at Spellbound Studios and looking back,
I cannot imagine how the time from the first contact with Spellbound Studios
to the writing of the last sentence could have worked out better.
Appendix A
Screenshot Gallery
77
78 Chapter A. Screenshot Gallery
Figure A.1: Santa Fe at Night

Figure A.2: Description and concept art for the model of Ross Cooper
79
80
Figure A.3: Level 05: Santa Fe: The PCs are held at gunpoint in the bank vault. The player has just finished
planning quick actions for the PCs to get out of this situation.
Chapter A. Screenshot Gallery
Appendix B
Desperados 2 Demo
The Desperados 2 Demo was released in April 2006. It consists of the first
mission of Level 02: Eagle’s Nest, which I designed together with Mark
Intelmann. The demo featured on CD and DVD of several computer games
magazines and on websites.
The German as well as the English version of the demo is available on the
accompanying CD of this report.
81
Bibliography
[Bea94] Frank Beaver. Dictionary of film terms. Twayne Publishers, 1994.
[BH04] Staffan Björk and Jussi Holopainen. Patterns in Game Design.

Charles River Media, December 2004.
[Csi94] Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. FLOW - The Psychology of Optimal Ex-

perience. Harper & Row, 1994.
[Fre03] David Freeman. Creating Emotion in Games. The Craft and Art
of Emotioneering. New Riders Publishing, October 2003.
[Ham06] Jochen Hamma. Interface design workshop 2006. Workshop mate-

rial, June 2006.
[IdFC06] Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, and Walde-

mar Celes. The evolution of lua. ACM HOPL-III, 2006.
[Kne06] Ansbert Kneip. ”es muss bluten, ist doch klar”. Spiegel Online,
August 2006.
[Nac05] Lennart Nacke, editor. Thesis: Facilitating the Education of Game

Development. Department for Simulation and Graphics, Faculty
of Computer Science, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg,
2005.
[Pfa05] Jochen Pfannstiel. Modernes Game Design - Konzepte und deren

Umsetzung am Beispiel des Level Designs von Desperados 2. Uni-
versity of Applied Sciences Offenburg, 2005.
[Rab02] Steve Rabin, editor. AI Game Programming Wisdom. Charles

River Media, 2002.
82
BIBLIOGRAPHY 83
[Rya99a] Tim Ryan. The anatomy of a design document, part 1: Documen-

tation guidelines for the game concept and proposal. Gamasutra,
1999.
[Rya99b] Tim Ryan. Beginning level design, part 1: Level design theory.
Gamasutra, 1999.
[Shn98] Ben Shneiderman. Designing the User Interface - Strategies for

Effective Human-Computer Interaction. Addison Wesley Longman,
Inc., 1998.
[Stö03] Christian Stöcker. Ein stilles meisterwerk. Spiegel Online, February

2003.
[SZ03] Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. Rules of Play. MIT Press,
November 2003.
[Wik06] Wikipedia. Design choice. Wikipedia, 2006.

List of Figures
2.1 Team hierarchy at Spellbound Studios (July 2005) . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Final version of the level minimap in Desperados 2 . . . . . . 13
2.3 Game Development Stages and Documents of Desperados 2 . 14
2.4 Introduction of Desperados 2 in the concept document . . . . 16
2.5 Gameplay screenshots in the Desperados 2 concept document 17
2.6 Facts & Features list in the Desperados 2 concept document . 18
2.7 Mockup gameplay screenshot in the Desperados 2 concept
document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Design of difficulty levels in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.9 Versions of the sight beam in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.10 Schematic structure of NPC AI in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . 25
2.11 Complexity of AI in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.12 AI states in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.13 Desperados interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.14 Ralf Adam’s feedback on obstructed view in Level 02: Eagle’s
Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.15 Production stage of Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.16 Evolution of XP-Cards for Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1 The Desperados 2 level editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.2 Hierarchy of level elements in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . 41
84
LIST OF FIGURES 85
3.3 Spectacular localities in Level 02: Eagle’s Nest . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4 Level development stages of Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5 Level sketch for Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1 The components of the framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4.2 Bonus item in Desperados 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3 Indians attack the settler corral in Level 03: Eye of the Needle 68
4.4 John Cooper receives his brother’s musical watch . . . . . . . 69
5.1 Evolution of the Tomb Raider series (1996-2000) . . . . . . . . 71

5.2 Protagonist taking revenge in the film Kill Bill . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Excerpt from the Desperados 2 character sheet of John Cooper 75
A.1 Santa Fe at Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

A.2 Description and concept art for the model of Ross Cooper . . 79
A.3 Level 05: Santa Fe: The PCs are held at gunpoint in the bank
vault. The player has just finished planning quick actions for
the PCs to get out of this situation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

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Game and Level Development of Desperados 2

Name: Christian Schlager

Period of internship: 1st August, 2005 - 31st March, 2006

Tutor at University: Prof. Dr. Maic Masuch

2 Game Development of Desperados 2 8

4 Game Design Frameworks in Desperados 2 57

1.1 Structure of this Report

leads up to the description of game development stages with examples and

1.2 Spellbound Studios: A German Game De-

”to entertain and be a great joy to players. An entertaining

Desperados 2 - Cooper’s Revenge is Spellbound Studios’ first game to use

2.1 Game Development Teams in the Game

2.1.1 Team Hierarchy at Spellbound

2.1.2 Career Opportunities

Skill Level Background Experience Salary(brutto) in e

Table 2.1: Career opportunities in the game industry

2.1.3 Getting into the Industry

Starting out in the games industry is incredibly difficult. Students do not

2.2 Documenting the Game Development

Communicating the vision The work and creativity of programmers and

Integrating the work of employees Employees refer to the documenta-

Figure 2.2: Final version of the level minimap in Desperados 2

Reducing confusion about responsibility Because the Creative Direc-

Eliminating the vagueness, increasing clarity Documentation gives

Helping to comment and edit ideas in the documentation The doc-

2.3 Game Development Stages

Figure 2.3: Game Development Stages and Documents of Desperados 2

In the following section different stages of game development are discussed

2.3.1 Concept Stage Document

Figure 2.4: Introduction of Desperados 2 in the concept document

Background The background section expands on the information given in

Gameplay Description The description shapes the intended gameplay by

Figure 2.5: Gameplay screenshots in the Desperados 2 concept document

Regardless of the way the description is presented, it makes the content

Information about the genre and platform is important to publishers

Figure 2.7: Mockup gameplay screenshot in the Desperados 2 concept doc-

2.3.2 Design Stage Document

Behaviour The design of the behaviour is the modeling of actions on the

Content The content communicates the behaviour of objects and processes.

1. Rules of the Game

The most important question a Desperados player will

Figure 2.8: Design of difficulty levels in Desperados 2

(a) Volumetric sight beam

(b) Flat sight beam

Figure 2.9: Versions of the sight beam in Desperados 2

The description of this feature is relatively long, because of the many

Important design choices concerning the AI relate to the interpretation

Figure 2.10: Schematic structure of NPC AI in Desperados 2

Figure 2.11: Complexity of AI in Desperados 2

Figure 2.12: AI states in Desperados 2

5. The User Interface

(a) Ingame interface of Desperados 2

(b) Ingame interface of Desperados 1

Figure 2.13: Desperados interfaces

Another user interface feature are context-driven actions. When a

2.3.3 Production Stage Documents

The production stage is the process of the implementation of the game’s

Process: Prioritizing of Features At the beginning of each iteration cy-

Figure 2.15: Production stage of Desperados 2

features require additional software. For the physics features in Desper-

Process: Design of Features The game designers create XP-Cards for

(a) Early version of the XP-Card header

(b) XP-Card header for Desperados 2 add-on