Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 240–245

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

An overview of sustainable bioenergy potential in Algeria MARK

⁎
Amine Akbi , Meryem Saber, Majda Aziza, Noureddine Yassaa
Centre de Développement des Énergies Renouvelables (CDER), PB. 62, Route de l’Observatoire, Bouzaréah, 16340 Algiers, Algeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Owing to its important potential, bioenergy has been integrated in the recent ambitious renewable energy
Bioenergy program of Algeria. As biomass sources are tremendous and so diversified, bioenergy production can take many
Biomass resources and varied forms. Assessment of national biomass potential is essential for the development of bioenergy sector
Renewable energy in Algeria. This paper focuses on identifying domestic sustainable biomass resources with emphasis on energy
Algeria
production. The energy potential of waste generated by different sectors (urban, industrial …) is investigated.
The resulted outcome showed that urban waste are the prominent fermentable resource and can produce as
much as 1685 GWh through the anaerobic digestion process. Other agribusiness resources, although at lower
extent, can also contribute to the global bioenergy potential in Algeria. The estimated energy capable to be
generated from the investigated biomass resources can cover the annual consumption of more than one million
inhabitants.

1. Introduction
The adverse environmental impact resulted from intensive use of
carbon based fossil energy have pushed many countries around the
world to establish short, medium and long term programs aiming to
shift into utilization of renewable energy. Among the range of renew-
able energy sources currently operating in the world, biomass occupies
a prominent place. Nearly 10% of the global energy supply is provided
by bioenergy [1].
Biomass encompasses a wide range of feedstock from different
sectors: lignocellulosic biomass (wood and energy crops), agro-food
biomass, biomass waste… Several conversion ways including different
process can be considered: thermochemical, biochemical, chemical…
The conversion pathway depends usually on the nature of the available
biomass and the energy requirements. Thus, the resulted energy
efficiency depends not only on the biomass resource, but also on the
technology employed for its conversion to energy.
Organic wastes are a major source of recoverable biomass into
energy. They are in continuous regeneration, whatever their origin
(agricultural waste, fermentable household waste, sludge from sewage
treatment plants, waste from food industry, etc.). Several studies have
shown that wastes from the urban sector (in particular those of
household waste and wastewater) demonstrate a large energy potential
[2,3].
Many countries have already implemented several waste processing
chains with or without energy recovery. Indeed, in addition to facilities
dedicated to the processing of agricultural waste, many units of
combustion and anaerobic digestion are installed worldwide for the
treatment of municipal wastes [4]. Sewage from wastewater treatment
plants are also digested or incinerated in situ to produce heat and
electricity. In 2014, global electricity produced from biomass reached
433 TWh, while the installed capacity was 93 GW [5]. The United
States, Germany and China are the world leaders in the production of
electricity from biomass [5].
The development of bioenergy is beneficial in several ways. First of
all, the cost of energy production from biomass is one of the most
important advantages. It is well documented that bioenergy production
cost remains lower compared to other renewable technologies, such as
solar technologies [6–8]. Furthermore, bioenergy is a storable and a
moveable energy. In fact, biomass can be moved from one region to
another any time depending on the existing needs. Thus, when it is
combined with other renewable sources, such as solar and/or wind
energies; it can provide a good solution as to their intermittency and
storage problems. Finally, the production of bioenergy through the
recovery of organic wastes represents a substantial waste management
option as well as an important environmental pollution abatement
strategy.
In Algeria, the new version of the renewable energy development
program of adopted recently by the government has integrated
bioenergy as good player in the Algerian energy mix. It is therefore
very important to assess the potential of available resources capable to
be used as energy source.
The present investigation aims to identify the main exploitable
biomass resources at national level and to quantify – whenever it is

⁎
Corresponding author.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.072
Received 10 April 2016; Received in revised form 11 December 2016; Accepted 10 January 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Akbi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 240–245

possible – the recoverable energy as biogas or bioelectricity. Table 1

Evolution of the daily amount of household and similar wastes (HSW) generated per
capita [13].
2. Biomass power-generation technologies
Years 1980 2010 2025
There are many ways to generate electricity power from biomass.
Usually, the dry organic waste is transformed by thermochemical Medium sized cities 0,5 kg 0,8 kg 1,0 kg
Large cities 0,76 kg 1,2 kg 1,5 kg
process through combustion, gasification and pyrolysis, whereas the
The average per capita 0,63 kg 1,0 kg 1,25 kg
wet biomass, is often transformed by anaerobic digestion. However,
some substrates may require pre-treatment in order to be adapted to
different recovery processing methods. Table 2
For this work, the current conversion methods, which are relevant Information about household wastes in Algeria [14].
to the assessment of local biomass resources, will be presented.
Type of waste sizes

2.1. Thermochemical conversion by combustion and gasification - HSW generated in 2012 ~10,3 Million tons

The conversion by combustion and gasification concern essentially - HSW Composition by Domestic and commercial: 85%
the dry biomass feedstocks, featured by high calorific value such as generator (%) Industrial (banal): 15%

wood, bagasse, dedicated energy crops, crop residues, household
waste….
Whilst the conversion by combustion consists to burn directly the
biomass and produce energy, the gasification leads to produce gas from
biomass, which is used ultimately to produce energy. In addition, it is
also possible to produce both gas and biofuel using pyrolysis as a
thermochemical conversion technology.
In all cases, at the final stage, energy can be recovered in the form of
heat and/or electricity. However, to improve energy efficiency, indus-
trial facilities often opt for cogeneration systems. The combined heat
and power (CHP) can achieve energy efficiencies as high as 85%,
provided that the heat is properly recovered.
2.2. Conversion by anaerobic digestion
Conversion by anaerobic digestion is mainly applicable to wet
fermentable biomass. However, a suitable pre-treatment could facil-
itate the degradation of a wide range of lignocellulosic biomass. Many
experimental studies were performed to assess the anaerobic digestion
potential of various organic substrates considered as an important
renewable biomass source [9].
Methane and carbon dioxide are the main constituents of biogas;
after being subjected to several degrees of purification, the product will
have the same energy applications as natural gas [10,11].
2.3. Electrical potential estimation
It is recognized that energy yields depend both on the energy
performance of fuel and the technology used for it conversion. It is
therefore prerequisite to set the main applied assumptions to illustrate
the electricity generation potential for the investigated bioresources.
For the sake of the present investigation, it is assumed that the
biogas produced by anaerobic digestion contains 60% of methane
(CH4). According to the standard defined by the International Energy
Agency (IEA), the lower heating value (LHV) of methane is 33.939 MJ/
m3 (9.4275 kWh/m3), hence the biogas LHV is 20.3634 MJ/m3
(5.6565 kWh/m3) [12].
A cogeneration engine is applicable for the biogas conversion, with
30% for power efficiency and 50% of heat efficiency. As a result, one
cubic meter (m3) of biogas can generate about 1.69 kWh of electricity.
3. Main waste resources for bioenergy generation
3.1. Household and similar wastes (HSW)
The increase in the average individual income and the life standard
of the Algerian population in addition to the changes in both eating
habits and consumption modes, have resulted in an important raise of
the average amount of waste generated per capita. Indeed, the average
- HSW Generation (kg/capita/ Rural: ~0.5–0.6 kg/capita/day
day) Urban: ~0.7 à 0.8 kg/capita/day
Capital (Algiers): ~0.9 kg/capita/day
- Coverage of HSW collection Rural: ~65 à 70%
Urban: ~85 à 90%
- Waste treatment (%) Composting: ~1%
Recycling: ~7%
Burying (landfill site and Controlled
landfill): ~30–35%
Spill (gross landfills): ~60–65%
Other (burning,…): ~5–10%
- Growing HSW ~3%
- Medical waste 30,000 t/year (2011)
- Industrial waste 2,547,000 t/year including ordinary
waste.
- Hazardous waste 330,000 t/year (2011).
daily amount of waste generated per capita almost doubled between
1980 and 2010, from 0.63 kg/capita/day in 1980 to 1 kg/capita/day in
2010 (see Table 1). This trend should continue in the coming years
reaching a daily average of 1.25 kg per capita in 2025 [13].
While the national amount of household and similar waste repre-
sents about 10.3 million tons in 2013, it would very likely reach 17
million tons by 2030 according to.the National Waste.
As reflected in Table 1, the average amount of waste per person is
increasing. In addition, it is worth noting that large cities are
characterized by significant amounts of waste concentrations. Table 2
shows that in 2012, landfills received about 10.3 million tons of
household and similar waste (HSW). Most of this amount (85%) was
domestic and commercial and 15% was generated by industry [14].
As highlighted in Fig. 1, a significant fraction of household wastes
could be converted into bioenergy. According to the National Waste
Agency, more than 62% of household wastes generated in 2010 were
composed of putrescible wastes that are convertible into bioenergy.
In 2014, the amount of generated household wastes was 14 million
tons. If we consider that the putrescible fraction remains stable, their
amounts would be 8.7 million tons, the quantity that can be converted
into bioenergy.
3.1.1. Energy potential assessment
Biogas produced by anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste is
often converted in situ by various conversion systems. Cogeneration
systems (CHP), allowing simultaneous production of heat and elec-
tricity, are the most suitable. The conversion yields are variable and
depend on given conversion system (motor, turbine, etc.) [15].
Therefore, considering an average of 112 m3 of biogas that can be
produced per ton of putrescible waste [16], we can estimate the
national biogas potential from HSW in 2014, to be 974 million m3 of
biogas. The equivalent electricity generated would be circa 1646 GWh

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A. Akbi et al.
Fig. 1. Composition of household wastes in Algeria in 2010 [14].
gigawatt-hour based on the assumption above that 1 m3 could produce
about 1.69 kWh.
3.1.2. Recovery of landfill gas
Waste landfilling starts to become an alternative to the waste
combustion in Algeria and numerous new landfills are planned for
the nearest future. After landfilling the waste and according to the
different factors influencing the waste degradation process (e.g., the
waste dump height and density, the temperature and the pressure,
precipitation levels, etc.), the effective biogas production begins after
one to two years and may continue for 10–15 years with a continuous
reduction of its production [17]. In fact, the wastes should be sorted
before landfilling to optimize the landfill site and increase its lifetime.
Landfill gas may contain 30–55% (by volume) of methane, which
allows a power conversion with CHP units [17].
3.2. Sewage sludge of Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTP)
3.2.1. Resources assessment
Sewage sludge is an organic wet substrate, with a high volatile solid
content. It is usually decanted in primary and/or secondary tanks of
activated sludge plants then stabilized by anaerobic digestion.
The sludge can be digested in situ to produce electricity and heat.
Its combustion is also possible after drying since it still contain a good
calorific value. As a result, the development of those valorization
processes depends on the development of wastewater treatment plants,
which is in continuous growth in Algeria.
The number of wastewater treatment plants has increased signifi-
cantly over the past decade (Table 3). The number of plants operated in
Algeria by the National Office of Sanitation (NOS) has grown from 14
in 2003 to 75 in 2011; consequently, the amount of sewage sludge has
also increased (see Fig. 2). Consequently, the volume of purified water
has increased from 27.13 million m3 in 2003, to circa 115.58 million
m3 in 2011 [19].
3.2.2. Energy recovery of WWTP sludge, in Algeria
The wastewater treatment plant of Baraki (Algiers) demonstrates a
concrete application of biogas production from sewage sludge. In fact,
in addition to the biological treatment line dedicated to the treatment
of wastewater (activated sludge type, with a daily flow of 150,000 m3/
Table 3
Sanitation situation in Algeria in 2013 [19].
Number of exploited Installed capacities (equivalent
WWTP million inhabitant)
ONA* 96 6,88
Companies and others 54 / /
Total 150 / /
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 240–245
d); this station has a line to convert sludge to biogas. This line has a
thickening step, an anaerobic digestion step (3 reactors with a total
capacity of 3600 m3/d), and mechanical step for dewatering by filter
press and by a rotary dryers [20]. The total amount of produced biogas
is about 2200 m3/day.
The process leading to energy power utilization depends on many
factors; the composition of the sludge, the size of the plants, the type of
applied technologies and processes, and the type of end used energy.
The proportion of dry matter in WWTP sludge varies between 10
and 25%. The methanogenic potential also varies from 140 to 220 m3
CH4/tons of dry matter [21,22].
Considering an annual production of 250,000 t of sludge, 62,500 t
of dry substrate/year are generated. Thus, the potential of annual
production of methane is 13.75 million of m3/year and the generated
electricity could reach 38.72 GWh/year.
In water treatment plants, a part of energy (electricity and heat) is
generally reused in the methanization process and for energy require-
ments of the site, the excess can be directed for external utilizations.
4. Industrial wastes
The industries generating recyclable wastes are numerous.
However, we will focus in this work on wastes generated by agribusi-
ness industry.
4.1. Olive oil sector in Algeria
Olive oil production generates various by-products with high-
energy value content, like vegetable waters (liquid) and olive pomace
(pasty). Therefore, the Algerian olive oil industry can be considered as
an important renewable energy resource.
In fact, although not steady, the production of olive oil is increasing
since the early 2000. It increased from 22,500 t in 2002 to over than
64,700 t in 2013 [23] (see Fig. 3). Interestingly, while the olive oil
production was limited, during the last decades, to some limited
mountainous regions, it is now almost present in all rather wide
Algerian territory, even in some oasis and Sahara zones.
4.1.1. Olive by-products assessment
The amounts of by-products generated by the production of olive oil
Treated water volume Quantities of produced sludge
million m3/year T/day
161 106
433
539
A. Akbi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 240–245

Fig. 2. Evolution of treated water volume between 2003 and 2011 [18].

differ essentially according to the extraction method. Table 4 presents Table 4

the amount of by-products generated from the production of one ton of By-products quantities per ton of produced olive oil [24].
olive oil from each type of extraction.
Systems By-products Quantities
It is worthy to note that energy recovery from pomace is usually
oriented towards combustion whilst the process of anaerobic digestion Press Olive pomace (26% water, 7% oil). 2–3 t
for biogas production is recommended for vegetable waters. Vegetable waters (88% water). 2000–3000 l
Therefore, in order to be used as fuel, the residues such as olive
3 phases Olive pomace (40% water, 4% oil). 2.5 −3 t.
pomace must be less humid. If we estimates that one ton of olive oil can Vegetable waters (94% water, 1% oil). 5000–6000 l.
generate 2 t of pomace and considering the amount of olive oil 2 phases Wet olive pomace (60% water, 3% oil) 4 t.
produced in 2013, then we can evaluate the annual amount of residues
to 129,400 t.
Similarly, quantities of vegetable waters (amurca) vary from 2000
to 6000 l per ton of produced olive oil. Noting that an average of 4000 l Therefore, the estimated production of vegetable waters in the year
of vegetable waters per ton of olive oil, 258,800 m3 of vegetable waters 2013 - 258,800 m3 - would produce about 6.3 million m3 of methane
would have been generated in 2013. corresponding to an equivalent quantity of biogas of 10.5 million m3.
Transformed into electricity, this would correspond to 17.74 GWh.
4.1.2. Assessment of energy potential The main resources presented in the following section concern an in
situ small-scale energy recovery. In comparison to the previously cited
4.1.2.1. Olive pomace. Given the calorific value of 20 MJ per kg of resources, those presented here are often scattered and available in
olive pomace [25–27], which is equivalent to 5.55 kWh/kg, the pomace small amounts.
production for 2013, expressed in calorific value would correspond to
718.17 GWh. Converted into electricity by incineration (or used as a 4.2. Dairy industry
fuel additive in incinerators to generate electricity), the energy
potential produced is about 215.5 GWh (Calculated on the basis of a Dairy industries have also experienced a considerable growth
30% global yield for an incinerator). during the last decade. Since 2008, the milk production has rapidly
increased in Algeria.
This increase is especially motivated by the implementation of a
4.1.2.2. Vegetable waters (amurca). As mentioned previously, support program for agricultural sectors involved in milk production.
vegetable waters can be transformed into biogas through the In 2012, the national production of raw milk was estimated to 3.14
anaerobic digestion process. The energetic ratio of one cubic meter of billion liters [29]. This production growth is expected to continue the
vegetable water (1 m3) to 70 kg chemical oxygen demand (COD) is years to come, increasing very likely the possibility of waste recovery.
about 24.5 m3 of methane (Nefzaou) [28]. Whey is the most important valuable waste resulted from cheese

Fig. 3. Virgin olive oil production in Algeria in tons 2002–2012 [23].

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Table 5 waste as liquid manure (1,314,000 t/year) and solid manure (125,000
Summary of bioenergy resources. tones/year) [35], those amounts are able to generate about 100 GWh of
electricity.
Biomass resources Annual biogas Power generation
potential potential (GWh)
4.5. Research and development: an opportunity for new resources
Urban wastes
Organic fraction of 974 million of m3 1646
Energy crops exploitation could also be a possible alternative for the
household wastes
Sewage from wastewater 22.91 million of m 3
38.72 production of second and third generations of biofuels, in Algeria.
treatment plants It can be sorted into two categories: the first conventional energy
crops concerns mainly inedible short rotation energy crops, preferably,
Industrial and agribusiness wastes those that are arable in arid lands. The second one concerns algal
Amurca from olive oil 10.5 million of m3 17.74
biomass for the production of so-called third-generation biofuels.
industry
Pomace from olive oil – 215.5 Research in this field, in Algeria, seems to provide promising results.
industry In fact, many experiments around the world have proven the viability
Whey from dairy industry 2.35 million m3 3.97 of those biofuels.
Total 1009.76 million 1706.43
m3
5. Discussion

production. It can be converted into bioethanol by alcoholic fermenta-
tion or into biogas by anaerobic digestion.
It is known that whey can represent at least 85% of the milk volume
converted into cheese [30]. Consequently, for ten liters of converted
milk, 8.5 l of whey are usually generated.
Whey methane production potential in anaerobic digestion is about
30 m3 CH4/ton of cheese whey [4,31]. If we consider the FAO statistics,
the Algerian cheese production (all kinds of cheeses) in 2012 reached
1540 t, generating about 47,000 t of whey. This amount of whey could
generate as much as 1.41 million m3 of methane, which is equivalent to
3.97 GWh of electricity.
4.3. Meat industry
The changes in consumption modes are also accompanied by an
increase in meat consumption. Consequently, meat production is
increasing progressively during the last few years (see Table 5). In
fact, an increase of 12.8% between 2007 and 2012 was recorded
compressing the three types of meat (cattle and buffalo, sheep and goat
and poultry) [23].
The meat industry is also exposed to the problem of waste
management. Although some wastes are recovered as food supplement
for animals, the organic nature of such waste represents an interesting
bioenergy resource. Furthermore, these wastes contain a high organic
pollution (more than 2 g cod/l) and hence cannot be directly disposed
in the environment.
Several studies [32–34], illustrated a high methane potential using
slaughterhouses wastes (more than 500 ml CH4/g volatile solid)
favouring their recovery by anaerobic digestion.
The small amounts and the disparity of those resources suggests an
in situ valorization or a codigestion with other categories of wastes
(such as organic urban wastes) in order to improve the global
performances of the biogas units.
It is still difficult to have an overall assessment of the waste amount
generated by slaughterhouses activities in Algeria. For that reason, only
a general view of this food industry sector is illustrated.
4.4. Agricultural wastes
Farms often generate large amounts of organic wastes (from
animals or from vegetation). Those wastes can be converted to energy
in order to respond at least the local energy needs for farms exploita-
tion. In fact, animal manure from livestock is at the origin of the first
biogas installations in agricultural farms. Mixed with other green
wastes, they can produce in addition to biogas, a very good organic
fertilizer for agricultural activities [7].
As an example, poultry farming generates considerable amounts of
Depending on the nature of the resources previously cited and the
abundance of their relative amounts, the way of their conversion to
energy can be different. For resources with large amounts of wastes,
production units with high capacity are most often envisaged. This is
the case for urban household wastes. When biomass is not abundant
and / or scattered (as is the case for food industry and agribusiness
wastes), the production unit capacity can be reduced to their optimum
size ensuring at least the local energy needs. However, it is well known
that large-scale biogas units are more economically interesting and cost
effective than small-scale units.
The co-digestion process is also an interesting solution to increase
the large-scale capacity of biogas units. In fact, scattered substrate can
be mixed in different ratios to increase the amount of feedstock.
Furthermore, by choosing the most appropriate co-substrates, the
codigestion can also solve problem of low methanogen potential or
acidic behaviours of some substrates and improve the quality of the
bio-fertiliser for agricultural applications.
6. Conclusion
The present investigation highlighted how important and diversify
is the bioenergy potential in Algeria ranging from different waste
origins and sectors.
Table 5 summarized the investigated bioenergy resources and their
energy power generation potential.
Considering only the resources studied here, an electricity potential
of more than 1700 GWh can be reached from waste recovery. Given
that the annual average electricity consumption per capita in Algeria is
about 1236 kWh [36], the projected potential could cover the electricity
needs for more than a million of inhabitants.
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