Colectivo (Venezuela)

Colectivos ([ko.lek'ti.βos], "collectives") are far-left

Colectivos
Venezuelan groups that support Nicolás Maduro, the
Bolivarian government, the Great Patriotic Pole (GPP)
political alliance and the ruling party, the United Socialist
Party of Venezuela (PSUV).[3][4][5] Colectivo has
become an umbrella term for armed paramilitary groups
that operate in poverty-stricken areas and attack
individuals,[2][3] engaging in "extortion, kidnapping, drug
trafficking and murder".[5] They commit extrajudicial
killings and terrorize those who disagree with them with
Colectivos gathered during the Mother of All
impunity.[3]
Marches in 2017
The term may also refer to a community organization Country Venezuela
with any shared purpose, such as a neighborhood group
Ideology Bolivarianism
that organizes social events.[2] Some colectivos began by
Chavismo
doing community work or helping with social programs
Socialism
in barrios,[3][6] and their members said they promoted
democracy, political activism and culture.[4] Political position Far-left
Major actions Drug, arms, food and
As of 2019, there are dozens of colectivos in medicine trafficking;
Venezuela.[3] In 2018, InSight Crime reported 46 groups murder, theft,
in one barrio (slum), 23 de Enero, alone.[7] They operate
extortion[1][2]
in 16  Venezuelan states,[5] controlling about 10% of
Venezuelan cities.[1] Some personnel of Venezuela's Means of Bolivarian Government
intelligence agencies, including the Directorate General revenue of Venezuela
of Military Counterintelligence and the Bolivarian
United Socialist Party
Intelligence Service, are also members of colectivos.[8]
of Venezuela (PSUV)
Colectivos have both legal and illegal funding sources.[7]
They were initially funded by the Bolivarian Great Patriotic Pole
government;[8] some receive funds to distribute (GPP)
government food packages[7] and have access to
government "slush funds".[2] They are also funded by Crime
extortion, black-market food and the drug trade.[1][9]
Drug, food, medicine
Human Rights Watch described colectivos as "armed trafficking, and
gangs who use violence with impunity" to harass political extortion
opponents of the Venezuelan government.[10][11]
Amnesty International calls them "armed pro-government supporters who are tolerated or supported by the
authorities".[12] They have attacked anti-government protesters[3] and Venezuelan opposition television
staff, sent death threats to journalists, and once tear-gassed the Vatican envoy.[10] Through violence and
intimidation, in 2019 they have increasingly become a means of quashing the opposition and maintaining
political power;[9][13] Maduro called on them during the 2019 Venezuelan blackouts saying, "The time has
come for active resistance",[14] and asking them "to defend the peace of every barrio, of every block".[15]
An Organization of American States report on human rights violations in Venezuela stated that colectivos
murdered at least 131 individuals between 2014 and 2017 during anti-government protests.[16]

The National Assembly of Venezuela designated the colectivos as terrorist groups due to their "violence,
paramilitary actions, intimidation, murders and other crimes," declaring their acts as state-sponsored
terrorism.[17]

Contents
Description and history
Activity
2002–13
2014–16
Robert Serra's murder
2017–18
2019
2020–22
Prominent groups
La Piedrita
Tupamaros
Funding and resources
Monetary
Weapons
Social effects
Crime
Education
See also
Notes
References

Description and history

Colectivos emerged during the 1960s from guerrilla warfare in urban Venezuela, and made a return during
the presidency of Hugo Chávez,[6][18] when Chávez created their parent organizations, known as
Bolivarian Circles.[19] InSight Crime says their power began to increase in 2002, when Chávez decided he
needed a security force independent of the military to counteract opposition demonstrators.[7] In 2006, they
received arms and funding from the state when they were brought under the government's community
councils.[7] Chávez eliminated the Metropolitan Police in 2011, turning security over to the colectivos in
some Caracas barrios.[7]

Bloomberg says that when he created the Bolivarian Circles, Chávez "brought the former outlaws into the
socialist fold", where some also gained access to weapons through government jobs.[3] Stratfor says that
Diosdado Cabello—president of the 2017 Constituent National Assembly but then serving as chief of staff
for Chávez—was instrumental in the founding of the Bolivarian Circles, and maintains close ties to the
colectivos.[19] According to Joseph Humire, executive director of the Center for a Secure Free Society,
colectivos were modeled after the Iranian Basij militia; Humire noted that Chávez had personal meetings
with Iranian officials that included the commander of Basij, Brigadier General Mohammad Reza Nadqi.[20]
Chávez assigned colectivos to be "the armed wing of the Bolivarian Revolution" for the Venezuelan
government, giving them weapons, communication systems, motorcycles and surveillance equipment to
exercise control in the hills of Caracas where police are forbidden entry.[4] Some weapons given to the
groups include assault rifles, submachine guns and grenades.[4]

Colectivos were historically aligned with far-left politics in Venezuela, and act as "enforcers for the
government", working with the Venezuelan armed forces and the ruling political party, PSUV.[21][22] New
York University Latin American Studies professor Alejandro Velasco said in 2019, "They have all the
trappings of a paramilitary repressive force."[3] Velasco, who studies colectivos, describes a change in the
allegiance of colectivos, saying it has become more about power than supporting chavismo or a leftist
ideology.[9] The Economist says they bring money into slums, punish criminals and intimidate political
opponents.[23] Some colectivos partake in drug trafficking, control access to the supply of food and
medicine,[7] and commit acts of extortion.[23]

In 2008, some colectivos helped with after-school programs, child care centers, puppet shows, drug
rehabilitation, and sports programs; they also encouraged voting by going door to door and protect
communities from criminals.[6] Every member of a colectivo is required to bring ten individuals to vote at
polls during elections.[24] Over time, colectivos became more heavily armed and their criminal activity
increased.[5] A small number of groups maintain community and cultural functions; most are "criminal
gangs with immense social control", who "work alongside the security forces, often doing their dirty work
for them", according to InSight Crime.[7] Members can be difficult to identify because they often wear
masks and do not have license plates on their motorcycles.[9]

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has described colectivos as "pro-
Government armed groups" that "decide who receives government assistance and perform surveillance and
intelligence activities for the authorities [and have] intimidated, threatened and attacked people perceived as
opposed to the Government".[25]

In 2019, the National Assembly of Venezuela designated the colectivos as terrorist groups due to their
"violence paramilitary actions, intimidation, murders and other crimes", declaring their acts as state-
sponsored terrorism.[17]

Activity

2002–13

When Chávez was briefly ousted in 2002, colectivos helped lead demonstrations supporting him, and
worked with the military to help return him as president.[26]

On 7 November 2007, masked gunmen riding motorcycles opened fire on students returning from a march
in Caracas. At the Central University of Venezuela, eight people were injured, including one by gunfire.[27]

In 2009, several dozen motorcyclists with red berets surrounded the entrance of the offices of television
station Globovisión and subdued the security guards, entering the facility by force while tossing two tear
gas canisters into the building. Chávez condemned the attack and pro-government leader Lina Rón was
jailed for three months following the incident.[28][29] Colectivos tear-gassed the Vatican envoy in 2009 after
Chávez accused the Roman Catholic Church of interfering with his government.[30][31]
During the 2012 presidential election, at a visit by opposition
candidate Henrique Capriles to the San José de Cotiza
neighbourhood in Caracas, a group of armed PSUV members
began firing guns "in an apparent effort to break up the
rally".[32][33] Five people were injured, including the son of an
opposition member of the National Assembly of Venezuela.
Capriles was subsequently taken safely from the scene. Journalists
for television channel Globovisión that were covering the rally
(reporter Sasha Ackerman, cameraman Frank Fernández and
assistant Esteban Navas) were threatened by the armed men, who Two students of the Central
confiscated their equipment and footage of the shootings.[32] A University of Venezuela wrestle with
two government supporters, one of
Globovisión statement the next day identified the armed men as
them armed, on 7 November 2007.
PSUV supporters, saying "These groups wore red shirts identifying
One of the students, Gerardo
them with a political tendency. More importantly, it was an armed
Olivares (at the right), was shot in
and organized group that fired weapons against people".[33]
the leg.
During the 2013 presidential election, Reuters said colectivos were
"a key part of the government's electoral machinery" that "help[ed]
sway close races and are sometimes tarred by critics as poll station thugs who intimidate opponents".[10]
The Carter Center said that during the elections, voting centers had an "intimidating climate" when
motorcyclists "associated with the governing party" surrounded them.[34]

2014–16

The Venezuelan Prison Minister, Iris Varela, said that

colectivos were a "fundamental pillar in the defense of
the homeland".[36][37] During the 2014 Venezuelan
protests against new president Nicolás Maduro,
colectivos acted with impunity against the opposition
protesters.[38] When armed groups threatened to rape 0:00
individuals in an apartment complex in Maracaibo, the
National Guard did not intervene.[39] The Civil
Association for Citizen Control said that more than half Colectivos fire toward the protest where Genesis
of those killed during the protests were killed by Carmona was killed during a protest.
colectivos.[40]

During the 2014 protests, armed colectivos attacked and

burned a large portion of Fermín Toro University after "President Maduro himself has on multiple
occasions called on civilian groups loyal to
intimidating student protesters and shooting one.[41][42]
The colectivos broke into the facility, looted, and the government to 'extinguish the flame' of
what he characterized as 'fascist' protesters.
damaged 40% of the university.[43] Armed groups
...  [saying] 'These groups of guarimberos,
reported to be colectivos attacked the University of Los
fascists and violent [people], and today now
Andes in the city of Mérida in March 2015, supposedly
other sectors of the country’s population as
to intimidate the protesters, shooting guns at students
well have gone out on the streets, I call on
and faculty, holding the students hostage and stealing
the UBCh, on the communal councils, on
belongings of students.[44][45]
communities, on colectivos: flame that is lit,
President Maduro thanked some groups of motorcyclists flame that is extinguished'."
for their help against what he viewed as a "fascist coup
d'etat... being waged by the extreme right"; at the same
time, he distanced himself from armed groups by stating
that they "had no place in the revolution".[46] Jorge Human Rights Watch[35]
Arreaza, Venezuela's vice president at the time, also
praised them saying, "If there has been exemplary
behavior it has been the behavior of the motorcycle
colectivos that are with the Bolivarian revolution."[47] In 2014, Arreaza promised that the government
would disarm all irregular armed groups in Venezuela.[48]

The European Parliament asked the Venezuelan government to "immediately disarm and dissolve the
uncontrolled armed pro-government groups and end their impunity".[47][49] United States Secretary of
State John Kerry accused the Venezuelan government of using "armed vigilantes" against those who
opposed it.[47]

In a report titled "Punished for Protesting", Human Rights Watch (HRW) stated that government forces
allowed colectivos "to attack protesters, journalists, students, or people they believed to be opponents of the
government with security forces just meters away" and that "in some cases, the security forces openly
collaborated with the pro-government attackers". HRW also stated that they "found compelling evidence of
uniformed security forces and pro-government gangs attacking protesters side by side",[35] and that the
government tolerated this activity.[50]

Robert Serra's murder

Rising PSUV member and colectivo mediator Robert Serra was stabbed more than 30 times, killing him, in
his "heavily guarded home" on 1 October 2014.[51][52][53][54] The Venezuelan government blamed the
opposition for Serra's death; Foreign Policy said others considered his murder "inside job" because the
government was "more factionalized since the death of Hugo Chávez" with different "ideological strains
and interests [clashing] beneath the party’s surface".[51]

A week after Serra's death, clashes between Venezuelan police and colectivos began when police raided the
headquarters of the Shield of the Revolution group and according to José Odreman, "a close associate of
Serra" and leader of the 5 de Marzo group, a colectivo member was "shot dead in his sleep" during the
raid.[55] Three officers were allegedly taken hostage.[55][56]

Right before he was shot, Odreman had made statements hinting at government involvement in Serra's
death, saying to Minister Miguel Rodríguez Torres, “I lay full responsibility on you of what might happen
to me. Enough comrades have been sacrificed”.[55][57][58] A little over an hour after his statements,
photographs emerged showing the 5 de Marzo colectivo leader Odreman being held captive by Venezuelan
authorities, followed by videos which showed his dead body lying in a pool of blood.[55][57]

The Venezuelan government denied any relationship to Serra's death and stated that the clashes between
colectivos and authorities were due to a murder investigation.[55][57] The director of CICPC, José Gregorio
Sierralta, stated that officers were allegedly fired upon and responded with deadly force that killed the
colectivo members including Odreman.[58] Residents of the building denied Sierralta's statements, stating
that there was no confrontation or hostages, that Venezuelan authorities first raided the building allegedly
killing one member in his sleep then raided the building once more supposedly capturing and executing the
other four colectivo members, altered nearby evidence and stole items from the scene.[59][60] Maduro stated
that the five men who were killed in the incident were allegedly a gang of former police officers led by
Odreman.[61] Runrunes noted in an investigative article that the police and bodyguards arrested by
Venezuelan authorities involved with Serra's death were also members of colectivos.[62]
Following the clashes, Humberto López ("El Ché"), a colectivo leader, stated that all colectivos were on
"war footing" and that the colectivos "did not bet on death, we are committed to war. All colectivos are up
in arms." Noting that the Venezuelan Housing Mission buildings are in the hills of Caracas, El Ché assured
that "the people would come down from the hills" if needed.[63][64] Colectivos protested against the
incidents and demanded the dismissal of then Ministry of Popular Power for Interior, Justice and Peace,
Miguel Rodríguez Torres.[56] Weeks later, on 24 October, Rodríguez Torres was replaced by Carmen
Meléndez, with one of the reasons allegedly being the pressure colectivos placed on the government.[65]
Maduro also called on Freddy Bernal, a government leader with close ties to colectivos, to "reform" the
police after the incident.[23] Following the dismissal of Rodríguez Torres, the 5 de Marzo colectivo also
called for the dismissal of Diosdado Cabello.[66]

2017–18

During the 2017 Venezuelan protests against Maduro, The New

York Times stated that colectivos "appear to be playing a key role in
repressing dissent";[1] they fight alongside officials and "engage in
fiercer and often deadly intimidation".[1] Bloomberg News said
Maduro "unleashed the gangs on a large scale" during the
protests.[3] Days before the Mother of All Marches, Diosdado
Cabello, a high-level PSUV official loyal to the Bolivarian Body of Paola Ramírez
government, stated that 60,000  motorized colectivos and the
Bolivarian Militia would be spread throughout Caracas on 19 April
to deter the opposition's march, calling the protest terrorism.[67] During that march, Carlos Moreno, a 17-
year-old boy, and 23-year-old Paola Ramírez, were killed by members of colectivos.[68][69]

Colectivos also attacked Venezuela's opposition-majority National Assembly in 2017.[3] Taking over the
building where the legislature meets, they beat deputies and protesters with clubs and batons, splitting open
the head of one deputy.[3]

As the 2017 protests intensified, during the 11 May United States

Senate Select Committee on Intelligence Worldwide Threats
Hearing (SH-216), Senator Marco Rubio discussed with Director
of the Central Intelligence Agency Mike Pompeo the role and
actions of colectivos in Venezuela. Rubio asked if there was a "real
threat" of colectivos selling advanced weaponry to the FARC, drug
cartels or terrorists on the black market, to which Director Pompeo
replied, "it is a real threat ... Maduro gets more desperate by the United States Senator Marco Rubio
hour, the risk of these colectivos acting in a way that is not under discussing colectivos with Director of
his control increases as time goes on as well", mentioning that there the Central Intelligence Agency, Mike
has not been evidence of major arms deals taking place, though Pompeo
"stockpiles exist".[70][71]

Colectivos were involved in the 2018 operation to kill Venezuelan rebel Óscar Alberto Pérez, working
alongside Venezuelan troops during the El Junquito raid. Heiker Leobaldo Vásquez Ferrera of a colectivo
located in 23 de Enero was killed during the operation, with Bellingcat and Forensic Architecture
highlighting that such cooperation between colectivos and Venezuelan authorities showed there was little
separation between them.[72][73][74]

In early 2018, Voice of America said members of colectivos in Aragua state appeared on a Colombian radio
show and explained that they were paid by the government to violently prevent opposition marches and
that some of their colleagues had "murdered several people".[75]
Russian government has supplied "specialists" who were allegedly involved in training of colectivos back
in 2018.[76][Note 1]

2019

InSight Crime says that colectivos provided strong support for Maduro when he assumed the presidency in
his disputed second term.[5] With National Assembly-designated acting President of Venezuela, Juan
Guaidó, challenging Maduro's claim to the office, and amid an international effort to convince Maduro to
step down and allow humanitarian aid into the country, Bloomberg News reported that colectivos "led the
charge" against the opposition to Maduro.[3] Because Guaidó offered an amnesty law to officials and
military officers who disavow Maduro, and the colectivos have "nothing to lose", the "government may be
using colectivos to relieve pressure on the military" during the 2019 Venezuelan protests, according to
Velasco.[3]

As tens of thousands of protesters marched in support on the day that Guaidó took the oath to serve as
president, The Guardian reported that Maduro "allies threatened the use of armed pro-government militias–
known as colectivos—to quell disturbances".[77] Rafael Uzcátegui—Director of Venezuela's human rights
organization, PROVEA—said there were 43 deaths at the protests as of 6 February; he believed most could
be attributed to Venezuela's Special Action Force (FAES), followed by the colectivos.[78] InSight Crime
said that it is likely that Maduro "recruited (...) FAES members from the colectivos for their callousness and
bloodthirstiness".[5] The Washington Post said colectivos are increasingly made up of government or police
personnel.[9]

Over the weekend of 23–24 February, as Guaidó and the opposition sought to bring humanitarian aid
across Venezuela's borders and into the country, colectivos attacked people at both the Colombian and
Brazilian borders.[3] Bloomberg said "within a block of an international bridge where food and medicine
were waiting" for aid to enter, "colectivos terrorized thousands".[3] They fired weapons from speeding
motorcycles, and one protester stated that masked men stepped from behind a row of Venezuelan National
Guard and fired on the crowd at the Venezuelan border, while a doctor said that colectivos terrorized with
weapons medics who were volunteering to help the wounded.[3] At the Brazilian border, Bloomberg
reported that observers said "colectivos ran rampant"; four died and hundreds were wounded.[3] Humberto
Prado, the director of the Venezuelan Prison Observatory, "accused the Maduro government of releasing
prison inmates to fill the colectivos' ranks in their repression efforts", according to InSight Crime.[5] As
many military personnel defected into Colombia during the border clashes, InSight Crime suggested that
"many of those who fled (...) did so because they were forced to work with the colectivos".[5]

The South Florida Sun reported that "colectivos have escalated attacks (...) opening fire on civilians and
terrorizing communities."[79] InSight Crime says that, as a result of the crisis in Venezuela, some colectivo
members "are beginning to waver in their allegiance to the government because they have not been
receiving the economic benefits they once did", but that "they fear persecution should they abandon the
government’s revolution".[5] The Washington Post said that Maduro relies on them and they help him stay
in power in spite of a crumbling economy;[9] Chávez was more popular and not as dependent on
colectivos, while Maduro is unpopular because of the economic conditions in the country, and has resorted
to violence and intimidation for power.[9] Public Radio International stated that opposition demonstrations
"are routinely broken up by masked motorcyclists who open fire onto crowds" and that the government
relies on the "loyalty of these irregular paramilitary groups to deal with the public heavy-handedly rather
than the military, which could potentially disobey uncomfortable orders and cause a government-military
rupture".[13]
During the 2019 Venezuelan blackouts in March, Maduro called on the armed paramilitary gangs, saying,
"The time has come for active resistance".[14] US State Department special envoy to Venezuela Elliot
Abrams labeled this a "breakdown in law and order", and said, "That's calling for armed gangs to take over
the streets (...) Perhaps it is a sign of Maduro's lack of confidence in his own security forces."[80] As
blackouts continued, on 31 March, citizens protested the lack of electricity and water in Caracas and other
cities; some of the protests occurred close to the presidential palace.[81] Maduro called again on the
colectivos, asking them "to defend the peace of every barrio, of every block".[15] Videos circulated on
social media showing colectivos threatening protesters and shooting in the streets;[81] two protesters were
shot.[15]

In 2019, the National Assembly of Venezuela designated the colectivos as terrorist groups due to their
"violence paramilitary actions, intimidation, murders and other crimes", declaring their acts as state-
sponsored terrorism.[17][82]

2020–22

On 29 February 2020, shot at the Speaker of the National Assembly of Venezuela Juan Guaidó mobilized a
march against Nicolás Maduro in the Juan de Villegas parish, Barquisimeto, Lara state. Colectivos shot at
Guaido's supporters and him, who was in a van at the time, leaving ten injured.[83][84]

On 3 November 2022, colectivos attacked and denailed four female students of the University of the Andes
that were protesting against the visit in Mérida state of Diosdado Cabello, vice-president of the United
Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV).[85]

Prominent groups
There were between 20 and 100 different colectivo groups in Venezuela as of 2014, with the most
prominent groups being the Tupamaros, La Piedrita, Tres Raices, Frente Francisco de Miranda, Alexis
Vive, and Ciudad Socialista Frente 5 de Marzo,[7][21][86][87] In 2018, InSight Crime reported 46 groups in
the 23 de Enero barrio alone.[7] They control about 10% of Venezuelan cities,[1] and operate in
16  Venezuelan states;[5] Velasco says they number 5,000 to 7,000 individuals nationwide as of 2019.[9]
InSight Crime says that Tres Raíces and Frente 5 de Marzo are closely linked with Venezuela's security
forces.[7] Tres Raíces is also "one of the better armed" with members also working government jobs for
SEBIN (Intelligence), DGCIM (military counterintelligence), FAES (police special action force) or
municipal police.[7]

La Piedrita

La Piedrita colectivo is one of the most influential in Caracas,[21] specifically in 23 de Enero barrio where it
has its roots dating to 1985 with founders Carlos Ramírez and Valentín Santana.[88] La Piedrita formally
organized when Bolivarian Circles were established by Chávez in Venezuela,[19] and since then, has been
described as a colectivo that is one of "the most violent in the country".[88] La Piedrita was also headed by
Lina Ron, who at the time of her leadership stated that thousands of Bolivarian Circles such as her own
were "armed to the teeth".[19][89] Ron
allegedly had a connection with Diosdado
Cabello from as early as 2002 when Cabello
was allegedly the key supporter of Ron.[19]
Also, Cabello had supposedly mediated
between La Piedrita and the Tupamaros when
they had a conflict in 2010.[19]

Tupamaros

The Revolutionary Tupamaro Movement

(Tupamaro) is a far left Marxist-Leninist Location of prominent colectivos in the Capital District.
colectivo and political organization in
Venezuela. Several Tupamaros participate in
peaceful movements while some believe the "idea of armed struggle as a means to gain power".[90]
Chávez's government had an "ambiguous" relationship with the Tupamaros, who helped manage social
programs, such as child care and drug rehabilitation centers, and promoted political participation; however,
the Tupamaros' involvement in vigilante justice in high crime areas that the police force often avoided led to
rifts with the federal government, which resorted on occasions to using the military to deal with the groups
when they clashed with police.[91] The Tupamaros are known to "cleanse" neighborhoods of criminals: if
repeated warnings to criminals to leave an area fail, they often resort to murder using "death
squads",[90][91] though some claim that these measures are taken to remove competition in the area.[92] It
was alleged that during the 2014 Venezuelan protests, Tupamaros worked with the Venezuelan National
Guard to attack protesters, with videos and pictures uploaded to social networks purporting this to be
true.[93]

Funding and resources

Monetary

Colectivos were initially funded by the Bolivarian government,[8] but became less dependent on the
government, by funding themselves through crimes such as drug trafficking and extortion.[8] Gunson states
that some funding for colectivos comes from demanding payment for protection and requiring members to
pay fees.[2] According to The New York Times, colectivos "control vast territory across Venezuela, financed
in some cases by extortion, black-market food and parts of the drug trade as the government turns a blind
eye in exchange for loyalty".[1] The Washington Post says some colectivos "have been put in charge of the
distribution of government food packages in poor areas—giving them control over hungry
neighborhoods.[9]

In 2018, InSight Crime reported that the colectivos have diverse income sources—both legal and illegal.[7]
Some run legal, profitable businesses, but also receive government funds, largely through the profitable
venture of distributing food through government concessions.[7] One Tupamaro leader told InSight Crime
that trafficking food and medicine is as profitable as drug-running, while less risky.[7] InSight Crime also
learned that colectivos are running "clandestine casinos".[7]

Some colectivos, such as the Tupamaros, have formal links with the Venezuelan government and politics,
with over 7,000 individuals on the Caracas payroll since 2008.[2] Stratfor says that Diosdado Cabello,
Freddy Bernal and Eliezer Otaiza, have been implicated in directing colectivos or helping fund them.[19]
Colectivos also receive funds from government funding for community projects.[2] Velasco states that
colectivos "receive government funding through both formal and informal channels, including slush funds
the government doles out to different sectors" and also have "personal ties between members and
government officials to access resources".[2]

Weapons

El Pais stated that the Venezuelan government directly arms colectivos with weapons.[4] Velasco believes
that the same formal and informal methods of receiving funds is used for weapons.[2] These methods
include being armed and trained in formal government militias or working as security and bodyguards.[2]
Despite the Venezuelan government's statements saying that only official authorities can carry weapons for
the defense of Venezuela, colectivos are armed with automatic rifles such as AK-47s, submachine guns,
fragmentation grenades, and tear gas.[2][24]

Social effects
In a March 2014 interview, Reinaldo Iturriza, the Minister of Communes in Venezuela, condemned what he
perceived as a campaign to demonize the 'colectivos' by attributing recent violence to them and defining
them as armed paramilitary groups. He insisted that "the collectives are not synonymous with guns and
violence, but with popular participation, organization, and mobilization, [...] with working together with the
Bolivarian government to solve specific problems in the communities."[94]

Crime

Colectivos sometimes provide protection from crime in some neighborhoods they are committed to,[23]
though some neighborhoods report that colectivos attack neighbors themselves.[21] As colectivos attempted
to gain independence from the government, they began "controlling organized crime like drug trafficking in
Caracas barrios.[1] Some colectivos patrol the 23 de Enero barrio on motorcycles, masked and armed,
supposedly to protect the neighborhood from criminals such as drug dealers.[24] According to ABC News,
"it is widely believed that colectivos kill drug traffickers who do not obey their orders".[24]

According to the International Crisis Group, colectivos may be involved in drug trafficking, arms dealing,
and car theft.[2] Phil Gunson, a freelance reporter for foreign media, states that, "It's no secret that many
colectivos engage in criminal activities."[2] Gunson reported that colectivos combat criminal gangs in
neighborhoods and take over the previous gang's business in crime and also take over buildings already
owned by individuals and collect rent from the owners.[2] Colectivos are thought to be partially responsible
for the increase in the Venezuelan murder rate, according to the Metropolitan Observatory on Citizen
Security.[95]

An Organization of American States report on human rights violations in Venezuela stated that colectivos
murdered at least 131 individuals between 2014 and 2017 during anti-government protests.[96]

Education

As of 2013, colectivos ran education initiatives.[24] According to Ennio Cardozo, a professor of political
science at the Central University of Venezuela, colectivos "do talks, forums and they indoctrinate very
young kids into Marxism. The government finances all this. But if you don't agree with them they will shut
you out from most of the social programs until you give allegiance to the (socialist) party."[24] The
president of the School of Teachers in Tachira, Javier Tarazona,
stated that the Venezuelan government encouraged the participation
of guerrillas and colectivos in schools and that their involvement
allegedly "promotes violence, confrontation and, if necessary,
war".[97]

The president of the Venezuelan Chamber of Private Education,

María Teresa Hernández, declared in 2014 that Resolution 058
passed in 2012 by the government was unconstitutional and that it Children of the La Piedrita colectivo
"seeks for colectivos with political projects of the ruling party to be receiving awards at the Palacio
directly involved in public and private schools". She stated that Municipal de Caracas.
schoolchildren are "very easy to manipulate" and need to develop
political beliefs on their own.[98] Article 102, for example, states
that "Education, is a public service, and is grounded on the respect for all currents of thought".[99]

See also
La Piedrita
Units of Battle Hugo Chávez
Immediate Mobilization Networks
Dignity Battalions
Committees for the Defense of the Revolution
Red Guards (China)
Tonton Macoute
Titushky
List of designated terrorist groups

Notes
1. At the time Vladimir Putin was in charge of President.

References
1. Torres, Patricia and Nicholas Casey (22 April 2017). "Armed civilian bands in Venezuela
prop up unpopular president" (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/22/world/americas/armed-ci
vilian-bands-in-venezuela-prop-up-unpopular-president.html). The New York Times.
Retrieved 23 April 2017.
2. Gurney, Kyra. "Venezuela's Leftist Collectives: Criminals or Revolutionaries?" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20141126194119/http://www.insightcrime.com/news-analysis/venezuela-lefti
st-collectives-criminals-or-revolutionaries). InSight Crime. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.insightcrime.com/news-analysis/venezuela-leftist-collectives-criminals-or-revolutionarie
s) on 26 November 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
3. Rosati, Andrew (26 February 2019). "Maduro's masked thugs unleash terror along the
Venezuelan border" (https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-02-26/maduro-s-maske
d-thugs-unleash-terror-along-the-venezuelan-border). Bloomberg. Retrieved 28 February
2019.
 4. "Así operan los 'colectivos', las fuerzas paramilitares chavistas de Venezuela" (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20190407084447/https://www.elpais.com.co/elpais/internacional/noticias/asi
-operan-colectivos-fuerzas-paramilitares-chavistas-venezuela) [This is how the 'collectives',
the Venezuelan Chavista paramilitary forces, operate]. El Pais. 23 February 2014. Archived
from the original (http://www.elpais.com.co/elpais/internacional/noticias/asi-operan-colectivo
s-fuerzas-paramilitares-chavistas-venezuela) on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
5. "The Armed Groups Propping Up Venezuela's Government" (https://www.insightcrime.org/ne
ws/analysis/armed-groups-propping-venezuelas-government/). InSight Crime. 1 March
2019. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
6. "Venezuela's Tupamaros on the side of the law" (http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Venezu
ela-s-Tupamaros-on-the-side-of-the-law-3185278.php). San Francisco Gate. 16 November
2008. Retrieved 5 April 2014.
7. "The devolution of state power: The 'Colectivos' " (https://www.insightcrime.org/investigation
s/devolution-state-power-colectivos/). Insight Crime. 18 May 2018. Retrieved 28 February
2019. Also available in Spanish. (https://es.insightcrime.org/investigaciones/la-delegacion-d
el-poder-estatal-los-colectivos/)
8. Venezuela: A Mafia State?. Medellin, Colombia: InSight Crime. 2018. pp. 3–84.
9. Sheridan, Mary Beth and Mariana Zuñiga (14 March 2019). "Maduro's muscle: Motorcycle
gangs known as 'colectivos' are the enforcers for Venezuela's authoritarian leader" (https://w
ww.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/ct-maduro-venezuela-motorcycle-gangs-20190314-
story.html). Sun Sentinel. The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
10. Wallis, Dan (13 February 2014). "Venezuela violence puts focus on militant 'colectivo'
groups" (https://www.reuters.com/article/venezuela-protests-colectivos-idUSL2N0LI14W201
40213). Reuters. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
11. Tapia Reynolds, Gioconda. "Venezuela marcada por la violencia" (http://www.voanoticias.co
m/content/hrw-venezuela-derechos-vivanco-violaciones-oposicion/2499273.html). Voice of
America. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
12. "Nights of terror: Attacks and illegal raids on homes in Venezuela" (https://www.amnestyusa.
org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Venezuela-Nights-of-Terror-Briefing-ENG.pdf) (PDF).
Amnesty International. 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
13. Taylor, Luke (25 April 2019). "Maduro turns to violent 'mercenary' colectivos to maintain
order" (https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-04-25/maduro-turns-violent-mercenary-colectivos-m
aintain-order). Public Radio International. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
14. Phillips, Tom (12 March 2019). "US pulls all staff from Venezuela as Maduro blames
blackout on 'demonic' Trump plot" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/12/nicolas-
maduro-blames-demonic-trump-plot-for-blackout-crippling-venezuela). The Guardian.
Retrieved 13 March 2019.
15. Phillips, Tom (1 April 2019). "Venezuela: Maduro calls on armed groups to keep order amid
electricity rationing" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/01/maduro-venezuela-col
ectivos-electricity-power-rationing). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved 1 April 2019.
16. "OAS says to present evidence of Venezuela rights violations to The Hague" (https://www.re
uters.com/article/us-venezuela-rights-icct/oas-says-to-present-evidence-of-venezuela-rights-
violations-to-the-hague-idUSKCN1IV066). Reuters. Retrieved 30 May 2018.
17. "AN declaró como terroristas a los colectivos" (https://web.archive.org/web/2019040401473
8/http://www.asambleanacional.gob.ve/) [NA declares colectivos terrorists]. Prensa AN
(Press release) (in Spanish). National Assembly of Venezuela. 2 April 2019. Archived from
the original (http://www.asambleanacional.gob.ve/noticias/_an-declaro-como-terroristas) on
4 April 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
18. "Venezuela Motorcylce Gang Videos Show Terror And Violence In Support Of Maduro" (htt
p://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/25/venezuela-motorcycle-gangs-vidoes-colectivos_n_4
855640.html). Huffington Post. 25 February 2014. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
19. "Venezuela's Pro-Government Activists Play a Role in Protest Violence" (https://www.stratfo
r.com/analysis/venezuelas-pro-government-activists-play-role-protest-violence). Stratfor.
Retrieved 1 March 2015.
20. Herridge, Catherine (17 March 2015). "New photos reveal expanding reach of Iran in
Venezuela and other parts of Latin America" (http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/politics/2015/0
3/17/new-photos-reveal-expanding-reach-iran-in-venezuela-and-other-parts-latin/). Fox
News Latino. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
21. "Colectivos en Venezuela: ¿Organizaciones sociales o criminales?" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20141010213610/http://ntnve.com/noticia/colectivos-en-venezuela-el-brazo-armado-
del-chavismo-27841). NTN24. 8 October 2014. Archived from the original (http://www.ntnve.
com/noticia/colectivos-en-venezuela-el-brazo-armado-del-chavismo-27841) on 10 October
2014. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
22. Solis, Diego. "In Venezuela, armed groups find opportunity in calamity" (https://www.stratfor.
com/analysis/venezuela-armed-groups-find-opportunity-calamity). Stratfor. Retrieved
5 March 2016.
23. "Venezuela is on borrowed time" (http://www.businessinsider.com/venezuela-is-on-borrowe
d-time-2014-11). Business Insider. 29 November 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
24. Markovits, Martin and Manuel Rueda (27 March 2013). "Venezuela election is a high stakes
affair for local vigilante groups" (https://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/ABC_Univision/ven
ezuela-election-high-stakes-affair-local-vigilante-groups/story?id=18822407&singlePage=tr
ue). ABC News. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
25. "Human rights violations and abuses in the context of protests in the Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela from 1 April to 31 July 2017" (http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/VE/HC
ReportVenezuela_1April-31July2017_EN.pdf) (PDF). Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights. United Nations. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
26. Wallis, Daniel (15 August 2012). "Insight: Chavista militants may be wild card after
Venezuela vote" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-colectivos-idUSBRE87E0G
N20120815). Reuters. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
27. Sierra, Sandra (8 November 2007). "Gunfire erupts at Venezuela university" (http://www.new
svine.com/_news/2007/11/07/1080768-gunfire-erupts-at-venezuela-university).
newsvine.com. Associated Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071211012717/h
ttp://www.newsvine.com/_news/2007/11/07/1080768-gunfire-erupts-at-venezuela-university)
from the original on 11 December 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2007.
28. Sánchez, Fabiola (4 August 2009). "Detienen a Lina Ron por ataque a Globovisión" (http://w
ww.elnuevoherald.com/noticias/mundo/america-latina/venezuela-es/article1997755.html).
El Nuevo Herald. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
29. "Especial N24: polémica e irreverente, la vida de Lina Ron a tres años de su muerte" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20150308130430/http://www.noticias24.com/venezuela/noticia/225
948/especial-n24-polemica-e-irreverente-la-vida-de-lina-ron-a-3-anos-de-su-muerte/).
Noticias24. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original (http://www.noticias24.com/venezuela/
noticia/225948/especial-n24-polemica-e-irreverente-la-vida-de-lina-ron-a-3-anos-de-su-mue
rte/) on 8 March 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
30. Wallis, Dan (13 February 2014). "Venezuela violence puts focus on militant 'colectivo'
groups" (https://www.reuters.com/article/venezuela-protests-colectivos-idUSL2N0LI14W201
40213). Retrieved 20 March 2014.
31. "Wikileaks de Venezuela: chavistas Lina Ron y Valentín Santana, "terroristas" para
Washington" (http://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/wikileaks-venezuela-chavistas-lina-ro
n-valentin-santana-terroristas-para-washington/242265-3). Semana. 4 July 2011. Retrieved
1 March 2015.
32. "October election already fuelling threats and violence against media" (https://en.rsf.org/ven
ezuela-october-election-already-fuelling-21-03-2012,42167.html). Reporters Without
Borders. 24 March 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120324122641/https://en.r
sf.org/venezuela-october-election-already-fuelling-21-03-2012,42167.html) from the original
on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
33. "Globovisión journalists attacked in Venezuela" (http://www.cpj.org/2012/03/globovision-jour
nalists-attacked-in-venezuela.php). Committee to Protect Journalists. 6 March 2012.
Retrieved 7 March 2012.
34. "Preliminary Report Study Missision of the Carter Center : Presidential Elections in
Venezuela – April 14, 2013" (https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_public
ations/election_reports/venezuela-pre-election-rpt-2013.pdf) (PDF). Carter Center. Retrieved
20 March 2014.
35. "Punished for protesting" (https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/venezuela0514_rep
ortcover_web.pdf) (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2019.
36. "A tale of two prisoners" (https://www.economist.com/news/americas/21596945-after-opposit
ion-leader-arrested-violence-continues-unabated-tale-two-prisoners). Economist. 20
February 2014. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
37. "Varela: Colectivos son el pilar para la defensa de la patria" (http://www.eluniversal.com/nac
ional-y-politica/140215/varela-colectivos-son-el-pilar-para-la-defensa-de-la-patria). El
Universal. 15 February 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
38. "Colectivos de paz accionan armas de fuego en la Rómulo Gallegos ante mirada de la
GNB" (http://www.lapatilla.com/site/2014/02/19/colectivos-de-paz-accionan-armas-de-fuego-
en-la-romulo-gallegos-ante-mirada-de-la-gnb/). La Patilla. 19 February 2014. Retrieved
19 February 2014.
39. "Colectivos paramilitares irrumpen en hogares y amenazan con violar a los residentes con
"permiso" de la GNB" (http://www.lapatilla.com/site/2014/03/27/colectivos-paramilitares-irru
mpen-en-hogares-y-amenazan-con-violar-a-los-residentes-con-permiso-de-la-gnb/). La
Patilla. 27 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
40. "Colectivos estarían involucrados e12 homicidios 25/03/14Caracas" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20140331101634/http://www.controlciudadano.org/noticias/detalle.php?&notid=1249
4). Asociacion Civil Control Ciudadano. Archived from the original (http://www.controlciudad
ano.org/noticias/detalle.php?&notid=12494) on 31 March 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
41. "La Universidad Fermín Toro de Barquisimeto fue incendiada por supuestos colectivos este
lunes" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170811223604/http://www.ntn24.com/noticias/la-univ
ersidad-fermin-toro-de-barquisimeto-fue-incendiada-por-supuestos-colectivos-este-lunes-13
1297). NTN24. 5 May 2014. Archived from the original (http://www.ntn24.com/noticias/la-univ
ersidad-fermin-toro-de-barquisimeto-fue-incendiada-por-supuestos-colectivos-este-lunes-13
1297) on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
42. "Denuncian que incendio en la Universidad Fermín Toro fue causado por colectivos
armados" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140506094812/http://www.el-nacional.com/region
es/Denuncian-Universidad-Fermin-Toro-colectivos_0_403759884.html). El Nacional. 5 May
2014. Archived from the original (http://www.el-nacional.com/regiones/Denuncian-Universid
ad-Fermin-Toro-colectivos_0_403759884.html) on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
43. "Lanzaron bomba lacrimógena en la Universidad Fermín Toro" (http://www.eluniversal.com/
nacional-y-politica/140610/lanzaron-bomba-lacrimogena-en-la-universidad-fermin-toro). El
Universal. 10 June 2014. Retrieved 14 June 2014.
44. "Estudiantes de la ULA denunciaron ataques de colectivos" (http://www.eluniversal.com/nac
ional-y-politica/150302/estudiantes-de-la-ula-denunciaron-ataques-de-colectivos). El
Universal. 2 March 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
45. León, Leonardo (2 March 2015). "Colectivos motorizados armados entraron a núcleo de
ULA-Mérida y dispararon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150304162112/http://www.el-naci
onal.com/sucesos/Colectivos-motorizados-entraron-ULA-Merida-dispararon_0_584341702.
html). El Nacional. Archived from the original (http://www.el-nacional.com/sucesos/Colectivo
s-motorizados-entraron-ULA-Merida-dispararon_0_584341702.html) on 4 March 2015.
Retrieved 3 March 2015.
46. "Protesters back in streets in Venezuela" (https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/
02/24/ex-venezuelan-general-standoff/5772237/). USA Today. 24 February 2014. Retrieved
21 March 2014.
47. "Armed pro-govt militias roil Venezuela protests" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141205105
816/http://hosted2.ap.org/APDEFAULT/cae69a7523db45408eeb2b3a98c0c9c5/Article_201
4-03-30-Venezuela-Loyalist%20Militias/id-ea31fc1b693a498da7c38a8a2ac41b22). The
Associated Press. 30 March 2014. Archived from the original (http://hosted2.ap.org/APDEFA
ULT/cae69a7523db45408eeb2b3a98c0c9c5/Article_2014-03-30-Venezuela-Loyalist%20Mi
litias/id-ea31fc1b693a498da7c38a8a2ac41b22) on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 31 March
2014.
48. "Arreaza promete desarme de grupos armados" (http://www.eluniversal.com/nacional-y-polit
ica/140328/arreaza-promete-desarme-de-grupos-armados). El Universal. 28 March 2014.
Retrieved 6 April 2014.
49. "Venezuela: peaceful and respectful dialogue only way out of the crisis, MEPs say" (http://w
ww.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/news-room/content/20140225IPR36958/html/Venezuela-pe
aceful-and-respectful-dialogue-only-way-out-of-the-crisis-MEPs-say). European Parliament.
27 February 2014. Retrieved 28 February 2014.
50. "Venezuela: Violence Against Protesters, Journalists" (https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/02/2
1/venezuela-violence-against-protesters-journalists). Human Rights Watch. 21 February
2014. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
51. Lansberg-Rodriguez, Daniel (8 October 2014). "In Caracas, Death Doesn't Discriminate
According to Politics" (http://transitions.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2014/10/08/in_caracas_deat
h_doesnt_discriminate_according_to_politics). Foreign Policy. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
52. "Chavista legislator Robert Serra murdered in Venezuela" (http://www.dw.de/chavista-legisla
tor-robert-serra-murdered-in-venezuela/a-17969429). DW.DE. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
53. "BBC News - Venezuelan lawmaker Robert Serra killed in Caracas" (https://www.bbc.com/n
ews/world-latin-america-29455219). BBC News. 2 October 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
54. Buitrago, Deisy (2 October 2014). "Venezuelan 'Chavista' lawmaker Serra stabbed, killed at
home" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-crime-idUSKCN0HR0B420141002).
Reuters. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
55. López, Virginia (8 October 2014). "Venezuela militia members killed by police amid political
unrest" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/08/venezuela-militia-killed-police-viole
nce-shield-revolution). The Guardian. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
56. Lee, Brianna (28 October 2014). "Venezuela's Maduro Promises A 'Police Revolution' After
Lawmaker Robert Serra's Murder" (http://www.ibtimes.com/venezuelas-maduro-promises-po
lice-revolution-after-lawmaker-robert-serras-murder-1715030). International Business Times.
Retrieved 28 October 2014.
57. Sanchez, Fabiola and Jorge Rueda (8 October 2014). "5 Dead in Venezuela After Tense
Police Standoff" (https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/dead-venezuela-tense-poli
ce-standoff-26043412). ABC News. Retrieved 10 October 2014. Also available at San Diego
Tribune (https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-5-dead-in-venezuela-after-tense-police
-standoff-2014oct08-story.html).
58. "Difunden presunto video de José Odreman muerto en Quinta Crespo" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20141015092126/http://panorama.com.ve/portal/app/push/noticia129834.php).
Panorama. 8 October 2014. Archived from the original (http://panorama.com.ve/portal/app/pu
sh/noticia129834.php) on 15 October 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
59. Lugo, Angelica (9 October 2014). "Habitantes del Manfredir niegan que colectivos se
enfrentaran con comisiones del Cicpc" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141011131318/http://
www.el-nacional.com/sucesos/Habitantes-Manfredir-enfrentaran-comisiones-Cicpc_0_4973
50451.html). El Nacional. Archived from the original (http://www.el-nacional.com/sucesos/Ha
bitantes-Manfredir-enfrentaran-comisiones-Cicpc_0_497350451.html) on 11 October 2014.
Retrieved 11 October 2014.
60. "A murder in Venezuela: Most foul" (https://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2014/1
0/murder-venezuela). The Economist. 14 October 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
61. "President Maduro orders inquiry into deadly events downtown Caracas" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20141014194936/http://english.eluniversal.com/nacional-y-politica/141008/presid
ent-maduro-orders-inquiry-into-deadly-events-downtown-caracas). El Universal. 8 October
2014. Archived from the original (http://english.eluniversal.com/nacional-y-politica/141008/pr
esident-maduro-orders-inquiry-into-deadly-events-downtown-caracas) on 14 October 2014.
Retrieved 10 October 2014.
62. Dávila Torres, Daniela and María Sosa Calcaño (10 October 2014). "4 casos relacionan 9
homicidios" (http://runrun.es/investigacion/161035/4-casos-relacionan-9-homicidios.html).
Runrunes. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
63. " "El Che" venezolano: Los colectivos estamos en pie de guerra" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20141017080054/http://www.el-nacional.com/sucesos/Che-venezolano-colectivos-pie-gu
erra_0_497950249.html). El Nacional. 9 October 2014. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.el-nacional.com/sucesos/Che-venezolano-colectivos-pie-guerra_0_497950249.html) on
17 October 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2019.
64. Madariaga, Sebastian (9 October 2014). "El Che De Los Colectivos Declara La Guerra
"Estamos En Pie De Guerra" DIJO" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141028173416/https://cl
oud-1410337805-cache.cdn-cachefront.net/colectivos-declaran-la-guerra/). AhoraVisión.
Archived from the original (https://cloud-1410337805-cache.cdn-cachefront.net/colectivos-de
claran-la-guerra/) on 28 October 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
65. Nederr, Sofia (25 October 2014). "Presión de colectivos incidió en salida de Rodríguez
Torres" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141025130007/http://www.el-nacional.com/politica/Pr
esion-colectivos-incidio-Rodriguez-Torres_0_506949482.html). El Nacional. Archived from
the original (http://www.el-nacional.com/politica/Presion-colectivos-incidio-Rodriguez-Torres
_0_506949482.html) on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
66. Maria Delgado, Antonio (29 October 2014). "Colectivos venezolanos ahora van por
Diosdado Cabello" (http://www.elnuevoherald.com/noticias/mundo/america-latina/venezuel
a-es/article3453899.html). El Nuevo Herald. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
67. "Diosdado Cabello: La oposición no va a entrar a Caracas este #19Abr" (https://www.lapatill
a.com/site/2017/04/17/diosdado-cabello-la-oposicion-no-va-a-entrar-a-caracas-este-19abr/).
La Patilla (in European Spanish). 17 April 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
68. "The Latest: US official expresses concern over Venezuela" (https://abcnews.go.com/Interna
tional/wireStory/latest-venezuelans-gear-opposition-march-46887245). ABC News.
Associated Press. 19 April 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170419193618/htt
ps://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/latest-venezuelans-gear-opposition-march-468
87245) from the original on 19 April 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
69. "Report of the General Secretariat Of The Organization Of American States And The Panel
Of Independent International Experts On The Possible Commission of Crimes Against
Humanity In Venezuela" (http://www.oas.org/documents/eng/press/Informe-Panel-Independi
ente-Venezuela-EN.pdf) (PDF). Organization of American States. 29 May 2018. p. 90. "That
same April 19, 23-year-old Paola Andreína Ramírez Gómez, a student at the Catholic
University of San Cristóbal, was killed in the vicinity of the Plaza de Las Palomas of the
neighborhood of San Carlos, Táchira state, when she was intercepted by several armed
civilians on motorcycles “patrolling” the demonstrations taking place in the area. They tried
to strip her of her belongings, and as she tried to run away she was struck down by a bullet
that perforated her lungs."
* "Colectivos: el rostro civil de la represión en Táchira" (https://web.archive.org/web/201904
03162344/https://observatoriodeviolencia.org.ve/colectivos-el-rostro-civil-de-la-represion-en
-tachira/) (in Spanish). Venezuelan Observatory of Violence. 15 August 2017. Archived from
the original (https://observatoriodeviolencia.org.ve/colectivos-el-rostro-civil-de-la-represion-e
n-tachira/) on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 23 March 2019. "Allí cayó la joven de 23 años en
medio de un enfrentamiento entre un vecino del sector y este grupo armado."
* "Así mataron los colectivos chavistas a Paola Ramírez, la segunda víctima del #19A en
Venezuela" (https://www.infobae.com/america/venezuela/2017/04/20/video-asi-mataron-los-
colectivos-chavistas-a-paola-ramirez-la-segunda-victima-del-19a-en-venezuela/). Infobae
(in Spanish). 20 April 2017. Retrieved 23 March 2019. "El asesinato de Paola Andreína
Ramírez Gómez, una joven estudiante de 23 años, quedó registrado en al menos dos
videos que muestran cómo operan los colectivos chavistas que acabaron con su vida."
70. "CIA advierte sobre transferencia de armas en Venezuela" (http://www.voanoticias.com/a/cia
-venezuela-mike-pompeo-colectivo-regimen-maduro/3847786.html). Voice of America (in
Spanish). 11 May 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
71. "CIA: Milicias armadas en Venezuela pueden acabar fuera de control" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20170511214306/http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/politica/cia-milicias-armadas-v
enezuela-pueden-acabar-fuera-control_652181). El Universal (in Spanish). 11 May 2017.
Archived from the original (http://www.eluniversal.com/noticias/politica/cia-milicias-armadas-
venezuela-pueden-acabar-fuera-control_652181) on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
72. "Maduro y la "masacre de El Junquito" " (http://www.dw.com/es/maduro-y-la-masacre-de-el-j
unquito/a-42213860). Deutsche Welle (in Spanish). 19 January 2018. Retrieved 20 January
2018.
73. "Investigación revela lo ocurrido durante las últimas horas de Óscar Pérez" (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20181221084547/http://efectococuyo.com/efecto-cocuyo/investigacion-revela-lo
-ocurrido-durante-las-ultimas-horas-de-oscar-perez/). Efecto Cocuyo (in Spanish). 13 May
2018. Archived from the original (http://efectococuyo.com/efecto-cocuyo/investigacion-revela
-lo-ocurrido-durante-las-ultimas-horas-de-oscar-perez/) on 21 December 2018. Retrieved
23 May 2018.
74. " "¡Nos vamos a entregar! ¡No sigan disparando! ": Reconstruyendo las últimas horas de
Óscar Pérez - bellingcatdate=13 May 2018" (https://www.bellingcat.com/news/americas/201
8/05/13/nos-vamos-a-entregar-no-sigan-disparando-reconstruyendo-las-ultimas-horas-de-o
scar-perez/). Bellingcat. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
75. "Colectivos confiezan que fueron contratados para disipar marchas opositoras" (https://ww
w.voanoticias.com/a/colectivos-marcas-opositoras/4228673.html) [Collectives confess that
they were hired to dispel opposing marches]. Voice of America (in Spanish). 28 January
2018. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
76. "Geopolitical debts Why Russia is really sending military advisers and other specialists to
Venezuela" (https://meduza.io/en/feature/2019/07/29/geopolitical-debts). Meduza. Retrieved
21 May 2021.
77. "Venezuela protests: thousands march as military faces call to abandon Maduro" (https://ww
w.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/23/venezuela-protests-thousands-march-against-maduro
-as-opposition-sees-chance-for-change). The Guardian. 23 January 2019. Retrieved
28 February 2019.
78. Phillips, Tom and Patricia Torres (6 February 2019). " 'They are murderers': special forces
unit strikes fear in Venezuelans" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/06/venezuela
-faes-special-forces-nicolas-maduro-barrios). The Guardian. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
79. Sheridan, Mary Beth and Anthony Faiola (13 March 2019). "Venezuela investigates Guaido
for sabotage". South Florida Sun - Sentinel. p. A.3 – via ProQuest.
80. Shesgreen, Deirdre (14 March 2019). "Power out, water scarce, looting: Venezuela in crisis.
Will Trump administration react?" (https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2019/03/14/v
enezuela-crisis-power-failure-blackout-maduro-guaido-trump-military/3161336002/). USA
Today. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
81. Torchia, Christopher (1 April 2019). "Venezuela's Maduro announces power rationing amid
outages" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190401033914/https://www.washingtonpost.com/w
orld/the_americas/venezuelas-maduro-announces-power-rationing-amid-outages/2019/03/3
1/fea7e582-5425-11e9-aa83-504f086bf5d6_story.html). The Washington Post. Archived
from the original (https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/venezuelas-maduro-
announces-power-rationing-amid-outages/2019/03/31/fea7e582-5425-11e9-aa83-504f086bf
5d6_story.html) on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
82. "La AN declaró como terrorismo de Estado las acciones de los colectivos" (http://www.el-na
cional.com/noticias/asamblea-nacional/declaro-como-terrorismo-estado-las-acciones-los-co
lectivos_277448) [The NA declares the colectivos as state terrorists]. El Nacional (in
Spanish). 2 April 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
83. Singer, Florantonia (1 March 2020). "El ataque a una concentración de Juan Guaidó deja al
menos cinco heridos" (https://elpais.com/internacional/2020/03/01/america/1583026220_61
5376.html). El País (in Spanish). ISSN 1134-6582 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1134-658
2). Retrieved 19 May 2021.
84. "Colectivos chavistas atacaron una concentración convocada por Juan Guaidó en
Barquisimeto" (https://www.infobae.com/america/venezuela/2020/02/29/colectivos-chavistas
-atacaron-una-concentracion-convocada-por-juan-guaido-en-barquisimeto/). infobae (in
Spanish). 29 February 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2021.
85. "Estudiantes de la ULA fueron agredidas por chavistas: les arrancaron uñas de las manos"
(https://monitoreamos.com/venezuela/estudiantes-de-la-ula-fueron-agredidas-por-chavistas-
les-arrancaron-las-unas-de-las-manos). Monitoreamos (in Spanish). 3 November 2022.
Retrieved 6 November 2022.
86. "Dangerous Uncertainty ahead of Venezuela's Elections Crisis Group Latin America Report
N°42, 26 June 2012" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130618210516/http://www.crisisgroup.o
rg/%7E/media/Files/latin-america/venezuela/042-dangerous-uncertainty-ahead-of-venezuel
as-elections.pdf) (PDF). Report. International Crisis Group. Archived from the original (http://
www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/latin-america/venezuela/042-dangerous-uncertainty-ahe
ad-of-venezuelas-elections.pdf) (PDF) on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
87. "COLECTIVOS: Los Tupamaros, el brazo armado del chavismo" (http://www.reportero24.co
m/2014/02/colectivos-los-tupamaros-el-brazo-armado-del-chavismo/). Reportero 24. 13
February 2014. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
88. "Los 5 colectivos chavistas más temidos por la población civil de Venezuela" (https://www.in
fobae.com/america/venezuela/2017/04/29/los-5-colectivos-chavistas-mas-temidos-por-la-po
blacion-civil-de-venezuela/). Infobae (in Spanish). 29 April 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
89. "Venezuela: Armed Bolivarian Circles" (https://www.stratfor.com/situation-report/venezuela-a
rmed-bolivarian-circles). Stratfor. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
90. Ruiz, Roger (12 February 2014). "Los Tupamaro, la fuerza de choque del chavismo" (http://e
lcomercio.pe/mundo/latinoamerica/tupamaros-fuerza-choque-chavismo-noticia-1709177). El
Comercio. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
91. "Venezuela's Tupamaros on the side of the law" (http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Venezu
ela-s-Tupamaros-on-the-side-of-the-law-3185278.php#page-1). SF Gate. 16 November
2008. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
92. "Los Tupamaros, el brazo armado del chavismo" (https://www.infobae.com/2014/02/13/1543
408-los-tupamaros-el-brazo-armado-del-chavismo). Infobae. 13 February 2014. Retrieved
7 August 2014.
93. "Venezuela: Así actúan Tupamaros con protección del chavismo [Video]" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170730210308/http://peru21.pe/mundo/venezuela-asi-actuan-tupamaros-prote
ccion-chavismo-video-2171222). Peru 21. 22 February 2014. Archived from the original (htt
p://peru21.pe/mundo/venezuela-asi-actuan-tupamaros-proteccion-chavismo-video-217122
2) on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
94. "Los colectivos son sinónimo de organización, no de violencia" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20140502033015/http://www.ciudadccs.info/?p=540882). La Patilla. 10 March 2014.
Archived from the original (http://www.ciudadccs.info/?p=540882) on 2 May 2014. Retrieved
1 May 2014.
95. Stone, Hannah (15 March 2012). "Political Divisions Fuel Venezuela's Most Violent Year" (h
ttp://www.insightcrime.org/news-analysis/political-divisions-fuel-venezuelas-most-violent-ye
ar). InSight Crime. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
96. "OAS says to present evidence of Venezuela rights violations to The Hague" (https://www.re
uters.com/article/us-venezuela-rights-icct/oas-says-to-present-evidence-of-venezuela-rights-
violations-to-the-hague-idUSKCN1IV066). Reuters. Retrieved 30 May 2018.
97. "Cuba "adoctrina" a los niños en las escuelas públicas y privadas de Venezuela" (https://ww
w.infobae.com/2014/12/07/1613686-cuba-adoctrina-los-ninos-las-escuelas-publicas-y-priva
das-venezuela). Infobae. 7 December 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
98. "Denuncian que colectivos con proyectos políticos quieren participar en colegios" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20150219213119/http://globovision.com/denuncian-que-colectivos-con-
proyectos-politicos-quieran-participar-en-los-colegios/). Globovision. 13 April 2014. Archived
from the original (http://globovision.com/articulo/denuncian-que-colectivos-con-proyectos-po
liticos-quieran-participar-en-los-colegios) on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2014.
99. "De la 058 y de la calidad educativa" (http://www.elsoldemargarita.com.ve/posts/post/id:132
115). Sol de Margarita. 9 May 2014. Retrieved 11 May 2014.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colectivo_(Venezuela)&oldid=1123183071"

This page was last edited on 22 November 2022, at 10:50 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.