Die re 5 is | +4 - cote loe tol hate | a Edition — x Aaa | oa | sli G. SnelCONTROL BOILERS 2nd Editio SAM G. DUKELOW‘The information presented in this publication is for the general education of the reader. Because neither the author nor the publisher has any control over the use of the information by the reader, both the author and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind arising out of such use. The reader is expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the information presented in a particular application ‘Additionally, neither the author nor the publisher have investigated or considered the effect of any patents con the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application, The reader is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the information presented, Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the author nor the publisher endorses any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or trade names referenced belong, to the respective owner of the mark or name. Neither the author nor the publisher makes any representation regarding the availability of any referenced commercial product at any time. The manufacturer's instructions on use of any commercial product must be followed at all times, even if in ‘conflict with the information in this publication, ‘THE CONTROL OF BOILERS Copyright © 1991 by ISA - The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society 67 Alexander Drive P.O. Box 12277 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. 10987 - ISBN 1-$5617-330-X We would like to thank the many suppliers who provided material for this book, and we regret any we may have inadvertently failed to credit for an illustration. On notification we shall insert a correction in any subsequent printings. Some material herein has previously appeared in Improving Boiler Efficiency by Sam G. Dukelow, produced by Kansas State University and distributed by ISA, For information on corporate or group discounts for this book, e-mail: bulksales@isa,org. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dukelow, Sam G., 1917 - ‘The control of boilers/Sam G. Dukelow. - 2" ed. p.cm, Includes bibliographical references and index, ISBN 1-55617-330-X 1. Steam-boilers - Automatic control L. Title. TI288.D78 1991 621.1'83--de20 91-3139 cPDedication To my New Orleans son Bill, who helped to complete this book by continually asking, “‘Is your book done yet?””Contents Chapter Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Introduction 1-1 Content and Objectives 1-2 Boiler Control Objectives .... 1-3 Control System Diagramming ....... 1-4 Boiler Control Application in Historical Perspective Boiler Basics and the Steaming Process. 2-1 The Basic Steaming Process 2.2. The Basic Boiler.. 2-3. Heat Recovery from the Flue Gases 2-4 Boiler Types and Classifications .. 2-5 Firetube Boilers . 2-6 Watertube Drum Boilers. 2-7 Watertube Once-Through Boilers Performance and Input-Output Relationships. 3-1 Capacity and Performance a 3-2 Input Related to Output 3-3 Mass and Energy Balances Involved 3-4. Efficiency Calculation Methods .. 3-5 Boiler Control — The Process of Managing the Energy and Mass Balances. 2 nen . Basic Control Loops and Their System Interconnection ..........++s++ 4-1 Simple Feedback Control 42 Feedforward-Plus-Feedback Control .. 4-3. Cascade Control 4-4 Ratio Control Some Fundamentals of Control System Appl 46 Process Dynamics — Control Response 4-7 Process Factors That Affect the Control System or Loop Application .. jon and Design Combustion of Fuels, Excess Air, and Products of Combustion 5-1 Gaseous Fuels—Their Handling and Preparation............ 5-2 Liquid Fuels—Their Handling and Preparation.......... 5-3. Solid Fuels—Their Handling and Preparation for Firing. 5-4 Handling and Delivery of Solid Fuels............. 5-5. Fuel Mixtures—Coal-Oil, Coal-Water 5-6 Physical Combustion Requirements ..... 5-7 Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion. 5-8 Theoretical Air Requirements and Relationship to Heat of Combustion...... 5.9 The Requirement for Excess Combustion Air. Efficiency Calculations ...... 6-1 Input-Output or Direct Method. 6-2 Heat Loss or Indirect Method .. v 48 49 49 50 55 56 38 59 61 65 67 B B 15Chapter Section 7 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Section L1 ‘The Steam Supply System..... 7-1 Saturated Steam Moisture Elimination 7-2 Steam Supply Systems...... " 7-3 Heat Energy and Water Storage Firing Rate Demand for Industrial Boilers. 8-1 Relationship: 8-2 Linking the Steam Pressure Change to Changes in Firing Rate 8-3 Steam Presssure or Steam Flow Feedback Control ... : 8-4 Feedforward-plus-Feedback—Steam Flow plus Steam Pressure. 8-5 Load Sharing of Multiple Boilers : $6 Automatic Compensation for the Number and Size of Boilers Participating ... 8-7. reallocation of Boiler Load Based on Test Results... : 8-8 Energy Management by Boiler Load Allocation on a Least Cost Basis .... 89. Energy Management Involving Cogeneration Networks . iring Rate Demand for Utility Boilers ... 9-1 Matching Firing Rate Demand to Electrical Load eae Turbine Coordination) ercsstsersaests . 9-2 Boiler Load Measurement. 9-3. Unit Load Demand Development . 94 Boiler Following Firing Rate Demand Development 9-5 Turbine Following—Throttle Pressure Control with the Turbine Valves ......-scceceeeeesssesennnseree ; : 96 Boiler-Turbine Coordinated Contro 9-7 Sliding or Variable Pressure Control .. 9-8 Heat Rate Optimization with Sliding Pressure Control 9-9 Digital Interlock and Tracking Control Modes ... ‘Main Steam and Reheat Steam Temperature Control 10-1 Temperature vs. Boiler Load. 10.2 Mechanisms for Control of Superheat Temperature. 10-3 Basic Steam Temperature Control Strategies 10-4 Steam Temperature and Reheat Temperature Control Strategies . 10-5 A Reheat Temperature Control Arrangement for a Combustion Engineering Boiler...... 10-6 The Corresponding Superheat Temperature Control for the ‘Combustion Engineering Boiler 10-7 Spray Water Sources—Steam and Water Flow Measurements. 10-8 Interactions. 10-9 Pumping and Firing Rate for Once- ‘Through Boilers 10-10 Steam Temperature Control for Once-Through Boilers . Boiler and Unit Interlocks .... 11-1 Applicable Codes 11-2. Logie Diagramming for Motor Starting and Trip Protection 11-3 Digital Interlocks within the Control System... 114 Classification of Trip Inerlocks Relative to Potential Consequence 11-5 Limits and Runbacks 107 109 us, 116 118 121 123 129 133, 136 137 137 1B9 139 139 144 147 149 152 154 156 156 160 165 165 165 173 174 176Chapter Section 12 Section 13 Section 14 Section 15 Section 16 Section 17 Page Feedwater Supply and Boiler Water Circulation Systems. 177 12-1 The Basic System . - 177 12-2. Heating and Deaeration . 7 12-3 The Boiler Feedwater Pump.. 180 12-4 The Flow Regulation System 181 12-5 Shrink and Swell and Boiler Water irculation seeeeeeeees 183 12-6 Feedwater Chemical Balance and Control of Boiler Blowdown. 187 Feedwater Control Systems sesssssssssessssesessesssssee 189 13-1 Measurement and Indication of Boiler Drum Level. 189 13-2 Feedwater Control Objectives 191 13-3. Single-Element Feedwater Control ... 194, 13-4 Two-Element Feedwater Control ... en 198, 13-5 Three-Element Feedwater Control ; 202 13-6 Control Refinements and Special Control Problems ...... 204 13-7 Control of Feedwater for Once-Through Boilers 207 Boiler Draft Systems. 21 14-1 Draft Losses in Boilers 2u1 14-2 Natural Draft and Forced Draft . 212 14-3 Pressure-Fired Boilers 213 14-4 Balanced Draft Boilers...... 215 14-5 Dampers and Damper Control Devices . 216 14-6 Drafi and Air Flow Control Using Variable-Speed Fan... 22 14-7 Minimum Air Flow 224 Measurement and Control of Furnace Draft... 227 15-1 Measurement of Furnace Draft. 29 15-2 Fumace Draft Control Using Simple Feedback Control 29 15-3 Furnace Draft Control Using Feedforward-plus-Feedback ee ee - 230 15-4 Fumace Draft Control Using Push-Pull Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control . 231 15-5 Protection Against Implosion... 233 Measurement and Control of Combustion Air Flow plus Related Functions 29 16-1 Differential Pressure Measurement of Air Flow . 239 16-2. Non-Inferential Measurement of Air Flow 244 16-3 Control of Air Flow - 246 16-4 Flue Gas Dew Point Control. seseeeee 249 16-5 Soot BIOWINg ........-cccssssesssssssststeneseceeseeeeneessnssasss seve 253 Flue Gas Analysis Trimming of Combustion Control Systems 255 17-1 Useful Flue Gas Analyses. - . 255 17-2 Methods of Flue Gas Analysis 256 17-3. Pros and Cons of Measurement Methods and Gases Selected for Measurement isos sasisass 260 17-4. Flue Gas Analysis vs. Boiler Load - coe 262 17-5 PPM CO ys. PPM Total Combustible Gases 264 17-6 Control Applications Used for Flue Gas Analysis Trimming ..... 265 17-7 Limiting Factors in Reducing Excess Air . ee 2mChapter Section 18 Section 19 Section 20 Section 21 Section 22 Section 23 Section 24 Fluid Fuel Burners for Gas, Oil, and Coal 18-1 Burners for Gaseous Fuel Cz 18-2 Pulverized Coal Bumers 18-3 Fuel Oil Burners... Solid Fuel Burning Systems 19-1 Types and Classification of Stokers 19-2 Special Stoker Control Problems... Burner Management and Flame Safety Interlocks for Gas- and Fluid-Fired Boilers 20-1 Basic Cause of Furnace Explosions 20-2 Boiler Purge Logic . 20-3 Ignitor Header Valve Management 20-4 Main Gas Header Valve Management 20-5 Gas Burner Management Logic .... 20-6 Main Fuel Trip... 5 20-7 Degree of Burner Automation ... 20-8 Reliability of Interlock Circuitry Combustion Control for Liquid and Gaseous Fuel Boilers 21-1 Single-Point Positioning Control ..........-- 21-2 Parallel Positioning Control...... 21-3 Metering Control Systems.. 21-4 Effects of Fuel Btu Variation Pulverized Coal and Cyclone Coal Burning Systems 22-1 The Coal Feeder....... : 22-2 The Pulverizer and Classifier... 22:3 ‘The Primary Air Fan or Exhauster Fan and the Coal Drying System. —— 22-4 Pulverizer Control Systems . 32.5 Compartmented Windbox Puiverized Coal Boilers. 22-6 Start-up and Management of Pulverizers and Their Burners .... 22-7. The Cyclone Furnace : 32.8 Start-Up and Management of Cyclone Furmaces . ‘Combustion Control for Cyclone and Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers ..... 23-1 Coal Btu Compensation . 23-2. The Use of Multiple Pulverizers . The Combustion Control System f for Pulverized Coal as & Single Fuel 23-4. Pulverized Coal in Combination with Liquid or Gaseous Fuels 23-5 Compartmented Windbox Pulverized Coal Control Systems 23-6 Control Systems for Cyclone Fumace Boilers .... Combustion Control for Stoker-Fired Boilers 24-1 Parallel Positioning Control System for Stoker-Fired Boilers ...... 24-2 Inferential Measurement of Combustion Conditions in Boilers ... 24-3 Parallel Positioning Control System with Steam Flow/ Air Flow Readjustment 24-4 Series Ratio Control Systems for Stoker-Fired Boilers. Page 215 215 279 282 291 291 297 299 299 301 303 303 304 307 308 308 3u 311 315 317 328 333 333 336 338 341 350 352 355 358 359 359) 362 363 364 367 369 373 373 375 376 379Chapter Section 25 Section 26 Index Page 24-5 Applying Flue Gas Analysis Trim Control to Stoker-Fired Boilers... 381 24-6 Combustion Control for Combination of Stoker and Liquid or Gaseous Fuel Firing... seen 383 24-7 NFPA Purging and Interlock Requirements for Stoker-Fired Boilers... seseeeeee Es see 386 Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Boilers.. essicereecereeeees 389, 25-1 Bubbling Bed Fluidized-Bed Boilers 390 25-2 Circulating Bed Fluidized-Bed Boilers 392 25-3 NEPA Requirements for Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Combustion System Boilers .......... eens 395 Control System Complexity and Future Directions for Boiler Com ss csstowsccoreeseeesteecccnsassuie 397 26-1 Complex Control Systems for Electric Utility Boilers Using Embedded Process Models....... 397 26-2 Improving Control Precision and Stability without Process Modeling 398 26-3. Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems 402 26-4 A General Observation Relative to Boiler Modeling - 402 26-5 General Observations Relative to Boiler Control Application...... 404 407( ' ) wr’, nue Sr La&~ ~~ ¢ ? y AG, ref _ 2 LL) >= OPreface to Second Edition Five years have passed since the first edition of this book, and I have continued to learn as [have become older and wiser. In.the third paragraph of the preface to the first edition, I implied that what I have done in this second edition was impossible. I want to eat those words. ‘The cartoon by Gus Shaw on the opposite page tells the story. During his work with Bailey Meter Co. (prior to Bailey Controls Co.), Gus made several great cartoons on this theme. A complete study of “The Control of Boilers" must include the “starting up"” phase of the process. One of the purposes of this edition is to include some basic information on that digital phase of the operation in addition to the modulating “‘on-line’’ operation covered in the orig- inal edition. This results in the sections and subsections covering interlocks, burner start-up and man- agement, and the management of the start-up and operation of pulverizers and other fuel- buming equipment. Along with this is the recognition of applicable safety codes of the Na- tional Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Another purpose of this edition is the extension of the “‘on-line”” aspects of boiler control into the arena of the larger-capacity electric utility boilers. The results of this are new sections covering the firing rate demand for utility boilers and steam temperature control. The section covering furnace pressure control has been expanded to include implosion protection. The section covering the control of pulverized coal firing has been expanded to include cyclone fumaces and their control and the compartmented windbox boiler and its control And, as I said above, I have become older and wiser in the past five years. My ASME membership card now says 51 years, my ISA membership card says 42 years, and I have had time to rethink some the things I thought I already knew. In this last fiye years my work has taken me to installations involving chain grate stokers, pulverized coal-fired boilers, gas-fired boilers, the steam power cycle of a nuclear breeder reactor, and process heaters fired with by- product gas. In the past few months, my work with distributed digital system on an electric utility unit demonstrated the differences of working with a digital system as compared to an analog system. Three of the above assignments involved the investigation of furnace explo- sions that caused major damage. The investigation included considerable dialogue with every- body involved, as I continued to learn. In addition, the past five years have brought me approximately 25 teaching assignments covering boiler control for various types of boilers. This has involved me with approximately 500 students with various industrial and utility boiler backgrounds. In each of these areas, and in talking to the people involved, I have gained new insights and thus continued my learning. So now this second edition of The Control of Boilers. There is less coverage of the field of “‘start-up" and utility boiler control than these subjects deserve, but I believe that the basics included will help tie the whole subject together. There is still much to be written. It is my understanding that a much more detailed text in the area of bumer start-up and management is in process. An expansion in the area of utility boiler control directed at cogeneration, coal gasification combined cycles, low NOx control, flue gas scrubbers, fluidized bed boilers and their control, expert systems, artificial intelligence, and power plant unit performance analysis would be welcome. As indicated in the preface to the first edition of this book, the whole field of energy management for least cost operation of boilers and HVAC should also be given attention. The boiler control field, and the rest of the L&C field, has had its revolution. It is now a distributed digital “‘microprocessor"” world. But as with all control systems, no matter what hardware or software is used, the control application of the job to be done must be the major focus and must be defined. This book is a discussion of that application area. The hardware- software combination of today’s world unleashes the control application engineer from thebonds of hardware and hardware installation cost contraints. The engineer can now concentrate ‘on how best to control the boiler and other aspects of the power process. ‘Again I thank all those who, both knowingly and unknowingly, helped me along the way 1 particularly thank Paul Kenny of Forney Engineering Co.; Ollie Durrant, now retired from Babcock & Wilcox Co.; and Russ Beal, now retired from Bailey Controls Co., who furnished me with source documents. My intent is to emphasize the basic ideas involved in boiler control and thus stimulate the reader to expand his or her knowledge with more detailed study. If this book provides a jump- start to beginners in the field of boiler control application, or adds new insights to those ex- perienced readers, I shall have accomplished my purpose. S.G. Dukelow Hutchinson, Kansas xiiPreface to the First Edition 1 first became directly involved in boiler operation just 50 years ago, in the fall of 1936. Thad just started my work toward a mechanical engineering degree at Kansas State University and obtained a live-in part time job in a laundry and dry cleaning shop. My duties included building a coal fire in a hand-fired vertical firetube boiler and having 80 psig steam pressure when the laundry and dry cleaning people came to work at 8:00 AM. Since graduation in 1941, my career has been in the boiler control field, first with the Bailey Meter Co. (now Bailey Controls Co.) and after retirement in early 1980 as an independent consultant, When I agreed several years ago to write this text, I was not prepared for the effort that would be involved or the length of time before it was finished. That it was completed is one of my life’s minor miracles. Along the way boiler and control technology advanced and this required redoing much of the writing that had previously been completed. Another problem ‘was that I am not a natural bom writer (though now better than when I started this text) and sometimes went for over a month trying to think of a way to explain a particular aspect of the subject. But, by far, my major problem was to define the scope of the text and organize the coverage of the subject so that it would be manageable. A basic decision was that the coverage must be limited in scope in order to treat what was covered in at least minor detail. This led to the elimination of the digital logic aspects of boiler control, that of bumer and equipment start- up and shutdown and the flame safety shutdown actions. Limiting the scope also led to the decision to omit the complex areas of utility boiler control. Both of the above subjects are important enough in their own context that they should be covered in significant detail. This ‘would not have been possible if included here. In the organization of the book, care was taken to cover the boiler process aspects before the control coverage of those aspects. An attempt was also made to organize the coverage of the control aspects so that they would finally flow together into the complete boiler control system. In the diagrams of complete systems, space limitations required showing a previously shown subsystem as a block of control logic that had previously been covered. Tam very grateful to the many people who helped me along the way and hope that this text will help others to get a running start at boiler control application. I particularly thank E. G. Bailey, the founder of the Bailey Meter Co., for starting the company that provided me with a career that I thoroughly enjoyed. I am happy that I had the opportunity to thank Mr. Bailey personally in 1973 when he was 93 years old and had just received two new patents. ‘The material in this book is a distillation of my work in the field of boiler control. I thank everyone—hundreds, maybe thousands—who had a part in my training and development; I ‘can honestly say that I leaned from everyone. I learned much from talking to operating people who could observe how boilers acted but didn’t know why. I leamed from other service en- gineers for boilers, pumps, fans, turbines, switchgear, etc., as we would chat over dinner after the day's testing work. I learned from instrument engineers who worked for consulting engi- neers as they explained to me how other suppliers handled a particular problem. I learned from control maintenance engineers, design engineers, and operations engineers of client companies with whom I had many discussions concerning control performance and what was needed to improve it. I learned from my competitors in the field as they explained to me why they thought their system was better than mine and I would explain to them why this could not be so. Last, and certainly not least, I learned from my colleagues at Bailey Meter Co. and Babcock and Wilcox Co. who, in the one-way exchange of my early experience and in our normal give and take, passed on their insights and experiences as grist for my mill. Thope that someone will pick up where I left off and write a text that covers utility boiler control in some detail. Similarly, I hope that someone will write a text that includes in some xiiidetail the subject of bumer and safety control. Included would be burner management and the start-up and shutdown of pulverizers. A third text covering the subject of energy management is needed. Such a text would cover controls for the balancing of industrial heat cycles for least cost operation and also would cover HVAC applications. For those who read this and are already working in the boiler control field, 1 hope you will find some insights here that will help you with your work. For those who read this and are working in other fields, I hope that after reading this you will see that there is no mystique and that boiler control is very logical and not a lot of mumbo jumbo. ‘And now we have distributed digital control. The cost constraints to implementing complex boiler control applications have been virtually eliminated. What a great time for the boiler control application engineer. Sam Dukelow Hutchinson, KansasAbout the Author Sam Dukelow’s career has been dedicated to improving efficiency of energy conversion through designing, developing, and using energy-related systems. A licensed professional engineer and President of Energy Conservation Services in Hutch- inson, KA, Dukelow has conducted more than 500 combustion tests on boilers and other combustion processes in utility and industrial plants, and has tuned more than 300 automatic combustion control systems. His expertise in fuels and controlling combustion ranges from solutions for new unit ap- plications to retrofitting existing installations to save fuel, to change fuels, or to improve overall control. This expertise is backed by 38 years of experience with Bailey Controls Company, a sub- sidiary of Babcock and Wilcox Company. Dukelow has applied his experience in testing combustion and energy utilization to sim- plifying boiler performance monitoring techniques and methods. His approaches are easy to understand and use effectively. He has lectured at energy conservation seminars in many colleges and universities. He coordinated and acted as technical adviser for the award-winning five-film series on Boiler Control, produced by the Instrument Society of America. Dukelow has written numerous magazine articles, technical papers, and handbook sec- tions. Among those are (Chilton) ‘‘Instrument Engineers Handbook,"* (McGraw Hill) ““Hand- book of Energy Technology,” the National Bureau of Standards “Handbook # 115,”” (Kansas State University and ISA) “Improving Boiler Efficiency,"” as well as two software packages for ISA: “Boiler Efficiency Calculations,"* and ‘Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Steam.” . He eamed a bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering at Kansas State Uni- versity. He is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. His awards and recognition include the 1979 ISA Power Division Annual Achievement Award for outstanding contribution to the advancement of instrumentation in the power in- dustry. In 1991 he was named Fellow Member of the Instrument Society of America and was recipient of its prestigious Albert F. Sperry Award. xvSection 1 Introduction 1-1 Content and Objectives This text deals with the control of boilers. In the context of the coverage included, the emphasis will be on high pressure (above 15 psi) steam boilers as applied for power generation and process heat supply. Most of the included material will apply equally to electric utility boilers used for power generation and to smaller boilers for light industrial, commercial, and institutional heating applications Boiler control is a broad subject that includes the total start-up and shutdown procedures, as well as safety interlocks and the on-line operation of the boiler. The first edition of this text concentrated on the on-line aspects of boiler control. This edition includes coverage of start- up, shutdown, flame monitoring, and safety interlock measures. In the development of boiler control, the modulating on-line actions of the control were performed with analog equipment. The start-up and shutdown procedures as well as the safety interlocking procedures are digital actions and, as automatic control developed, involved dig ital equipment. The advent of the microprocessor-based distributed digital control has revolutionized the control equipment in both areas and has made it possible to properly integrate these two boiler control functions into one digital-based boiler control system. Industry has now fully accepted these newer systems, and the older analog equipment will now likely be found only on existing installations. Almost 100 percent of new control installations, whether new or replacement, are now using digital distributed control systems. . Boilers used in electric utility plants are usually of considerably greater capacity than their industrial counterparts. Boiler control systems also have a degree of complexity and sophi tication that relate generally to the size and complexity of the boiler equipment being con- trolled. A considerably greater use of the combination of modulating and digital logic func- tions is needed for the more complex tasks of utility boiler control. This complexity may include full integration of the on-line modulating functions and those ‘generally digital logic functions for burner control, bumer management, safety interlocks, and start-up and shutdown of equipment. The control systems for many large industrial boilers may also be enhanced by using some of these techniques. These integrated distributed digital control systems ate more reliable overall and economically more cost effective. ‘The main objective of this text is to introduce boiler control concepts and to develop typical applications to illustrate the use of these concepts. Another objective is the inclusion of the necessary background material so that the reader can properly apply the concepts to his or her ‘own particular needs. The text is aimed at those individuals who are actively involved in the operation, en; neering, or the sale of boilers and their peripheral equipment, and the operation, engineering, sale, or application of boiler control equipment. A knowledge of boiler jargon is therefore assumed. Also assumed is a rudimentary knowledge of the thermodynamics that relate to boiling, heat, heat transfer, and the combustion of fossil fuels. Formal education in these areas beyond that taught in high school chemistry and physics is desirable but not mandatory. A rudimentary knowledge of control concepts is required, and familiarity with the various types of control loops and their tuning characteristics is desirable. ‘The intent in writing this volume was to present the material in such a way that the use of advanced mathematics, such as calculus and beyond, would not be required. The mathematical prerequisite is, however, a secure, fundamental understanding of the basic mathematics of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.2 ‘The Control of Boilers In order to properly apply control equipment to boilers or any other process, it is necessary to understand the basic aspects of the process that relate to control, the interrelationships of the process characteristics, and the dynamics that are involved. To help the reader develop that understanding, a significant portion of the text discusses the boiler “steaming” process and its various attributes. ‘Another significant portion on boiler fuels and the fuel-buming equipment, their charac- teristics, and their handling has been included to form the background information for the control of different types of fuels. The intent is to provide a reference text on boiler control that includes all of the tools for a basic understanding of boiler control. To that end, several tables, charts, and graphs that are purely of a reference nature have been included. 4-2 Boiler Control Objectives For proper control application, it is necessary to understand the objectives of the control system. In the case of steam boilers, there are three basic objectives: (1) To cause the boiler to provide a continuous supply of steam at the desired condition of pressure and temperature. Q) To continuously operate the boiler at the lowest cost for fuel and other boiler inputs, consistent with high levels of safety and full boiler design life. (3) To safely start up, shut down, monitor on-line operation, detect unsafe conditions, and take appropriate actions for safe operation at all times. ‘The second objective translates into ‘improving boiler efficiency,”” since achieving the lowest fuel cost involves operation with the most efficient combustion. For the proper under- standing of combustion efficiency and how it is achieved, the text includes material that cavers the combustion process. This material includes discussion of the measurements that are used to determine combustion and boiler efficiency and the techniques and methods used in deter- mining those efficiency values. ‘The third objective is specifically supported by the included sections on interlocking, burner management, and flame safety systems. Other digital logic functions that relate to the third objective and are more integrated with the modulating logic functions are covered as parts of various other sections. ‘There are a multitude of designs of boiler systems. Built into the designs may be heat recovery features that enable operation at a particular level of cost for fuel and other inputs. Since the automatic control system actually operates the boiler, whether or not the boiler achieves its economic potential is a function of the boiler control system. Generally, control systems of greater sophistication can control more precisely and come closer to meeting all of the system design objectives; but greater sophistication of a control system usually means a higher initial cost. tis necessary when applying boiler control systems to understand the trade-offs between increased cost for control sophistication (including a higher level of maintenance) and the savings that result from its application. Investment in control sophistication, as with other investments, usually is layered. The law of “diminishing returns” for each added layer also usually holds true. Each improvement in control sophistication should, therefore, be reviewed on an incre~ ‘mental basis of return relative to investment. To facilitate such analysis, the text develops the control methods by starting with basic control loops and demonstrates added sophistication through optional additions to the base system. 1-3 Control System Diagramming ‘A boiler control system is an interconnected package of control loops and functions into which a number of inputs are connected and a number of output signals are delivered to finalIntroduction 3 control devices. A change from one input will usually affect more than one output. In addition, 2 change in one output may have an effect on more than one boiler measurement or input. Because of this, the specific arrangement of the control equipment has a very significant effect ‘on control interaction. It is a goal in the improvement of this type of control system to minimize these interactions This requires the development of control logic that will not only perform the control functions but will also minimize the interaction between control loops. To perform these logic funtions, all the basic control functions—feedback (closed-loop), feedforward (open-loop), cascade, and ratio—are used individually and linked together in any needed combination. The integration of control mode switching and tracking functions may also be used to minimize control inter- action. This text deals with the logic involved in the control systems and is somewhat independent of the type of, or manufacturer of, the control hardware that is used to implement the control schemes. While there is now an ISA standard for diagramming control systems such as those for boiler control (ANSI/ISA-S5.1, Instrumentation Symbols and Identification), it is quite hard- ware-oriented. Control action symbols for the ISA system are now the same as the earlier SAMA symbols. Procedures for showing the pure application logic can be more clear-cut if the hardware identification of the ISA. system is eliminated. The function diagrams in this book use the same symbols as the ISA standard but in a manner suggestive of the older SAMA. diagramming system ‘The ISA system is considerably superior to the SAMA system of diagramming when used in piping and instrument diagrams. The intent on these diagrams is to identify, by instrumen- tation code numbers, all of the instrumentation measuring and final control devices and to show their locations in relation to those of the piping and major equipment, Showing exactly how the control system functions is secondary. ‘The SAMA system, since it deals only with the control logic involved, is applicable to the older pneumatic or electric analog control, the mechanical control of the James Watt period, Table 1-1 SAMA Control Diagramming System ENCLOSURE SYMBOLS TABLE! © MEASURING/READOUT LETTERS TABLE Il Function Symbol! Process Variable Function A= Analysis R = Recording Measuring Or O C = Conductivity Indicating Readout a D = Density T = Transmitter 7 F = Flow RT = Recording Manual Signal } L= Level Transmitter Processing en M-Moisue (ERT) "T~ Tenomitr P = Pressure Automatic Signal 8 = Speed V= Viscosity Final Controlling CA W=Weight 2 = Position Within circ ue a etter ayo! fom Table place of "2 **Salf-dtinng symbols such 25 02, pH. etc. can be used inTable 1-1 (continued) SIGNAL PROCESSING SYMBOLS Funetion & Graphic Symbol" Representation suns 4 7 me nenrn tote! | The Control of Boilers TABLE III Definition [rhe output equals the algebraic sum of ihe inputs, AVERAGING ay big tt hy * syn [OT % Ihe output equals the algebraic sum of Ihe inputs divided by the number of inputs. P a erenenct aot % [The output equals the algebraic differ- a a lence between the two inputs. yemearioes The output is directly proportional 10 « the input an Ihe output varies in accordance with lboth magnitude and duration of the in- jput. The output is proportional to the ime integral of the input DIVAN Lhe output is proportional to the rate d/at |_;— orchange (derivative ofthe input aaa swucriecrns pone The output equals the product of the x oJ = two inp. %y m ‘The output is equal to that input which > = (a FORK, rms >i i } limit value whichever is. wer ow umiNG FORK > L € [t= [ere 2c The output equals the input or the low imi value whichever higher eva PROPORTIONAL m= — x |The output is reversely proportional to “Kk 1 the inp nh cnn frie output equal he input as ong as cn {the rate of change of the input does not lexceed a limit value. The’ output will Ichange at the rate established by this limit until the output again equals the input [The output equals the input plus (or |minus) some arbitrary value (bias).‘The Control of Boilers Table 1-1 (conti inued) SIGNAL PROCESSING SYMBOLS (continued) oes nor aur Graphic Representation tis an analog signal devel- the generator. TRANSFER T +, FOR STATE 1g FOR STATE js " The output equals the input which has been selected by transfer. The state of jg established by external ‘Sane ET stonat ge suontToR H/ state? srareRsrare Re STATE quence 08 a Ste Set io smATe2 x Wv H/L srare2 “The output has discrete states which are wy, pea otae f teint. sé, When the input exceeds (or becomes WE? jess than) an arbitrary lint value the ‘utpul changes state. 4 aE x a Sa sm eugene ‘The variables used in the table are A — Anarbitrary analog signal b — Analog bias value ae a H_— An arbitrary analog high limit value 1 Ft —Hntegrating rate Derivative with respect to time L_— An arbitrary analog low limit value m — Analog output variable 1n — Number of analog inputs or value of exponent t Time Ty — Derivative time x — Analoginput variable as Rovs +s %q — Analog input variable (1 ton in number)Introduction Table 1-2 ISA Control Diagramming System INSTRUMENT LINE SYMBOLS (1) INSTRUMENT. SUPPLY (OR CONNECTION TO PROCESS (2) UNDEFINED SIGNAL iy ee (3) PNEUMATIC: SIONAL a (4) ELECTRIC SIONAL (5) -HYORAULIC SIONAL, = (6) CAPILLARY TUBE va (7) ELECTROMAGNETIC OR SONIC SIONAL ee (Guioeo) (0) ELECTROMAGNETIC OR SONIC SIONAL usw (9) INTERNAL SYSTEM LINK (SOFTWARE OR DATA LINK) (10) MECHANICAL LINK OPTIONAL BINARY (ON-OFF) SYMBOLS (IL) PNEUMATIC BINARY SIGNAL KOK (12) ELECTRIC BINARY SIGNAL GENERAL INSTRUMENT OR FUNCTION SYMBOLS PRIMARY aucLiaRy Location Fre Location NORMALLY wouNTED NORMALLY ACCESSIBLE. To ACCESSIBLE. TO ‘OPERATOR ‘OPERATOR T z 3 Discrete er INSTRUMENTS O 7 5 = ShaRED DISPLAY, SRARED CONTROL’ octc conTROL SG eee a) oO 8 gj PROGRAMMABLE‘The Control of Boilers Table 1-2 (continued) FUNCTION | SYMBOL NO-[ FUNCTION | SYMBOL eaune 10 | exroverria | [er avemone | Eh " F Fal OIFFERENCE a v2 | FiErion er prorortiona. | [121 13 | Seferine 2 INTEGRAL L 14 | Seteerine < venivarive | [a 15 | Citrine werrerne | Dk elite | EE REVERSE x] DIVIOING 17 | PROPORTIONAL r veyocry Berm | BE ve | vO (4Insroduction Table 1-2 (continued) NO [FUNCTION | SYMBOL WO [FUNCTION | SYMBOL + 19 | ons = aa $ 20 | convent */4| au | Beate nel + +HL| IDENTIFICATION LETTERS FIRST-LETTER (4) SUCCEEDING-LETTERS (3) MEASURED OR READOUT OF ourpur INTIRTING VARIABLE | MODIFIER _||PASSIVE FUNCTION| FUNCTION MODIFIER & [aratvsis ‘em & |Burer, Conbusion Users Orece— |Users Choice [Users Choice © | Users Chaice fcarver D [Users Choice ‘ioral = |votase Sensor (Primary Eemen) Fw Fale alo (Fracion) [E [Ueere craice Gass, | Viewing Device 1H | Hand |High T [Current ieetcay inca J [Power ean 1 [ime Tire Schedule [Tine Fate of Conia Staion Grange T foever ght oe i [Users Croce Momentary a. Intermediate Users Choiee Tears Grace [Users Croce [Users Croce © [Users Choice ic, Reson Preseue, Vacuum Point (Test Connection 1S [Guannty irigrae, Toaize | Radiation Record 3 | Speed, Frequency [Sale Switch10 ‘The Control of Boilers Table 1-2 (continued) IDENTIFICATION LETTERS. Cc FIRST-LETTER (#) ‘SUCGEEDING-LETTERS (3) | ‘MEASURED OR READOUT OR ourpur eR einoLe | MODIFIER [PASSIVE FUNCTION| __ FUNCTION women T | Temperature “Transmit 7 T [avert Walioncion ‘unfuncion | onion V | Vibration, Mechanical ~ ~ [Walve, Damper. wayee fee | W | Weight, Force ‘Well 7 X |Uncasstos «(|X As Tncassied | Uncasiie Tncasaied ‘| Y Y Axis Relay. Compute, a Sone [Position, Owmension Z Axis: Driver, Actuator, ~ Cnciistes Peat Gono! element and equally to the newer microprocessor control. In addition, the SAMA method has by use become the generally accepted method for diagramming boiler control systems, Tt is noted that the development of the SAMA system of diagramming control systems originated during the era of analog control. With an analog system, all signals are live and continuously connected to the control computations involved. With digital systems comes time sharing and transfer of data with both inputs and outputs intermittently connected to the control computations. In some cases the difference in nature between analog and digital control may introduce different and cleaner control logie possibilities for performing the same control task: In control areas where the difference in logic between analog and digital systems may be significant, these differences will be noted in the text. in order that all users of this text have a basis for understanding the control diagrams, the ‘essence of the SAMA and ISA systems is given in Table 1-1 and Table 1-2, In addition, Figure 1.1 is a comparative demonstration of the SAMA and ISA diagramming systems. The user of this text is encouraged to obtain the ISA diagramming publication to assist in his or her un- derstanding. The SAMA publication is obsolete and no longer supported by SAMA. The fessence of control system diagramming can also be found in publications of the manufacturers of control systems. “The digital logic functions are shown in standard “‘yes/no"” flow charting symbols or in the “and/or/not’” type of logic system diagramming. 1-4 Boiler Control Application in Historical Perspective ‘The inventor of boiler control appears to have been James Watt. In 1785 he applied the “flyball" governor for speed control ofthe frst rotative steam engines. In approximately 1790 he applied feedback control to automatically control the level in the boiler by regulating the water to the boiler. Within approximately 10 years of that time he applied feedback control to control steam pressure by using automatic boiler draft regulation. How this was accomplished is shown in Figure 1-2, a copy of a drawing of a boiler from that time period. From that time in the late 1790s, while there were improvements in the hardware devices used, the application concepts of boiler control did not advance until the early 20th century From approximately 1915 until 1950, boiler control developed into integrated systems for theIntroduction n ISA O-® el al al lect ecieel cae ! ' ! ! LL I i ——> t Feedwater valve Feedwater valve Figure 1-1 Two-Element Feedwater Control “on-line™* control of steam pressure, furnace draft, combustion, feedwater, and steam tem- perature. This period also covered the acceptance phase of this type of equipment. By 1950 boiler control had proven its worth, and it was accepted that any new boiler installation would include the installation of such automatic boiler control equipment. Before 1950 only basic fuel and fan interlocks were furnished. Such things as pulverizer start-up and shutdown and the lighting and management of burner operation were all manual operations. ‘The large majority of the installations in the period between 1950 and 1960 were pneu- matic. While there were very significant developments in control application for utility boilers and the most complex large industrial boilers, the development of industrial boiler control was primarily hardware-oriented. For all new installations that were made during this period, there ‘was a progressive increase in the use of the concept of implementing boiler control by linking together analog computing devices. ‘The use of bumer control systems for automatically starting and stopping bumers and complete flame safety systems for tripping fuel and air on a per burner basis began during the decade of the 1950s. Such systems were implemented with mechanical relays. During the 1960s such functional systems became generally accepted. The industry demand for improved reliability and availabilty, and better flame detectors and solid-state discrete logic in place of the mechanical relays, hastened this acceptance. For implementing the modulating control functions, a development for new installations uring the 1960s was the switch from predominantly pneumatic analog control to predomi- nantly solid-state, discrete element, electronic analog control. While coordinated boiler-tur-12 The Control of Boilers Figure 1-2 Steam Pressure Control by Draft Regulation (circa 1790) (From Types of Boilers, Carl S. Dow, $.8. 1911) bine control of electric utility boilers appeared in the 1950s, it came into general use during the 1960s. In the mid 1960s control systems for utility boilers and large industrial boilers were be~ coming too complex for easy analysis using hardware line diagrams. The result was the de- velopment by the control industry of the SAMA functional diagramming system. The first ISA control system diagramming standards for boiler control appeared in the late 1960s On the negative side, industrial boiler control regressed during this 1950 to 1970 period, due to the continual reduction in ‘‘constant dollar‘ fuel prices relative to the cost of boilers and their appurtenances. The result was the use of less control sophistication for the average new installation. As this situation progressed, larger and larger boiler installations, with their increased consumption of fuel, were required in order to economically justify the more com- plex boiler control systems. Figure 1-3 demonstrates this with a comparison between the cost of fuel oil and the cost of boiler control systems of comparable complexity Since 1970 the economic balance has completely turned around (see Figure 1-3). The very high price of fuel in the "80s and so far in the "90s can justify on any boiler a much greater degree of control sophistication than could be justified in 1970. In addition, the development ‘of microprocessor control has sparked the beneficial transition to the greater precision of digital control. The development of new sensors and the simplicity of integrating the fixed logic and modulating functions of control systems have been instrumental in the development of new boiler control application concepts. This text should be viewed in the context of the fuel economics that have driven the changes of recent years as well as the control strategy capability and equipment (both measurement and control) that exist today.Introduction B Price & Equipment Index v 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 “4 12 10 Price Index For Control Equipment —eaee eee 4 0. 4650 54 58 G2 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 Years Figure 1-3 Comparisons of Costs of Fuel Oil and Boiler Control SystemsSection 2 Boiler Basics and the Steaming Process 2-1 The Basic Steaming Process In the conversion of water from its liquid phase to steam (its vapor phase), heat is added to initially increase the water temperature to the boiling point temperature. This heat that raises the temperature of the water is known as sensible heat. The boiling point temperature is 212°F at atmospheric pressure and rises as the pressure in the system is increased. The boiling point temperature is also known as the saturation temperature of the steam that is produced. The relationships between the saturation temperatures and pressures of steam are fixed thermody- namic properties of steam. As the conversion from the liquid phase (water) to the vapor phase (steam) begins, the temperature no longer changes with the addition of heat. The fluid exists at the saturation temperature-pressure relationship during the entire conversion of the water to steam. The heat that is added in converting from the liquid to the vapor phase at constant temperature is called the latent heat of evaporation. Steam that is fully vaporized but has not been heated to a temperature above the saturation temperature is called dry saturated steam. Steam that is not fully vaporized is called “*wet"’ steam. The percentage by weight of the water droplets in the wet steam is known as the % moisture. The % quality of wet steam is obtained by subtracting the % moisture from 100. The total amount of heat in a quantity of dry saturated steam includes the amount of sensible heat above 32°F and the latent heat of evaporation. Generally, as the pressure of dry saturated steam increases, the amount of sensible heat increases and the amount of latent heat decreases. The relationships between the various thermodynamic steam properties are shown in Tables 2-1 and 2-2 By adding additional sensible heat to dry saturated steam, the temperature can be increased above the saturation temperature. Steam that is heated above the saturation temperature is called superheated steam. The effect on the thermodynamic properties by superheating steam is shown in Table 2-3. Note that superheating increases the total heat or enthalpy (1) of the steam. Superheating also causes the steam to expand, increasing its specific volume (ft’/Ib). 2-2 The Basic Boiler A basic diagram of a boiler is shown in Figure 2-1. This diagram shows that a boiler comprises two separate systems. One system is the steam-water system, which is also called the water side of the boiler. Into this system water is introduced and, upon receiving heat that is transferred through a solid metal barrier, is heated, converted to steam, and leaves the system in the form of steam The other system of a boiler is the fuel-air-flue gas system, which is also called the fire side of the boiler. This system provides the heat that is transferred to the water. The inputs to this system are fuel and the necessary air required to burn the fuel In this system the fuel and air are thoroughly mixed and ignited in a furnace. The resulting combustion converts the chemical energy of the fuel to thermal or heat energy. The furnace is usually lined with heat transfer surface in the form of water-steam circulating tubes. These tubes receive heat radiating from the flame and transfer it to the water-side system. The gases resulting from the combustion, known as the flue gases, are cooled by the transfer of their heat by what is known as the radiant heat transfer surface. The gases leave the furnace and pass through additional heating surface that is in the form of water-steam circulating tubes. In this area the surfaces cannot “‘see’” the flame, and the heat is transferred by convection. Also6 The Control of Boilers Table 2-1 Saturation: Temperatures ‘Abs Press, Specie Volume Entholpy Envopy Teop sh sot om fo Temp * Sale gst top sii oper * ' ns is : 2 0.08654 o.o1602 3508 3000 oo 30758 00000 21877 21677 at 0.09095 ooio02 as47s047 a0 YOrT, 0.0061 2.1709 217085 Sarto Ooleon sas Bade 0s lors ole fuss 21507 40 Ouaree Goleos 30064 20004 «108 GHA 10S 0269 —BAleT 21499 45 Ossi Ooleos tesa Yona «3807 30058 1057 © Oaso1 20000 a1204 5 D2s63' Ooleot 12068 oa7 «280910909 10880 Oss R009 200186 Doel 001608 80718 «8579 «BOL 10543 10023 0.074 19902 2007 70 SOS Obleos aust Gaal a8n2 L0iR@ loves Moose Lowes 20000 8 Qoose Dolor 4680 © 46805789 10s Llons INI LagTa 20087 $0 sees poles. 3s03 soa ©—«arar loa7a 11052 0208 LesoL L050 100 $ohs Oblel? S623 bos Tr94 0OL8 Mloes O4dT Isl0s 19577 Mo 16024 0.01620 90025 20R2T «BTM 10258 1IRT 064s 17094 19509 120 oes ples 1s732 187.44 9790 10200 1179 OBI 17906 L912 190 3550 01629 19299 «12801 —«LOTHD lold1 13220 O964 L990 18604 140 Qs Golest «97.08 GTOT©—«ATS9 10082 11261 02149 1.6597 1.6085 150 Grat —Ooles> «T7127 ©~—«'7729—«RTHD 1002S 11902 02911 2.6174 1.8485 160 S002 0164S 62.04 —«60F-—«AST.SD 906.3 11912 02472 1.8622 18209 170 Foi oles $0.21 © —«$023.«A4TS2 9902 11381 02690 1.5480 18109 180 $300 ores? 40.04 408 «ASTSS G54 Miez0 o2TRS LLsT 17902 190 ansne 0016833342 «SREL «16799 ITD 11459 0.2098 14824 L772 — 200 Ties OoleT). «2780 «BTS? «7805 OTS 1145.7 03000 1.4508 17508 210 M608 001672. «26.78 «2680 -«18OOT 9703 11504 0310 14446 17906 2Ie I7iseO0177 2313-9315 188.19 9052 15.4 Zo 20760 01684-10365 19382 198.29 958.8 11870 20 pioes —woL602 | Tes08 16823 20834 9522 kes 0.3591 1.9009 17140 AO Zheos 0100 | BBOL «ISBN B1SAS OFS 11610 0.675 1.9029 16008 250 35429 01709 -«LL7AG-«LTE3.-D28GI 9987 1167.3 ODSIT 1.904 1.6860 260 210 Gress OOITIT 1004 10061 2984 OLS 17S 0.3958 12769 LorZ — 0 280 Joos 00126 «BENS GIS 24905 O24T 11738 0.4096 19501 Lesoy 280 200 Eidse otras © Ta4t «= TAGL «9591 OTS 1170S 04234 1.2938 LosT2 390 300 Bos aoras ©6449 «40526959 O10 1179.7 0.4309 1.1080 1.6950 300 20 Oor7es «4898401420028 SOLO 11652 4637 LIsTS LOLS — 300 30 Oorrs? —8770-«—«-ATSS SILAS 8790 11901 0.4900 1.0902 1580, S40 360 Ooisti —-2959-«BUS7 S21 S022 119,4 O5158 1.0519 LseT? 360 380 001836 «2317S «ISIAS | BM4G 11981 0541S 1.0059 LbATL 380 400 Ooiscs «L847 L863 S7A9T 8260 1201.0 5064 O.9608 15272 400 20 0.01894 14811 1.5000 906.77 8093 12031 0.5912 0.9169 18078 420 400 Ooro2: —-Liev9 «SITE 41890 7854 12043 0.6158 0.8790 L487 440 40 Oolss —-«O9T4S OOM 4414 Tos2 12046 0.6402 52S 14700 460 450 O02 © oro12« OBIT? 4644 «7904 19037 Yass 480 ‘500 oot = O6Ss5 | OGTAY 45787139 12017 Yass 500 20 00209 05085 05504 S119 6504 11052 14139520 0 0025 — 0.444 O4G19 56H GHG 11032 T3012 540 560 00231 —«0.36k7 03808 5622 G22 11864 vr 5e0 550 030890217 5589 SERA 11773 Y35s2 580 600 02432 02608 ITO SARS 11655 rsoor 600 20 0.1955 02901 646.7 5056 11503 08308 O4004 1.9062 620 60 01538 G1708 GTRG 4520 11905 0.8579 04110 12780 GAO 60 Olle; 0142 T42 3002 Moss 9.8957 ONS 12472 eo 50 Oosto O15 757.3 3009 10672 9.991 O2TID T2071 sso 700 O30 OIG 623 TRI vaS4 0.9005 0.148 1.1580 700 1034 32062 © 0.0503 9027 0-027 1.0580 0 1.0580 105.4 in this area, known as the convection heating surface, additional amounts of heat are trans- ferred to the water side of the boiler. This heat transfer further cools the flue gases, which then leave the boiler. ‘Since heat transfer depends upon a temperature difference as a ‘‘driving force,"’ with the simple boiler described the flue gases can be cooled only to a temperature that is at some level above the temperature of the steam-water system. The temperature of the flue gases determines the amount of heat remaining in these gases, so the heat loss in the boiler flue gases is deter- mined to some extent by the saturation temperature in the steam-water system The process of adding heat to convert water {o steam has a time constant that depends upon the specific characteristics of the installation. The factors affecting this time constantBoiler Basics and the Steaming Process "7 Table 2-2 Saturation: Pressures STR SR. e BOE Ee SA 1D 10174 901614 9336 6970 10515 M980 0.1928 18159 19782 6970 9740 19443 10 20° 12608 0.01623 179799399 Io3 M162 1749 —A74S1 19200 9393 STO LOLS 20 30 1414s O19 11871 r0937 10132 11226 —OZONs 1.6855 18503 10090 9179 10507 30 49 15297 o01630 9063 12086 10054 11273 O319§ 16427 18023 12085 9993 Uda 49 59 16224 onli 7352 13043 10010 MaLt 9380 10631 5.0 $0 17000 01645 13796 9962 1iaK2 BTS 10654 60 70 17085 90169 ¥476 91 11909 27 10s 70 80 16286 001653 150.79 11393 B14 10802 50 30° 18828 901658 350.02 hata 946 1008 90 10 10391 001659 aeLi7 133, SML1 10722 10 14696 21200 001672 18007 11504 8075 10775 14.086 15 21303 ooior2 asian M1508 O15 LMS 1.7540 18105 8907 10778 AB, 2 22796 oo1Gss 9916 11533 03356 13062 17319 19810 8858 1059 20 % 25033 ooizor 218.82 M641 03680 13313 10093 21873 8601 10578 30 40 26795 oorns 220.0), Mga 03919 13844 16763 25590 B51 10020 40 5 es101 oore7 250.09 M41 O10 12474 16585 24093 BAS 10083 50 so maT oora8 202.09 L776 0.4270 19163 1.6438 26190 8360 10079 @0 To 29, Ooms 6206 27281 11806 04409 L006 1031s 27238 S278 11002 70 80 31203 oorsT S472 25202 11831 3903 11021 80 90 a2na7 ores ©4806 20056 isa 814 11037 90 100 2781 OoIT = 44a2 20840 ist B07. 11052 100 10 S425 oo1789 a8 a12.44 nos. 7958 11078 20 Mo 35302 oo1s02 3.200 32482 nase sa 11008 10 100 3653 OO1BIS BAM Basa 1195.1 7758 1112 160 180 373.06 Oo1s27 2532 340.05, ios Ter W125 Wo 200 361.79 UII) 2288 355.36 iiss. 7590 11137 200 2s 400.95 0.01803 1.8498 376.00 12014 MoT 158 250 500 41733 O01800 15429 300.84 12028 43 171 300 a0 491.72 01013 1'5200 400.69 7098 1180 360 0 44459 00103 40 059 11185 400 4045028 00105, ara oss: 187 450 soo 46701 o0197 4694 611) 0186 500 50 476.93 0.0193 4008 65.7; 1182 550 S00 486.21 201 ms 48:5 11127 00 Too sm3.10 oo20s ‘ous e135 1163 100 0 51823 00200 Sout eos 1ie4 800 900 33193 0022 5266 5890 11121 900 roo 544.61 0.0216 sat ‘STLO 11034 1000 Neo 356.31 0.0230 S514 ‘S505 11004 1100 Tato 567.92 0.0223 sat 5963 11030 1200, imo 57746 00337 5654 510A 10004 1300 1400 587.10 ox 5987 5027 1005.4 1400 1300 59623 0.0235 ons 4601 10012 1500 2000 @3582 00257 eur 4034 10656 2000 2300 665.13 0.0387 08 3133 10906 2500 3000 695.36 0.0346 5025 1893 972.7 3400 32062 705.40 0.0503 9027 0 872.9 3206.2 include the system heat storage, the heat transfer coefficients in different parts of the system, the masses of metal and refractory and their configuration, and various other factors. For the Purpose of control, it is generally enough to understand that the complete time constant is a matter of minutes. Viewing the system as achieving 63 percent of total response in one fifth of the total time constant (a first-order system) is sufficient for most boiler control analysis procedures. 2-3 Heat Recovery from the Flue Gases Ifthe heat losses in the boiler flue gases are to be reduced, separate heat exchangers must bbe added to the simple boiler to recover more of the heat and further cool the flue gases. The combustion air preheater is one form of such an added heat exchanger. The application of an air preheater is shown in Figure 2-2. The flue gas leaves the boiler and passes through the18 The Control of Boilers Table 2-3 Superheated Vapor vers ‘w/e Temperature, F {Set Teno) 2 300 400 500 600700 800 900 1000 1200 1400 1600 y 3628 4523 5120 STLO GIL2 OWS 7504 8009 S695 9887 11078 1227.0 1B tisod 11958 1241.7 12883 19357 19808 1492.8 1482.7 15985 16577 1745-7 1857.5 (ola) $ 20512 24159 2.1730 2.2259 2.9702 23137 2.9542 29003 2.4265 24952 25568 2.6107 + 781690295 10226 114.92 126.16 13810 15009 161.95 17987 197-71 2218 2454 sh 11488 1195.0 1241.2 12880 19354 1989.6 14527 1482.6 1595.4 1697-7 1745.7 1857.4 (18224) ¢—LATI8. 1.9370 1.9942 2.0458 2.0027 2.1961 2.1767 2.2148 2.2500 2.178 2.9702 2.4063 ¥ 3885 45.00 $1.04 5705 6303 6201 7498 80.95 S692 98.84 11077 12269 10h — 1id66 11939 12406 1967.5 1935. 1583.4 1492.5 1482.4 15552 1657.6 17458 1857.9 (agS21y's 1708718595 1.9172 119689 2.0160 20506 21002 2.1355 21744 22413 2.9028 2.3598 + 3053 3468 2878 42.86 46.94 5100 5507 50.13 6725 7537 8348, 14596 11928 12399 12871 1048 19832 14923 1482.3 1553.1 1697.5 17455 1857.9 (212.00) + 1s16) 18743 1.9061 19704 20170 20576 20958 21919 2.1989 22603 2.3174 . 2236 2543 2846 S147 S447 S746 4045 43.44 4941 5597 61.04 nok 1191.6 12902 1866 19944 13829 1492.1 1482.1 15930 1657-4 1745.4 18572 (22196) 5 1/7808 1.8906 1.9918 1.9902 19899 2.0255 20618 2.0978 2.1648 2.2269 2.2804 ¥ 11.040 12.698 14.168 15688 17.198 18702 2020 21.70 2469 27.68 3060 woh Tia6' 12965 12848 1998.1 19819 14913 1481-4 1532.4 1697.0 1745.1 1857.0 (20725) + 0904 17608 1.8140 1.8619 1.9058 1.9467 1.9850 20012 2.0863 2.1458 2.2000 + 1259 8.357 9403 10427 11.441 12449 12452 146.454 16451 18440 20.44 oh isis 12336 12850 1391.8 13809 14305 1480°5 1531.9 16366 1744.8 1856.7 (omy + 16499 17155 1.7678 18162 1.8005 1.9015 1.9400 19762 20494 2.1049- 2.1621 . 6.220 7.030 7.797 8502 9.99 10.077 10.830 12:92 13.890 1595 ok 1230-7 1281.1 13805 1879.9 1420-7 1480.1 1551.3 16362 1744.5 1850.5, (a203) + Terol 1.7346 1786 18281 18694 1.9079 Lo4i2 20115 20731 2.1903, ’ 4997 5.589 6218 6895 7.446 8.052 8.656 9860 11.000 12.58 10h 12376 127941 1929.1 19769 14289 1479.5 15008 1005.7 1744218562 (sar) 1518 1.7085 1.7581 18020 1.8443 1.8899 1.9193 1.9867 20484 2.1056 . 4081 4.636 5.165 5689 6.195 6.702 7207 8212 9214 10219 rok 12344 13772 13907 18778 O81 LATS 15302 1635. 1748.9 1856.0 (34125) + T6267 1.6869 1.7370 1.7892 18057 1.8605 18990 1.9664 20281 2.0854 ’ 3.466 3.954 4419 4861 501 5.798 6172 7095 7805 8.752 wok BBOLT 12762 19984 19788 14279 147K2 1598-7 16949 17435 1855.7 (95802) + Toit? 1.6689 17190 17645. 18063 LSI 1.8817 19499 2.0110 2.0683 , 3.008 3449 3.849 4244 4601 5.015 5.396 6.152 6.908 7.858 160k 12176 127HL 13250 97ST 14R84 1477S 15201 10045 1743.2 1855.5 (3855) + 15008 16519 17009 M7491 17911 LADOL 18667 19944 1.9962 2.0505 . 2649 3044 3411 3764 4110 4452 4792 5.460 6.196 6.808 10h W2iao 1270 13235 1874 M256 1TH ISIKG WOOLT 1T9 18552 (97308) + 15745 10579 LOWb4 1.7955 1777 LS167 LASS4 19212 19831 20404 ’ 2561 2726 3.060 9.980 2683 4002 4.309 4917 5.521 6.125, 20k 12103 12689 13221 13736 14248 14762 15280 16357 173.6 1855.0 (o8t79) = Tons Lazio here? 17292 17655 1.8048 18415 19008 19713 2.0087 . 2125 2465 2772 9000 3.952 2604 3919 4.467 5.017 5.505 mh 1396.5 12067 1320.7 19728 14240 14755 1527.5 1633.3 1742318547 (389586) 15053 LOLI? 1.0052 17120 17545 1.7999 18008 1.8987 19607 2.0181 y ome 3247 2509 2004 som 3387 3564 apo 4soT S10) moh 1an25 12645 19ied 19715 14232 14745 15269 16529 17420 1854.5 (ara t 13919 116009 18546 1.7017 17444 17899 1.8200 1.8859 1.9510 2.0084 ¥—Speeific Volume (cu. ft./1b.) ‘n—Total Heat (BTU/Ib.) s—EntropyBoiler Basics and the Steaming Process 260 (404.42) 20 (41105) 300 (417.33) 350 (431.72) (44459) + 450 (456.28) 500 (467.01) (47694) 5 600 (486.21) 700 (503.10) 800 (51823) 900 (531.98) 1000 (544.61) 1100 (558.31) 1200 (367.22) 2.063, 1262.3 15897 1.9047 1260.0 15798 1.1615 1257.6 15701 1.4923 12515 15481 1.2881 1245.1 1.5281 Liga 12384 1.5095 0.9927 1231.3 Lasi9 0.5852 12237 1751 947 12157 1.4586 Table 2-3 (continued) 2.930 2.582 ASITT 13704 16447 1.6922 2.156 2.392 13162 1969.4 1.6354 1.6834 2.005 2.207 13147 1368.3 116268 1.6751 1.7036 1.5980 13109 1365.5, 1.6070 1.6563, 1.4770 1.6508 1306.9 1362.7 1.5804 1.6908 1.3005 1.4584 1302.8 1359.9 1.5735. 1.6250 1.1591 1.3044 1298.6 1357.0, 15585 1.6115 Losat 1.1783 1294.3 13540 15451 1.5991 0.9465 1.0732 1289.9 1351.1 15323 1.5875 07994 0.9077 1280.6 1345.0 1.5084. 1.5665 0.6779 0.7833 1270.7 1338.6 1.4863 1.5476 0.5879 0.6883, 1260.1. 1382.1 14653 1.5303 0.5140 0.6084 12488 1325.3 1.4450 15141 0.4532 0.5445 1286.7 1318.3 14251 1.4989 0.4016 0.4909 12935 1311.0 1.4052 1.4843, 0.3174 0.4062 1199.0 1995.5 1.3639 1.4567 Temperature, F 500 600700 80900 2.827 3.067 1422.3 14742 1.7352 1.7748 261 2.845 12s 14735 17965 1.7662 2442 2.652 14206 1472.8 L7184 1.7582 2.084 2.266 14185 1471.1 1.7002. 1.7403 1.8161 1.9767 1416.4 1469.4 1.6842 1.7247 1.6074 1.7516 1414.3 1467.7 1.8699 1.7108 1.4405 1.5715 1412.1 1466.0 16571 1.6982 1.3038 1.4241 1400.9 1464.3, 1.6452. 1.6568 1.1899 1.3013, 1407.7 1462.5, 16343 1.6762 1.0108 1.1082 1403.2 1459.0 16147 1.6573, 0.8763 0.9633 1398.6 1455.4 15972 1.6407 0.7716 0.8506 1398.9 1451.8 1.5814 1.6257 0.6878 0.7604 1389.2 1448.3, 15670 1.6121 0.6191 0.8866 1384.3 14445, 15535 1.5995 05617 0.6950 1370.3 1440.7 1.5400 1.5879 A714 05981 1369.1 1493.1 15177 1.5666 1000 3.305 1526.3 18118 3.066 1525.8 1.8033 2.859 1595.2 1.7954 2.445 15238 arm 2194 15224 1.7623 1.8928 1521.0 17486 1.6906 15196 1.7363 1414 1518.2 17250 1.4096 1816.7 amar 1.2024 15139 16963 1.0470 1511.0 1.8801 0.9262 1508.1 16656 0.8294 1505.1 1.6505 0.7503 1502.2 1.6405 0.6843 1499.2 1.6203 0.5805 1493.2 1.6093 1200 3.78 1692.5 1.8790 3.504 1602.1 18716 3.269 1691.7 1.8858 2.798 1690.7 1.3463 2.445 1629.6 1.8311 2.170 16286 L177 1.9504 1627.6 1.8056 1.7706 1626.6 1.7946 1.6208 16955 1.7846 1.9853 16235 1.7666 1.2088 v2 17510 L074 1619.3 Amati 0.9615 16173 1.7245 osmi6 16152 1.7150 0.7967 1613.1 1.7025 0.6789 1608.9 1.6836 1400 1600 4242 4.707 1741.7 18542 1.9480 1.9965 3.938 4.370 T7414 18540 1.9357 1.9912 3674 4.078 1741.0 1853.7 1.9260 1.9835 3147 3.493 1740.3 1853.1 1.9086 1.9663, 2751 3.055 1739.5 1852.5 1.8036 1.9513, 2443 2714 1738.7 1851.9 1.8803 1.9381 2197 2.442 1737.9 1851.3 1.9683 1.9262 1.9057 2.219 1737.1 1850.6 18575 1.9155 1.8279 2.033 1736.3 1850.0 1.8476 1.9056 L5641 1.7405 1734.8 18488 1.8299 1.8881 1.3662 1.5214 17332 1847.5 1.8146 1.8729 1.2124 1.3509 ATSL6 1846.3. 1.8009 1.8595 1.0503 1.2146 1730.0 1845.0 1.7886 1.8474 0.9885 1.1031 11284 1843.8 LTTTS 1.8363, 0.9048 1.0101 1726.9 1842.5 1.7672 1.8269 0.7727 0.8640 1723.7 1840.0 1.7489 1.8083,20 The Control of Boilers Steam Steam/Water System lowdown Fuel Mining oF forme Heat Fue Gas ty anster Foul air Surtace ir Ash “Sr Figure 2-1 Basic Diagram of a Boller combustion air preheater. The combustion air also passes through the air preheater before being mixed with the fuel. Since the flue gas temperature is higher than the air temperature, heat is transferred from the flue gas to the combustion air via the convection heat transfer surface of the combustion air preheater. This transfer of heat cools the flue gas and thus reduces its heat loss. The added heat in the combustion air enters the furnace, enhances the combustion process, and reduces the fuel requirement in an amount equal in heat value to the amount of heat that has been transferred in the combustion air preheater. By the use of an air preheater, approximately 1 percent of fuel is saved for each 40°F rise in the combustion air temperature. ‘The use of an economizer is another flue gas heat recovery method. The arrangement of this type of additional heat exchanger is shown in Figure 2-3. In the economizer arrangement shown, the flue gas leaves the simple boiler and enters the economizer, where it is in contact with heat transfer surface, in the form of water tubes, through which the boiler feedwater flows. Since the flue gas is at a higher temperature than the water, the flue gas is cooled and the water temperature is increased. Cooling the flue gas reduces its heat loss in an amount ‘equal to the increased heat in the feedwater to the boiler. The increased heat in the feedwater Water ——maer_| __ my Fu rebate: A m ( Fue Gas | __Fuesss_ ir Prenat Purpost—Prebeat combustion ar and absorb addtional het fom ue gases Figure 2-2 A Simple Boller plus Combustion Air PreheaterBoiler Basics and the Steaming Process a over Air Water Economizer Fue Gas Economizer Purpose - Preheat Realy Cod Feeder ‘and Abo Hea ram Five Gases, Figure 2-3 A Simple Boiler plus Economizer reduces the boiler's requirement for fuel and combustion air. Approximately 1 percent of fuel input is saved for each 10°F rise in the feedwater as it passes through the economizer. Both types of heat exchangers are often used in large boilers. When both an air preheater and an economizer are used, the normal practice consists of passing the flue gases first through the economizer and then through the combustion air preheater. 2-4 Boiler Types and Classifications There are two general types of boilers: firetube and watertube. In addition, boilers are classified as “high” or “low” pressure and as ‘‘steam’” boilers or “‘hot water’” boilers. By definition high pressure boilers are steam boilers that operate at a pressure greater than 15 psig. Because the boiler water temperature rises as the pressure is increased, the flue gas ‘temperature is increased as the pressure increases, increasing the boiler heat losses. An advantage of using higher pressure is a reduction in physical size of the boiler and steam piping for the same heat-carrying capacity. This is due to the increased density (lower specific volume) of the higher pressure steam. The advantage is particularly important if the boiler is some distance from the heat load. When high pressure boilers are used for space heating, the pressure is usually reduced near the point of steam use. A particular attribute of high pressure steam is that it contains a significantly greater amount of available energy. Available energy is a term given to the energy that is available to be converted to work in an industrial or electric power generation steam engine or turbine. A low pressure boiler is one that is operated at a pressure lower than 15 psig. Almost all low pressure boilers are used for space heating. Low pressure boiler systems are simpler since pressure-reducing valves are seldom required and the water chemistry of the boiler is simpler to maintain, Another boiler classification is the hot water boiler. Strictly speaking, this is not a boiler since the water does not boil. It is essentially a fuel-fired hot water heater in which sensible hheat is added to increase the temperature to some level below the boiling point. Because of similarities in many ways to steam boilers, the term “hot water boiler” is generally used to describe this type of unit.2 The Control of Boilers A high temperature hot water (HTHW) boiler furnishes water at a temperature greater than 250°F (121°C) or at a pressure higher than 160 psig. A low temperature hot water boiler furnishes water at a pressure not exceeding 160 psig and at a temperature not exceeding 250°F. 2-5 Firetube Boilers Firetube boilers constitute the largest share of small- to medium-sized industrial units. In firetube boilers the flue gas products of combustion flow through boiler tubes surrounded by water. Steam is generated by the heat transferred through the walls of the tubes to the sur- rounding water. The flue gases are cooled as they flow through the tubes, transferring their heat to the water; therefore, the cooler the flue gas, the greater the amount of heat transferred. Cooling of the flue gas is a function of the heat conductivity of the tube and its surfaces, the temperature difference between the flue gases and the water in the boiler, the heat transfer area, the time of contact between the flue gases and the boiler tube surface, and other factors. Firetube boilers used today evolved from the earliest designs of a spherical or cylindrical pressure vessel mounted over the fire with flame and hot gases around the boiler shell. This obsolete approach has been improved by installing longitudinal tubes in the pressure vessel and passing flue gases through the tubes. This increases the heat transfer area and improves the heat transfer coefficient. The results are the two variations of the horizontal return tubular (HRT) boiler shown in Figures 2-4 and 2-5. A variation of the HRT boiler in Figure 2-4 is the packaged (shop-assembled) firebox boiler shown in Figure 2-6. Figure 2-4 Hor oe Figure 2-5 Two-Pass BoilerBoiler Basics and the Steaming Process B Figure 2-7 Locomotive-type Boiler A parallel evolution of the firetube boiler was the locomotive boiler designed with the furnace surrounded by a heat transfer arca and a heat transfer area added by using horizontal tubes. This type is shown in Figure 2-7. ‘The Scotch Marine boiler design, as shown in Figure 2-8 with the furnace a large metal tube, combined that feature of the English Comish boiler of the 1800s and the smaller hori- zontal tubes of the HRT boiler. This boiler originally was developed to fit the need for compact shipboard boilers. Because the furnace is cooled completely by water, no refractory furnace is required. The radiant heat from the combustion is transferred directly through the metal wall of the furnace chamber to the water. This allows the furnace walls to become a heat Combustion Chamber Figure 2-8 Scotch Marine Boiler4 ‘The Control of Boilers Manhole Figure 2-9 Wetback transfer surface—a surface particularly effective because of the high temperature differe between the flame and the boiler water. A modified Scotch boiler design, as used in the standard firetube package boiler, is the most common firetube boiler used today. Two variations of the Scotch design, called wetback and dryback, are shown in Figures 2-9 and 2-10. These names refer to the rear of the com- bustion chamber, which must be either water-jacketed or lined with a high temperature insu- lating material, such as refractory, to protect it from the heat of combustion. ‘The wetback boiler gains some additional heating surface; however, it is more difficult to service because access to the back end of the boiler tubes is limited. The only such access normally provided is a 16-inch manhole in the rear water header or through the furnace tube. The dryback boiler is easy to service because the rear doors may be removed for complete access to the tubes and to the insulating or refractory material. The refractory or insulating lining may deteriorate over a period of time. If this lining is not properly maintained, efficiency may be reduced because the flue gases will bypass heating surface on three- and four-pass designs, the radiation loss through the rear doors will increase, and the metal doors will be damaged. \ Rear Header Figure 2-10 DrybackBoiler Basics and the Steaming Process 25 Second Pass Third Pass Figure 2-11 Boiler Passes ‘The number of boiler passes for a firetube boiler refers to the number of horizontal runs the flue gases take between the furnace and the flue gas outlet. The combustion chamber or furnace is considered the first pass; each separate set of firetubes provides additional passes as shown in Figure 2-11 ‘The number of gas passes in a firetube boiler does not necessarily determine its efficiency characteristic. For the same total number, length, and size of tubes (same tube heating sur- face), increasing the number of passes increases the length the flue gas must travel because the gases must pass through tubes in series rather than in parallel. This increases the flue gas velocity within the tubes but does little to change the total time for the hot gases to flow from furnace to outlet in contact with the tube heating surface. The increased gas velocity in some cases may improve heat transfer by increasing the turbulence of the gases as they travel through the tubes. Generally, however, increasing the number of passes and the resultant velocity of the gases increases the resistance to flow and forces the combustion air blower to consume more power. ‘One additional firetube boiler, generally used only where space is limited and steam re- quirements are small, is the vertical firetube boiler shown in Figure 2-12. This is a variation Figure 2-12 Vertical Firetube Boiler26 ‘The Control of Boilers Table 2-4 Firetube Boiler Characteristics (Approximate) Boiler Type Max Pressure BoHP* Range Lbs/Hr HRT 150 psig 30-300 1000-10000 Firebox 200 psig, 10-600 350-25000 Pkg. “*Scotch”” 300 psig 10-1000 350-35000 Vert. Firetube 200 psig 2-300 70-10000 The term BoHP is discussed in Section 3 of the firebox boiler with the water-jacketed furnace and vertical tubes. Its configuration is similar that of a typical home hot water heater of today. Characteristics of the various types of firetube boilers relative to operational limitations are approximate in Table 2-4. 2-6 Watertube Drum Boilers As the name implies, water circulates within the tubes of a watertube boiler. These tubes are often connected between two or more cylindrical drums. In some boilers the lower drum is replaced with a tube header. The higher drum, called the steam drum, is maintained ap- proximately half full of water. The lower drum is filled with water completely and is the low point of the boiler. Sludge that may develop in the boiler gravitates to the low point and can be drawn off the bottom of this lower drum, commonly called the mud drum. A cross-sectional view of a small field-erected watertube boiler is shown in Figure 2-13 Heating the “riser” tubes with hot flue gas causes the water to circulate and steam to be released in the steam drum. This principle is shown in Figure 2-14. This particular type of boiler has not been built since the 1950s but many are still in service. Because watertube boilers can be easily designed for greater or lesser furnace volume using the same boiler convection heating surface, watertube boilers are particularly applicable to nN NY N \ N iN LLL UY ZZ WAZ Figure 2-13 Small Field-Erected Watertube BoilerBoiler Basics and the Steaming Process 7 Water Heat Jowncomer ! ee or Mud Drum Figure 2-14 Circulation of Watertube Boiler solid fuel firing. They are also applicable for a full range of sizes and for pressures from 50 psig to 5000 psig. The present readily available minimum size of industrial watertube boilers is approximately 20,000 to 25,000 Ibs/hr of steam—equivalent to 600 to 750 BoHP (boiler horsepower). Many watertube boilers operating today are in the 250 to 300 BoHP size range. A typical industrial watertube boiler for gas and oil firing is the packaged (shop-assembled) boiler shown in Figure 2-15. Such packaged watertube boilers generally have a single burner with up to approximately 125,000 Ibs/hr steam flow (approximately 4000 BoHP) but are avail- able in sizes up to approximately 250,000 Ibs/hr with more than one burner. Older designs of watertube boilers, as shown in Figure 2-13, consisted of refractory-lined fumaces with only convection heating surface. Later developments included placing some boiler tubes in the furnace walls where they were exposed to the radiant heat of the flame, as shown in Figure 2-16. This development continued until furnaces became fully water-walled, as in the package boiler shown in Figure 2-15. Figure 2-16 shows the bafifes for directing flue gas. Watertube boilers generally have such gas baffles to assure contact between the hot gases and the maximum amount of the tube heating surface. The baffle design determines the number of gas passes and which tubes act as “risers" and “downcomers,”’ as shown in Figure 2-14. Leakage in the baffles causes hot flue gas to bypass a portion of the heating surface, thereby decreasing the heat being transferred and lowering the boiler efficiency. This evolution in the design of boilers came about because of the economic benefits re- sulting from the lower cost of the required radiant heat transfer surface as compared with convection heating surface. The net result was a reduction in the physical size and cost of the boilers and changes in water volume, heat storage, and an improvement in response charac- teristics. Other effects of the fully water-cooled furnaces were reduced furnace temperatures and the resulting reduction in nitrous oxides (NOx) production. The cooler furnaces also affect the chemistry of the progression of the combustion process from ignition to complete com- bustion.30 The Control of Boilers As industrial boilers are increased in size for liquid and gaseous fuels, the balance between radiant and convection heat transfer surface remains approximately the same as for the package boiler for oil and gas firing shown in Figure 2-15. One such larger gas- or oil-fired industrial boiler is shown in in Figure 2-17. For solid fuel, however, coal-, wood-, or waste material-fired boilers usually require greater spacing between the boiler tubes. In addition, the furnace volume must be increased. A large industrial boiler for solid fuel is shown in Figure 2-18. These differences make it difficult to convert a gas- or oil-fired boiler to coal and obtain full steam capacity, while a conversion from coal to gas or oil firing can be much more easily accomplished. As stated earlier, boilers used in electric utility generating plants are generally considerably larger than their industrial counterparts. The steam generating capacity of the largest electric utility boiler is approximately 10 times the capacity of the largest industrial steam boiler. The maximum size of electric utility watertube boilers, at this writing, handles approximately 10,000,000 Ibs/hr of steam. In industrial use the largest are in the approximate range of 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 Ibs/hr. ; | i Figure 2-18 Large Industrial Boiler for Solid Fuel (From Detroit Stoker Company. Used with permission.)Boiler Basics and the Steaming Process 31 BURNERS mI deseeen (UAL } |SUPERHEATER | ||| | Bc tt eee i L, PRIMARY I" [surenneater == © Figure 2-19 Pulverized Coal-Fired Utility Boiler (From Steam, Its Generation and Use, © Babcock and Wilcox)2 ‘The Control of Boilers Modern utility boilers operate at pressures in the range of 2,000 to 4,000 psig, while their industrial counterparts are generally in the range of 100 to 1000 psig. In generating electric power with a turbogenerator, it is much more efficient to use steam that has been superheated and reheated as is done in the typical electric utility plant. The general practice with industrial boilers is to use saturated steam or only small amounts of superheat unless electric power is being generated in the industrial plant. ‘A modem electric utility boiler, as shown in Figure 2-19, may have only the steam drum. Because the water used is very pure, chemical sludge does not normally develop and that need for the mud drum is eliminated. The lower end of the circulation loop consists of water head- ers. Boilers such as shown can be designed to operate up to approximately 2,750 psig. On all drum boilers, the boiler drum acts to decouple the feedwater flow rate from the boiler steam flow rate. 2-7 Watertube Once-Through Boilers At pressures in the neighborhood of 2750 psig, the circulation driving force of a drum boiler diminishes rapidly because the specific volumes of water and steam are nearly the same. Above these pressures a drumless once-through boiler is used with the feedwater flow past the | Swperhected steom outlet Rehected ‘steam cute Finishing reheoter Finish sopereatir Pane! ond platen ‘superheoters Init supereater. Weter cooled L sidewolls ‘nital reheat. || Economizer: Cool bins Tongeatiol burners rreeders Hot oo burners | |ond puverizer 1 [eee |lana [pulverizing Mote cooled | |lorvcing war? \derween furnaces] Dry ash discharge Figure 2-20 Large 3500-psig Combined Circulation Boiler (Courtesy Combustion Engineering Corporation)Boiler Basics and the Steaming Process 3 heating surfaces provided by the pumping system. In this design, water is pumped into one end of the boiler tubes and superheated steam emerges from the other. Such boilers have been designed to operate up to 5000 psig. In starting up a cold system, the fluid flow cannot be directed to the turbine until it becomes steam. Consequently, the fluid is initially diverted to a flash tank, As steam starts to develop in the flash tank, it is used to heat the feedwater. The level is maintained in the flash tank by fiow of the flash tank bottom liquid to the condenser. At minimum load conditions, the turbine can be started up and operated on flash tank steam flow alone. As pressure is raised above flash tank design pressure, a logic system and series of valves change the steam and water fiow circuit arrangements so that the flow of feedwater flows all the way through to the turbine. ‘The feedwater chemistry is very important, with extremely pure water required, since all feedwater chemicals pass to the turbine. If the water is not pure enough when the unit is started, operating on the flash tank and blowing down the flash tank will gradually increase the water purity. This type of boiler is used in electric utility installations and would very rarely, if ever, be used for industrial steam. The drumless boiler in Figure 2-20 is typical of such boilers.Section 3 Performance and Input/Output Relationships A boiler’s performance relates to its ability to transfer heat from the fuel to the water while meeting operating specifications. Boiler performance includes all aspects of the operation. The basic elements are the operating capacity and the boiler efficiency Performance specifications include the operating capacity and the factors for adjusting that capacity, steam pressure, boiler water quality, boiler temperatures, boiler pressures, boiler drafts and draft losses, flue gas analysis, fuel analysis, and fuel burned. Additional perfor- mance specifications indicate the fan power requirements (boiler flue gas temperatures and draft losses) and the fuel supply assumptions. The result of a calculation involving the performance specification is a calculated effi- ciency. Boiler efficiency is presented as a percentage ratio of heat supplied to the boiler and the heat absorbed in the boiler water. 3-1 Capacity and Performance Packaged firetube boilers generally are described in terms of BoHP (boiler horsepower).* The BHP rating of a modem firetube boiler is approximately one fifth of the square footage of its heating surface. For example, a boiler of 500 BoHP has approximately 2,500 square feet of heating surface. Although these boilers are described in terms of BoHP, the developed Btu output can be converted easily to Ibs/hr of steam. Because the heat content of a pound of steam increases as pressure is increased in firetube boilers, the pounds of steam per BOHP decreases with pressure. Table 3-1 shows this relationship. Industrial watertube boilers formerly were classified in BoHP by dividing the heating sur- face by 10. In the past 40 or more years, however, BoHP ratings for new watertube boilers have disappeared, and boiler capacity ratings are specified in terms of pounds of steam per hour with feedwater temperature specified. Existing watertube boilers rated in BoHP can be rated in Ibs/hr by using a conversion factor from Table 3-1. Smaller watertube and firetube boilers often are rated in terms of maximum Btu input to the bumer with efficiency specified. 3-2 Input Related to Output Boiler energy inputs generally are thought of as the heat content of the fuel used. The flow of this fuel measured over a period of time multiplied by the heat content of this fuel develops a total Btu input during the time period, Measuring the energy output of a steam boiler involves measuring the steam flow in Ibs/hr over a period of time and multiplying by the Btu content of a pound of steam to provide the Btu output. Useful simple relationships of input and out- put—such as pounds of steam/gallon of fuel oil, pounds of steam/pound of coal, or pounds of steam/standard cubic foot of gas—can be used to track relative efficiency. These relationships, however, are not precise because such factors as fuel Btu content, steam Btu content, feed- water temperature, and blowdown are not considered The chief energy loss of most boilers depends on the mass of the flue gases and their temperature as they leave the boiler. To obtain the net energy loss of the flue gas, however, the temperatures of the incoming combustion air and fuel must be considered. When hydrogen in the fuel bums, it forms water, which leaves the boiler in the form of superheated vapor. The latent heat of this vapor is an energy loss, which is approximately “The term “boiler horsepower” started because early boilers were used to drive engines with one engine horsepower or one boiler horsepower equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated from and at 212 degrees. This equals 33,475 Bru, thermal equivalent of one boiler horsepower.36 The Control of Boilers Table 3-1 Conversion Factors—Lbs Steam per BoHP. Bu content from 212°F Boiler pressure, psig Lbs steam/BoHP. liquid) 50 33.8 999 15 33.6 1005.2 100 33.4 1009.6 125 33.31 1013 150 33.22 1015.6 175 33.16 1017.6 200 33.1 1019.3 225 33.06 1020.6 250 33.03 1021.7 nine to ten percent for natural gas, five to six percent for fuel oil, and three to four percent for coal. The percentage of hydrogren and moisture in the fuel affects this loss. Although blowdown is not a useful heat output from the viewpoint of boiler efficiency, it is not considered a loss because the boiler has properly transferred the heat from the fuel to the water. The useful energy output of boilers is the heat carried by the steam or hot water. In a steam boiler this is usually measured as steam flow at the boiler and adjusted for Btu content by measurements of pressure, temperature, or both. The steam flow can also be obtained by measuring water flow and subtracting the blowdown. For hot water boilers, water flow is measured at the boiler outlet and adjusted for Btu content by measurement of the outlet tem- perature, Although these procedures provide information about the useful energy outputs, in them= selves they do not determine precisely the contribution of the boiler to this useful energy. To determine the contribution of the boiler, the heat in the incoming feedwater must be subtracted from the heat carried in the boiler output 3-3 Mass and Energy Balances Involved ‘The mass balances in a steam boiler are shown in the diagrams of Figures 3-1 through 3-5. For a hot water boiler these diagrams would be slightly different. In Figure 3-1 there is a simple balance on the water side of the boiler between the mass of the feedwater and the mass of the steam plus blowdown. In this balance, steam is normally 90 to 99 percent of the output. The water and steam plus blowdown is not one to one since the water flow and the steam flow are decoupled by the boiler drum. This decoupling allows a change in boiler water storage at any point in time without a change in steam flow. Figure 3-2 represents the balance between the mass of combustion air plus fuel and the flue gas and ash output. Ash, of course, would not be present if there were no ash in the fuel. ‘The combustion air is by far the larger input because it may have a mass of more than twelve to eighteen times that of the fuel. There is some amount of decoupling between the fuel-plus- air flow vs. the effluent of total flue product due to the buildup of ash deposits on the boiler heating surfaces. Such buildup must then be periodically removed by soot blowing, Chemical input and output on the boiler water side also must be considered as one of thePerformance and Input/Output Relationships 37 Steam (Vapor) Feodwater Liquid ‘Steam and Water Blowdown (Liquid) ‘Input + Change in Stored Mass = Output * Stored Mass Decreases With Steaming Rate Figure 3-1 Steam-Water Mass Balance mass balances involved. This is shown in Figure 3-3. In this case there is a mass balance of each individual chemical element present. Steam is expected to be so pure that almost 100 percent of the non-water chemical output is in the boiler blowdown. The balance of chemical input and output of the combustion process is shown in Figure 344. As with the water side chemical balance, this diagram represents a balance of each chem. ical element although the chemical compounds of the inputs have been changed to different chemical compounds by the combustion process. The energy balance of the boiler is shown in Figure 3-5. Energy enters and leaves a boiler in a variety of ways. Energy in the steam is the only output considered useful. Fuel energy is by far the major energy input and, unless precise efficiency values are needed, is normally the only energy input considered. Flue Gas (Gas) (Soi) Fuel, Air, and Flue Gas Input = Output + Deposits in Boiler Figure 3-2 Fuel, Air-Flue Gas Mass Balance38 Chemicals in Feodwater Water Chemicals Chemicals in Blowdown The Control of Boilers Chemicals In Steam, * Input + Change1n Stored Chemicals = Output © Adjustable Output Changes Stored Chemicals Figure 3-3 Water Side Chemical Mass Balance Hydrogen H2 Carbon ¢ Sulphur $ Nitrogen Nz Oxygen 02 Water H20 Ash Fuel Nitrogen Nz Oxygen 02 Water H20 Ete, © Input + Change in Stored Ash Carbon Dioxide CO2 Fue Gas Carbon Monoxide CO Oxygen 02 Nitrogen Nz Nitrous Oxides NOX Sulphur Oxides SOX Hydrogen H2 Aldehydes Water Vapor ‘Ash Minerals Carbon Ete. Output © Stored Ash increases As Boiler Gets Dirty. '* Stored Ash Decreases With Soot Blowing. Figure 3-4 Mass Balance—Fuel and Air Chemicals 3-4 Efficiency Calculation Methods Two methods of calculating the efficiency of a boiler are acceptable. These are generally known as the input/output of direct method and the heat loss or indirect method. Both methods will be covered in more detail in Section 6, Boiler Efficiency Computations. ‘The input/output method depends on the measurements of fuel, steam, and feedwater flow and the heat content of each.Performance and Input/Output Relationships 39 ‘Atomizing Air (potential & kinetic) ‘Atomizing Steam (total energy) Radiation Steam ma Total BTU Grinding power) (incl, Kinetic Energy) Chemical Energy Flue Gas Sensible Heat (Fan Power) Latent Heat Potential Energy Potential Energy [> kinetic Eneray scoetic Energy Unourned Chemical raat Latent Heat Combustion Air Sensible Heat Sensible Heat —___] Latent Heat Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Soot Blowing steam or air Fan Power) en Blowdown Sensible heat in ash Saale Sensible Heat unburned carbon n ash Latent Heat Kinetic Energy Potential Energy —* Input + Change in Stored energy = Output (Pump Power)» Stored energy increases a tiring rate increases * Soot Blowing Loss is periodic Figure 3-5 Energy Balance—Heat Balance | Heat Added to Incoming Feedwater Boiler Efficiency = 7 Tnput (Fuel) + Heat Input (Combustion Ain In this formula, the boiler is credited with the heat added to the blowdown portion of the feedwater. This method yields a decimal number fraction, which is expressed as percent of efficiency. In the heat loss method, the percentage of each of the major losses is determined. To their total, a small percentage for unaccounted loss is added, and the total obtained is subtracted from 100 percent ‘There are eight major losses: (1) Sensible heat loss in the dry flue gas (2) Sensible heat loss from water in the combustion air 3) Sensible heat loss from water in the fuel (4) Latent heat loss from water in the fuel (5) Latent heat loss from water formed by hydrogen combustion (6) Loss from unburned carbon in the refuse (7) Loss from unburned combustible gas in the flue gas, (8) Heat loss from radiation 3-5 Boiler Control—The Process of Managing the Energy and Mass Balances The boiler control system is the vehicle through which the boiler energy and mass balances are managed. All the boiler major energy and mass inputs must be regulated in order to achieve40 The Control of Boilers Input oiler ouput Feedwater contro! L— Fuel demand + Firing rate 4 Airdemana | demand L_ ‘Steam temp, control -— Figure 3-6 Block Diagram of Boiler Control System the desired output conditions. The measurements of the output process variables furnish the information to the control system intelligence unit. Figure 3-6 is a block diagram showing how the parts of the overall control system are coordinated into the overall boiler control system. For the energy input requirement, a firing rate demand signal must be developed. This firing rate demand creates the separate demands for the mass of fuel and combustion air. The mass of the water-steam energy carrier must also be regulated, and the feedwater control regulates the mass of water in the boiler. The final steam temperature condition must also be regulated (for boilers generating superheated steam and having such control capability), and this is accomplished by the steam temperature control system. The effects of the input control actions interact, since firing rate also affects steam temperature and feedwater flow affects the steam pressure, which is the final arbiter of firing rate demand. The overall system must therefore be applied and coordinated in a manner to minimize the effect of these interactions The interactions can be greatly affected by the control system design.Section 4 Basic Control Loops and Their System Interconnections Boiler control systems are normally multivariable with the control loops for fuel, combus- tion air, and feedwater interacting in the overall system. Boiler control systems can be easily understood if one has a good basic knowledge of these loops and their application require- ments In the descriptions of the loop, the term “primary variable” is given to that measurement of a process variable that is to be maintained at a “‘set point'* by the control action. The term ‘manipulated variable" is given to that process device that is manipulated in order to achieve the desired condition or set point of the primary variable. The human body is a perfect example of control loops and interconnected multivariable control systems. The measurements are the sensors: touch, sight, hearing, stability, etc. All of these send signals or measurements via the sensory nerves of the nervous system to the brain or reflex action functions. ‘The measurements by the body's sensors are processed by the brain (the controller func- tion), which sends motor nerve signals to manipulate the muscles, tendons, and body chem- istry functions (the manipulated variables) in order to cause action to take place. All actions of the human body are the result of such manipulative control The simple act of standing upright and still results from the body's balance and stability mechanisms sending out control signals. These cause one to shift one’s weight on different parts of the feet or from one foot to another in order to remain still and upright — the set points of the control loops. The two basic types of control, feedforward and feedback, are used as building blocks in forming all types of modulating control action. The body system control function is an ex- ample of feedback or “‘closed-loop"” control. Anticipatory action before the measured variable changes is called feedforward or “‘open-loop.”” In the body system, a brain decision to move the body is feedforward control, which is continuously adjusted to keep the body upright and in stable balance by feedback control. 4-1 Simple Feedback Control Simple feedback control is shown in the control diagram of Figure 4-1A. With this type of loop, changes in the primary variable feed back to a control function, as shown. The control function can be proportional-plus-integral (as shown), proportional-only, proportional-plus- derivative, integral integral-only, or proportional- plus-integral-plus-derivative. In all these cases the controller includes an error detector function, which measures the error between the primary variable and the set point The controller output is determined by a combination or summation of the effects of the different control action capabilities that are built into the controller. These are the proportional or gain multiplication of the error magnitude, the difference between the measured amount and the set point, the integral action based on incremental time away from set point multiplied by error magnitude, and the derivative or rate of change of the measured variable. A change in the controller output changes the manipulated variable, which through action of the process changes the process output selected as the primary variable. This closes the control loop. A time-based diagram of the control action components for a proportional-plus-integral controller is shown in Figure 4-1B, The first component of the control action is the propor-a2 The Control of Boilers Primary variable Manipulated variable (A) Simple Feedback Control Figure 4-1 Control Functions tional controller. The error or magnitude of the difference between the process variable and the set point is multiplied by the proportional gain, one of the controller tuning adjustments, This gain may be expressed directly as a multiplier or in terms such as “proportional band.”” In the case of proportional band, the value divided into 100 is equal to the gain or error multiplier. As the error increases and decreases, the effect of this control component changes in direct proportion. The tuning constants that are set into the controller are affected by the measurement ranges, the dynamics of the control loop, and the capacity of the manipulated variable for effecting change. The measurement range of the measured variable determines the magnitude of the basic error signal with respect to set point. The capacity of the controlled device determines the amount of manipulated variable change for each increment of control signal change. The proportional gain or multiplier essentially gears the measured and maniulated variables into proper balance so that a measured variable error will produce the desired magnitude of change to the manipulated variable. The desired proportional gain value is the highest value of proportional gain that results in stable conditions of the measured variable, and with change aspects of the manipulated or other variables that also result in most desired conditions. Nearly perfect steam pressure control of a boiler may be stable but may result in consid- erable oscillation of the fuel and combustion air, an undesirable operating condition. To reduce these oscillations would require reducing the gain and accepting some deterioration in the steam pressure control. The second component of the controller output is the integral value. The integral setting value is time-based and closely relates to the process system time constant. Integral values are commonly expressed in repeats per minute, minutes per repeat, or seconds per repeat. There is more than one method of computing (algorithm) for the integral value. The most common is an integration with respect to time of the error multiplied by the gain If seconds-per-repeat is used and the controller setting is 10 seconds per repeat, then afterBasic Control Loops and Their System Interconnections a SP. bear tele K* eno Flow UEEEIIIIEEEEEEEEEEE EERE Tie (B) Proportional-plus-Intearal Control Figure 4-1 Continued 10 seconds the controller would have added K (controller gain) times the error from set point to the controller output. Another common algorithm integrates only the error value and does not use the proportional gain. In the case of Figure 4-1B, assume that, as time starts, the loop is stabilized at set point, the measured variable is pressure, the pressure sensor has a range of 0-400 psig, and the set point has a value of 200 psig. The controller has been tuned, the proportional gain is 2.0, and44 ‘The Control of Boilers the integral setting is 0.5 repeat per minute. At the end of (x) time, the system flow capacity changes, the pressure begins to deviate from set point, and a change to the manipulated variable is necessary to retumn the measured variable to the set point. ‘This diagram shows that when the controller returns to set point the error is 0; therefore, any effect of the proportional gain is also reduced to zero. The proportional gain effect is, therefore, temporary and has a value only when the process variable deviates from the set point. ‘The value of the integral portion of the controller output is, however, permanent and, with the process variable at a steady state and at set point, is equal to the controller output. If this had been a proportional-only controller, an offset from set point would have to be maintained to satisfy the need for a permanent change in the controller ouput. 4-2 Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control In feedforward-plus-feedback control as shown in Figure 4-2A, a secondary variable that has a predictable relationship with the manipulated variable is connected. In this case a change in the secondary variable causes the manipulated variable to change in anticipation of a change in the primary variable. This reduces the magnitude of the primary variable change due to the more timely control action that originates from the secondary variable. The feedback portion of the loop contains the set point and can contain any of the controller functions of the basic feedback loop. The feedforward gain is adjustable and may be greater than 1.0. In Figure 4-2B, a time-based diagram based on the use of feedforward-plus feedback con- trol is shown. In this case a change in the signal from the secondary variable acts without waiting for the primary variable to change. The goal is to calibrate the feedforward portion of the control so that the primary variable does not change value. This is done by changing the Primary variable Manipulated variable (A) Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control Figure 4-2 Control FunctionsBasic Control Loops and Their System Interconnections 45 60. 50 To Valve Time Feedforward Control Action (B) Feedforward-plus-Feedback Control Figure 4-2 Continued gain or multiplier of the secondary variable so that its change multiplied by its gain produces change in the feedforward portion of the controller output that is equal to the permanent steady-state change in the controller output. If this can be accomplished, then there is no permanent effect on the controller output from the feedback portion of the controller. This net result is very similar to that of proportional-plus-integral control except that the required magnitude of the controller action takes place in less elapsed time. In this case the feedforward action essentially replaces the integral action, so that theoretically (with perfect calibration) the feedback controller needs only proportional action. In actual practice, it is usually impossible to maintain such a controller in perfect calibra- tion. To overcome that drawback, a small amount of integral action can be used to account for the mismatch between the feedforward effect and the required change in the steady-state output of the controller. In this case the tuning of the integral portion of the controller should not have a relationship to the process time constant but can be arbitrarily set at some very low value such as 0.05 to 0.1 repeat per minute.46 The Control of Boilers Primary variable Process Manipulated variable Figure 4-3 Cascade Control 4-3 Cascade Control Cascade control consists essentially of two feedback control loops connected together with the output of the primary loop acting as set point for the secondary loop. Cascade control (see Figure 4-3) is applied to stabilize the manipulated variable so that a predictable relationship between the manipulated variable and the primary variable can be maintained. To avoid control instability due to interaction between the two feedback control loops, it is necessary that the response time constants be substantially different. The process response of the secondary control loop should be the faster of the two. A general rule is that the time constant of the primary loop process response should be a minimum of 5 to 10 times that of the secondary loop. The longer time constant of the primary loop indicates a much slower response. Because of this, a normal application would be temperature control (a normally slow loop) cascading onto flow control (a normally fast loop). Other suitable candidates for cascade con- trol are temperature cascading onto pressure control and level control cascading onto flow control 4-4 Ratio Control ‘The fourth of the basic loops involved in boiler control is ratio control, as shown in Figure 4-4. Ratio control consists of a feedback controller whose set point is in direct proportion to an uncontrolled variable. The proportional relationship can be set by the operator of the pro- ‘cess, or it can be automatically adjusted by another controller. As shown, the mathematical function is a multiplier. If the ratio is set, the set point of the controlled variable changes in direct proportion to changes in the uncontrolled variable. If the multiplication is changed, the direct proportional relationship or ratio between the controlled and the uncontrolled variables is changedBasic Control Loops and Their System Interconnections a7 Uncontrolled variable Ratio set Manipulated variable Figure 4-4 Ratio Control A careful examination of most boiler control applications will show that the overall control system is an interconnected matrix of the four types of control aplication shown in Figures #1 through 4-4. 4-5 Some Fundamentals of Control System Application and Design A first consideration is whether a particular control application merits or requires a multi- variable interconnected system. The alternative is the simpler use of an individual independent control loop. Generally, an independent control loop can be used when the controlled variable does not affect, or is not affected by, measured variables other than the one in the control loop. In boiler control specific examples are fuel supply pressure, pressure-reducing valves, and duct pressure control, assuming constant set points are used for each of these. If the set points are variable, 5 a function of other variables, then they are not independent loops. A multivariable input and output system is used when the controlled and measured vari- ables have interdependent effects. In this case the variables affect, or are affected by, more than one measured or manipulated variable. A system in which control actions are parallel usually is less interacting than one in which she control actions are in series. An example is regulating the fuel and air to a boiler in paralle! rather than first regulating the fuel or the air and controlling the other variable in sequential onder. In such a case a disturbace in the first variable propagates to the second, causing a isturbance in the second variable. Another general implementation rule is to develop compensation circuits within the control system so that disturbances in the variables do not enter and disturb the process. An example control system compensation for the number of coal pulverizers being used so that starting or stopping another pulverizer does not materially change the fuel being fed to the furnace.