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    AC DC Compilation

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    Joshua Allen Ajeto

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    ee i en ae a, INTRODUCTION TO GENERATORS AND MOTORS 5-1 Basic Generators and Motors Most of us live and work at the end of an electric wire. You will femember from “How Electricity Is Produced and Used” in Volume 1 of Basic Electricity that different forms of energy can be converted to elec- tricity (electrical energy) and that, likewise, electricity (electrical energy) . can be converted to different forms of energy: The electric generator is the device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy—the electric motor, which is essentially a generator used differently, converts the e/ec- Jrical energy back to mechanical energy. As you may remember, the gen- erator is used to provide almost all of the electrical energy that we use to- day. One of our major problems is finding energy sources to run these gen- erators. Because of this, we may find it necessary increasingly to use new and alternative sources of energy in the future. But for now, we depend almost entirely on the electric generator for the electrical energy we use. Of Course, we use electrical energy for many purposes other than providing mechanical energy via motors. eee a : __MECHANICAL— ELECTRICAL ENERGY ssn a | j | 5-2 INTRODUCTION TO GENERATORS AND MOTORS Basic Generators and Motors (continued) You already know the principles necessary to understand how generators and motors work. In this volume, you will find out how | generators and motors work, how they are controlled, and how to troubleshoot them. Although there are many variations in generators and motors, you will find them all basically very similar. All electric generators and motors use the interaction between moving conductors and magnetic fields (of vice versa). It is the difference in the way these conductors and magnetic fields are arranged and in their outputs (electrical or mechanical) that results in the differences in the devices that we will learn about here. It would be wise at this point to review the information on magnetism and magnetic effects in Volumes 1, 3, and 4 before proceeding with your study of generators and motors. Although you will learn about de generators and motors and ac ge®- erators and motors, it is important to realize now that the operation of any one of these depends simply on interacting magnetic fields involving current-carrying conductors. Drives Generator Boteate Motor Utilizes YE Des eRe. lectrical En Xx Windmill... Energy. re ne A Generator converts ‘A Motor converts su ENERGY ELECTRICAL ENERGY to eee ENERGY _ | MECHANICAL ENERGY eee eae ees in | by current-carrying | pert fe as rotated | = | a magnetic field, magnetic field, 5) to » a 7 i Motor Utilizes 7 eae Energy .... to Drive Water Pump. INTRODUCTION TO GENERATORS 5-3 Generator Energy Sources As you learned in Volume 1, voltage, or an emf, is induced in a con- ductor moving through a magnetic field. All of the power stations supply- ” ing almost all of the electric power consumed in the world today make use of this simple principle to convert some source of energy into electrical energy. - Most power stations.use the heat energy produced by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas to produce steam. The steam is then used to drive a turbine coupled to a generator. Several changes in the form -of thé energy thus take place: the chemical energy of the fuel is first con- yerted into eat energy; the heat energy is converted into mechanical energy of motion in the turbine; and finally, the mechanical energy of motion is converted into electrical energy in the generator. Whatever the original source of energy—coal, oil, gas, plutonium, uranium, a head of water, the sun, the wind—the final step is always the conversion of the mechanical energy of rotation into electrical energy in a generator. This is also true of all the small transportable generating sets that you find in ships and motor vehicles or in sources of emergency power. oll cll Uh gH me S 5-4 INTRODUCTION TO GENERATORS Review of Electricity from Magnetism You will recall that electricity can be generated by moving a wire through a magnetic field. As long as there is relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field, electricity is generated. The generated voltage is called an induced voltage, or induced emf, and the method of gen- erating it by cutting a magnetic field with a conductor is called induction. You know that the amount of voltage induced in the wire cutting through the magnetic field depends on a number of factors. First, if the speed of the relative cutting action between the conductor aad the mag- netic field increases, the induced emf or voltage increases. Second, if the strength of the magnetic field is increased, th increases. Third, if the number of turns cutti is increased, the induced emf (voltage) is increased in. The polarity of this induced ie or emf will be such that the resulting current flow will build up a field to react with the field of the magnet and to oppose the movement of dl i i 31 (aa trates Lenz's lav, which states that in elotrnees ojos Phenomenon illus in electromagnetic is - aay the induced emf, and hence current flo apnetic induction, the direction of poses the motion which produces it, e induced voltage or emf also ing through the magnetic field ee ee FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE INDUCED EMF STRENGTH Qo ...the SPEED of conductor through magnetic field e ... the STRENGTH of magnetic field 8 ...the NUMBER of turns 1, 18 such that the magnetic field setup op- e INTRODUCTION TO GENERATORS Review of Electricity from Magnetism (continued) The induced voltage (E) in each conductor is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field times the speed of the conductor through the field: 5-5 E = flux X speed You also know that the polarity of the induced voltage, and hence the direction of the generated current flow, is determined by the direction of the relative motion between the magnetic field ‘and the cutting conductor. DIRECTION OF RELATIVE MOTION DETERMINES DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW 1g So to sum up what you already know about electricity from magnetism: 1, Moving a conductor through a magnetic field generates an emf or volt- age that produces a current flow. 2. The faster the conductor cuts through the field, the more turns there are, and the stronger the magnetic field—the reater the induced emf or volt- age, and the greater the current flow. 3. Reversing the direction of movement of the conductor reverses the Polarity of the induced emf (voltage), and therefore the direction of Cutrent flow is reversed. 4. It doesn’t matter whether the conductor or the magaetic field changes oF moves, the result is the same, 5-6 INTRODUCTION TO GENERATORS The Left-Hand Rule You haye seen how an emf or voltage is generated in the coil of the elementary generator. There is a simple method for remembering the eee paineent induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic ee is called the left-hand rule for generators. This rule states that if you ‘old the thumb and the first and middle fingers of the left hand at right sue one another, with the first finger pointing in the flux direction are dle Fane Pointing in the direction of motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction of the induced emf. Direction of induced emf irection i A Sas aan the direction in which current will flow as a result o} You will i (Views) as to Seen ery deae tu tncteare fo conventitgy of curr Q i > tron theory that states th une eat sues bases Once at curr a Pesed source of electricity, ad the oldes eoegiion (he negative terminal of @ the older conventi ea e flows from the positive terminal of asoune pute psi ug he generators indicates the di, with that convention, The same rule expla of to the left hand, will dance with the older co, vA one irce of electricity. The first of these renter ese Volumes, and the left-hand rule for fon of electron current flow in accordance ined above, but applied to the right hand instead indicate the directi 01 S irection i - vention! of current flow in accor’ supposes that current | THE ELEMENTARY. GENERATOR The Parts of an Elementary Generator An elementary generator consists of a loop of wire so placed that it can be rotated in a uniform magnetic field to cause an induced emf in the loop. A pair of sliding contacts are employed to connect the loop to an ex- ternal circuit in order to use the induced emf. The pole pieces are the north and south poles of the magnet that supplies the magnetic field. The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the armature. The ends of the armature loop ate connected to rings, called slip rings, that rotate with the armature. Brushes ride up against the slip rings to connect the armature to the external circuit. You will recall that this is the same elementary generator used to generate an ac voltage as descrihed at the beginning of Volume 3. > THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR Pole Pieces. ore ~~ 5-7 Slip Ring External Circuit- Load Zero Center Ammeter In the description of the generator action given in the following pages, you should visualize the loop rotating through the magnetic field. (However, please remember that you could just as easily rotate the magnet assembly.) As the sides of the loop cut through the magnetic field, an emf is induced in them which causes a current to flow through the loop, slip rings, brushes, ammeter, and load resistor—all connected in series. The magnitude of the induced emf generated in the loop, and therefore of the current that flows, depends on the instantaneous position of the Joop in the magnetic field, | We will also ue the conventio, is flowi EG : | that the current is flowing away roo the aonductor shown as @ mea t me current i i al © means that the is flowing towgry Vets Whereas one show? a8 ; the observer, 5-8 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR Elementary Generator Operation As you remember from Volume this: Assumie that the armature loop i that its initial position is at A (0°) (see diagram below). In position A, the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field, and the black and white con- ductors of the loop are moving parallel to the magnetic field. If a conduc- tor is moving parallel toa magnetic field, its relative motion is zero, it does not cut through any lines of force, and no emf is generated in the conduc- tor. This applies to the conductors of the loop at the instant they go through position A. Thus, no emf is induced in the loo and no current yere ara the circuit, The ammeter reads zero, i ine theo wae sotates from position A to position ictors are Cauing through the lines of force at a faster and Reece oral at 90° eon B) they are cutting through lines of force at the maximum rate. In omer words, between 0° and $02, the induced ance in the conductors builds up fcc zero to a maximum value, Observe that from 0° to 90° the black sender cuts down through the ficld while at the same time the white Sonductor cuts up through the field, As You can show by Lenz’s law, the in- coed aa ike onion Ste in series; and the resultant voltage ems or double that of one conductor ee gss SU of the two induced onductor, sj to each other, conc The current through the circuit wi . varies, being zero at O° and ti cea could follow the Variations i tion to the right betwee, ac ty just as the induced emf Ising to @ maximum at 90°, If the ammeter in current, it would show an increasing deflec- through the load was flowing (o°s,4 and B, indicating that the current The direction of pend on the direction of the armature loop. The elementary Benerator ya; owing in the direction shown. fo flow and the polarity of the induced emf de- Wavelet field and the direction of rotation ies from ctOWS how the terminal voltage of the TOM Position A to Position B, Cees Terminal Position B Voltage 90° Position A 0° e induced voltages are equal THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR 5-9 Elementary Generator Operation (continued) As the loop continues rotating from position B (90°) to position C (180°), the conductors, which are cutting through the lines of force at a maximum relative rate at position B, begin to cut through lines more and more slowly, until at position C they are moving parallel to the magnetic field, and there is no relative velocity between the field and the conductor. The induced emf will therefore decrease as the loop moves from 90° to 180°, and the current flow will also vary as the voltage varies. Position B 90° Position € 180° Ca Rie ' Elementary Generator Operation (continued) 5-10 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR From 0° to 180° the conductors of the loop have been moving in the same direction through the magnetic field, and the polarity of the induced emf has therefore remained the same. As the loop starts rotating beyond 180° back te position A, however, the direction of the cutting action of the conductors through the magnetic field reverses, Ni cuts up through the field, and the white cor low the black conductor field. As a result, the polarity of induced reverse. The voltage output waveform for loop is shown below. inductor cuts down through the emf and the current flow, will : : Position D Se iia 270° Position A, 360° (or 0°) 60 When the loop is rotated ee fe highest rate when the loop lowest rate when the loop i eres or Hz), then the frequency ©! constant areal can, called alternator , it i MOVES from shee fe Cus the lines of force at th iS Vertical, sinusoidal, and as you know it is the r: mines output voltage. Cutting lines of force that dete!” the complete revolution of the | ! ! | Thin orzontal position and at the j 7 7 Cay sinusoidal because the rate at which the ta the voltage output t0 bal os ate ofcuri ee ous: lines of force | THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR 5-11 The Commutator ‘As you have seen, the elementary generator is an ac generator. If an ac output is desired, then the generator is complete. You will study practical ac generators later in this volume. In the elementary generator, the ac voltage induced in the loop reverses its polarity every time the loop goes through the 0° and 180° points. At these points, the conductors of the loop reverse their direction through the magnetic field. As you already know, the polarity of the in- duced emf depends on the direction in which a conductor moves through a magnetic field; and if the direction reverses, the polarity of the induced emf, reverses, Since the loop continues rotating through the field, the emf in- duced in the conductors of the loop will always be alternating. Therefore, the only way that dc can be obtained from the generator is to convert the ac output to de. One way to do this is to have a switch connected across the generator output in such a way that it will reverse the connections to the load every time the polarity of the induced emf changes inside the generator. The switch, illustrated in the diagram below, must be operated manually every time the polarity of the voltage changes. If this is done, the voltage applied to the load wiil always have the same polarity, and the current flow through the resistor will not reverse direction, although it will rise and fall in value as the loop rotates. Changing AC to DC using a Pulsating DC yas Load Current and Voltage 5-12 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR The Commutator (continued) _ To convert the generated ac voltage into a pulsating voltage the switch must be operated twice for every cycle. If the generator output is alternating at 60 Hz, the switch must be operated 120 times per second to convert the ac to dc. Obviously, it would be impossible to operate a switch manually at such a high speed. The problem has been solved si egments of the slip ring. The segments ctrical contact between them, the shaft, The entire Split ring is known as the com- ng the ac into de is known as commutation. Opposite each other, and th tor segments are » and the commutal ie au cae that they are short-circuited by the brushes as the sHoriciredie’ Nee Bs. ris voltage points; thus, no current flow in the connected by means of cae as the loop rotates, each conductor will be to the negative brush, mutator, first to the positive brush and then When the armat are insulated so that there is no ele: or any other part of the armature, mutator, and its action in converti > the commutator automatically brush to the other, every time the Hon is exactly the same as that of the changing AC te DC As you will learn late, : called the rectifier, which ye aa ice Y de generators, a special devi“ can also be used to convert ac wt die ce to pu sating hee you studied ac m COMMUTATOR - a THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR 5-13 Converting AC to DC by Use of the Commutator Suppose you now analyze the action of the commutator in converting the generated ac into de. In A position (0°), the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field, no emf is generated in the conductors of the loop, and there is no current flow. Notice that the brushes are in contact with both segments of the commutator, effectively short-circuiting the loop. This short circuit does not create any problem, since there is no current flow. The moment the loop moves slightly beyond A position, however, the short circuit no longer exists. The black brush is in contact with the black segment, and the white brush is in contact with the white segment. As the loop rotates clockwise from A position to B position, the in- duced emf starts building up from zero, until at B position (90°) the in- duced emf is at a maximum. Since the current yaries with the induced emf, the current flow will also be at a maximum 90°. As the loop continues fotating clockwise, from B position to C, the induced emf decreases, until at C position (180°), it i§ zero once again. The waveform pictured below shows how the terminal voltage of the generator varies from 0° to 180°. Nor) Position Position C (ago) - Position 614 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR 5-15 Pi Converting AC to DC by Use of the Commutator (continued) |) ‘'™proving the DC Output i Notice that in C position the black brush is slipping off che black seg- Before, You/earied. sbout Generators helonlyadcwaliseehy cuba ae familiar with was the smooth and unvarying voltage produced, for exam- ple, by a battery. Now you find that the de ourput of an elementary de gen- erator is very uneven—a pulsating de voltage varying periodically from zero to maximum. Although this pulsating voltage is dc, it is not constant ae ment onto the white segment while at the same time the white brush is slip- ping off the white segment onto the black segment. In this way, the black t t brush is always in contact with the conductor of the loop moving down- ward, and the white brush is always in contact with the conductor moving nt i m q enough to operate many dc appliances and equipment. Therefore, the DT ice netic mata contutor tes a correo ow comacdl Seaudh $0 ope many de sppiance and epee: Th produce a My Ree f wire brush is the negative terminal and the black brush is smoother output. This is accomplished by adding more coils of wire to the : : i posite ‘cominal of the dc generator. You can easily verify this by the armature. tee a 7% Ties ae pete aac ob | The illustration shows a generator with a two-coil armature, the two pain position (270°) and back 4 Apes C position (180°) through Da coils (A and B) positioned at right angles to each other. Notice that the if connected to the white wir 2. ieee (360° or 0°), the black brush isf commutator is broken up into four segments, with opposite segments con- i A eaansealerne hiss a wi - is moving down, and the white brush is nected to the ends of a coil. In the position shown, the brushes connect to i polarity voltage wavefon ite, which is moving up. As a result, the same the white coil (A) in which a maximum voltage is generated, since it is i B60ctastvaincherared ae Ros eumied across the brushes from 180° to moving at right angles to the field. As the armature rotates clockwise, the } Mi idiretterynscey ie to 180°. Notice that the current flows in the output from coil A starts dropping off. After an eighth of a revolution ii i ough the ammeter after | (45°) the brushes slide over to the black commutator segments in whose i i ! coil (B) the induced emf is increasing. The output voltage starts to pick up again, reaches a peak at 90°, and starts dropping off as coil B cuts through fewer lines of force. At 135°, commutation takes Place again and the brushes are once more in contact with coil A. In the illustration below, the voltages from both coils are shown Superimposed on the single coil voltage. Notice that the output never drops below point Y. You will also notice that commutation occurs at the points where the voltages in the coils are equal. Since there is a momentary short developed on the commutator at this instant, the fact that the points are of i mn equal potential means that no current will flow across the two commu- ‘ Re t ! tator segments. The rise and fall in voltage is therefore now limited to the bly distance between Y and the maximum, rather than to that between zero and the maximum, This reduced variation in the output voltage of a de Senerator is known as generator ripple. It is apparent that the output of the two-coil armature is much closer to steady de than the output of the one- coil armature. 6 aso) Position D (270°) 3 Position A (360°) | two-Sout Armature Position (or 0°) ! ‘ ae ul Matera) As you can see, the only ma; Senerators is in the way the i9r differenc, Output is ha ise between elementary ac and © ‘anipulated, 5-16 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR Improving the DC Output (continued) . Although the output of the two-coil generator is much closer to con- stant de than the output of the one-coil 8enerator, there is still too much rip- ple in the output to make it useful for some electrical equipment. Simple. generators, however, can be very useful in applications where ripple is not important (or can be filtered), for example, in battery chargers, welding equipment, etc. To make the output really smooth, the armature is made with a large number of coils, and the commutator is similarly divided into a large number of segments. The coils are mature that at every instant th netic field at right angles, As little ripple and is for all prai a result, the generator Output contains very ctical purposes a constant, or pure, de. MANY-TURN COILS INCREASE vou; TAGE OUTPUT LTS LEE NAc ar ve ear hath Pate Armature VOLTAGE Mai GENERATOR 9 The voltage induce order to generate a lar; Practical generator consi: result, the outpur voltage ing only one turn, dina o, Ne-turn coj i / Be voltage Output Oil or loop is not very large. In ) StS Of many turne cost Coil on the armature of @ is much Bteater th, nthe onmested in series. As ® than that’generated in a coil ha¥- THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR 5-17 Improving the Generator Output When you considered the way an elementary generator works, you assumed that the coil was rotated in a uniform magnetic field. To obtain this uniform field in practical generators, concave pole pieces are used, and the armature coils are carried by an iron rotor so as to confine the mag- netic field to desired areas, It should be apparent that the generator greatly resembles the transformer in principle and that what you learned abo, transformers earlier will help you understand generators and motors, The flux can be made Sreater and even more uniform by using more than one pair of poles. Two pairs of poles are common, but more may be used in large machines. os Pole Pieces It should also be apparent that the generator can be arranged in sev- eral configurations, just so long as the Principle of conductors moving through magnetic fields is Preserved. Later in this volume we will study Some of these different configurations, 5-18 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR Review of the Elementary Generator i 1, INDUCED EMF—The induced } emf is the result of a conductor mov- | ing through a magnetic field and cut- ting the lines of force. 4 o 2. FACTORS AFFECTING segreroa, INDUCED EMF— | ‘magnetic hela a. Speed of conductor through mag- | e netic field. teSTaENOTH b. The strength of the magnetic field. ¢ The number of inductors (or turns), d. The direction of relative motion determines polarity. ‘of magnetic eld 3. ELEMENTARY GENERATOR— A loop of wire rotating through 4 | Magnetic field forms an elementary | enerator and is connected to an ex- ternal circuit through slip rings. The induced emf causes current flow in the external circuit, os 4 ELEMENTARY GENERATOR OUTPUT—The emf and current - flow of an elementary generator Feverse in polarity every time the | @rmature loop rotates 180°. The out- Put of such a generator is ac. ! ! >. COMMUTATOR—An automatic | Feversing switch on the generatos | aa Which switches coil connec’ | Haus {0 the brushes every half revoli- lon of an elementary generator. Its Purpose is to Provide a dc output: < Process is called commutation. TORRACTICAL Dc GENERA’| emeee Smooth out the dc take” in the Benerator, many coils are use are ae tee and more segment’ i Practice ie! form the commutator. 4 ~ 4 output the Benerator has a voltage” times ang. 1) “e@f maximum at al” and has only a light ripple. | THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR 5-19 Self-Test—Review Questions ig 2s 3: yoo ex 10. List five practical uses for generators. What factors control generator output? If you doubled the speed of a generator, what would happen to the voltage? If you doubled the number of turns on the coil’ of an elementary gen- erator, what would happen to the output? How would the output voltage change if the strength of the magnetic field were increased? Decreased? Draw an elementary generator and show, using the left-hand rule, how a commutator works. State Lenz’s law. Check back into Volume 3 on Faraday’s law and restate it here. Draw an elementary generator. Label and define the functions of all of the parts. What is the essential difference between an ac and a dc elementary gen- erator? é Learning Objectives—Next Section Overview—Now that you know something about the principle of the elementary generator, you are ready to learn about the prac- tical de generator in the next section. Q 5-20 THE DC GENERATOR G | j Generator Construction \ So far you have learned the fundamental: theory of operation of elementar s of generator action and the y ac and de generators, Now you are ready to learn about actual generators and how they are constructed. In fact, de generators have become relatively unimportant because of the ease with which ac can be converted to de, However, an understanding of de genera- tors provides a basis for understanding all the generators and motors that | you will study later in this volume. There are various com; generator. Once you lear il h ‘on, you will find it much easier to do fault- finding and maintenance work on generators. _ All generators—whether ac or dc—consist of a fotating part and a stationary part, In most dc generators the coil that the output is taken from | an oped on the rotating Part, which is referred to as the armature. The | Si is Ny oon the magnetic field are mounted on the stationary part, _ Hee: Hie aaa 1 (0.88 the field. In most ac generators the opposite is true, | is, the field is mounted fotating part—the rotor ; and the arma- i Patt—the stator. In modern generators aire ate eae alere cases where a permanent magnet or a sim- ‘tor, and both the fi = a Mounred on the stator. You will lesen she and the output coils are learn about these later in this volume. A TYPICAL Dc GENERATOR Armature yy In all cases, i » there is relati aa tive i neti mor hate Ines of farce) Asta aeet Bisa ata a ae to flow through ¢ e exleraal n ones Bere ws Donor Supplies electric ust be put into th, es si '€ genera erate electricity. Th Fae ator to ca x . The ge; Use the r ene page Consea dently Bs ied Converts mechanical to turn and to E all es ye Benerators must hy a Power into elects! te ipply. the mechanica ave machines associated wit 1 a Necessary to turn the rotors: 1 uated by the hea IS of diesel engines; electric motof | . it . 7 sion; or turbines aeeeee in the combustion of co#! { 'y Water power. | 1 coil cuts through mag in the coil, causing 4” Power to a load, mechanical } OF steam turbines acti or oil, or nuclear fis, @ THE DC GENERATOR i 5-21 DC Generator Construction The relationship of the various components making up a de genera- tor is illustrated below. In the generator shown the field coils are the stator, and one end housing (not illustrated) is bolted to the generator frame. The armature is inserted between the field poles and the housing end, with the brush assemblies mounted last, End Brush, Comp Bell Spring SS Brush ‘Brush Holder Commutator 5-22 THE DC GENERATOR DC Generator Construction (continued) Generator design vari i i hee ely es on the size, type, and manufac- e ment of parts is as illustrated above. The | a Ea ene a Sear E are described on the following pire Com- | ies 8 ‘unction with the elementary generator described | MAIN FI a ii i foundation of ther gu isin frame is sometimes called the yoke. Ic isthe | prea achine and Supports the other components. It also plete the magnetic field between the pole Pieces, ; like transformer cores, are usually | ANNU GIN Ry: USGL on OC Tt erator action. The sh ae eld, ind ae eae os togeh : a ‘4 The windings are Coils, e : : ses 2 : i of re Pieces. Current figu;t iMStlated wi ceetne? are often called ¢ field. Ia some s ow Wire wound to fit closely aroun Nese coj Perma, Soils generates the magneti® ne: = s Brush Holders rovide ake “788 mounted on the pole piece? 1 mi mall A generator may hana of poles, Regardless Only two pole MaBnets repl, jeld coils: | i : of th, Pole, eplace the field coll: — of opposite polarity, Fie| id a ber of at ae ‘(may have a number of paif — Parallel (or shunt, as th india, " akernate OE AT | can gfe allel connectj< oected either in series oF} te AaBS consist of 0” #8 often called) with the 2 Posed of fay ttY turns of fine wire, Whi turns of fairly heavier WHT mature, Shunt field wi Series field windings at THE DC GENERATOR 5-23 DC Generator Construction (continued) END HOUSINGS: These are attached to the ends of the main frame and contain the bearings for the armature. The rear housing usually sup- ports only the bearing, whereas the front housing also supports the brush assemblies. BRUSH HOLDER: This component supports the brushes and their connecting wires. The brush holders are secured to the front end housing with clamps. On some generators, the brush holders can be rotated around the shaft for adjustment. ARMATURE ASSEMBLY: In practically all dc generators, the arma- ture rotates between the poles of the field. The armature assembly is made up of a shaft, an armature core, armature windings, and a commutator. The armature core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses and is slotted to receive the armature windings. The armature. windings are usually wound in forms and then placed in the slots of the core. The commutator is made up of copper segments insulated from one another and from the shaft by mica or heat-resistant plastic. These segments are secured by retainer rings to prevent them from slipping out under the force of rotation. Small slots are provided in the ends of the seg- ments to which the armature windings are-soldered. The shaft supports the entire armature assembly and rotates in the end bearings. There is a small air gap between the armature and pole pieces to pre- vent rubbing between the armature and pole pieces during rotation. This gap is kept to a minimum in order to keep the field strength at a maximum. BRUSHES: The brushes ride on the commutator and carry the gen- erated voltage to the load. They are usually made of a high grade of car- bon, or a carbon-copper mixture, and are held in place by brush holders. The brushes can slide up and down in their holders so that they are able to follow irregularities in the surface of the commutator. A flexible braided conductor, called a pigtail, connects each brush to the external circuit. = oy, Laminated Core Brush Holder 5-24 Types of Armatures at Armatures used in de generators are divided into two general types. ease ne, 78-tYPe armature and the drum-type armature, In the Hinge Beaute ate wmsulated armature coils are wrapped around an ifoall ring, wi i } ing, with taps taken off at regular intervals to form connections to the i commutator segments. The ring-t for rotating electrical machi _ The drum-type armature is tl tion, The insulated coil. core. The ends of the THE DC GENERATOR y = YY ' As a rul ‘ | rule, most de armatu | wound by machine wi eS use form-mad il ils are chine with the prover 2 € coils. These coils a ! shape. The entire coi is then wrapped Innes of turns and in the propet re, > OF ot! ise i , econ aa ge ae HE nln am serte % ‘ k Poles. In a two-pole Machine, ae is foreach coil are under unlit Oil are situated on opposite me under opposite poles: 1? r Placed in slots about one | unlike poles. In elec gute? ‘HUS again keeping the legs | es. In elects; : ‘ually the number or Acid ee ae the number of pole’ » the legs : yecrines the Legs of the coin the coils under unlike ound the i, th specified is ac THE DC GENERATOR Types of Armature Winding The windings on a drum-type armature may be one of two kinds, a lap winding or a wave winding. In a lap winding the two ends of each coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments, and the winding forms the pattern illustrated below. The drawing is made as if the armature were laid out flat, so the ex- treme right-hand side actually connects to the extreme left-hand side. The illustration is for a four-pole generator. Mergnarnnss PAU (St (ON US OSS OSS SOO B . z §-25 The direction in which the emf in each conductor is induced is indi- cated in the diagram. The way in which the coils in the lap winding are connected can be seen more easily in the simplified diagram below. You can see that there are two points where the emfs in adjacent con- ‘ors meet: A and C; and two points where the emfs in adjacent conduc- tors are diverging: B and D, If brushes are placed at these points, current Will flow from the armature winding at A and C and into the winding at B and D. Brushes having the same polarity can be connected together, and the armature is thus effectively divided into four parallel paths. duct : | 5-26 THE DC GENERATOR } Types of Armature Winding (continued) ; In general, the number of inding is | equal soe atrah the number of parallel paths through a lap winding i) e ber of poles. The terminal emf is equal to the emf induced | a one path; the current delivered to the external circuit is equal to the sum) fae we uttents in each of the parallel paths. For this reason the lap wind: | ing is used for high-current applications. : : cn aes other type of winding used on drum-type arinatures is the wave sh eens illustrated below. In this case the connections are made) winding pass i ewe ee under every pole before it comes back to the pole The c the winding below, yore? Coils are into only iS ONNections i ils are shown i implifi ing © two Parallel png nice tha Pamuthe simplified drav nde tin this case the winding is div! If brushes through the wi are placed at po: q ind; 03 a Path are acting #8 {0m Ahn’ A and B and you crace the 1°? at .2Cting in the dip. 0 5: You wi fs in ey a) in each path ee ction A Eas that most cote oof?) POSition of these conductgs Position hg ee Rae td ‘check q 'S, others. ut 1 "| ye ry y ya" Will see that they are in the THE DC GENERATOR 5-27 Types of Armature Winding (continued) Rane Armature Riinen Commutator Segments between poles, so that the emfs induced in them are small (at the instant shown). In general, the wave winding has only two parallel current paths and uses only two brushes regardless of the number of poles. The emf developed in a wave winding is equal to that induced in one half of the total number of armature conductors. For this reason, the wave winding is used for high-voltage applications. The current delivered to the external circuit is twice the current in an individual armature conductor because both halves of the armature wind- ing are effectively in parallel. Loker tenie els WOM MY ATG a ae ee 5-28 THE DC GENERATOR Generator Voltage Output i The output voltage from a generator depends on the conductors cut | ting through lines of force. You. know that the induced emf is proportional | to the numbers of turns, flux density, and speed with which che flux lines | are cut. Clearly, this will be true for any generator. We can write this as: || | _®2ZN | Eeior = where E is the volta : - ge output, ® is the number ic li ole, Z is the number of armature co puchganeticilines pet P ductors interacti: ith the field @, and > N x ing with the fie! , 108 een! ae « matate in-revolutions per second (rps). The constant urn g 5 just the number of turns bet #8 two conductors interacting, so Z is not ween two commutator segments, } SET ols 4 ! Suppose you had a gen ji er tors and 106 (1,000,000) tines not ee 4 poles and 440 armature conduc’ | *pm (50 ps); the output voltag magnetic flux that were rotating at 3,000 © would be: } 6 p= 10° X 440 x 50 penn ONXI50 OF = 220 volt Since each armature i conducto i i Pisce, and there are four Poles, net ce fourth of the total cu, rent. If the load aie z u Trent would be: ‘i ve is in parallel under a pole | ‘ent/armature conductor is on nt were 1,000 amperes, the 4% — In mature conductor cu, THE DC GENERATOR 5-29 Types of DC Generators Most large de generators have electromagnetic fields. Permanent mag- net fields are also used in small generators. To produce a constant elec- tromagnetic field for use in a generator, the field coils must be con- nected across a de voltage source. The dc in the field coils is called the exci- tation and may be supplied either from a separate ‘dc voltage source or by using the dc output of the generator itself. If the field is supplied with current from an external source, the gen- erator is said to be separately excited; but if some of the generator output is used to supply the field current, it is said to be seif-excited. In a self-excited generator the field coils may be connected either in series with the ar- mature coils (series); in parallel with the armature coils (shunt); or with two windings, with one in series and the other in parallel with the armature coils (compound). The symbols illustrated below are used to represent the armature and field coils in the various generator circuits. Field Coil Armature Coil and Brushes Separately excited de generators have two external circuits: the field circuit, consisting of the field coils connected across a separate dc source, and the armature circuit, consisting of the armature coil and the load resist- ance. (Two or more field or armature coils connected in series with one another are represented by a single symbol.) The two circuits of a sep- arately excited generator are illustrated below, showing the current flow through the various parts of the circuit. UMass ht elicatiny “Field. 4. Circuit ee 5-30, THE DC GENERATOR Separately Excited DC Generators In a separately excited de generator, the field is independent of the armature, since it is supplied with current from another generator (ex citer), ei amplifier, or a battery. The separately excited field provides 4 aera keel the voltage output of the generator because a change alt ie strength changes the magnitude of the induced voltage. Thus, small changes in the field current, a large change in the load voltage (and current) will result, aie 4 BR separately ected generator is frequently used in automatic eaahgene aetemst n these systems the field current is controlled by afl ee a pecan of the generator supplies the current that drives @ Perea saree may be used to drive a machine at constant speedy enna, or power any other heavy load. ee ( Separately Excited DC Generator Voltage Output Control Rheostat Radar ! Antenna Separately Excit led DC Generator Pemex cet OF Field Coil Generator DCN Out; Gener.) ~“ mut ator Variable DC Supply Sometimes, j S, informati a small generator (called oy seout th f le Mot i q Benerates a Seles EP eerie arimeicsen te ca back by menre if ), connected to the motor shaft, th® Amplifier and Field Current Supply, Fixed Speed Control THE DC GENERATOR 5-31 Self-Excited DC Generators Self-excited generators use part of the generator’s output to supply ex- citation current to the field. These generators are classified according to the type of field connection used. In a series generator, the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding, so that the entire armature current flows through both the field and the load. If the generator is not connected across a load, the circuit is incomplete, and no current will flow to excite the field. The series field contains relatively few turns of heavy wire. Shunt generator field coils are connected across the armature circuit, forming a parallel, or shunt, circuit. Only a small part of the armature cur- rent flows through the field coils; the rest flows through the load. Since the shunt field and the armature form a closed circuit independent of the load, the generator is excited even with no load connected across the ar- mature. The shunt field contains many turns of finer wire. A compound generator has both a series and a shunt field, forming a series-parallel circuit. Two coils are mounted on each pole piece, one coil series connected and the other shunt connected. The shunt field coils are excited by only a part of the armature current; however, the entire load current flows through the series field. Therefore, as the load current in- creases, the strength of the series field also increases. -Self-excited DC Generators Shunt Field @ SHUNT GENERATOR @ compound 4 GENERATOR | 5-32 THE DC GENERATOR Self-Excited DC Generators (continued) Almost all of the de genera back or are directly of the self. excitation depends on the arm: ‘ i tors in use are either controlled by feed: | excited type. However, if the original field d ature output, and if no voltage is induced in the amare coil unless it moves through a magnetic field, you may Nea erate a output can build up. In other words, if there is Start with (since no current is flowi: i how can the generator produce an emf? ae senie field) a ee meena is that the field poles retain a certain amount of mag: pears ena tual magnetism, from a previous generator use. When the a i ibe aS a field does exist, which, although very weak, is ough to induce an emf in th This tna in the armature. rae Set ae Stal corees Current through the field coils, reinforcing increased flux ie bes ‘eld and strengthening the total magnetism. This cartent through the fa cots epereatet emf, which again increases the mal field strength o1's—and so on until the machine attains its nor __ Alllself-excited is normally less tha and field current Benerators build n 30 seconds, build up in a up in this manner. The buildup time The graph shows how generator voltage shunt generator, Generator Voltage Baldup ents) Pascua ns Generator voltage (volts) eS g Dead OL cay Gre ! Remember, the Steak Field current (amperes) 4 always has to b Of a gen, m rato Buildup in a gener st’ > fa ae is electrical power. A 8°70 os. its electrical errr ee Rot refer ¢, anical means—the pri me m : toi it refers a i its mechani jon; tte" | when you study trou! ill lea hanical rotatior le idol bleshooting af at to do when there is 0 DUNC 8—after at You have learned about de M01? 7 THE DC GENERATOR 5-33 The Self-Excited Series DC Generator In a self-excited series de generator, the armature, the field coils, and the external circuit are all in series. This means that the same current that - flows through the armature and external circuit also flows through the field coils. Since the field current, which is also the load current, is large, the required strength of magnetic flux is obtained’with a relatively small number of turns in the field windings. ‘ The illustration shows the schematic of a typical de series generator. With no load, no current can flow, and therefore yery little emf will be in- duced-in the armature—the amount actually produced depends on the strength of the residual magnetism. If a load is connected, current will flow, the field strength will build up, and the terminal voltage will in- crease. As the load draws more current from the generator, this additional current increases the field strength, generating more voltage in the arma- ture winding and further increasing the current in the load. A point, A, is soon reached where further increase in load current does not result in greater voltage because the magnetic field has reached saturation and can increase no more. The Series Generator Generator arate) Volts —— Load Load current ———> —E——————E CHARACTERISTIC CURVE —<—<—$<—< fy The series generator is not used as an ordinary generator, but the fact that its Output voltage is proportional to its armature current makes it useful in some special applications. ~ ternal circuit is Open. As th j THE DC GENERATOR 5-35 5-34 THE DC GENERATOR i The Self-Excited Compound Generator The Self-Excited Shunt pc Generator i A self-excited compound generator is a combined series and shunt A selfexcited shunt de generator has is field winding connected in]) generator. There are two sets of field coils—one in series with the arma- shunt (or parallel) with the armature Therefore, the current through th) ture and one in parallel with the armature. One shunt coil and one series field coils is determined by the terminal voltage and the resistance of tit) coil are always mounted on a common pole piece and are sometimes dit thet! enclosed in a common covering. : fore require a relatively Pale ee ieee fold flux. If the series field is connected so that ir aids the shunt field, the gen- en a shunt generator is started, the buildup time for rated terminal | erator is called cumulatively compound. If the series field opposes the shunt Voltage at the brushes is rapid, since field current flows even though theex|) field, the generator is called differentially compound. The field may also be e load draws more current from the armature; connected either short shunt or long shunt, depending on whether the shunt the terminal voltage decreases because the i d drop across the af field is in parallel with both the series field and the armature, or only with increased drop s mature subtracts fr jeld) the armature. The o; erating characteristics of both types of shunt connec- Seay om the generated voltage and hence reduces the fiel Pi tion are practically the same, The illu: i | Ste x He ation shows the schematic diagram and characteristic curt? ‘unt gene; ? Generator. Observe that over the normal operating region 0 Current increases is rol; (0,6)? the drop in terminal voltage as the 103

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