Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE

Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems are innovative
methods for delivering space conditioning in offices and other
commercial buildings. Underfloor air distribution derives its name
from the use of the underfloor plenum below a raised (access) floor
system to supply conditioned air directly into the occupied zone of
the building, typically through floor diffusers. The use of UFAD
technology is increasing in North America because of the benefits
that it offers over conventional overhead air distribution.
The purpose of this design guide is to provide assistance in the
design of UFAD systems that are energy efficient, intelligently
operated, and effective in their performance. This guide also
describes important research results that support current thinking
on UFAD design and includes an extensive annotated
bibliography for those seeking additional detailed information. This
guide does not cover con- ventional overhead air distribution system
design procedures in depth but rather focuses on the major
differences between UFAD systems and conventional design. For
more information on standard heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning (HVAC) design, please refer to other books
published by ASHRAE, including the Handbook series [ASHRAE
2000, 2001a, 2002, 2003a], Air-Conditioning Systems Design
Manual [ASHRAE 1993], and Designer’s Guide to Ceiling- Based
Air Diffusion [Rock and Zhu 2001].
Task/ambient conditioning (TAC) systems are a special class of
air distribution systems characterized by their ability to allow
individuals to have personal control over their local environment,
without adversely affecting that of occupants in the surrounding
area. A large majority of TAC systems use UFAD with furniture- or
partition-based
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CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

supply outlets because of the effectiveness of this configuration at

pro- viding individual control for nearby occupants. These two
closely related air distribution systems share many common features
in terms of their design, construction, and operation. This guide also
presents preliminary design guidance for TAC systems where
available, although applications and experience using this
technology are still rather limited.
The development of this guide is based on a compilation of
available information, including research results from laboratory and
field experiments and simulation studies, design experience
described in the literature as well as from interviews with practicing
engineers, manufacturer’s literature, and other relevant guidelines
from users of the technology. Despite recent growth in the UFAD
market, widespread experience with these systems is still at an early
stage, with significant issues the subject of ongoing research. The
guidelines presented here are based on the most current and best
available data and information. Designers and operators are
encouraged to use common sense and good engineering judgment
when applying methodologies described in this guide. The guide is
intended for use by design engineers, architects, building owners,
facility managers, equipment manufacturers and installers, utility
engineers, researchers, and other users of UFAD technology.

1.2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

An underfloor air distribution (UFAD) system uses the open
space (underfloor plenum) between a structural slab and the
underside of a raised floor system to deliver conditioned air to
supply outlets located at or near floor level within the occupied
zone (up to 6-ft [1.8-m] height) of the space. Floor diffusers make
up the large majority of installed UFAD supply outlets, and
throughout this guide, unless otherwise noted, use of the term
“UFAD” system will refer primarily to this configuration. As
discussed in Chapter 3, supply outlets can pro- vide different levels
of individual control over the local thermal environment, depending
on diffuser design and location. Additional details of UFAD systems
are presented below.
A task/ambient conditioning (TAC) system is defined as any
space conditioning system that allows thermal conditions in small,
localized zones (e.g., regularly occupied work locations) to be
individually controlled by nearby building occupants while still
automatically maintaining acceptable environmental conditions in
the ambient space of the building (e.g., corridors, open-use space,
and other areas outside of
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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

regularly occupied work space). Typically, the occupant can control

the perceived temperature of the local environment by adjusting the
speed and direction, and in some cases the temperature, of the
incoming air supply, much like the dashboard of a car. Although not
a requirement, the design of a large majority of TAC systems has
involved the use of underfloor air distribution (UFAD). For
purposes of presentation in this guide, TAC systems are
distinguished from standard UFAD systems by their higher degree
of personal comfort control provided by the localized supply outlets.
TAC supply outlets use direct velocity cooling to achieve this level
of control and are therefore most commonly configured as fan-
driven (active) jet-type diffusers that are located as part of the
furniture or partitions. Active floor diffusers are also possible.
Throughout this guide, use of the term “TAC” system will refer to a
UFAD system featuring active supply outlets with the above-
described individual control capabilities. TAC systems that do not
employ UFAD, such as desktop systems ducted down from an
overhead system, are not covered by this guide. For further
information on a complete range of TAC systems, see Bauman and
Arens (1996) and Loftness et al. (2002).
Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 present and compare schematic
diagrams of a conventional overhead system, UFAD system, and
UFAD with TAC system, respectively, for a cooling application in
an open-plan office building. Some of the most important
advantages of UFAD systems over ceiling-based systems occur for
cooling conditions, which

3
Figure 1.1 Conventional overhead air distribution system.

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CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2 Underfloor air distribution system.

Figure 1.3 Cutaway of typical office work space showing UFAD

with TAC system.

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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

are required year-round in interior office space in many parts of

North America.
Historically, the approach to HVAC design in commercial
buildings has been to supply conditioned air through extensive duct
networks to an array of diffusers located in the ceiling. As shown in
Figure 1.1, conditioned air is both supplied and exhausted at ceiling
level. Ceiling plenums are typically quite deep to accommodate the
large supply ducts. Return air is most commonly configured as an
un-ducted ceiling plenum return. Often referred to as mixing-type air
distribution, conventional HVAC systems are designed to promote
complete mixing of supply air with room air, thereby maintaining
the entire volume of air in the occupied space at the desired setpoint
temperature and evenly distributing ventilation air.
UFAD systems are the same as conventional overhead systems in
terms of the types of equipment used at the cooling and heating
plants and primary air-handling units (AHU). As shown in Figure
1.2, all UFAD systems are configured to use an underfloor air
supply plenum to deliver conditioned air directly into the occupied
zone, typically through floor outlets. TAC systems use active
diffusers that are located as part of the furniture or partitions,
although floor-based diffusers are also possible (Figure 1.3). The
major features of a UFAD system, with or without TAC supply
outlets, are described briefly below.

• Supply air containing at least the minimum volume of outside air is

filtered and conditioned to the required temperature and humidity.
It is then delivered by the air-handling unit (AHU) to an underfloor
plenum, traveling through a shorter distance of ductwork than for
ceiling-based systems.
• The underfloor plenum is formed by installation of a raised floor
system, typically consisting of 2 ft × 2 ft (0.6 m × 0.6 m) concrete-
filled steel floor panels. Raised floors used with UFAD systems
have typically been installed at heights of 12–18 in. (0.3–0.46 m)
above the concrete structural slab of the building, although lower
heights are possible. The raised floor system also allows all power/
voice/data (PVD) cabling services to be conveniently distributed
through the underfloor plenum (Figure 1.3). Savings associated
with these services offset much of the initial cost of the raised floor
system.
• When configuring an underfloor air supply plenum, there are three
basic approaches: (1) pressurized plenum with a central air handler
delivering air through the plenum and into the space through
passive grilles/diffusers, modulated diffusers, and fan-powered
termi-
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CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

nal units, either used alone or in combination with one another; (2)
zero-pressure plenum with air delivered into the conditioned space
through local fan-powered (active) supply outlets in combination
with the central air handler; and (3) in some cases, ducted air
supply through the plenum to terminal devices and supply outlets.
The use of pressurized underfloor plenums appears to be the
focus of current practice, although zero-pressure plenums pose no
risk of uncontrolled air leakage to the conditioned space, adjacent
zones, or the outside.
• Within the plenum, air flows freely in direct contact with the
thermally massive slab and floor panels and enters the
workspace through diffusers at floor level or as part of the
furniture or partitions. Because the air is supplied directly into
the occupied zone, floor supply outlet temperatures should be
maintained no lower than in the range of 61-65°F (16-18°C) to
avoid uncomfortably cool conditions for the nearby occupants. For
TAC supply outlets located closer to the occupant (e.g., furniture-
or partition-based diffusers) where the occupant is exposed to
diffuser velocity cooling, even warmer supply temperatures may
be advisable.
• UFAD systems are generally configured to have a relatively larger
number of smaller supply outlets, many in closer proximity to the
building occupants, as opposed to the larger diffusers and spacing
used in conventional overhead systems. Outlets that are located
within workstations or otherwise near occupants at their work
locations are typically adjustable or thermostatically controlled,
providing an opportunity for adjacent individuals to at least have
some amount of control over their perceived local thermal
environment. Fan-driven TAC diffusers can more directly
influence local thermal comfort by using increased air movement
to provide occupant cooling.
• Air is returned from the room at ceiling level, or at the maximum
allowable height above the occupied zone. This produces an
overall floor-to-ceiling airflow pattern that takes advantage of the
natural buoyancy produced by heat sources in the office and more
efficiently removes heat loads and contaminants from the space,
particularly for cooling applications. In contrast to the well-mixed
room air conditions of the conventional overhead system, during
cooling conditions, UFAD system operation can be optimized to
promote some amount of stratification in the space, with elevated
temperatures and higher levels of pollutants above head height
where their effect on occupants is reduced.

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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

1.3 BACKGROUND

In today’s rapidly changing work environment, new factors have

emerged that are driving corporate thinking on the type of facility
that they will own or occupy. One of the leading drivers is integrated
design solutions that provide maximum flexibility to allow facilities
to easily adapt to new technologies and new business directions.
Secondly, the needs of building occupants are increasingly being
recognized as crit- ical in terms of life-cycle cost-effectiveness.
Communication, com- puter, and internet-based technologies
enable individual workers to have tremendous control over where,
when, and how they work. Advanced and flexible interior
furnishings have been developed that can be configured to support a
variety of individual and team work pat- terns. The potential
economic benefits of using these and other new building
technologies to achieve greater satisfaction within the work- force
are known to be very large. These benefits include increased
worker productivity, employee retention, reduced operating costs
(fewer occupant complaints), and increased market value of
facilities.
In contrast, HVAC technology has not kept pace with the
changing workplace. HVAC approaches have changed little since
variable-air volume systems were first introduced 30 years ago. For
the vast major- ity of buildings, it is still standard practice to provide
a single uniform thermal and ventilation environment within each
building zone, offer- ing little chance of satisfying the environmental
needs and preferences of individual occupants (unless, of course,
they happen to have a private office with a thermostat). As a result,
the quality of the indoor environ- ment (i.e., thermal comfort and
indoor air quality) continues to be one of the primary concerns
among workers who occupy these buildings. Several documented
surveys of building occupants have pointed out the high
dissatisfaction with indoor environmental conditions [e.g., Schiller
et al. 1988, Harris 1989]. More recently, the Building Owners and
Managers Association (BOMA), in partnership with the Urban
Land Institute (ULI), surveyed 1,829 office tenants in the U.S. and
Can- ada [BOMA/ULI 1999]. In the survey, office tenants were
asked to rate the importance of 53 building features and amenities
and to report how satisfied they are with their current office space
for those same catego- ries. The following quotes from the report
demonstrate the importance of indoor environmental quality and
personal control.

8
The most important features, amenities, and services to the
responding tenants are related to the comfort and quality of

9
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

indoor air, the acoustics, and the quality of the building man-
agement’s service.

Tenants’ ability to control the temperature in their suite is the

only feature to show up on both the list of most important fea-
tures (96%) and the list of items where tenants are least satis-
fied (65%). To make an immediate and positive impact on
tenants’ perception of a building, landlords and managers
could focus on temperature-related functions by updating
HVAC systems so that tenants can control the temperature in
their suite or by helping tenants make better use of their exist-
ing system.

The concept of task/ambient conditioning (TAC) was developed

to address many of the problems and concerns outlined above. Just
as with task/ambient lighting systems, TAC systems allow ambient
air-condi- tioning requirements to be reduced in noncritical areas.
Individually controlled diffusers provide task conditioning only
when and where it is needed to maintain occupant comfort. In
contrast to the centralized approach described above in which a large
zone of the building is con- trolled by a single wall thermostat, the
TAC system concept approaches the optimal solution of providing a
collection of many small control zones (e.g., workstations), each
under the control of an ideally located and calibrated “human”
thermostat. In addition, by delivering fresh air in the near vicinity of
the occupants, TAC systems are more likely to provide improved air
movement and preferential ventilation in the occupied zone, as
compared to conventional mixing-type air distribu- tion systems.
Underfloor air distribution, originally introduced in the 1950s in
spaces having high heat loads (e.g., computer rooms, control centers,
and laboratories), has proved to be the most effective method for
deliv- ering conditioned air to localized diffusers in the occupied
zone of a building. In these early installations, the raised floor
system was used to handle the large amounts of cables serving the
computers and other equipment. By supplying cool air through floor
diffusers and returning air at the ceiling, the overall floor-to-ceiling
airflow pattern supported the buoyancy-driven air movement and
efficient removal of heat loads from the space. The maintenance of
thermal conditions within the com- fort zone was not a major focus
of these early applications as they were primarily concerned with
equipment cooling, not people cooling. As a result, the first floor
diffusers were not designed to be easily adjustable.

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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

In the 1970s, underfloor air distribution was introduced into

office buildings in West Germany as a solution to these same cable
manage- ment and heat load removal issues caused by the
proliferation of elec- tronic equipment throughout the office [David
1984; Sodec and Craig 1990]. In these buildings, the comfort of the
office workers had to be considered, giving rise to the
development of occupant-controlled localized supply diffusers to
provide task conditioning. Some of the first systems in Europe used
a combination of desktop outlets (TAC) for personal comfort control
and floor diffusers (UFAD) for ambient space control [Sodec 1984;
Barker et al. 1987].
To date, UFAD systems have achieved considerable acceptance
in Europe, South Africa, and Japan. However, growth in North
America was relatively slow until the late 1990s. As with any new
and unfamiliar technology, resistance to wider use has been driven
by the perceived higher risk to designers and building owners
primarily due to a lack of objective information and standardized
design guidelines, a lack of well-documented case studies with
performance and cost-savings data, and, in the case of underfloor
air, the perceived higher first costs of raised flooring. (Most of the
cost of access flooring, if not all of it, is amortized by the savings in
wiring for electric, power, telephone, and computers, as well as
reduced ductwork.) In addition, there are impor- tant gaps in our
fundamental understanding of UFAD. Key areas where information
is lacking are: impact of air diffuser characteristics on
stratification, behavior of thermal plumes at solar-heated windows,
interaction between thermal plumes and diffuser airflows, ventilation
efficiencies, thermal performance of underfloor air supply plenums,
and health and comfort benefits.
UFAD technology is now in a situation where systems are being
designed and installed at an increasingly rapid pace, even before a
full understanding and characterization of some of the most
fundamental aspects of UFAD system performance have taken
place. Although independent market data are not available, estimates
from several lead- ing manufacturers of raised flooring and floor
diffusers provide the fol- lowing statistics for the market penetration
of raised floors and UFAD systems. In 1995, less than 3% of new
office buildings in North Amer- ica used raised floors, with UFAD
considered as a fringe practice. In 1999, 8% of new offices used
raised floors with 20%-25% of these including UFAD systems.
Prior to the recent economic downturn, man- ufacturers had
predicted that by 2004, 35% of new offices would be using raised
floors, with 50% of those using UFAD [Krepchin 2001]. The
attainment of these numbers is likely to be delayed, as at the time of
11
writing of this guide, raised floor market penetration is at about 12%

12
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

to 15% with about 40% of these using UFAD systems [Hockman

2002].
In terms of previous research, UFAD and TAC systems
have attracted the attention of a number of investigators who
present data from test chamber studies of several floor diffusers
[Barker 1985; Tud- denham 1986; Rowlinson and Croome 1987;
Hanzawa and Nagasawa 1990; Arens et al. 1991, 1995; Bauman et
al. 1991a, 1995; Fisk et al. 1991; Yokoyama and Inoue 1991, 1993,
1994; Fountain 1993; Foun- tain et al. 1994; Tanabe 1994; Faulkner
et al. 1995; Matsunawa et al. 1995; Tanabe and Kimura 1996;
Tsuzuki et al. 1999; Kim et al. 2001; Webster et al. 2002a, 2002b].
Other laboratory studies are reported in the literature describing the
performance of TAC desk-based supply diffusers [Arens et al. 1991,
1995; Bauman et al. 1993, 2000b; Faulkner et al. 1993, 1999, 2002;
Fountain 1993; Fountain et al. 1994; Tsuzuki et al. 1999; Levy 2002]
and partition-based supply diffusers [SHASE 1991; Zhu et al. 1995].
As more underfloor and TAC system installations have been
com- pleted in recent years, the experience and knowledge base of
these sys- tems have grown. The results of field measurements,
occupant surveys, and case studies have also been reported [Wyon
1988; Spoormaker 1990; Hedge et al. 1992; Kroner et al. 1992;
Bauman et al. 1993, 1994; Matsunawa et al. 1995; Oguro et al. 1995;
McCarry 1998; Webster et al. 2002c; Daly 2002]. Several authors
have discussed energy perfor- mance, operating characteristics, and
occupant issues for UFAD sys- tems in buildings [Tuddenham 1986;
Barker et al. 1987; Genter 1989; Arnold 1990; Heinemeier et al.
1990; Sodec and Craig 1990; Drake et al. 1991; Imagawa and Mima
1991; SHASE 1991; Tanaka 1991; Shute 1992; Nagoya University
1994; Matsunawa et al. 1995; Bauman and Webster 2001]. A
number of publications have addressed design meth- ods
[Spoormaker 1990; Sodec and Craig 1991; Houghton 1995;
McCarry 1995; Shute 1995; Bauman and Arens 1996; Bauman et al.
1999a; Bauman 1999; AEC 2000]. In recent years several
manufactur- ers of HVAC systems and components have developed
publications and literature addressing UFAD systems [e.g., Trox
1997; York 1999; Int- Hout 2001; Stanke 2001; Argon 2002]. Many
design firms specializing in UFAD design now feature project
profiles of completed UFAD projects on their web sites.
Currently, research on UFAD and TAC systems is ongoing at
three university research centers:
1. Center for the Built Environment (CBE), University of
California, Berkeley, http://www.cbe.berkeley.edu
(includ- ing funding from ASHRAE for this design
guide). CBE
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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

has developed a public web site on underfloor air

technol- ogy (http://www.cbe.berkeley.edu/underfloorair).
2. Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics
(CBPD), Carnegie Mellon University (CMU), Pittsburgh,
http:// www.arc.cmu.edu/cbpd. CMU recently completed
a state- of-the-art review of “Flexible and Adaptive
HVAC Distri- bution Systems for Office Buildings,” with
funding from the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration
Technology Insti- tute (ARTI) [Loftness et al. 2002].
3. International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy
(ICIEE), Technical University of Denmark, http://
www.ie.dtu.dk. ICIEE is conducting research on both
physical measurements and human response to
personal- ized ventilation, as provided by TAC
diffusers.
Additional references will be referred to during the discussions
pre- sented later in this guide and may also be found in the
References and Annotated Bibliography.

1.4 BENEFITS

What are the potential advantages that UFAD systems have over
traditional overhead air distribution systems? Well-engineered
systems can provide the following.

1.4.1 Improved Thermal Comfort

By allowing individual occupants to control their local thermal
environment, their individual comfort preferences can be accommo-
dated. In today’s work environment, there can be significant
variations in individual comfort preferences due to differences in
clothing, activ- ity level (metabolic rate), and individual preferences.
Recent labora- tory tests show that commercially available
task/ambient conditioning systems with fan-driven supply outlets
(airflow directed at the occu- pant) provide personal control of an
occupant’s microclimate over a sizable range—up to 13°F (7°C) for
desktop outlets and up to 9°F (5°C) for floor-based outlets [Tsuzuki
et al. 1999]. These tests measured only sensible cooling rates; total
cooling (including latent effects) would be even higher. This amount
of control is more than enough to allow the full range of individual
thermal preferences to be accommodated. Pas- sive diffusers
(diffusers that do not rely on local fans), such as the com- monly
used swirl floor diffusers in UFAD systems, will not provide this
same magnitude of control. However, by being accessible to the
14
occu-

15
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

pants, these diffusers can still be effective at influencing the perceived

local comfort conditions. For further discussion, see Section 3.2.

1.4.2 Improved Ventilation Efficiency and

Indoor Air Quality
Some improvement in ventilation and indoor air quality at the
breathing level can be expected by delivering the fresh supply air at
floor level or near the occupant and returning at the ceiling, resulting
in an upward displacement of indoor air and pollutant flow pattern,
similar to that achieved in the displacement ventilation systems com-
monly used in Scandinavia [Nielsen 1996]. Displacement ventilation
systems (used for cooling only) typically achieve their improved
ven- tilation performance by supplying 100% outside air at a
temperature slightly below comfort conditions and at a very low
velocity. Because the supply air has little momentum, buoyancy
forces influence the air- flow pattern and the supply air spreads out
at floor level and then flows upward. Air temperatures and
concentrations of some pollutants increase with height in the
displacement zone.
Because UFAD systems supply air at higher outlet velocities than
true displacement systems, greater mixing will occur, diminishing
the degree of displacement flow. In addition, the recirculation of
indoor air by some underfloor systems will cause mixing of indoor
air and pol- lutants. An optimized ventilation strategy is to control
supply outlets to confine the mixing of supply air with room air to
just below the stan- dard respiration height (3-5 ft [0.9-1.5 m]) of
the space. Above this height, stratified and more polluted air is
allowed to occur. The air that the occupant breathes will have a
lower concentration of contaminants compared to conventional
uniformly mixed systems.
Recent research has shown that desk-mounted TAC diffusers can
provide significantly improved ventilation effectiveness over mixing
systems [Faulkner et al. 2002; Melikov et al. 2002]. For further
discus- sion, see Section 3.4.

1.4.3 Reduced Energy Use

Energy savings for UFAD systems over conventional overhead
sys- tems are predominately associated with two major factors: (1)
cooling energy savings from economizer operation and increased
chiller COP and (2) fan energy savings. Economizer savings result
from increased hours of full or partial economizer operation due to
higher return air temperatures (77-86°F [25-30°C] vs. 75°F [24°C]
for overhead sys- tems) and the reduction in cooling energy required
during economizer operation because of the use of higher supply air
16
temperatures (61-65°F

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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

[16-18°C] vs. 55°F [13°C] for overhead systems). Chiller savings

result from using higher chiller leaving water temperatures due to the
higher supply air temperatures. However, this benefit is climate
depen- dent; moisture control requirements in humid climates will
reduce or eliminate these cooling energy savings. Many designers
caution against this approach since it presents the opportunity to lose
humidity control if not done carefully.
Fan energy savings are associated with two factors: reduced total
air volume and reduced static pressure requirements. The stratified
floor- to-ceiling airflow pattern in UFAD systems allows most
convective heat gains from sources above the lower mixed zone (see
Chapter 2) of the space to be returned directly at ceiling level and
therefore to not be included in the calculation of the air supply
quantity (air-side load). The determination of air supply volumes
required to maintain a given com- fort condition are therefore only
based on heat sources that enter and mix with air in the occupied
zone. Static pressures are reduced due to the elimination of most
branch ductwork, as the supply air flows freely through the
underfloor plenum at low plenum pressures (typical pres- sures are
0.1 in. H2O (25 Pa) or less). From a recent analysis of central
fan energy use in UFAD systems, the average savings using a
variable-
air-volume (VAV) control strategy over conventional VAV systems
can be estimated to be about 40% [Webster et al. 2000]. Due to the
common practice of using fan-powered solutions in perimeter zones,
the total fan energy savings may be significantly reduced when the
energy use of these additional smaller fan units is considered.
Characterization of additional energy savings potential is being
addressed by ongoing research. For further discussion, see Chapter
7.
TAC systems provide additional energy considerations. In terms
of fan energy use, the reduced energy consumption of the central
AHU must be traded off against the additional energy used by the
active (fan- driven) supply outlets. If all occupants have access to a
TAC diffuser that provides velocity cooling, the entire space can be
operated at a higher temperature with potentially significant cooling
energy savings.

1.4.4 Reduced Life-Cycle Building

Costs
In modern businesses, churn is a fact of life; a 1997 survey found
the national average churn rate (defined as the percentage of workers
and their associated work spaces in a building, %/year, that are
recon- figured or undergo significant changes) to be 44% [IFMA
18
1997]. The cost savings associated with reconfiguring building
services is a major factor in the decision to install access flooring.
By integrating a build- ing's HVAC and cable management systems
into one easily accessible

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CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

underfloor plenum, floor diffusers along with all power, voice, and
data outlets can be placed almost anywhere on the raised floor grid.
In-house maintenance personnel can carry out these reconfigurations
at signifi- cantly reduced expense using simple tools and modular
hardware. Firms that are more likely to install underfloor systems are
also, for the very same reasons, more likely to churn at a higher rate.
For further dis- cussion, see Chapter 10.

1.4.5 Reduced Floor-to-Floor Height in New

Construction
Buildings using UFAD have the potential to reduce floor-to-floor
heights compared to projects with conventionally designed ceiling-
based air distribution. This can be accomplished by reducing the
over- all height of service plenums and/or by changing from
standard steel beam construction to a concrete (flat slab) structural
approach. Con- crete flat slab construction can take longer than steel
beam construction but is preferred for underfloor systems due to
thermal storage benefits, as well as reduced vertical height
requirements. By placing most build- ing services in the underfloor
plenum, it is not uncommon and certainly possible to eliminate the
ceiling plenum. For further discussion, see Section 12.2.2.

1.4.6 Improved Productivity and Health

Research evidence suggests that occupant satisfaction and
produc- tivity can be increased by giving individuals greater control
over their local environment and by improving the quality of
indoor environ- ments (thermal, acoustical, ventilation, and
lighting). A review of rel- evant research has concluded that
improvements in productivity in the range of 0.5% to 5% may be
possible when the thermal and lighting indoor environmental quality
is enhanced [Fisk 2000]. These percent- ages, though small, have a
life-cycle value approximating that of the capital and operating costs
of an entire building! For further discussion, see Sections 3.5 and
10.3.5.

1.5 TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

Despite the advantages of UFAD systems, there exist some
barriers (both real and perceived) to widespread adoption of this
technology. Resistance to wider use has been driven by the
perceived higher risk to designers and building owners primarily
due to a lack of objective information and standardized design
guidelines, perceived higher costs, limited applicability to retrofit
construction, problems with applicable standards and codes, and a
20
lack of well-documented case

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studies with whole-building performance and cost-savings data.

These barriers are summarized below along with ongoing efforts to
address these technology needs.

1.5.1 New and Unfamiliar

Technology
For the majority of building owners, developers, facility
managers, architects, engineers, and equipment manufacturers,
UFAD systems still represent a relatively new and unfamiliar
technology. Lack of familiarity can create problems throughout the
entire building design, construction, and operation process, including
higher cost estimates, incompatible construction methods, and
incorrect building control and operation on the part of both facility
managers and building occupants. As UFAD technology continues
to grow, these problems should become less prevalent.

1.5.2 Lack of Information and Design Guidelines

Although in recent years there have been an increased number of
publications on UFAD technology, including some with design
meth- ods, there has not previously existed a set of standardized
design guide- lines for use by the industry. To address this problem,
ASHRAE has funded the development of this design guide through
ASHRAE research project 1064-RP, thereby making it available to
the profes- sional design and engineering community at large. In
addition, a public web site on UFAD technology has recently been
developed [Bauman et al. 2000a].

1.5.3 Gaps in Fundamental Understanding

Currently, there exists a strong need to improve the fundamental
understanding of several key issues related to energy and comfort
per- formance of UFAD system design. These issues include the
following.
1.5.3.1 Room air stratification. What fraction of the convec-
tive heat sources in the space will rise up as thermal plumes and be
exhausted directly at ceiling level and can therefore be neglected in
the calculation of the room cooling air quantity? What effect do sup-
ply airflow, supply air temperature, and ceiling height have on room
air stratification? Although some empirical design methods exist
[Loudermilk 1999], an understanding of controlled/optimized ther-
mal stratification is critical to provide designers with a reliable
energy-estimating tool as well as a sound basis from which to
develop design tools and guidelines. Recent research is providing
new information about the impact of various UFAD system design
and operating parameters on room air stratification [Webster et al.
22
 CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

2002a, 2002b; Lin and Linden 2002; Yamanaka et al. 2002]. For fur-
ther discussion, see Chapter 2.
1.5.3.2 Underfloor air supply plenum. An important differ-
ence between conventional and UFAD system design is the heat
exchange between the concrete slab, raised floor panels, and the sup-
ply air as it flows through the underfloor plenum. If the slab has
absorbed heat, particularly from warm return air flowing along the
underside of the slab, then supply temperature will increase with dis-
tance from the plenum inlet. Energy and operating cost savings,
including peak shaving, can be achieved by using the concrete slab
in a thermal storage strategy, but further research is still needed to
opti- mize and quantify this effect. For further discussion, see
Chapter 4.
1.5.3.3 Whole-building performance. There currently does
not exist a whole-building energy simulation program capable of
accurately modeling UFAD systems, a subject discussed by Addison
and Nall (2001). This is one of the top technology needs identified
by system designers. Additionally, whole-building performance data
are needed from completed UFAD projects in the form of energy
use, indoor environmental quality, occupant satisfaction, comfort,
health, and performance, and first and life-cycle (operating) costs to
quantify the relative benefits of the technology.

1.5.4 Perceived Higher Costs

The perceived higher cost is one of the main reasons why UFAD
and TAC technology has been slow to be adopted by the U.S.
building industry. As discussed above, this situation is now changing
due to sig- nificant savings in life-cycle costs. In general, the added
first cost of the access floor may be offset by cost reductions
associated with decreased ductwork and cable and wire installation.
Projects are frequently “sold” on the basis that UFAD is an add-on
after the choice is already made to install access flooring for its cable
management and reconfiguring benefits for high churn businesses.
Considered in this light, the first cost of a UFAD system is
commonly less than a conventional system. This technology is still
in the early stages of adoption and certainly will see cost reductions
as volumes increase and more UFAD-specific prod- ucts become
available. For further discussion, see Chapter 10.

1.5.5 Limited Applicability to Retrofit Construction

The installation of UFAD systems and the advantages that they
offer are most easily achieved in new construction. However, the
wide- spread use of underfloor air distribution in renovation work
has been restricted by the feasibility of adding a raised floor in the
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large majority

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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

of buildings having limited floor-to-floor heights. Current practice

calls for typical raised floor heights of 12-18 inches (0.30-0.46 m). A
recent full-scale field experiment has found that low-height
underfloor plenums (8 in. [0.2 m] and lower) can, in fact, provide
very uniform air-
flow performance across a 3,200 ft2 (300 m2) area of a building
[Bau-
man et al. 1999a]. In cases of major remodeling, substantial cost
savings may be achieved through the use of raised flooring. UFAD
sys- tems can also be installed at considerable savings and with
improved performance as a retrofit in high-ceiling spaces, such as
warehouses (see Section 12.2.3).

1.5.6 Problems with Applicable Standards and

Codes
Since UFAD and TAC technology is relatively new to the
building industry, its characteristics may require consideration of
unfamiliar code requirements and, in fact, may be in conflict with
the provisions of some existing standards and codes. Three
ASHRAE standards have direct relevance to UFAD and TAC
systems. ASHRAE Standard 55- 1992 [ASHRAE 1992] specifies a
“comfort zone,” representing the optimal range and combination of
thermal and personal factors for human occupancy. Standard 62-
2001 [ASHRAE 2001b] provides guidelines for the determination
of ventilation rates that will maintain acceptable indoor air quality.
The revised version of Standard 62 is expected to allow some
adjustment in ventilation rates based on the ventilation effectiveness
of the air distribution system, a feature that may give credit to
UFAD and TAC systems. ASHRAE Standard 113- 1990 [ASHRAE
1990] is the only existing building standard for eval- uating the air
diffusion performance of an air distribution system. Cur- rently only
applicable to conventional overhead systems, Standard 113 is now
being revised to be compatible with UFAD, TAC, and displace-
ment ventilation systems.
Local building and fire codes need to be considered early in the
design process. Code officials having limited experience with UFAD
and TAC systems have been known to create unexpected roadblocks
due to misunderstandings or narrow interpretations of code
language. However, fundamentally the codes governing
underfloor plenums should be no different than those for ceiling
plenums. For further dis- cussion, see Chapter 11.

1.5.7 Cold Feet and Draft Discomfort

UFAD systems are perceived by some to produce a cold floor
25
and, because of the close proximity of supply outlets to the
occupants, the increased possibility of excessive draft. These
conditions are primarily

26
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

indicative of a poorly designed or operated underfloor system.

Typical underfloor supply air temperatures are no lower than 61°F
(16°C) and usually higher except under peak load conditions.
Nearly all office installations are carpeted so that cold floors should
not be a problem. Individually controlled supply diffusers allow
occupants to adjust the local airflow to match their personal
preferences and avoid undesirable drafts.

1.5.8 Problems with Spillage and

Dirt Entering UFAD
Systems

Concern is sometimes expressed about the increased probability

of spillage and dirt entering directly into the underfloor supply
airstream and therefore being more widely distributed throughout the
occupied space. Most floor diffusers, however, have been designed
with catch- basins (e.g., to hold the liquid from a typical soft drink
spill). Tests have shown that floor diffusers do not blow more dirt
into the space than other air distribution systems [Matsunawa et al.
1995]. In addition, air speeds within the underfloor plenum are so
low that they do not entrain any dirt or other contaminants from the
plenum surfaces into the supply air. Using furniture- or partition-
based TAC supply outlets, it is also possible to design a system
without floor grilles.

1.5.9 Condensation Problems and

Dehumidification in UFAD Systems

In humid climates, outside air must be properly dehumidified

before delivering supply air to the underfloor plenum where conden-
sation may occur on cool structural slab surfaces. While humidity
con- trol of this sort is not difficult, given the large surface area
of the structural slab in the underfloor plenum, it is important that it
be done correctly. If a higher cooling coil temperature is used
(allowing an increased chiller efficiency) to produce the warmer
supply air temper- atures needed in UFAD and TAC systems, the
cooling coil’s capacity to dehumidify will be reduced. In humid
climates, a return air bypass control strategy can be employed in
which a portion of the return air is bypassed around the cooling coil
and then mixed with the air leaving the coil to produce the desired
warmer supply air temperature (61-65°F [16-18°C]). In this situation
other system design considerations will dictate whether a
conventional cooling coil temperature (producing a coil leaving
temperature of 55°F [12.8°C]) or a colder one (e.g., from ice storage)
27
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1.6 APPLICATIONS

UFAD systems are well suited for all office buildings, especially
those with open office plans in which adjustable diffusers can allow
occupants to individually control their local workstation
environments. In high-tech offices and other businesses with
extensive use of infor- mation technologies and typically high
churn rates (e.g., dot-com offices, call centers, trading floors), the
flexibility provided by service delivery systems, including cable
management, is a great benefit. Because of the significant savings
in life-cycle costs for UFAD sys- tems, owner-occupied buildings
are strong candidates for application. Other buildings suitable for
UFAD systems include schools, television studios, and light
manufacturing installations that don’t involve spill- age of liquids.
Any building that already is using a raised floor system for cable
distribution or other purposes should consider a UFAD system. An
exception would be clean room applications that are designed to
return air at floor level. There are other areas in buildings where
raised floors and underfloor air distribution are generally not
appropriate. These areas include those in which spillage has the
potential to occur, such as in laboratories, cafeterias, and shop areas.
Bathrooms have often been considered as an area where raised floor
systems should be avoided, but there are cases where they have
been used successfully. Although requiring a membrane on top of
the floor to protect against leaks, plumbing costs can be reduced by
simplifying the piping installation.
In high ceiling spaces UFAD systems provide good energy-
savings opportunities in cooling applications by promoting thermal
stratifica- tion. Comfort and improved indoor air quality are
maintained in the occupied zone near the floor, while allowing
increased temperatures and pollutant concentrations to occur at
higher elevations in the space. Auditoriums, theaters, libraries,
museums, and converted warehouses all make good UFAD
applications. In contrast, these types of buildings can present
problems for conventional overhead air distribution design.
Buildings using UFAD systems located in dry, mild climates will
achieve the best energy savings. These are primarily associated with
increased economizer operation and increased chiller COP due to the
higher supply air temperatures used in these systems. These climates
are also more suitable for the implementation of thermal storage con-
trol strategies using the concrete floor slabs of the building. Many of
these energy benefits are not available in more humid climates.
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CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF GUIDE

Since this document represents the first extensive design guide
on UFAD technology, most readers will benefit from reading, or at
least skimming, all of the sections. The primary focus of the guide
is on underfloor air distribution, since this technology has by far the
most information and design experience from which to develop the
guide. When available, preliminary guidance is also provided on the
design of the closely related task/ambient conditioning systems that
use UFAD. Although the guide touches upon the principles of
conventional over- head air distribution for comparison, it does not
contain detailed design guidance for these systems. Instead, the
reader is referred to other pub- lications for information on standard
HVAC system design.
The topics selected for presentation in this guide represent areas
in which important differences exist between conventional systems
and UFAD design. Chapters 2-11 provide detailed background
information on one of these major topics by discussing the
knowledge and experi- ence gained through previous research and
applications. Chapter 12 steps through the entire design process by
providing a more concise discussion of the issues and refers to
other sections in the guide for additional details. The following is a
summary of the material con- tained in the sections of this guide.

• Chapter 1, Introduction, defines UFAD and TAC systems

and provides background and an overview of current information
about benefits and needs of these technologies.
• Chapter 2, Room Air Distribution, describes and compares three
approaches to room air distribution design (overhead mixing, dis-
placement ventilation, and UFAD) to illustrate key characteristics
of room air distribution using UFAD systems. Included in the dis-
cussion is how room air distribution impacts thermal stratification,
airflow requirements, ventilation performance, and indoor air qual-
ity.
• Chapter 3, Thermal Comfort and Indoor Air Quality, discusses
how delivering conditioned air in the near vicinity and under indi-
vidual occupant control can improve thermal comfort and ventila-
tion performance.
• Chapter 4, Underfloor Air Supply Plenums, discusses current
research and design information on configuring and operating
underfloor air supply plenums.
• Chapter 5, Underfloor Air Distribution (UFAD) Equipment,
describes the range of UFAD and TAC products that are currently
available.

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 UNDERFLOOR AIR DISTRIBUTION DESIGN GUIDE

• Chapter 6, Controls, Operation, and Maintenance, discusses

control strategies for optimal and energy-efficient operation and
maintenance issues for UFAD systems.
• Chapter 7, Energy Use, summarizes the major system design and
operation issues that influence the efficient energy performance of
UFAD systems.
• Chapter 8, Design, Construction, and Commissioning, reviews
issues associated with the design, construction, and commissioning
process for UFAD installations.
• Chapter 9, Perimeter and Special Systems, presents and illus-
trates a range of system design solutions for conditioning perimeter
and other special zones.
• Chapter 10, Cost Considerations, introduces key economic con-
siderations associated with first and life-cycle costs of UFAD sys-
tems.
• Chapter 11, Standards, Codes, and Ratings, reviews applicable
building standards and codes and discusses their compatibility with
UFAD and TAC technology. In addition, a description of the
LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) Rating
System is provided.
• Chapter 12, Design Methodology, presents a summary of recom-
mended design procedures for UFAD systems. In particular, those
areas where UFAD design differs from conventional overhead air
distribution design are discussed.
• Chapter 13, UFAD Project Examples, presents a list of web
sites, references and other sources describing examples of
UFAD and TAC system configurations.
• Chapter 14, Future Directions, describes ongoing research and
standards development work, as well as recommended future
direc- tions within the building industry, addressing UFAD and
TAC tech- nology needs.
• Glossary, defines terminology related to UFAD and TAC
technol- ogy specifically and to HVAC design in general.
• References and Annotated Bibliography, provides a complete
list of references for all sections as well as other publications
related to UFAD and TAC technology for readers seeking
additional informa- tion. Brief descriptions of the contents of key
references are pro- vided.

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