4.1 Digital to Analog converters 4.2 Analog to Digital converters TESTE Analog signal means a smoothly or linearly varying electrical signal with respect to time. It has infinite variations in a given unit of time. All physical or electrical quantities in Nature can be termed as analog signals. But a digital signal is different. An abruptly or suddenly changing electrical quantity with respect to time is called as digital signal. It has definite variations in a given unit of time. It is always artificial. We know that processing signals using digital systems is advantageous. Because of this digital systems are widely used for control, communication, computers, instrumentation etc. But there are many applications where signals available are not in the digital form. The process of converting an analog signal to a digital form involves a sequence of four processes. These are; 4) Sampling 2) Holding 3) Quantizing 4) Encoding Sampling and holding operation is done Simultaneously using a circuit known as sample-and-hold circuit, to convert time varying analog signal into puleated| fom gr ee eeM. Sc. (Sem. - I) (Paper - II) (Physi circuit is used to convert digital signal into analog form converter. ) (Electronics) (PHCT-113) known as digital-to-analog There are various ciruits that converts such signals. Such circuits we are going to study in this chapter. Also we are going the study the applications of such converters and their advantages and disadvantages. Following example in figure illustrates the need of data converter. Sound Waves Electrical Voltage Binary Data Electrical Voltage Sound Waves Digest Receseng Analogue Digital Analogue Fig. 4.1 : lillustrates the need of data converter The digital data (signal) exists in the form of bits, each bit is logic ‘0' or ‘1’, and the voltages corresponding to logic ‘1' is fixed volt i.e. 5V and logic ‘0’ represents OV. The size of digital data depends on the number of bits i.e. ‘n’.Each bit has its binary weightage i.e. 2" gives the information of digital data. But the analog signal is continuous voltages, thus conversion can be achieved by DAC converter. Following block diagram represents the conversion of digital-to-analog conversion. Vee dnt do.2 n-input Analog Output Bits S va) ay do Fig. 4.2: Block diagram of the conversion of digital-to-analog conversion ie EEESSEeneenee 4.2Data Converters which represents digital data and singig nd the block consists of electronic circuit the electronic circuit D/A converters Teinput bits log signal Al ding upon The above block diagram shows ouput voltage which represents ana which helps for the conversion. Depen can be classified into basic two types ° a) Binary Weighted-Resistor D/A converter b) R-2R Ladder D/A converter 4.4.1 Weighted-Resistor D/A converter : Tk is used. This network produces a Th this type of D/A converter, a resistive networ current | corresponding to logic ‘1’ or ‘0’ .The total current produced by the resistive This current is then converted into a network will be proportional to the digital input: corresponding voltage with help of an OP-AMP, and thus digital to analog can be achieved tot t = Oogitally contiolied electronic switches Fig. 4.3: Circuit dia 7. gram for Bi i ibe sched signals are not directly applied ea, ge ntrolled switches to drive the eaeige ae Ae The gi ighted Resistor DAC tive network Positions dependi ere switch ie nok Dut there are digitally ing upon the digital signal (1 oF 0), itch is thrown ot one of the two A reference volta ge of SV (logic 1 network through cont gic 1) and voltage OV (ogi voltages appears canes So when the switches eared to reste Gurtentcanbegivenbyhis CUrTent | wi ie fed Gaon ugh the ci the totalmy) (Physics) (Electronics) (PHCT-113) + IT; + Ip where Vn = V(1) if bn=1 ~ 2 V(0) if bn=0 i =Vol2"R The ouptut voltage can be given by, ee ee ee RE vo=- (VR) (bn 1 422 bn — 24 6 pn — 3-40 nee gil BO) The above principle can be understood by considering an example of 4-bit Weighted- Resistor D/A converter. DAC can be constructed by using a Summing Amplifier and a set of resistors R, 2R, 4R. and 8R as its inputs, In figure, the resistors are scaled to represent weights for the different input bits, R 8R Bit 0o—-VW— AR Bit 1 °-“VW\4 +> 2R Bit 2>-VWW\ R Bitso-“VW\- Vout Fig, 4.4: Represent weights for the different input bits The resistor with the lowest value R corresponds to the highest weighted binary input Bit 3 (MSB) [2° = 8], and 2R, 4R, 8R correspond to the binary weights of Bit 2 (2? = 4), Bit 4 (2! = 2), and Bit 0 (LSB) [2° = 1] respectively. The relationship between the digital inputs (Bit 0 to Bit 3) and the analog output VOUT is as follow: Vout = Vref (+ Bit3 +5 Burt Swit + 5 Bito) Where Vyer is the Reference Voltage of the circuit. Assuming the value of Vreras 5 V, the Analog Output Voltages corresponding to the Digital Input Codes is shown in table Ditgital Input Code Analog Output Voltage Bit3 | Bit2 | Bit1 BitO (V) o 0 0 0 0.000 o oO 0 ev -0.625 — 0 0 4 O -1.250Data Converters 1 0 | 5 $6 0 0 4 o 1 0 4 4 a 0 1 4 i [1 0 0 @ 1 0 o i [1 | 0 dl a 1 0 1 4 1 os oO 1 1 0 1 1 4 4 0 1 41 1 4 Disadvantages/Limiations of Weighted-Resistor DAC: 4. Resistors used has wide range of values, hence it is very difficult to ensure accuracy and stability of the circuit 2. Itis very difficult to match the temperature coefficient of all the resistors 3. The number of resistors required is equal to the number of bits that is to be convered, so for large bit conversion there will requirement of large range of values of resistors which is very difficult to get into the market. 4.1.2 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter : SR it uses only two values of resistors R and 2R. The inpuls are applied to the resistor network through digitally controlled switches. The circuit uses voltage divider law or it can be simplified using Thevenin's theorem. aN Fig. 4.8: Rs To analyse the circuit for simplicity BR Ladder DAC circuit fe circ we can : will assume digital input as 001. Consider 3-bit ladder DAG, in this circuit we | 45. Se. (Sem. - 1) (Paper - Ith y, (Physics) (Electronics) (PHCT-113) rete Rr ee) oy eR ar far MSB rol tsp id . = Fig. 4.6: Represent R-2R Ladder DAC for the different input bits Depending on the state of bit B:, B, or Bo, the respective current 1p, I or I is switched either to ground or to V- of the op amp. Thus Jou Bal + Bil + Bolo (eq. 1) To analyze this circuit, first we observe that since the output is connected to V- through R,, the Op-Amp is in a negative feedback configuration. Thus V.=V,=0 (eq, 2) Therefore the individual current values 12, 11, 10 are unaffected by the switch setting and the resistor network circuit can be redrawn in the following way, Tout Veet > MSB Tas Fig. 4.7: Represent R-2R Ladder DAC for the different input bits Due to the nature of the resistance network and values, we can obtain the current values by inspection. From ohms law, l= le sxiversesi(OQUS) From KCL at node VO, I= lotle = 2ly cecseees (04. 4) From KVL, Vi = bR + l02R sooses (@Q, 5) Substituting equation 4 into equation 5 2 SS 4.6Data Converters (eq, 6) “Alo ; uation (6), We obtain i lying ohms law to 11 and using 4! Again applying Vein abe .. (€.7) or |, =2lo : (eq. 8) From KCL at node V1, and using equation 3and 8 I= +l =2h: sesessees (€G. 9) From KVL, Vrer= IR + 1,2R= 44R wees» (@Q. 10) We leave the reader to figure out how we obtain b= 2 = 4 = V2 ee (eq. 11) Thus the R-2R network can be seen to be like a current source whose output depends ‘on switch setting B2, B1, BO that controls Ip, |;, lo respectively low = Vier 8R (4B2 + 2B; + Bo) sees (€q. 12) Including the opamp which behaves like LV converter, we obtain the voltage ouput (note the direction of the current source) Vout = cell (4B, + 2B, + Bo) wee (@q. 13) Letting Vref = 1 and Rf = 2R, we obtain the following output table Output Table B2 | B1 | BO | Digital Value | Vout o}|ojo 0 0 o}o|4 1 -0.25 o}|1]|o 2 05 Oa 3 0.75 1/olo0 4 4.0 | OE 5 1,25 1 1 O 6 15 1 4 4 © 475 Advantages of R-2R ladder DACs: 1) Easier to build accurately as only two precision metal film a resistors are required.M. Sc. (Sem. - |) (Paper - Ill) (Physics) (Electronics) (PHCT-113) 2) Number of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of same R/2R values. 3) In inverted R/2R ladder DAC, node voltages remain constant with changing input binary words. This avoids any slowdown effects by stray capacitances. Performance parameter of DAC : 4) Resolution : Resolution of a DAC can be defined in two different ways:- a) Resolution is the no. of different analog o/p voltage values that can be provided by a DAC. For an-bit DAC Resolution = 2" Hence the resolution of a 4-bit DAC is 2*=16 and that of a 3-bit DAC is 2°= 8. Hence resolution increases with the increase in no.of bits. b) Resolution is defined as the ratio of change in analog o/p voltage resulting from a change of 1 LSB at the digital /P. For an n-bit the resolution = = Where, VFs = Full scale o/p voltage = olp voltage corresponding to the digital i/p with all digits 1 Resolution can be treated as the smallest change in the analog o/p voltage. Resolution will improve with reduction in the smallest change in the o/p voltage 2) Accuracy : It is a comparison of actual o/p voltage with expected o/p. It is expressed in percentage ideally, the accuracy of a DAC should be, at nor st +1/2 of its LSB. If the full scale o/p voltage is 10.2 v then for an 8-bit DAC accuracy can be given as F: 02 Accuracy = +5 ea = 20mV 3) Linearity:- The relation between the digital /p and analog o/p should be linear. Practically it is not so due to the error in the values of resistors used for the resistive networks 4) Setting Time : The time required to settle the analog o/p within 1/2 LSB of the final value, after the change in digital i/p is called a settling time 5) Conversion Time : Itis a time required for conversion of analog signal into its equivalent. It is also called as setiling time. It depends on the response time of the switches and the o/p of the amplifier. Pa Ue ee Re) Almost every environment measurable parameter is in analog form like temperature, sound, pressure, light, etc. To analyze, interpret and measure such quantities via any digital system there is a requirement of conversion of analog value into a digital form. 4.8rE Data Converters data into to convert the analog termediate device microcontrollers and Therefore, this system needs an ite digital data in order to communicate with fal pro’ tue into digital signal is known microprocessors. The circuit which converts analog valu rter. 7 ¢ Analog-to-Digital converter or AID convet ee aner converter The ioua block diagram represents the conversion of Analog-to-Digi Output digital Input analog signal Fig. 4.8: Block diagram for the conversion of Analog-to-Digital converter The above block has analog input and ‘n’ binary outputs. And the block consists of a circuit which helps for the conversion. An ADC samples an analog waveform at uniform time intervals and assigns a digital value to each sample. The digital value appears on the converter’s output in a binary coded format. The value is obtained by dividing the sampled analog input voltage by the reference voltage and then multiplying by the number of digital codes. The resolution of converter is set by the number of binary bits in the output code. It can be said that conversion takes place into two steps: a. Sampling and holding b. Quantizing and encoding a) Sampling and Holding : In ie process of Sample and hold (S/H), the continuous signal will gets sampled Sine empve water np Ws ar ese eee thereby increases the accuracy. TRS aR fan alas Whe conver (on proves ond e ie ‘sampling rate has to be two times the maximum data frequency of the input signal. Quantizing and Encoding : Quantizing: b) It is the process in which the reference signal is partitioned into several discrete quanta (discrete finite value) and then the i con quantum. input signal is matched with the correct Encoding: Here; for each quantum, a unique digital code wil t fc 5 le will i input signal is allocated with the digital code. ei aaa et Types of A/D converters: eee: ee 4.9