9.6 Physical Realization of Compensation 503 10 08 06 os 02 ° 0020s 06 OSC ‘Time (seconds) FIGURE 9.58 Step response simulation for Example 98 (EEE skill-assessment Exercise 9.4 PROBLEM: For the system of Figure 9.59, design minor-loop rate feedback com- pensation to yield a damping ratio of 0.7 for the minor loop’s dominant poles and @ damping ratio of 0.5 for the closed-loop system’s dominant poles. FIGURE 9.59 System for Skill-Assessment Exercise 94 ANSWER: The system is configured similar to Figure 9.55(b) with K = 77.42 and K = 626.3, ‘The complete solution is at www.wiley.com/college/nise, Our discussion of compensation methods is now complete, We studied both. cascade and feedback compensation and compared and contrasted them, We are now ready toshow how to physically realize the controllers and compensators we designed. 9.6 Physical Real Compensation In this chapter, we derived compensation to improve transient response and steady- state error in feedback control systems. Transfer functions of compensators used in cascade with the plant or in the feedback path were derived. These compensators were defined by their pole-zero configurations. They were either active PI, PD, or PID controllers or passive lag, lead, or lag-lead compensators. In this section, we show how to implement the active controllers and the passive compensators.504 Chapter 9 FIGURE 9.60 Operational amplifier configured for transfer function realization Design via Root Locus Active-Circuit Realization In Chapter 2, we derived (9.44) as the transfer function of an inverting operational amplifier whose configuration is repeated here in Figure 9.60. By judicious choice of Z(s) and Z,(s), this circuit can be used as a building block to implement the compensators and controllers, such as PID controllers, discussed in this chapter. Table 9.10 summarizes the realization of PI, PD, and PID controllers as well as lag, lead, and lag-lead compensators using opera- tional amplifiers. You can verify the table by using the methods of Chapter 2 to find the impedances. TABLE 9.10 Active realization of controllers and compensators using an operational amplifier Function Als) Als) GAs) Gai x ns Fain AA i R © Integration -\W\- de © ® Differentiation Pleontroller PD controller PID controller Lag compensation Lead compensation -\W\~ go PDF Enhancer WWE Re “W\- RG Ly9.6 Physical Realization of Compensation 505 deo dK BR = nll Lag compensator = RCP RC Lead compensator RC> RC FIGURE 9.61 Lag-lead compensator implemented with operational amplifiers Other compensators can be realized by cascading compensators shown in the table. For example, a lag-lead compensator can be formed by cascading the lag compensator with the lead compensator, as shown in Figure 9.61. As an example, let us implement one of the controllers we designed earlier in the chapter. Example 9.9 Implementing a PID Controller PROBLEM: Implement the PID controller of Example 95, SOLUTION: The transfer functio AMPAS® ARE, Enhancer (5 +55.92)(5 +05) 6.) ’) (9.45) which ean be putin the form Gels) = 5 + 56.424 2298 (9.46) Comparing the PID controller in Table 9.10 with Eq. (9.46), we obtain the following three relationships: RG Rt ean (9.47) RC, =1 (9.48) and von one 1 Sour | at = 27.96 9.49) RG 0) AG | Since there are four unknowns and three equations, we arbitrarily select a practical value for one ofthe elements. Selecting Wr 5 C; = 0.1 uF, the remaining values are found to be R; = 357.65 k0, aka 178,891 KO, and C; = 5.59 pF. ‘The complete circuit is shown in Figure 9.62, where the circuit clement values have been rounded off. FIGURE 9.62 PID controller