.. : .

. '.

_Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer

Syllabus:

'Define heat transfer and its importance in engineering applications, Difference between heat transfer and
Thermodynamics, Physical Mechanism of modes of heat transfer, Governing laws of heat transfer, Conduction mode:
Thermal conductivity, Thermal diffusivity, Convection mode: Free and Forced convection, Heat transfer CoeffiCient,
Radiation mode:. Emissivity, transmissivity, reflectivity, absorptivity, Black body, Grey body, Opaque body, Steady and
unsteady heat transfer, One dimensional, two dimensional and three dimensional heat transfer, Thermal resistance
concept in heat transfer, Thermal contact resistance [Refer Chapter 2 Section 2.12.1}

The heat is defined as the fonn of energy which can be

transferred from one system to another system . across their
boundaries due to tempe~ature difference existing between the two
Syllabus Topic : Difference '3etween Thermo~yna'!11cs
systems. The amount of heat energy transferred across the·system
and Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer and Its Importance In
can be detennined by the . application of first law of
Engineering Applications
thermodynamics involving work and other forms of energies.

1.1 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
In day to day life, we are encountered with transfer-of various
forms of energy and their conversion from one fonn to another. We
have defined energy as its capacity to do work i.e. its capacity to
produce an effect especially to change of motion. The conversion
of energy from one form to another may be partial or complete. It
During heat transfer, it ·is observed that the heat energy
always flows in direction from higher temperature medium to
lower temperature medium and the transfer of heat energy ·stops
once both the mediums reach to their equality of temperature. Thus
the driving force of traI_tSfer of heat energy is temperature
difference and the rate of heat transfer increases with the increase
in temperature gradient/diffe rence.

is based on the laws of thennodynamics. However, there are many engineering applications where it is

The science of thermodynamics deals with the energy essential to know the rates of heat transfer and the temperature

transfer and its effect on the condition of the system. Though the' distribution under steady and transient conditions in designing the

energy exists in various fonns, however in engineering applications various components of a system.

we are more concerned with the conversion of heat energy into

work and vice-versa However, in this text, we are primarily

concerned with transfer of heat energy.

m
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V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem·5-Mech) 1-2

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:::;;;;;;:::;;;;;;:::;;;;;;:::;;;;;;:::;;;;;;;;::;;;:::;;;;;;~~;;;;;;;:;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;:;:;:;:;:::;:;:;:;:~er,1
Basic Concepts of Heat Tran~f -~1
..........1
From the above discussions, it is evident that there exists a Syllabus Topic: Modes of Heat Transfer and '.~
major diffe~nce between 'thennodynamics and heat transfer. The / .· Physical Mechanism ·)
thermodynamics deals with the relation between the .heat energy
=/~~==i=========-===-=-=--....-.. .......j
and the other forms of. energy especially the work and inte~al 1.2 Modes of Heat Transfer
energy. While the heat transfer is primarily concerned with the
rates of heat transfer only.
... · The knowledge of the subject of heat transfer helps us to
determine the following ;

(i) . The rates of heat transfer at given temperature difference.

(ii) Time taken to affect the desired amount of heat energy.

(iii) The surface area needed to transfer given amount of heat

The heat can be transferred from one substance to another
energy and
substance by the following three modes :
(iv) The temperature distribution acr~ss the system.

This knowle.dge gained ultimately leads us to the design of Modes of Heat Transfer
various components/systems.
1. Conduction
1.1.1 Appllcatlon Areas of Heat Transfer
2. Convection
The knowledge of the heat transfer is applicable to all
3. Radiation
branches of engineering. Some of the engineering applications
where the design of systems are based on the rates of heat transfer
Fig. CI.I : Modes of Heat Transfer .
are:
.... I. Conduction
1. Design of heat exchangers, ducts etc in refrigeration and air
conditioning. A.JI modes of heat transfer require the existence of
temperature difference and the heat is always transferred i~
2. Design of cylinders, radiators etc in internal combustion
the direction of decreasing temperature.
engines.

3. Design of combustion chambers and cooling of blades for gas

turbine power plants.

4. Design of motors, generators, transformers etc.

5. Design of steam generators, condensers, cooling towers and

other heat exchangers in thermal and nuclear power plants. .... 2 • Convection
6. Design of solar collectors and other related equipments. The conduction can.take place in solids, liquids and gases.
7. Design of furnaces, space vehicles and various components of
The process of heat convection is due to the capacity of
chemical processes etc.
moving matter to carry heat energy.
8. Various electronic systems Jike computers, TV, VCR etc.
The transfer of heat by convection takes place between a ,
9. To prevent creation of thennaJ stresses in concrete structures
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas layer that is in
during curing.
motion. In case the fluid is at rest then the transfer of heat
10. Heat treatment of meta.ls 'to obtain the desired properties of between the solid surface and the adjacent · layer of fluid is
·materials etc. purely by conduction.

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. . . . .
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
. .
1-3 Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer·
.+ · 3. Radiation
-+ (i) By Lattice Vibrations . .
The process of heat transfer by radiation is due to the
The molecules of a substance contin~ously v~brate in
electromagnetic radiation emitted in a . waveiength band
random orientation about same mean position. These
between 0.1 µ to. I 00 µ (1 µ =Io- 6 m) solely as a ~suit of the vibrations are called as lattice vibrations .
.temperature of a surface.
We know that the kinetic energy.(K.E.) of the molecules
Therefore•. the transfer of heat energy of radiation does not
in case of liquids and gases is due to their random
require the presence of any material medium as in case of translational, rotational and vibrational ·motions.
heat transfer by conduction or convection.
However, the. solids only vibrate in their_lattice.
In a physical problem, rate of heat transfer is ·controlled by
The temperature of the substance corresponds tci its K.E. .
the combined effect of all the modes of heat transfer · i.e. by
· i.e. higher is the average K.E. of molecules, higher will
conducti_on, convection and radiation in varying degree. However,
be the temperature of the substanc~.
solution of a problem on heat transfer in.volves the identification of
the !Ilajor modes of heat transfer as compared ·to other modes of The molecules of solid materials while vibrating,. they
negligible heat transfer. collide with each other-and the molecules having higher

To illustrate how all the three modes are involved, let us K.E., transfer some its energy by impact to adjacent

consider the case of transfer of heat from the furnace of boiler to molecules having lower K.E. .
the water flowing in the tubes. This type of energy transfer will continuously takes
In this case the heat is dissipated by the flue gases to metal place through . substance as long as there exists a
surface of tube both by radiation and convection. temperature gradient. Therefore,

This heat is ·further transferred by conduction across the 'The rate of heat transfer due to lattice vibration
thickness of tube to its inner surface and further it is transferred by depends upon the rate of collision · between the ,,
convection and radiation to water in the tubes. molecules."
-+ (ii) By Transport of free Electrons
1.3 Mechanism of Heat Transfer by
The mechanism of heat conduction and the ~echanism
Conduction
of transport of electric current are both highly
dependent upon the flow of free electrons.
The process of heat conduction has been defined as the
The valence electrons in the outer most orbit of an atom
transfer of heat energy through the substances without any
get excited on availability of energy. They overcome
appreciable motion of the molecules from the region of high
the binding force to become free and move within the
temperature to the region of lower temperature.
boundanes of the solid. These electrons are called free
This mode of heat transfer by conduction is accomplished via electrons. A large number of free electrons move about
the following two mechanisms : in their lattice and import their energy from higher level
to lower level.
Mechanism of Heat
Transfer by Conduction The process of heat conduction occurs in all substance
viz. solids, liquids and gases. The pure conduction is
(i) By Lattice Vibrations found only in solids. The solids which are good electric
conductors have large number of free electr~ns which
(ii) By Transport of free Electrons
move and vibrate in their lattice. These solids are called
Fig. Cl.2: Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Conduction metals. For this reason the materials which are good ·
electric conductors are also good heat conductors e.g.
silver, copper, aluminium etc.
 I '

;i' Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) · 1-4

Basic Definitions Related t~ Heat Transfer 1.4.2 Steady State

{Heat Transfer Rate, Heat Flux, Steady and
Unsteady State, Unidirectional/one A system is said to be under steady state if the tern~ " )'
dimensional Heat flow) within the system at any specific location or surfaces ·~
rcl'lb;;.
1.4 constant and it does not change with time. . ·~
'. Basic Definitions Relating to Heat
Transfer . . Since the internal energy of a system is the functi' , ,"
. on ·
temperature, it implies that the internal en~rgy of the 8 ?t·
1· · Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux . . . Ystc111
remains constant under steady state.
2. Steady State
It also suggests that the rate of heat energy info the sysleni
3. Unidirectional Heat Flow
must be equal to the rate of heat energy out of the systern. For
14 example the energy transfer in heat exchangers, flow ~
• ·1 .Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux
current in conductors, flow of fluids in pipes etc.
er Definition of Heat
Under unsteady state heat' transfer, the temperature vanes
DEFINITION

(JJ with time, thus it is the function of both location and tilllc.
For example the cooling of automobile engine, and freezing
of food in refrigerators, heat treatment of metals by
Heat is never contained in a body, it is only recognized when quenching etc.
it crosses the boundaries of a system.
1.4.3 Unidlrectlonal Heat Flow
er Definition of Heat
DEFIHMOH A system said to have unidirectional beat flow if the heat
(lJ transfer in other directions is negligible e.g. transfer of heat in
a slab or plate whose temperature depends on time and varies
only in one direction.

Other examples are the heat' flow in pipes and spheres in

which the temperature varies in radial direction.
·Therefore,
Thus we can define the unidirectional heat flow as the flow of
t
energy along any one of the axes with respect to the co.
Q = f Q·dt Joules .. . (1.4.1)
0 ordinate system used for evaluation of heat transfer rates.

where, ' t'represents the time interval during which the total
. Syllabus Topic : Governing Laws of Heat
heat transfer Q is to be determined. Transfer - Fourier's Laws of Heat Conduction
c:r Definition of Heat Flux Rate Thermal Conductivity

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction

• .Q 2
q =A (Wlm) ... (1.4.2)

where 'A' represents th~ heat transfer area.

Fourier in 1822 h ad proposed the emperic al law of heat
conduction based on general observations which is ·called as· the
Fourier's law of heat conductioii.

1•• -

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 · . . ·. Heat TransfedMu~sem-5-Mech) 1-5 . Basic Concepts of Heat Transfe_!_ ..

er statement" · Syliabua Topic : One Dlmenslonal, Two Dlmenslonal and ·

Three Dimensional Heat Transfer

1.5.1 One Olmenslonal, Two Dlmenslonal

and.Three Dlmenslonal Heat Transfer

In section 1.5, we have seen the ·case of heat flow in

For the heat flow in X-direction, math~matically it can be unidirectional i.e. we have considered the ~ne dimensional
expressed as : heat flow .under steady state and there is no heat generation
« A. dT inside the material.
Q dx . .. (1.5.1)
Hoy.-ever, in practice the heat transfer problems are associated
where, . with the heat flow in different directions. For an example,

Q = Heat transfer rate (J/s or W) in given direction.

A = Area of heat flow normal to heat flow direction ( m2 ) .
dT = Temperature difference between two faces
consider a hollow cylinder of finite length. In this the heat
flow may be along radial, lµial or lateral directions (three
dimensional heat flow).
These cases of heat transfer may take place in various heat

of a block of thickness dx (°C or K). treatment processes like annealing, hardening etc. In these
processes, there is a continuous change in temperature with
dx = Thickness of solid bOdy (m).
time, thus such processes are said to under unsteady state.
.. £!!
dx = Temperature gradient in the direction of
There may be the case of heat generation within the element
heat flow (Kim). e.g. in case of nuclear.
dT
Thus, Q = -k · A·dx .. .(1.5.2) Some of the examples of multi dimensional heat conduction
are cooling of cylinder block of internal combustion engine.
Q dT
Heat flux, q = A=-k·dx ... (1.5.3) het treatment, flow of gases in chimney, heat transfer in
composite bodies, flow of air in air-conditioning duct etc.
where k is the sign of proportionality called coefficient of

therma1 conductivity of material

1.5.2 Units of Thermal Conductivity, k

Negative sign in Equation (1.5.2) appears due to the fact that Thermal conductivity k has units which can be determined
dT is negative in the direction of heat flow i.e. +ve X-direction from Equation (1.5_.2) as follows :
because the heat always flows from higher temperature to lower Q · (W) x dx (m)
temperature. It also implies that the value of k is positive k = A ( m7 ) x dT (°C or K)
(Refer Fig. 1.5.1). w w . .. (l.5.4)
= mK or m °C
T
A
T+dT 1.5.3 Definition of Thermal Conductivity of a
I
I
I Material
-{AT):
I
T ___ .JI _______ B
-+ (MU· Dec. 15, Dec. 17)

l--c1x--i
x x+dx

Fig.1.5.1
 ·. . .
~ -:· . ·,.

.
I , ·. ~, ·.

, ·.
.. . . . . .. . .

·'1' Heat Tran.ste·r (MU-Se~ s-Me~h)

..'
Thermafocindu~tivity is the.abil.ity of materlal to conduct heat ·
through it. It can also be defined as the amount of heat flow . rate

per unit area nonnal .t o · the .direction of heat flow through unit
.thickness of_the material per unit temi>erature difference,
. .. Brick common 1.34
1.5.4 Thermal Conductivity of Materials ;· -.
Brick, fire clay 0.96 . <. ~?
_. ,.
.,
... :
Thermal conductivity varies widely for various engineering •" .J •

Concrete 0.88
materials and it is the function of temperature, density, structure
etc. ··..·
Glass 0.75 .•

Thennal conductivity of few materials is given in Table 1.5.1. 3. Liquids . ..

Table 1.5.J : Thermal conductivity of materials, k at 0°C Mercury 8.20

Water 0.556

Ammonia 0.540

Engine oil (SAE50) 0.147

· 1. Metals
Freon-12 ( CCl2 F2 ) 0.073
Silver (pure)
417
4. Gases
Copper (pure)
386
Hydrogen 0.169
Aluminium (pure)
202
Helium 0.141
Magnesium
171
Water vapour (Saturated) 0.0205
Tun gston
166
Carbon di-oxide 0.0146
Zinc (pure)
112
Air 0.024 .
Brass
108
5. Insulations
Iron (pure) 73
Asbestos 0.046
Tin 65.9
Glass fibre 0.043
Wrought-iron (0.5% C) 59
Cork 0.039
Steel (C =0.5%) 55
Felt blanket 0.03
Steel (C = 1%) 43
Polystyrene 0.027
Steel (C = l.5%) 36
Urethanefoam (RUF) 0.026
Lead 35.l
Silica powder 0.0017
2. Non-Metallic solids

Marble 2.1to2.9

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! ": "; . ·: . : ... ."·.•1
' . .·. :.· ·.·
.· ,,.
Y .Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 1-7 . Basic c~ncepts of Heat Transfer _
1.5.5 lmpo~ant Points Regarding Thermal 4. Effect of Variation of Temperature on.
Cond_
u ctlvlty of Materlals Thermal Conductivity

-+ (MU· May 13)

Following important points may be noted with regard to S2'

thennal conductivity of various materials under different

!
-"
400

conditions : f300
::>
1. Thermal conductivity in materiaJS -g 200
8
. cu nc
2. . Order of thermal conductivity in various materials e 100
<I>

3. Mechanism of heat conduction ~

ercu
0 100 200 300 400 500
4. Effect of Variation of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity ---Temperatu_re ·c
5. Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of gases
(a) Metals
6. . Effect of Temperature on Thermal conductivity of liquids

7. Anistropic and isvtropic Materials

~ 1.0
8. Dependence of Thermal conductivity k on Temperature
!
-"' 0.8 GlaSS
9. Assumptions in Fourier's Jaw of heat conduction
fg 0.6
"O

1. Thermal conductivity In materials 5

u
~ 0.4
Thermal conductivity of metals is mainly due to flow of free ~
..... 0.2
electrons while in case of other solids and fluids it is due to Aesbestos
molecular vibration/collisions. (Refer section 1.3). 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (•C)
2. Otder of conductivity in various materials
(b) Non-metals
Thermal conductivity of materials in decreasing order is as
Fig. J.S.2 : Variation of thermal conductivity of solids with
follows (Refer Table 1.5. l): temperature

Metals -.+ Non-Metallic solids ~Liquids --+ Gases

The heat conduction in solids is both by transport of free

1. Mechanism of heat conduction
The heat transfer in solids is both by tram;port of free
electrons and by lattice vibrations.
But the transfer of thermal energy in solids (metals)
mainly depends upon the transport of free-electrons, for
this reason, the materials which are good electrical
conductors are also good heat conductors.
electrons and lattice vibrations. Whe·n the temperature
of metals increases, the lattice vibrations impede the
motion of free electrons.
Due to this the thermal conductivity of most of the pure
metals decreases with increase in temperature.
Most non-metals are poor conductors of heat transfer
thus they have low thermal conductivity and are called
as thermal insulators.

B TtchKuwledgi
Y P ll blllil llDnS

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 l::·~ · · _
18
Basic C·?ncepts of Heat ir . :;~Ji,'
-~~,..===H~ea~t~T~ra~n~s~fe~r~(~M~U~-S~e~m~5~-M~e~c~h~)=======~~=============;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~~~a~11s19r.~ .
~ -.'':~
Wherea~ 0ffie them~al conductivity of alJoys and
Insulating mnterlnls, having few free electrons,
increases with increase in temperature because their
heat conducfron largely depends upon the lattice
1
vibrations. It implies that (k)me101 oc -T and (k)non-me1n1 oc T.

Note thnt mercury is an . exception for the above

GI cerine
st::itements. .The thermal conductivity of mercury
~
increases wiU1 ilie increase in temperature. ~ 0.2 Engine oil (SAE 50)
The variation of themrnl conductivity of metals and F-12
non-metals wiili change in temperature is shown in 0 50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 1.5.2(a) and (b) respectively. . Temperature ("C)

5. Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of (b) Liquids

gases Fig. i.s.3: Variation of thermal conductivity of gases and
liquids with variation in temperature
-+ (MU· Dec. 15)
Effect of Temperature on Thermal conductivity of
liquids
.

The tran~port of heat ene~gy by conduction in liquids

and gases is ·due to . random motion of molecules
exchanging energy and morrientu~1.

.T he kinetic. energy of molecules is the function of
temperature. When ilie molecules of higher te.rnperature
region collide with molecules of Jo~er temperature·
region, iliey loose their K.E by collisions.
Therefore in case of gases the thermal conductivity of
ideal gases increases with the increase in temperature
since· at higher temperatures the molecules will have
higher rate of collisions.
The variations of thermal conductixity of gases wifu change
in temperature is shown in Fig. l .5.3(a).
The mechanism of heat conduction in liquids is complex
but it is similar to gases. However, the molecules .of a
liquid are more closely spaced compar~d to. gases and ,
the molecular force field exerts a strong influence on
energy exchange between molecules. Thus the thermal
conductivity of liquids is both the function of pressure
and temperature.
It is observed fuat the· thermal conductivity of liquids · .
tends to decrease with increase in temperature (water . '

being an exception) due to decrease in density with

~ increase in temperature. The variation of thermal

~ 0.3
Ji. conductivity of liquids with change in temperature is
·;;;
ts shown in Fig. 1.5.3(b).
-5c 0.2
8 7. Anisotropic ~nd Isotropic Materials
(ij
E 0.1
cu
~
f- Thermitl conductivity also depends on grain structure of
0
100 200 300 400 500 materials. Some materials like wood have different
Temperature ("C)
thermal conductivity in X, Y, Z directions. Such
(a) Gases ·
Fig. l.5.3(Contd •.•) materials are called an-isotropic materials.

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 .· .~ . . . .. •, . ,
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. ..'
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·. ~, .

.~ . Y .Heat Transfer (MU-Serri 5-Mec;h) 1-9 . B~sic Concepts of Heat Trarisfe!.

. .

·
. er Definition of Isotropic m~terlal~
Rewriting the Fourier's · taw of . he3t ·conduction from
.- oEFINmoN
l[J Equation (1.5.2),
· · dT
Heat transfer rate, Q = - k · A · dx
8, ·. ' Dependence of Thermal conductivity k on
Temperature can be written as Integrating between boundary conditions :
( i) Atx=O, T=T1.
k =ko (1 +ex · T) . .. (1.5.5)
(ii) At x =X, T =T2
where ko =Thermal conductivity at ooc (W/mK)
x
.. a =temperature coefficient of thermal Q fdx
0
conductivity (per 0 q

Q·x = -k· A ( T 2 -T1 )

T = temperature (°C)
<T1 -T2) .. .( t.6.1)
or, Q = k·A x
.'ex' is positive for non metals and insulating materials and 'ex.'
is negative for pure metals.
Q (T, -T2)
Heat flux, q ... (1.6.2)
= j\=k x
9. Assumptions In Fourier's law of heat conduction I '

are 1.6.1 Heat Conduction In a Thick wall with

(i) Heat flow is unidirectional
·· .:· :-.·~ . .~.::.--::·,,:Var·i~bl~·Th~rmat- Conductivity
under steady state
conditions. (Refer Fig. 1.6.1)

(ii) The temperature gradient is linear and constant The dependence of thermal conductivity on temperature can

(iii) There is no internal heat generation. be expressed as :

(iv) The material is homogeneous and isotropic. k = ko (1 + a· T)

Where ko is the thermal conductivity at refere nce

Syllabus Topic : One Dimensional heat conduction,
temperature, a. · is constant for a given material and T is the
Thermal Resistance and Thermal Diffusivity
temperature.

Fouriers law of heat conduction through a thick wall is

1.6 Heat Conduction through a
expressed as :
Wall/Slab
Q
Consider a wall of surface. area A of thickness x as shown in
Q
Fig. 1.6.l. Let Q be the heat transfer rate in X-direction as shown .. A· dx = ko (1 +a · T) · dT .. .(i)
and 'k' be the thermal co~ductivity of material.
Integrating the above equation with boundary conditions at
x =0, T =T 1 and at x =x,T =T 2•
x Tz
Q
A Jdx = -f k0 (I + a. T) · dT
-,
' .... -

0 T1

Q . T
x
A [xJo = -ko[T +%T2J 2

x T1

Fig. 1.6.1 : Heat conduction through a wall

. . TetbKum\1d11i
JI ub I l c. Ali :a n s.

.
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 f:· .•

'.

Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) · 1·1 o

Q~
A (x - 0> = -~[(T2-T1. )+I(T~ -~ )} 1.7

= ~c(T1-T2)+~(T1 -T2 )(T1 +T1 )]

Q. [ Rate· of heat flow · has an analogy with current flow in aii"f.
:A·x =+koCT1-T2) .1+I(T1+T2>] ... (1.6.3)
electrical system having the electrical resistance. R with potcn~~ >.
difference Vas shown in Fig. I.7.1.
,,_. , . . .(1.6.4)
I R I

Where k,,, =ko [ l +I (T + T

1 2) Jrepresents the mean value
of tl.1ermal conductivity caJ~ulated at
T =( T1 ; T2 ) mean temperature of

(a) Heat conduction (b) Electrica~ system

1.6.2 Thermal Diffusivity, ex Fig. 1.7.1: Analogy between electrical conducticn and heat
conduction system

From ohm's law for electrical system we can write,

:. Current flow, I = .Y
R .. .(I. 7.1)

For heat conduction system,

.iT
R ... (1.7.2)
It is an important property of materials.

By comparing Equations (l.7.1) and (1.7.2) we draw the

following analogy between electricity and heat flow.

(i) Temperature difference (T1 - T2) across the wall represents

Accordingly,
the driving force equivalent to potential difference, V.
Thennal conductivity, k
Thermal diffusivity, a = .. . (l.6.5) (ii) Heat flow rate Q corresponds to current flow I.
Heat capacity, p - c
(iii) ( ~ ) represents the thermal resistance to heat flow rate'.
\Vhere, p = density of material
R equivalent to electrical resi stance R.
c = specific heat of material
Syllabus Topic: Convection Mode of Heat Transfer Free
and Forced Convection , Heat Transfer Coefficient and
Higher is the value of k, higher is the rate of heat conduction
the Governing Laws of Convective Heat Transfer
f!irough the material whereas, pc indicates the amount of heat
3
stored per m of material. Thus, the thennal diffusivity of a 1.8 Convection
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

material indicates, how fast heat energy propagates through a -+ (MU - May 12, May 14, May 17)
material.
r ·'-.. .
!'
t
' '
. .. .. . ..
-·-· -- -. - --~·· . .

Basic Cori~epls
'

of.Heat Transfer..
:·

It will be ·observed th~t with the lapse ~f time, .the layer of

:.,, . ,,~'
It is observed that the fluids are always in direct physical
contact with solids. Due to this, heat transfer always takes place
from the heated solid surface to the colder fluid or from the hotter
fluid to the cold solid surface as a consequence of the motion of the
fluid relative to solid surface.
r:r Definition ot Convection
cold air ' in contact. with surface ' is heated by heat conduction
through the wall .surface and the density of air decreases. Due to .
densitY difference, a buoyant force results ~d it c~ses the heated .
air to rise which is replaced by the fresh cold air. This process is
repeated continuously and sets. up natural convection current. This
method of heat transfer is called the natural or free convection
which is due to the circulation of fluid by virtue of natural
difference in densities of cold and hot fluids.
To improve upon the rate of convective heat transfer, ~e
extern\il force such as fan and blowers are used to set up
·convection currents as shown in Fig. 1.8.2. In this case the heat
transfer is called by Forced convection.

'OJ
<Jr Difference between free and forced convection

·rn order to understand the concept of convective heat transfer,

1. · If movement o~ the
· let us consid~r a bot vertical wall in contact with cold air as shown
molecules occurs due to
in Fig. 1.8.1.
external force or by using
external means like pump,
If movement of molecules is
due to density difference
then such type of convection
called natural correction.

compressor, blower etc.

then such type of
convection called forced
convection.

2. Heat transfer rate is more. Heat transfer rate is less.

3. External power is required No external power is.

Fig. 1.8;1 : Natural or free convection required. ·
for heat transfer.

Too Dimensionless Number Dimensionless Numbers in

4.
used in forced convection Natural convection,
Fluid
Reynolds Number, Grashoffs Number and
flow
by force
Nusselt Number, Stanton . prandtl number .
a
Nwnber, Peclet Number.
Fig. 1.8.2 : Forced convection
5. Heat transfer coefficient , Heat transfer coefficient

Fluid film
his more than 20 W/m K
2
h =(5-15) W/m2K
6. Applications are in heat Cooling of Human body,

exchangers like Hot still air flow over roads

condenser, evaporator, surface etc.

boilers, radiators, etc.

Fig. 1.8.3 _: Heat conduction through a fluid film

f f TtclaKllt•ledge
V Pvb11<al l on s
'~· "
'·

• . .. . .~::·::;Ji:
I·!,
· ;;;;H;;;:e;a;;;;t;;.Tr:;;;a;_;n~~f~er~(~M~U~·;;;Se:m~S~-M~e~c~h)b======~1-~12~========--·s..a..s..ic..c..o..n..ce;;;p;ts;;.o;;;f;;;;H~e~at~l"~r~
;;;;·= . \~\'...
nste,.
Where 'h' is the. constant .of proportionality c~~
'
I.·:
; 1.8.1 Coefficient of Convective Heat . . . . Cd~'
Transfer coefficient of convective heat transfer or film conductance. ~ .:·.}
. .'r'·
·-· ...
Units of hare W/m K.
2
>~tf. .. ·::·,"t~
In case of heat transfer by convection (natural or forced),
Rewritlng the Equation (1.8.2) in the fonn, .. .:~ l'
there exists a very s~all fluid film adjacent to the wall s~r:face of ·.:·._..,:.,
(Tw-T.. ) . .' ·t...
thickness li, where the iemperature · varies from wall surface
Q 1 ... (l.8_.~j;
temperature, Tw to outer film temperature, T_ as shown in ch ·A) .
. {'
'
Fig . .J.8.3.
Convective thennal resistance.
Heat is transferred by conducti'on through film from
· · wall
sui:face to cold air. R =
Let k_,be the thermal corw.uct1v1ty
..:,, . . of this
. film. Then we define
Where, h ~ represents the thermal resistance, Reon.~·
the coefficient of coovec u've h eat transfer or fi.101 conductance
. I
offered by the film due to heat transfer by convection.
h as the ratio of the · al d . .
nn con ucttv1ty of the film to its thickness
Therefore, coefficient of c~n~ecti ve heat tr"n
.....sfier, . The film conductance, h is the function of many variables

h = Thennal conductivity of film , Jc, such as shape, dimensions of the surface, velocity.of fluid, density,
Film thickness,[) ... (l.8. 1) temperature, viscosity and specific heat of fluid, coef~cient of

thermal expansion and coefficient of thennal conductivity i.e.

The value of o_decreases with increase in fluid velocity. For
this reason the convective h e.-1t trans fier by forced convection is h. = f ( p, V, UD, µ , CP, k)
more than the heat transfer by natural convection.
The range of convective heat transfer coefficient for liquids
The value of~ is low for gases as eompared to the liquids. and gases is given in Table 1.8.1.

1.8.2 Newton's Law of Cooling Table 1.8.1 : Coefficient of convective

2
heat transfer, h (W/m KJ
~ (MU· May 17)

I. Natural convection .'

(i) still gases 4 to 25

· (ii) Still liquids 100 to 900

2. Forced convection

The Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat (i) Air 25 to 100
transfer is proportional to the sur:face area irerpendicular to heat
(ii) Liquids 100 to 3500
flow direction and the temperature difference between the wall
(iii) Boiling liquids 2000 to 25000
surface temperature Tw and the fluid temperature, T.. in the

direction perpendicular to heat flow direction. (iv) Condensation of vapours 4000 to 25000

(Assume Tw > T.. )

.)
or ... (1.8.2)

~nned wit h C&mScanner

 Y Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5·Mech) 1·13 Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
==
Syllabus Topic : , Radiation mode: EmlHlvlty, In certain materials like gases and glass, the entice radiant
TransmlHlvlty, Reflectlvlty, Absorptivity, Black body, energy falling on them is transmitted. Jn this case, a == P == 0 and
Grey body, Opaque body and Governing Lawe of Heat Y= 1.
Transfer by Radiation DEFillmON

1.9 Radiation
W~~~~~~
DEFIHmOH
.+ (MU • May 14, Dec. 15)
(OJ
1.9.1 Emlsslve Power (E)

All bodies radiate heat. Radiation is the rate of heat iransfer

by means of electromagnetic waves that are emitted in the It's unit is W/m2•
wavelength band between 0.1 and I 00 micrometer solely as a result
of the temperature of its surface. Thermal r<idiation being the 1.9.2 Emissivity ( e)
propagation of electromagnetic waves, it does ·not require any
medium for this propagation.

If two bodies are at different temperatures, the hotter body

sends radiations to colder body and the colder body sends The value of emissivity ranges between 0 to 1.
radiations to hotter body. As a result the hot body gets cooled and
the cold body is heated. 1.10 Laws of Radiation
· The intensity of radiations emitted by a body. depends on the
I. Wien's Law
nature of the body and its temperature.
2. Kirchoffs Law
Out of the.total radiations falling on a body, a part of its is
3. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
reflected at the surface. (the fraction being indicated
reflectivity, p) a part of it is absorbed while travelling along the 1.10.1 Wien's Law
depth of the body and produces heat (denoted by absorbtivity, a)
and the remainder radiant energy is transmitted through the body It .states that the wavelength, Am corresponding to maximum
(denoted by transmissivity, y) energy is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the
hot body.
Therefore, p·+ a + y = l . ... (1.9.l)
I
Therefore Am oc T

i.e. Am· T = constant= 0.0029 mK ... (1.10.1)

In this case, p = y = 0, hence a = l, A black body is also best
radiator. 1.10.2 Kirchoff's Law

The bodies which are opaque (usually, solids), the radiant It states that the emissivity of the body at a particular
energy falling on it is either absorbed or reflected. In this case temperature is equal to its absorbtivity from the body at the same
y= 0, therefore, a+ p = l . temperature.

Scnnned wi1h CiimSconner

 ... Heat Transfer (MU-Se~ 5-Mech)
1 ·1.o.3 . Stefan-Boltzmann Law
1-14

Note: The emissivity for black body, £ == I.

. :,·
Table 1.10.1 : List of Formulae

~};:.: ~.'~~~.: ·~ :7_~·~~-; ~ ' ~'f4\/~~i~~ ·~t _J~~·~J~~tt~~~-·~~~ ~·~

·?J,."'t;::;'!,'f.~:-~~.~:P~t~~J. _~;.:~'.1'1
. ;::,,.;g'~K.,t;\~:r~'.

Titis law States that the emissive power of a black body is

direcUy pro rti
~~~~~~~I~K~:i~~'.f·'C. ~~J~;F~:\~f-!t5-r~~t7i!#~-~
:zwiie,e~i:A~~~ond!.!~~ve re_sis_cance/~.x :,_,: .;:·.
.. · ;;: :~:-;r;-~

~;if(; ·,~:.~,:•,r.:.·::~~-,~;~~-~·;. :~:~:·;;_:~~.~;;. :·~,~~;;·~ ~j~i;~:J?i~.,·,~~T

• <- po onal to fourth power of its absolute temperature i.e.

~i.~-· Heatflux. q - A - ., x '~- .- . '.·'" ··, . . ,' :·, ,_· ·:: ,:· '-'.!?>''·.

For area J\, Q oc A • T"

or,
Q == cr·A·'f"
..•(1.10.2)

Where, q = Emissive power or heat flux ( W/m2)

A =Radiating area ( m2 )

Q = Rate of heat energy radiated (W) }4V,hirf'.siec~·· Bol.~miliin-'. s ~oil~~t q f~·s:§7-~1~;,)Vi~1,;~~/Y:~

ll!~t;~!=~~;~;]~~r1[1r1
cr =Stefan-Boltzmann's constant

Equation (1.10.2) holds good for black body only. ·""~ ........ ..,,$.,,, ........,.,>.r..;,,~.,. '"'·~r,,;·.,,,,.,,,.,~ --· ~. ~'--~.'-;"
. ,.,_.,~,. . .~"<""~~
~i#1t~J¥~<·~~
~.:>'·:;1.~""'.~- ¥~;:..,,.._;-t~..,~·
;;
~ ·_,.~:;t ~~r1~t-'1.:~~~r~:
~-:-;~~:.,.~~ ~~~"~~ ;.:~:... ~rjz. ....~
; Y./ ...! .. 4 .... ... ..
~i.·"
A body having emissivity less than 1 and it is same for all
Example 1.10.1
wavelength is called grey body. Its absoptivity is equal to
emissivity. Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit area . through a
copper p.late 0.045 m thick whose one face is maintained at
For a grey body 350°c and tbe other face at 50°C. Thermal conductiVity Of
copper is 370 W/m°C.
... (1.10.3)
Solution:
where, e is called ein.issivity as defined in section 1.9.2.
Given : Titickness of plate, x =0.045 m;
Now consider a body of surface area A at temperature T 1 kept T 1 =350°C; T2 =50°C;
in infinite surroundings at temperature T2 ( T1 > T2 ). The exchange
k=370W/m°C
of energy by radiation from a solid t.o its . surroundings can be Q
Heat transfer rate per unit area. A
written as:

Q = e · C1 • A( T: -T;) . .. (1.10.4) Q =
kA (T1 - T 2 )
x
Also, Q = e · C1 ·A (-r: -r:) ( T 1 + T 2 )( T 1 - T2 ) Q 370 (350 - 50)
q =A= 0.045
(T1 - T2 )
... (1.10.5)
=2466.667 x IO3 W/m2

In the above equati~n, the denominator represents the

=~66.667 kW/m2 •••Ans.

radiation thermal resistance.

·-- - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -- · - -- - ---- - - - -- - ·------~

SConned w ith c umscooner

 · ··-:" .. .';.
~
..0~\'i'*:' . ' •
· . ....... ' .
'J . . .. '
:j . · ••• t

:~
. . :, Basic concepts of-Heat ·Transfer
~.
j .·
1' Heat Transfer (MU-Sem5-Mech) 1-15

--
,
j Heat will flow from outside to inner surface of boiler. This ·
example _1.1o.~
-1
1 heat will be utilized to evaporate water inside the boiler' at
·Tu·e wall of a oven is 40 cm thick having Its thermal
l
l conductivity of 0.7 W/mK. The Interior surface of the oven is T1=100°c.
2
maintafne.d at a temperature of 800°0 and the outside wall A=5m

I temperature is 200°C. The total surface area of wall of the

.
· ;oven
.
is. 2 m2• Find the thermal reslstance,
.
heat flow rate and
Boller
Inside
r2 =1oo•c
outside

the heat flux.

solutlon:
Given : . nuc1cness, x = 40 cm = 0.4 m ;
niennal conductivity, k.= 0.7 W/mK · . Fig. P. 1.10.3
Ti = soooc;
Heat transfer rate,
kA(T 1 -T2 ) 84X5(120-100)

(I) Thermal resistance, R

Q = X 12 X 10- 3

x 0.4
R =k.A =Q-7x2 =0.2857 K/W ··.Ans. =700 x 10 W or J/s = 700 kJ/s
3

(II) Heat flow rate, a Let m = Rate at evaporation of water.

(T, -T2) T, -T2 800-200 Heat utilized by water during evaporation =Heat transfer rate, Q
Q = (~) = -R-= 0.2857
mx itrg :; Q
. Q 700
= 2100 w •••Ans. m = he, =2257 kg/s

(Ill) Heat flux, q =

700
x 3600 kg/hr .
2257
Q 2100 2
q =A = - 2 -=IOSOW/m ••• Ans.
= 1116.S kg/hr . .. Ans.

Example 1.10.3 Example 1.10.4

A boiler is made of iron plates 12 mm thick. The temperature 2
A plane wall is 15 cm thick of.surface area 4 .5 m • Thermal
of outside surface is 120°C and that of the inner surface is conductivity of the wall is 9.5 W/mK. The inner and outer
100°c . Calculate the mass of water evaporated per.hour if surface temperatures of the wall are maintained at 150°C
2
the heating surface area is 5 m and thennal conductivity, k
and 45°C respectively. Determine,
for iron is 84 W/mK. Assume enthalpy of evaporation of
(i) Heat flow rate across the wall.
water at 100°c is 2257 kJ/kg.
(ii) Temperature gradient in the heat flow direction and
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.10.3.
3 (iii) Temperature of surfaces at 5 cm and 10 cm away
Given: Plate thickness, x = 12 mm= 12 x 10- m .
from the inner surface.
Outside temperature, T1 =120°C ;
Solution:
Inside temperature, T2 =I00°C ;
Given : Thickness, x =15cm=0.15m;
k=84 W/mK
2
Enthalpy of evaporation hrg =2257 kJ/kg. A = 4.5 m , k =9.5W/mK ;
T1 = 1so c; 0
T2 =45°C.

Scanned with Ca rr&:onner

 ' ·. . . . -· ··--:---..,.---.,.---~ - .. - . _,;. ·.·.-·
.\ .
:..
. ..
·

. · .- ·• Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 1-16

,., Refer Fig. P. 1.10.4:

~ -;' l - .
Example U0.5 / ::.fr"
The wall thickness of .the oven is 8.25 cm a/lei ~~N;
· (I) Heat flow rate across the wall, Q
conductivity of wail ln~ulation is .0.044 Wt~K~.~.,
of ·nner surface of the wall ls 175°C The- ...~
· kA(T1 -T2 ) 9.5x4.5(150-45)
· · t
Q = x 0.15 tempera ure 1 · . · . ~t\6Li
·d. . t d b.y the eiectric coil within . the oven Is · · :?., !
1ss1pa e ·. · . · 40·~. ~1
= 29925W ••• Ans. Determine the area of wail surface needed perpendicli~»j
h
ea
t flow so that the temperature on the other side
~·Iii
of"'~
a wall does not exceed 75°C. . ·;;

Solution:

Given:
· Inner . ;
surface
Outer
Wall thickness, x =8.25 cm,;, 0.0825 m; k =0.044 W11lll<·
. ·'
surface
Tr ·= 175oc; Q =40.5 W; T2 =75oe,

Let A be the surface area needed.

Fig. P. 1.10.4 Energy dissipated by coil,

(ii) Temperature gradient in the heat flow direction dT

'dx Q in oven = Heat transfer rate by conduction across the Wall
From Foiiriers law of heat conduction,

Q = -kA'~!!
dx 0.044 A (175 - 75)
40.5 ::
dT Q 0.0825
.. dx = -kA = 29925
9.5 X4.5 -700°C/m ••• Ans.
A = 0.7594m2 ... All!
(ill) Temperature of surfaces at x1 = s.cm = 0.05 m and at
Example 1.10.6
x2 =10 cm =0.1 m from inner surface.
2
A hot plate area 1.5 m is maintained at 300°C. The air<
Let Tx 1 and Txi be the temperatures at respective surfaces at a 20°C blows over the plate. If the convective heat transfe
distance x 1 and Xi· Since the heat transfer rate Q is constant 2
coefficient is 20 W/m K, calculate the rate of convective hea
throughout. under steady state conditions, it implies that : transfer.

kA (T1 -Tx1) Solution:

Q =
Given: Plate temperature, Tw =300°C; A= 1.5 m2 ;
9.5 x4.5 ( 150-Tx1 )
Film tempera!Ure (air), T_ =20°C; h =20 W/m2K..
·: 29925 = 0.05
Rate of convective heat transfer,
·: Tx1 = 115°C ••. Ans.
Q =h · A ( Tw - T _) =20 x 1.5 (300 - 20)
kA(T1 -Ta)
Q =
= 8400 w ...Ans.
9.5 x 4.5 ( 150 -T.a)
29925 - 0. 1

••• TxZ =80°C ..• Ans.

·• r~hlllili
VruH) u1u11

Scanned with CamSc.anner

r:,. ,-·.,:·.. ,;,,:;.-.. ·:·:· · .
i.
·-- . '
..
.1 ·••
.- -.- . - .-..-..--.·
' .. ,'
·.y HeatTransfe((MU-Sem 5-Mech)
1·17 ' . ·. Basic Concepts of HeatTransfer:
·.·-----
. Solution! -Refer.Fig. P: 1.10.7 • • I I ,•

. Rate of heat transfer, ..

-.. , -.·
D ~ 2cm =·0:02m
·'
T• =40°C
=20 x 1.5 x (300 - 25)
r,· =50°C ; ha= 20 W/m2K
=8250 W or 8.25 kW •.•Ans.
Tw =30°C; hw= 70W/m2K .
Ta . Example 1.10.9
------------- ------- ~Wire 2.0 mm in diameter and 18 cm lo~g is submerged in
water at atmospheric pressure. Ari electric ·current is pas.sad
through the wire until the water boils at 100°c. In case ·th~
wire surface temperature Is needed to be maintained at'
ha 125°C, determine the electric · power supplied to the
---------T;------- wire. Assume, convective heat transfer coefficient as
2
4000 W/m K.
. Fig~ P. 1.10.7
Solution:
(i) Heat transfer rate when pipe is in placed air, Q.,
Given : Diameter of wire, d =2 mm = 2 x 10:. 3 m
Q. =h 1 A (T,-T.)
Length of wire, L =18 cm= 0.18 m;

= 20 x n x 0.02 x I x (40 - 50) Wire surface temperature, Tw,,; 125°C ;

Water (fluid) temperature, T_ =I00°C;

- =-12.6W/m
h =4000 Wlm2x..
This means, heat gain by pipe from air. ..•Ans.
Surface area.of wire exposed, A = 1t DL
(ii) Heat transrer when pipe placed in water Qw

=1t x ( 2 x 10- 3 ) x 0.18

=70 x 1t x 0.02 x I (40 - 30) = 1.131 x 10-.3 m2 ·

Electric power needed to be · Rate of convective

=43.96W/m supplied to wire ·= heat loss

In this case, heat transfer is taking place from pipe Q =h·A(Tw-T_) . · .

surface to water. ...Ans.

Q =4000 x ( 1.131 X10- 3 ) X(l25-100)
Example 1.10.8
=113.1 w ; .. Ans.
A liot plate 1 mx 1.5 m is _maintained at 300°C. Air at 25°C
Example 1.10.10
blows over the plate. ff the surface heat transfer coefficient is·
2 ·
20 W/m 0
c, calculate the rate of heat transfer. A black body at 1100°c has surroundings at 200°c. Find the

Solution: heat loss per unit area by radiation.

Solution:
GJven: Surface area, A= 1 x 1.5 =1.5 m2; . . ~ 0 . . . . '

·wan temperature, Tw =30Q°C; Given: T1 = 1100 C =1100 + 273 =1.373 K ;

. .
T2 = 200°C =473 K,
.
Film temperature (air), T.. =25°C.
2
2 A .=,~ m and£.= 1 (being black body)
Coefficient of convective heat transfer, h =20 W/m °C.
VTtcllll1••\lllgi
Y P U b.11 t i l 1I nS
 r·: . ' .. . .. .·.·. : - ·1.. ' . . "• .

. ~
.. .l)r He~t Transfer (MU-S~m ·5 M
. B I c . · ""·
. ·:·..
-=.-. ~~·=a•;a.~~=~~-~e~ch~)b.~------~~1-~1~8~-=-~=--=~~a~s~c~o~n~c~e~p~ts~o~f~l-t~e~~tL1lr ~·:'.;·
Heat loss per. unit area;
Assume thermal conductlVI
. .ty· f
0
t ·
1 e material as ~3
pa wr·~1
· ·.
:.I
:. ,
.q =~ == E a . ( T4 _ T•) Solutlon : . · · ~· ·~
I. 2
.· Given : Refer Fig. P. 1.10.12•
.;·: . .
.. z::IX(567 1-1
. x 0 ) ( 13734 - 4734) Heat loss by radiation, Q,= 280 W
' .'
= 1.9866 x 105 w1012 Air (fluid) temperature, T_ = 27°C
;"'•
I ...Ans.
Example 1.10.11 Surface temperature, T w = 227°C
. 2
A body having 3 m2 of surfac Film conductance, h =25 W/m K,
e area Is ma· t 1
exchanges heat by rad· t' in a ned at 600 K. It Thickness of plate, x = 2 cm, = 0.02 ~ ;
1a 1on With anoth .
at 300 K Its emissi""ty. . · er surface enclosing it
" •• IS 0.55. k=43 W/mK,
Find : (i) The t
ra e of heat lost by radlat·ion. Surface area of plate, A =1 x 0..5 =0.5 m2.
(ii)
Radiation thermal resistance. T00= 21•c
(iii) The value of equival .
ent convection coefficient.
Solution:
Given: A= 3 m2 ; T
I = 600 ~ ; T2 =300 K ; £ = 0.55
(i) Ra te of heat lost by radiation, Q

Q = £ • cr · A(T; -T; ) Fig. P. -1.10.12

(I) Heat Transfer rate
= 0.55 X·3 X ( 5.67 X 10- 8) ( 6()()4 _ 4)
300 Heat from upper surface is lost both by radiation an
=l1366.9W ... Ans.
convection. However, other side of the plate is being heated so ti!<
the upper surface temperature of · plate could be maintained a
(lJ) Radiation thermal resistance, ~
Tw=227°C.
(T, -T21
Q = It implies that the heat conducted through the plate thicknea1
~.
must be equal to heat lost by convection and radiation.
( T1 - T2 ) (600 - 300)
~ = Q = I 1366.9 := 0.0264° C/W ...Ans.
Heat Jost by convection,

Qc = h ·A ( Tw-T..) =25 X 0.5 X (227 -27)

{ill) ~e value of equivalent convection coefticient, b

= 2500W
: . Total heat Jost or heat transfer rate,
11366.9 =h x 3 x (600 - 300)
Q = Heat lost by convection, Q., + Heat loss by radiation, ~
h =12.6299 Wtnl K ... Ans.
= 2500 + 280 = 2780 w •••Am.
Example 1.10.12
(II) Temperature of other side of the plate, T2
Air at 27°C blows over a hot plate of 0.5 m x 1 m surface
which is maintained at 227°C. The film conductance is k ·A · ( T2 - Tw)
2 Q= x
25 W/m K. There is a heat loss of 280 W by radiati9n from
surface of the plate. The plate is 2 cm thick. Calculate : 43 x 0.5 x ( T2 - 227)
2780 = 0.02
(i) Heat transfer rate.

(ii) The temperature of the other side of the plate. =229.586°C •••Am.
 '· . . _-.· ·. ... .
·: ·- ·,. - .,
. ..
.;
. ' .
~-~

; ,: Heat Transfer (MU-Sein 5-Mech) _Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer __ ·

-
-1-19 '

h =22 yY/m2 K. QradloUon =250 W

Using approximate_assumption, calculate the radiation heat Let bottom surface temperature be T 1
. sfer coefficient for . a small hot surface having
t~n . · · In this cas~ the heat is conducted through the plate·which is .
temperature of.1s2°c with emissivity of 0.85 dissipates heat ' . . d
lost from the plate surface by a combination of convection an
by radiation into a hot surrounding area.
radiation.
solution:
surface temperature, T1 =15i°C =425K, Qconductioo = Qconvcctlon + Q...i11tion
k ·A (T1 -T,)
Emissivity,£= 0.85 L =h · A ( T, - T.) + Qradiatio~ ·
Let surrounding temperature, T_ = 25°C =298 K. 30 'x 0.54 ( T 1 - 30 )
0.03
=22 x 0.54 (300 - 30) + 250
The beat transfer rate by radiation" from body to surroundings,

Q = £·A· cr ( T4
1
-T_4) . .. (i) .. 540 (Tl - 300) = 3207.6 + 250 =3457.6

Let h, be the radiation heat transfer coefficient similar to

convective heat transfer coefficient.

Then, Q =h, ·A ( T, -T_) - . . . (ii) .

On equating Equation (i) and (ii) we get,

4 4
£ • A · cr ( T a - To ) =hr · A ( Ta - T- )

-8,. 4 4
;. 0.85 x Ax (5.67 x IO J (425 - 298 ) = h, x A (425 - 298) Solution:
Q=75 W, T2 =70°C =70 + 273 =343 K
:. h, = 9.39 W/m2 K. ...Ans.
d =0.1 mm =0.1 x 10- 3 m,
Example 1.10.14
L =50 mm =50 x 10- m =5 x 10- m
3 2

A horizontal plate (k = 30 W/mK) 600 mm x 900 mm x 30mm

Surface area of filament A =1t dL .
;5 maintained at 300°C. The air at 30° C flows over the plate.

If the convection co-efficient of air over the plate is

22 W/m 2 K and 250 W heat is lost from the plate by radiation,
= 1.5708 x 10- 5 m2
calculate the bottom surface temperature of the plate.

Solution : Area of plate transferring heat

Q = cr.A T 1 - T 2 ( 4 4) ;
75 =(5.67 x 10-8) x (1.5708 x 10-s) ( TI4:... 3434)
4 2
A = 600mmx900mm=54x 10 mm
4
x 10 2 0 54 2
T1 =3029.4 K . ... Ans.
=-54106 m = . m

Thickness of plate, L =30 mm =0.03 m

Surface temperature of plate, T1
Temperature of air, T ..
k = 30W/mK;
The science of thermodynamics deals with the energy
=300°C;
transfers. and its effect on the condition of the system while
=30°C the.science of heat transfer deals with the determination of
rates of transfer of heat energy across the system.

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. eat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) '- ~;·

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1·20 Basic Concepts of Heat· ...lr·'>·~\'.§

. •1,."j
Knowledge -or h '
. eat transfer helps us to detennine (i) the
rates of heat tran fi 0 f . Asystem is said to be under stea~y s~te if the·:~f
':,_ .'r:''ft:.1i
. · s er . a given temperature difference, (ii) · · 1niehi!.~"
energy of every element of the. system remains c '. ·' -'""1 ·i
time taken to affect th d . . . -, . . ons1ari ,' · .i
. e es1red amount of heat energy, (iii) does not vary with time. . . . · · · ~.~~i
surface area needed d (' . ·:, '";;1;
.
the system.
an IV) temperature distribution across .
, ....\.
")";, .
~ I

. Fourier's law of heat conduction states that the rat · ·• :~s

-· .. Heat transfer pl .
Cof is :
flow through a simple homogeneous solid is · direc~:-.:
.. ' ays an important role in various industrial
applications e g d ·
. . . · · · esign of heat exchangers and ducts in air proportional to the area measured nonnal to the directi'. · · :,~ ,
cond1t1onmg· Ii . 011 ()f;
• cy nder and radiators in J.C. engines; heat flow and the temperature gradient in the direction Of h... ·;
combustion chambers·
· • steam generators; condensers; flow i.e. · ~
· ·
transformers; fum . .
aces, Vanous electronic system etc.
dT dT ' .
Modes of he t .· Q «A•dx i.e. Q=-k ·A ·dX ·,.
. . a transfer are conduction, convection and
d
ra 1ation.

Conduction of h . · 'k' is called the coefficient of thennal conductivity having the

. eat is defined as the transfer of heat from
one part of substance to . units (W/mK).
another Part of substance by direct
contact of molecules.
Negative sign appears in the equation since dT is negativ~
The process of heat convecti~ . . in the direction of heat flows.
. n is due to the capacity of
. movmg matter to cany heat energy.
Thermal conductivity of pure metals decreases with
The heat transfer by rad" . .
. . : mtion is due to electromagnetic increases in temperatures because the lattice vibrations
~atJo~s e~tted in a wavelength band between 0.1µto100
impede the motion of free electrons. (Mercury is an
µ ( µ - 10 m) solely as a result of the temperature of the
swface. Such a heat transr. d · exception)
'.!er oes not require any material
medium. . . I
Thermal conductivity of alloys and insulating materials;
Mechanism of heat tran .- b . increases with increase in temperature since they have very
Sier Y conduction may takes place in
following two ways :
few free electrons and the heat transfer in them mainly
(i) B . depends on lattice vibrations.
Y lattice \ibration in which the energy is transferred
by the collisions of molecules. 'k' for gas~s increases with increase in temperature since the
(ii) By transport of tree electrons. They provide an energy number of collisions· increase with increase in temperature

flux in the direction of decreasing temperature, since (higher K.E.)

flow of electric energy also depends on flow or" free 'k' for liquids depends on pressure and temperature. It tends
electrons, it implies that materials which are good to decrease with increase in temperature due to decrease in
electrical conductors are also good heat conductors. density (water is an exception).

Amount of heat energy, Q transferred per unit time is called Materials having same thermal conductivity in all the

heat transfe.i:- rate, Q ( = ti~e) J/s. directions are called Isotropic materials and having different
'k' in different directions are called an-Isotropic materials.
Heat transfer rate per unit area is called the heat flux rate,
Heat conduction equation _through a thick wall .
q(=~) ( T1-Tz)
Heat transfer rate, Q =k • A x ... (1.6.1)
A system is said to have unidirectional heat flow if the heat
transfer in other directions is negligible except along any one Q (T 1 -T2 )
Heat flux rate, q =A = k x ...(1.6.2)
direction.

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Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 1-21 Basic Conca ts of Heat Transfer
•ci

· ~pendence of thennal conductivity on temperature can be Laws of RadfafJon

.J
·I
1 eXpressed as : k = ko (l + aT) (i) Wfen's Jaw states that the wavelength, Am corresponding to
f

J io

1 J.:oA . [ a maximum energy is inversely proportional the absolute

Q ::7(T1 -T2 ) I +2(T1 +T2 )
temperature of the hot body i.e. Am oc tor Am · T =constant.

1 Analogy between heal conduction and electrical systems.

' (ii) Kirchoff's Jaw states that the emissivity of the body (e) at a
particular temperature is equal to its absorptivity from the

body at the same temperature.

(iii) Stefan-Boltzmann.Jaw of radiation states that the emissive

(i) ( T, _ T2 ) corresponds to potential difference, v.
power of bfuck body is directly proportional to fourth power
(ii) Q c~rresponds to current flow, I.
of its absolute tem~eratu~e. i.e. q oc T4
••.)
(111
(-kAx ) is c_a11ed Utermal resistance to heat now. It is
For area A : Q oc A T4
equivalent to electrical resistance, R. Q = o·A·1
...A

Thermal diffusivity, a =l. It indicates, how fast the heat

pc where a = Stefan Boltzmann's constant
energy propagates through a medium.

The process of heat transfer between the soli~ surface and a . ...A
Forgreybody, Q = e·a · A·T
fluid flowing past it is called convection. It may be natural
where, e is called emissivity of body which is defined as the
or tree convection or by forced convection.
ratio of emissive power of any surface to the emissive power
The c0efficlent of convective heat transfer or film of a black surface at the same temperature. (e = 0 for white
conductance, his defined as the ratio of thermal conductivity body, e =1 for .black body).
of the film to its thickness.
Thermal conductivity of film, kr
h = Film thickness, c5
[Note : For Answers please refer the section number
value ofkt is low for gases as compared to liquids. indicated in bracket.]

Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat transfer is Short answer type questions

proportional to surface area, A and the temperature difference Q. 1 Differentiate between thermodynamics and heat
between the wall surface temperature, Tw and the liquid transfer. [Section 1.1]

t~mperature,. T.. i.n the dir.ec.tion of he.at fl.ow i.e. · a.2 Why the kno~Jedge of heat transfer is essential ?
[Section 1.1)
Q oc:A·(Tw-·T_) i.e. Q =h·A(Tw-T.. )
a. 3 · State some of the applications of heat transfer.
Tw-T..
[Section 1.1.1)
Q = (-L)
h·A
Q. 4 What are the modes of heat transfer .?

ch .1A) represents th.e thermal resistance to convective heat .£Section 1.2]

Q. 5 Write a short note· on "Mechanism of heat transfer".

transfer.
[Section 1.3]

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r. " ·.
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· H~at Transfer (MU-Sem S·Mech)
{, . . 1-22
;. '
' - 0.6
What do you understand by unidirectional heat a. 23
flow ? (Section 1.4.3] -
·. ' ·~ 0.7 a. 24 Discuss the factors affecting the
State Fourier's law of heat conduction.(Sectlon 1.5)
a.a Define thermal·conductivity of a material. conductivity of material. [Section 1.5.4] . ··~ -

[Section 1.5.2) - . Theory

' :,.,

0.9 Why mt · 1s.which

· are good electrical conductors a.1 Define the terms heat, the~modynamics and h~~
a eria
transfer. (Section 1.1} ._,·
are also good he~t conductors ? [Section 1.5.4 (3))
0.10 State the effect of variation
· · Q.2 Name and explain the various modes . of he~­
of temperature on
thermal conduct'
_
-ty I h
. 1v1 _ n t e following cases :
transfer. [Section 1.2]

(a) P~re metals [Section 1.5.4 (1)1. 0.3 Differentiate between conductive and convectiv~

. (b) heat transfers. [Section 1.2] .

Alloys [Section 1.5.4 (2)}

(c) Gases {Section 1.5.4 (4))

0.4 Write a short note·on thermal conductivity of gases.
[Section 1.5.4)
(d) Liq~ids [Section 1.5.4 (3)]
Q.5 How does thermal conductivity of gases and liquid&
a.11 Differentiate between isotropic and vary with temperature. (Section 1.5.4 (5) and (6)]
anisotropic
materials. [Section 1.5 .5 (J)J
0.6 Comment upon variations of thermal conductivity o
a.12
H~w does the thermal conductivity of materials vary thermally conducting and insulating materials with
with temperature? [Section 1•5.4 (4) (5) (S)J temperature. (Section 1.5.4 (3) and (4)]
0.13 State the assumptions in Fourier's law . of heat o. 7 Explain in brief the analogy between the heat flo\\
conduction. [Section 1.5.5 (9)] and electricity with its significance. [Section 1.7]

Q.14 Define coefficient of convective heat transfer. a. 8 Discuss the mechanism of thermal conduction in
[Section 1.8.1] gases and solids. Name some good conductors and
poor conductors of heat. (Section 1.3 and. 1.5.4 (3))
Q.15 What do you understand by heat transfer by . .
Ans. : Good conductor will be with high (k) and poor conductor
convection ? [Section 1.SJ
will be with low (k).
0.16 State the Newton's law of cooling _and define .
Q.9 Write short notes on :
·convective thermal resistance. [Section 1.8.2)
. (i) Concept of black body. [Section 1.9)
0. 17 State the laws of radiation. [Section 1.10)
(ii) Newton's law of cooling by convection.
0. 18 State the Kirchoff's and Stefan-Boltzmann law of [Sectfon 1.8.2]
radiations. {Sections 1.10.2 and 1.10.3]
a. 10 Write short note on "Stefan-Boltzmann law".
0. 19 Differentiate between black body and white body. [Section 1.10.3)
[Section 1.9J
a. 11 What are boundary condition for conduction.?
0. 20 What is the black body ? [Section 1.9] [Section 1.6]

0. 21 What is meant by one dimensional steady state Q. 12 Discuss Fourier's law of heat conduction, why
heat conduction ? [Sections 1.4.2 and 1.4.3J negative sign inserted in its expression.
[Section 1.6]
Q. 22 Define emissivity of a body. [Section 1.9.2]

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Conduction
I
i
i

syllab.us:
Conduction : .~ssumptions in heat conduction, Generalized heat conduction equation in rectangular, cylindrical
coordinates, lniti~I an~ boundary conditions, Steady state heat conduction through plane wall, Composite wall,
cylinder, com~osite. cylinder wall.' sphere, Internal heat generation concept, Heat conduction with heat generation In
. and sohd
Plane wall, solid cylinder . · cy1in
sphere • Critical rad1'us of .1· nsulat'ion· 1n · der and sphere.
-

2.1.1 General Dlfferentlal Heat Conduction

Equation In R_e ctangular/Cartesian
Co-ordinates
Syllabus Topic ~ Assumptions In Heat Conduction,
z
Generallzed Heat Conduction Equation In Rectangular,
Cyllndrical Co-ordinates

2.1 Assumptions in Heat Conduction

and General Heat Conduction
Equation in Cartesian Co-ordinates y
Fig. 2.1.2: Volume element for determining general heat
so far we have discussed the three modes of heat transfer. In conduction equation
actual heat transfer problems, the heat transfer usually talces place
Refer Fig. 2.1.2. Consider a small rectangular volume of sides
by all the three modes of heat transfer i.e. by conduction,
ox. oy and oz parallel to ·the three axes in medium, in which
convection and radiation. In case the heat conduction is considered
temperature is varying with location and time.
in one direction only with negligible heat . transfer in other
Let T denote the temperature at centre of this elemental volume.
directions, the problem is considered as one dimensional heat
transfer problem. Also, Jet there be internal heat generation at the rate of g
3
watt per·unit volume (Wl m ) due to heat source.
c::r Assumptions In Heat conduction
Let the material be anisotropic implying that thermal
J. There is no external heat source. conductivities have values .k ., ky and ~ in x, y and_z directions
2. Material is anistropic i.e. thennal conductivity have different respectively.
values in different directions. Consider that heat is entering and leaving this volume
3. Temperature gradient is linear and uniform. through its six faces .,

4. Heat transfer is by conduction only. Consider the heat flow in X-direction : Heat enteriog the

In this section, we shall first drive the general three elemental volume per unit time normal to the ·area/face oy &z at 'x '

jimensional conduction equation considering the heat generation be dQ. and heat leaving the volume from opposite face oy oz at
'fithin the body and reduce this equation for specific cases. (x + OX) be dQx + lix'
 ~-."ioat !!,ansf':!.(MU·Sorn S·Moch) 2·2
A" rcr Pt.•u · • . I . · dT
·ncr ~
ilW of ht?at conducrion Q .. - kA -
. . . ~·
,. ffoill cmeri~~:. cJQ .,, _ '· (-" .c: ,
·... ·:- . c "'c u)' v Z) iJT!Jx
'
The value of h4! 11 t now .
• , · . out of lho c:lc:menr from right foce can
he. ubtutned . by cxpuru..hn. dQ , .
.. ~ • ln TuylM " Serie~ nnd retaining the
tu-st two rerms only. ·
' : .·. lkM k:wing, dQ
h a,
Q dQ • ..
• + u1d:t (dQ.J 0x + .. .
+ g . li:diy 6z St = p c, oT .ox Sy oz
So, n~·1 hear flow into lhl.l cl . . . Dividing the equatio~ by c5x oy oz . or we get.
cmcnt rn X-direcrion/time, . . '~~
iJ
!IQ, - dQ, .. ~. .. - (dQ l:
- dx .> ux l..(k.• Of)+.£..(k
' ' dX dX oy
~)+~(k,!!)+g=pCP~
oy 1 vs-
' ;. ~·
; .

=· _.i!.( err) OX
d.'I( - k-• uy oz . a;-
i: i:
..
. ..(2.1.2j

iJ ( aT) Equations (2.1.2) is the three dimensional heat conducr~.

== ~ k.. ox ox oy {jz
.. . (i) equations i~ Canesian co-ordinates for anisotropic material u114d'
Similarly, net heat· flow into the unsteady staJe conditions.
. . · e 1ement per unit time in y
and z d1recllons respectively are ; For isotropic material, kx = ky =~ = k constant

dQY - dQy+6y = d~ ( ky ~;) 5x oy OZ ... (ii)

Equation (2.1 .2) reduces to,

a2T a2T a2T g 1 ~ J_ _ _P cp)

dQz - dQz+6z = ! (k. ~BOX Oy oz ... (iii)
-2+-2+-2+-k =- :i where, a- k
dX Oy iJz Clot
... (2.1.3)

Thus, net heat flaw in to the element from all directions by Where, ex represents the tbennal dilTusivity of the material
conduction in certain time 5t will be, . It is given as :

[a: (kx ~)+a~ (kr ~;) + ! (~ ~~) Jox oy oz ot

k
ThennaJ diffusivity, ex= p. cp ... (2.1.4)
... (iv)
•
Now consider that there is some heat source within the 2.1.2 Thermal Diffusivity, a.
element which generates heat given as :
~ (MU • Dec. 16)
g = Heat generated per unit volume per unit time ..,,,.,,..,~~~~~~~~~er;

Volume = cSx · cSy. ox

Therefore, internal heat generation in time ot.

cSt = g · cSx cSy cSz cSt ... (v)

It is an important property of materials.
Heat gained by the element from above wiJJ result into energy
storage and will .increase its temperature.

Let, CP = Specific heat of element material

p = Density
Accordingly,
OT = Rise in temperature in tim_e St
Thennal conductivity, k
The net heat storage in the element in time & will be, ThennaJ diffusivity, · ex = Heat capacity, p · c ...(2.1.5)

where, p =density of material; c = specific heat of material

... (vi)

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j •· if., Heal Transfer (MU-Sam·5-Mech) 2-3 conduction

Higher is the value of k, higher is the rate of heat conduction

(Ill) ·No heat source and steady state conditions
through the ·material. Whereas, pc indicates the amount pf heat
' 3 •
stored per m of matenal. Thus, the thermal diffusivity of a In lhis case, g =O (no heat source) and ~ .; 0 (s~ady state),
1t111terial indicates, how fast heat energy propagates through a the Equation (2~ 1.3) reduces to :
mdterlal. a2T a2T a2T ... (2.1.8)
ax2 + ay2 + ai = 0 [Laplace Equation) . .·
c:r Significance of Thermal diffusivity '
2
The units of thermal diffusivity, a are m /s. It indicates that or v2T = o ... (2.1.9)

iarger the value 'of C:• faster will be heat dissipation or diffusion
where th/~ymbol V 2 represents a short symbol of Laplacea11
through a material.
operator.
The thermal conductivity of metal is many times greater than
that of gases but the density of gases is much smaller than metals, 2.2 Heat Conduction Equation In
. for this reason the heat dfffuses through gases almost at the same Cylindrical {Polar) Co-ordinates
rate as it passes through the metals.
~ (MU - Oec.14)
2.1.•3 Special Cases of General Heat
Conduction Equation

Equation (2.1.2) represents the general heat conduction

equation under unsteady state for . ·a niSotropic ' matenals'.- and ·
Equation (2. 1.3) represents the equation for isotropic materials
(i.e. k = kx =icy = ~) . This equation can be reduced for certain For cylindrical bodies, Cartesian system of co-ordinates is not
special cases· as follows- : suited. It requires cylindri~al co-ordinates system (also called polar

(i) Steady state conduction co-ordinates system). · Here ·also, similar procedure shall be
followed as in case Cartesian co-ordinates system.
(ii) No heat sources
Consider an elemental volume ha~ing sides dr, dz and rd0 as
(iii) No heat source and steady state conditions
shown in Fig. 2.2.1 ..
(iv) One dime~sional heat conduction equation

without heat generation under steady state

(i) Steady state conduction

The system is said to be in steady state if the temperature of

Fig. 2.2.1: Elemental volume in cylindrical co-ordinate for
. does not c hange w1'th bme
maten'al at any pomt . . aT
1.e. at= 0 three dimensional beat conduction equation

In this case, we assume that material is isotropic, therefore

The heat conduction Equation (2. 1.3) becomes :
conductivity of material k is taken as constant in all directions.
a1r a1T a2T
- +- + - + & - 0 [Poisson's Equation] ... (2.1.6)
ax2 ay2 ()z2 k - Rate of heat flow entering the element in r direction as per
Fourier' s Law :
(II) No heat sources
Qr
aT =- k (rde dz) a;:
= - kA a;: aT
In absence of any heat generation or release of energy within
the body i .e. g =0, the Equation (2.1.3) reduces to : and heat flow out in r direction at r + dr face :

dT
;;I ·at [Fourier's Equa~ion] .. .(2.1.7)

.
~« TttllKaa11ledge -
...,.. rub 11 f. it l.i ll n .s
 (f' Heat Transfer (MU·Sem. 5-Mech) 24
aT
Therefore • net heat entering -lnto the element in r-direction, == p (rd0 · dr • dt) ~ · Tt

Qr - Qr + dr = Q, - Q, a (Q,) dr
-a;:
= 1; (k • rd0 dz ~) dr
= k.2_ <>T) dr·d0·dz
ar (
ra;:
= k [ r1 ora ( r a;
aT) r . d r d0_d z J ... (i)

Similarly, Oo = -k (dr dz)- oT

raa
and a ...(2.2.t)
Oa+<1a = Oo + ;:a0' (Q0 ) rd0

This is 3-dimensional heat conduction equation in polar co.

Hence, net heat enteri~g the element in a direction
ordinates for isotropic material for unsteady state conduction Witll
Qo - Oo+<1a = Oo -[Qo + rte COa>. r d a J uniform internal heat generation.

= - r : a [ - k · drdz • ~ ~~ J rd8.
r:r Substitution Method

= k[ 7i .(}a02TJ rd0 . dr . dz
2

·.. . (ii)
This equation can also be obtained by trailsfonnation of
cartesian co-ordinates by substituting.

x =r cos e ; y = r sin 0 and z =z

Similarly, Q,_ = _k ~! rde . dr
We will carry out partial differentiation of temper~ure T wit!J
respect tor and 0.
oT _ oT . ax + oT .~
Hence net heat entering the element in z ~irection.
ar . - ax ar Cly ar
aT aT .aT
Qz - Qz.+dz. = Q, - [Q,_ + :z dz]
(Q2 )
Tr = cos 8 . Tr+ sm8 ay ... (i)

aT aT ax oT .ili:_
- aza ( - k . r d 0d r, aT)
az dz and ae = aa·aa+ay· aa
aT - aT aT
' ae = . - r sin e ax + r cos0 ay ...(ii)
. .. (iii)

Hence, net heat getting conducted into the element from all
Multiplying Equation (i) by cos8 and Equation (ii) by~
r '
directions per unit time will be addition of (i), (ii), (iii)
we have
2
·1 a ( oT) · 1 a T a TJ
2
K[ 7ar r or +7-aez-+a;t r·dB·dr·dz ... (iv) cos e .-
aT = cos
2 or
e .Tx . aT
+ sm 8 cos8 . ay ...(iii)
0r
Let g (W/m
3
) be the internal heat generation in the element . 2 aT . · aT
per unit volume per unit time, h~nce heat generation
= -sm 8 -a +sm 0 cos0
x -
-ay ... (iv)

= g ·x V =g x (rd0 • dr • dz) .. .(v) Subtracting Equation (iv) from (iii)

Due to conduction (iv) and internal heat generation (v).

ar = cosS aT _sin8 aT
_Internal energy of the el~ment will increase and rate of change of ax ar r ae .. ,(v)
this internal energy is given as:
. . iJT . . . ar =sm8
and Jn Slffil1ar way ay
. Tr+
iJT cos8 ar
-r- · ae ...(vi)
p·V·C·Tt°
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I . . .' . .
1 . "
9
:. . conduction
i --
I
t.
. . Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5"Mech)

. putung
. .lf.
ax
fort. in Equation (v), we have
.
2-5

. iJT
With at= O (Steady state)
f
I
.Q.(()T) sin0 l...(dT) Equation (2.2.2) for one dimensional heat conduction for
'
cos 0 ar ax - r ae ax isotropic materiai reduces to·:

a1T
a? iJ [ dT sine iJTJ a2T 1 aT g . ..(2.2.3)
or = cose ar cose · ~-7 ae . -+-·-+-
ar2 r ar k = 0

_ sin0 , l... [ · iJT _ sine dTJ . .. (2.2.4)

r ae cos8 ar r ae 1.2..(r·aT)+.!=
r ar ar k o

a7T 2 e. o2T sine • cose iJT In case no heat generation i.e. g = 0, Equation (2.2.4)
a? = cos ·ar+ ·r as
reduces to :
2 2
sin 8 iJT sin 8 a2T
+-r-ar +7·ae" ... (2.2.5)

sin8 cos8 iJT

+ r . ae ... (vii) 2.3 General Heat Conduction Equation
In Spherical Co-ordinates
In a similar way,
2
a1T . S a2T cos 0 oT sin8 cos8 oT
2
a? = sm a?' +-r- . a;- r . ae
cos28 a2T . sin0 ~os8 . dT . \ .
+-;r·a91- r ·as ··--· :.:<vlfi)

Adding Equations (vii) and (viii); we have,

Oa +de

... (ix)
Fig. 2.3.1 : Elements of sphere

Substituting Equation (ix) in Equation (2.1.3) ; we have Consider an elemental volume of an isotropic material

1 ar or) 1 a T a2r g _ l aT (k constant) of sides dr, rd8 and r sin e d<I> as shown in Fig. 2.3.2
2

r ar I! ar +;z ae1 +al + k - a ot ...(2·2 ·2) and Fig. 2.3.1.

This ·equation is same as Equation (2.2.1). Rate of heat flow into the element in r-direction is given by
Fourier's Law as :
2.2.1 For Steady State One Dimensional
dT . . dT
Heat Conduction Equation (Poisson's Qr = - k • A · dr = - k (rd8 · r sm0 d<I>) dr
Eq.uation)
+ (MU - Dec.14)
And rate .of heat flow out of the element in r-direction at
r + dr is given by ;

Qr+ dr =
 .....:;~;~
·"'··~·a..H•ea~t•T•r;a~ns:t:er~M~U~-~s:em~s~-M~ec~h~)._a;;;-.;;i;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;i;~2~-6~=--=;;;;;;;;;;;;=--;;i;mim=;;;=--=--=---==;;;;;;i;;;;;;;;;;;i:;;-;.~·~eo~
ti Hence net heat entering into clement in r-direction per unit Therefore net heal entering ~e clement ~r unit lime fr~.!: •.
I me will be : directions r, 0 and cp shall be addition of Equations (i), (ii) · .:'II ·
·' :~ . aztd'.iii
by, suitably manipulating as under: . .. '. ,.l_

7·:r (r2 Tra'I')

Q,-Qr•dr "' Q.-[Q,+:r(Q.)dr] =-:r(Q,)dr
a( ·-
~) . '... -.,
I
0_.i = k [ + r1 sin0 · aa sin 6
.. - ~ [- k (rd0. r sin0 dcp) oI1 dr '

arJ + 1
,.-:-!";;' • -
a a.i.caT)] 2
r . sin 9 • dr d6 • d~
. ,. :
.. .
= kl. r 2 at)
ar \.r ar dr sin 0 dcp . d0 ... (i)
·r sin e a41 'I' . ···Ci~)

Let inte.mal heat generation in the element be of wtrr?, ~;

Similarly, heat cnteri .
. ng into the clement in 0- direction
heat generation rate in the volume will be . ·
Qe ::: - k (r sin 0dcp . dr) ~
. raa Q, = g . dr . r dS · r sin 9 · d~

and heat leaving the clemen . . .. = g. r2 . dr · d0 · sin0 d<I> ···('i)

e d' . . t 10 e - direction per unit time in
e
- 1recllon at + d0 face :
Due to heat conduction into the clement (Equation iv) a114

Qe +de = Oa + raa a internal heat generation (Equation (v)) pet unit time, there shall~
(Qe) rda
change in internal energy of the elemental volume, which is giv
. .
Hence, net heat
.
~ntering element in 0-d:1rectlon .pet urut time
is given as;
as

mC·a;
oT = aT
Oe-[Oe +~(Q ) r· d0J 8
pVCat
Oe-06+do =

a = .pC · (dr · rd0 · r sin 0 d~) · ~~ ... (vi)

= -;ae <<4> r · d0
Writing heat balance equation. for the element we have.
= - r:S [- k o(r sin 0 d lj> • dr) r~~J .
rdS (iv) +(v) =(vi)
rae G·
And hence.
= K..i.. sm e;ae
aT) r dr . dcp . rd8 ... (ii)
k[ ?l . or0(20T)
~r a; +
I
r2 sin e . ae
.i.(sm- s ~)
ae
Also, heat entering the element in <?-·direction

0. = -kA dT
+ r2 silni s. :~ ( :!) Jr2 sin a: dr. <;10. dlj>
r sin 9 a <I>
+ g . r2 sinS . dr · dS · dlj> = pC · ~~ · r2 sin 8 dr dS d~
I aT
= -K(dr · rd9)-
. -.-
r sme olj> 2
Dividing above equation by k · r sin S dr dS d$, we have
And heat l_e aving the element in lj> - direction at face 4> + d4>
shall be given as; ?
1 a(
ar r
2 aT)
Tr
1
+ r2 sine . as
a( .
sm 9 . as
oT) + 2 12
r sin
2
a T2
a. a$ + k
&

££ aT _l aT
0. .. d• = Q• + rsinaO()<j> (. Q•) r sin 0 " dlj> =IC dt-aOt ... (2.3.1)

Hence net heat entering. the element per unit time in c:r Poisson's equation
<!>·direction will be :

... (2.3.2)

For one dimensional. heat conduction in radial direction

a ( 1
= k r sin ea<j> r sine d<j>
oT) • r sm. e d <I> • dr . rd<I> . .. (iii) without internal heat generation Equation (2.2.3) reduces to.

·· • l'tcH.....;
'tf r... 11u111u

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 Conduction
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5·Mech) 2·7 ---=
· if,
-- ..!.r· ..!
i)r
c·r2i!I)
or
• 0 ...(2.3.3) 2.4.1 Types of Boundary Conditions

There arc gcntrally four types of boundary conditiom.

one dln1cuslonal Poisson's l'qUallon will be

7.fr ( rl , ¥r ) + ~ • 0 ...(2.3.4)
Thctte are:

Types of Boundary
The deri\•ation can ulso be done by substituting U1e following Condition•
. cnuntion (2.3.3)
1n.,.. 1. Temperature boundary conditions
x = r · sin 0 · cos iii.
2. Convection bOundary condrtiOns
y = r · sin 0 · sin q, nnd
3. Flux boundary conditions
z = r sin 0 in Equation (2.3.3),
y d\ 4 . Initial boundary conditionS

Fig. Cl.l : Types or boundary coodltlons

2.4.1.1 Temperature Boundary Conditions

If the heat conduction is taking place across a wall of

thicl'lless L (Fig. 2.4. l ), then to find out hc:it flow r.ue and
temperature distribution through wall thickness L. we should be
z
able to either m~ure the tempcrnlures T 1 31\d T 2 of isothcmul
Fig. 2.3.2 : Element for general heat conduction equation in
faces or these should be specified.
spherical co-ordinates
T;>T2

Syllabus Topic : Initial and boundary conditions

,.. ·. ··
2.4 . Boundary and Initial Conditions -~~---'-+-•a

: ; .: .. ~··
A
There will be the requirement of determining temperature .:~ ~ ..
':·'"'·
distribution through a solid or fluid to design thermal systems. To
work out this requirement, some physical conditions existing at the x=o-----x=L
L
boundaries (faces) of the thermal systems should be ~own or Fig. 2.4.1
measurable.
Hence these boundary conditions can be written for
Minimum tWo conditions would be required in any one
x-direction as :
direction of heat transfer, which are under steady state conditions
and minimum one condition shall be necessary at the initiaI stage (l) Atx=O, T=T1
of time for thermal systems · under transient condition of heat (2) At x :::L,T= Tl
transfer:
Time tis not applicable to steady state condition.
The two conditfons specified for systems under steady state
heat transfer, are called boundary conditions as there are specified 2.4.1.2 Convection Boundary Conditions
at boundaries (faces) of the system. When a system is under
transient conditions, the condition specified shall be at . the When face temperatures (T 1 and Tl) are not known/ specified,
commencement of heat transfer and is known as initial conditions. convection boundary conditions are to be considered.

•
Sc;i1111c.-.Jw1ll1CarnScali•lC!
 . .. ;
.·. . ·
', I ' • ·,

. ·.,-
..·:
'·
·:.Y'
.··•. Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
. .
2-8

. In this case, ·fluid temperature T_ 1

;· T_ ,
2
and convection heat ·
transfer
. . coeffi ·
. lCtents h and
1
· h2 are. supposed to ·
be known. In· this
case,' bo~ndar),
. conditions can
. be w n'tte
' n as .. Heat flux entering the wa!L

· (1) At~ = 0, qo = - .k (dT).

dx x•O

. Heat convected into wall = Heat cond·u·c~ in.t o wall (2) At 'right fa.Ce, x =L
Heat flux leaving the wall.

(2) At.right face x =L, 'It. =· - k (dT)

dx • s L .

Heat conducted upto face =heat convected out from face Suppose, one face, say x = 0, is insulated,

Then flux ~ =0
-kA (~)x•L
I ' I
-k (~!) ~-o= 0
I

T..,1:'
I

I
I
T2 : T..,2
I (~!) x•O . = 0
I
I I
I
I
Q 2.4.1.4 lnltlal Boundary Conditions

Initial boundary conditions are applicable to transient heat

transfer, when conditions are specified/ measured at the
commencement of heat transfer i.e. at time t =0.

Time is not required to be considered in steady state heat

transfer.
2.4.1.3 Heat Flux Boundary Conditions
Initial boundary condition can be specified, for example, in .
Heat flu.~ is gi\'en as. heat treatment of metal process, where a metal piece has been
heated to certain known temperature Ti and it is suddenly placed in
n
~ -- .Q
A ---a.
'· dT
dx
fluid at temperature T_, for quenching (T1 > T_), then boundary

Two boundary conditions C3D be·specified as: condition is written as; at time t =0, T =T1•
2.5 Methods of Solving Three
Dimenslonal Heat Conduction
Problems

In most of the cases, heat transfer problems can be solved by

approximating heat flow in one direction as heat flow in other
- x = 0 .__ _ _..;.-_x = L directions is negligible. and ignored. But there are many situations,
L where heat transfer may be in two or three directions. In such
cases, the problems become very complex. Examples are heat
Fig. 2.4.3
treatment of metal of irregular shapes, chimneys, composite bodies,
cooling of engines etc.

UTtcl. . . . .
V rw ll llA ll • ll

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 -·-=:··:-: -:----

'1 Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2-9 Conduction

Generally, the methods emp~oyed for . solving

-+ 4. Numerical method
'd' ensional heat transfer problems are :
multi im
~------------~~~~~~~-- Numerical method can be applied to any· complex
Methods .of Solving Three Dimensional
Heat Conduction Problems geometry of solids for multi-dimensional hea~ flow.

This method does not require much knowledge of

1. Analytical method
mathematics and is generally .found more suitable _for
2. Graphical method heat transfer problems.

3. Analogical method Thes°e days this method is a very popular as it can

handle any complex problem using softwares available
4. Numerical method in the market.

Fig. C2.2 : Me~ods of solving three dimensional heat

Syllabus Topic : Steady state heat conduction through

.
conduction problems
plane wall, cylinder and spheres without
1. Analytical method Internal Heat generation

Analytical method is employed to solve simple problem

2.6 One Dimensional Steady State. Heat
of material having regular I simple geometry. Problem Conduction through Plane Wall or
solving is quite difficult I complex and sometimes Infinite Slab without Heat Generation
solutions may not be obtained.
Consider a plane wall or infinite slab of thickness 'L' of
Heat flow through a comer of two walls is an example· material having thermal conductivity k with its (aces maintained at
T 1 andT2•

.. of three dimensional heat flow problem.

2. Graphical method

This method is also applied to simple cases and provide

. rough estimation of solution.

The graphicil method involves drawing cross section of

the body to suitable scale and identifying lines of x=O x=L
symmetry, selecting temperature intervals and drawing ~L--1
Fig. 2.6.1 : Infinite sl.a b
corresponding isothe!"ffiS and drawing heat flow lines
One dimensjonal heat conduction equation [Using Laplace
such that they meet isotherms at right angle, thus
Equation (2.l.3) with h~at conduction in X-direction only} can be
forming squares.
written as :
-+ 3. Analogical method d'T
= 0 ... (i)
dx:2
This method can be employed to complicated
dT
On integration, .. . (ii)
geometries of the solids. dx = C1

This method is based on the analogy of heat conduction

On integrating again, T = c1 x + c;. ...(iii)
and electricity flow.
Equation (ii) represents the slope of temperature profile i.e.
The governing equations of the two systems are
slope is constant and Equation (iii) represents the temperature
analpgus. profile which is linear.
· • ·· T1iliK11wlwai
• ""bfltil l ott '

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 ...
-~~·~·~H~e:at~T~r~a~ns~~~r~(~M~U~-~s:em~5~-M~ec~h~)=---==========~2~-1~0~=====-==============--=========--Co=-nd~u~c~tio;;;i;;;;n .
_Boundary conditions are : (Refer Fig. 2.6.1) er Alternate method
(a) Atx=O, T=T 1 and

(b) Atx=L, T=T2

Using boundary condition at x =0, T =T 1 in Equation (ill)

we get,

.. '

. i.e.
. .. (iv)

~pplying boundary condition at x = L, T = T2 in Equation (iii),

T2 = C1 xL+Ci=C 1 xL+T1
From Fourier's law of heat conduction in a plane wall shown
T2-TI in Fig. 2.6.2.
c, = L ... (v)

Q -k·A · dT
== dx
On substituting the values of C1 and Ci in Equation (iii) we get,

Q · dx = - k · A · dT
= (T,~Ti) ·
...(i)
T x+T1
Boundary conditions ate :
T-T1 _ .!. (a) At x = 0,
i.e.
T 1 -T 1 - L
(b) At x =x or L,

This equation gives the temperature distribution in the On integrating the above equation within specified limits,
slab. From Fourier's law of heat conduction, x T1

Q = -k·A·dx
dT Q = Jdx =- k A JdT
O T1
k·A(T 1 -T2 ) (T1 -T2 )
Bat ~ =C 1 from Equation (ii). On substituting the value of Q = x
cl from Equation (v) we get,
T 1 -T2
dT =- R (Same as Equation (2.6.1))
dx =C1 = x L
Where, Conductive resistance, R = kA =kA
Hence.
2.6.1 Heat Transfer by Convection
CT1 -T,)
= k·A· L .. .(2.6 .1)
Consider the heat transfer by convection from a surface to.

L flu id in the direction normal to surface of area A as shown in

:. Thermal resistance, R = kA . .. (2.6.2)
Fig. 2.6.3.
Q k(T1 -Ti}
Heat flux. A = q= L .. .(2.6.3) T..,
. R 1

Above Equations (2.6.1) and (2.6.3) can also be obtained by

using Fourier's law of beat conduction as follows:
a~a

Fig. 2.6.3 : Heat transfer of convecti~n

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f1lUUl1UI
 . •,
;.

if Heat Transfer (MU·Som S·Mech) 2·11 Conduction

-From),
"'ewton'11 Jaw of cooling,
(b) At r= r2, T=T2
Q • h·A ·( T,.-T.. )
· On substituting the above boundary conditions in Equati~n
(T111 -T..) T.... -T.. (iv) we get,
= a
_1_ · Rconv, ... (2.6.4)
hA ... (v)

Where, convect.Ive thermal retdstance,

... (vi)
t Tw-T...
RCA)ftv. r:: ~= Q
On subtracting Equation (v) from Equation (vi),
T2 -T1 T2 -TJ
2.1 one Dlmenslonal (Radial) Steady
state Heat Conduction through In r ·In r =In (r- J
2- 1 2
... (vii)

r1
Hollow Cylinder without Heat
Generation Using the value of C1 in Equation (v) we get,
CT2 -T1) . .

In (-
rz) x In r + c; 1

r1

... (viii)

On substituting the values of C1 and c; in Equation (iv),

a
T =
Fig. 2.7.1 : Heat conduction through hollow cylinder

Refer Fig. 2. 7. I.

Consider a hollow cylinder of inner radius r1 ·and outer r2 of

T =
length L of a material having conductivity k.

Inner surface of cylinder is at temperature T 1 and outer at T2• In(~)

= .. :c2.1.1)
Conduction equation for one dimensional (radial) Heat flow
In(;:)
(without g) wm be :
Equation (2.7.1) gives the temperature distribution in hollow
1.2.
r dr
( r dT )
dr
= O [ Refer Equation (2.2.5) ] . .. (i)
cylinder in radial direction without heat generation.

i.e. :r ( r · ~; ) = 0 ... (ii) From Fourier's law of heat conduction,

dT
On integrating the above equation with respect to 'r'
Q = -k·A · d. r where A =2nrL

dT ·C1
dT
r·dr = C1, ... (iii) dr = r [From Equation (iii)]

c,
On integrating the above equation again, .. Q = -k · 21trL·7=-2nkL · C 1

.. . (iv)

Boundary conditions are:

(a) . At r =rp T =T1
VT•ti--••l.ilwi
T r.·u&lll11lon~
 V Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5·Mech . 2·12
2nkL (T1 -T0 )
or, Q a
r7
On substitutlns the vnlue of C1•
(T,-T1)
. r,
lo!!e-

Q ::I - 27t k · L ·
/n -r,
( r,) =
T,-Tn t\T
-.r- .
= R (Same as I!qua1ion (2.7.2))

... (2.7.2) Where, loge(;;) 12nkL represents the thermal resistance. '•

2.7.1 Logarithmic Mean Area (LMA) for

Hence, thermal rcslstuncc for hollow cyllndcr, Hollow Cylinder .
In(;;) In Fourier Jaw of heat conduction equation is,
R = 21t k L .. .(2. 7.3)
dT
Q = -k·A · dr
er Alternate method of finding heat transfer In an
Infinitely long hollow cylinder In this equation the heat transfer area. A =27tr · L changes
with change in radius r unlike in case of infinite slab where heat
Consider a hollow cylinder of internal radius r I and external
radius r1 with respective internal and external temperatures of transfer area remains constant
T, nnd T0 as shown in Fig. 2.7.2. Therefore, it is convenient to work out the mean area A,,, for

use in analogous formulae for slab, Q = k·A(~~).

.L .
I , • ; :, ... : - . ' t .• Rewriting Equation (2.7.2),
·t·'
21tk L· 6 T
Q =
In ( :;)
... (2.7.4)

Where, Am is the mean area which can be utilized in the

Fig. 2.7.2: Heat transfer in an Infinitely
long hollow cylinder formulae for slab.
Multiplying and dividing the Equation (2.7.4) by (r2 - r 1) we get,
Let, L be the . length of cylinder and k is the thermal
conductivity of cylinder. · 2nkL (r2-r1)
Q = r2)
·6 T·
(r2 - r 1)
Heat transfer takes place radially. In ( -
r1

Consider a ring of radius rand thickness dr.

=
From Fourier's Jaw of heat condition
· dT
Q = -k ·A· - (But, A= 2m· L)
dx
Comparing the above equation with Q =k • A · _AI.... we have
. m (rz - r1) •
dT
Q = - k-{21trL)-
dr
21t L (r2 - r 1)
r2 To
Q f drr = - k · 21t · L f dT . In ( :; )
.' T1 T,

= ... (2.7.5)

ff TtdlKMw1"fi
V PtU.lh l llllS
 •.if._ Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2· 13 Conduction
'.
,. ~ one Dimensional (Radial) Steady
On substituting the above boundary conditions in
z. state Heat Conduction through
Equation (iv) we get,
Hollow Sphere without Heat

---- Generation ·

T2 = --+c;
r2
c,

On solving above Equations (a) and (b) we get,

..•(b)

<T1 - T2) r1 · r2
. . . (v)
(r, -12)

Refer Fig. 2.8.1 .consi~er a hollow sphere of inner radius r1 c; = ... (vi)
,,., r of a matenal haVIng conductivity k
and ouw 2 •

~~-r surface of sphere is at temperature T 1 and 0 u1er at T • On substituting the values of C1 and c; in Equation (iv) we get,
W"-
2

T
= 1 (T1 -T2) r1 · r2 (T1 - T2)
-- ( +T + ·r
r f1 - r2) ' (r1 - rz) 2

r, (r2 - r 1) 2 r (r- r 1)
T = -r x(r2-- ·r1)TI +-
r
x ---·T
(r2 - r1) 2
... (2.8.1)

Equation (2.8.J) represents 1he temperature profile across the

1hick11css ofsphere.
. .
Fig. 2..8.l : Ht'!ll conduC'tion through hollow sphere From Fourier's law of heat conduction,
dT
Q = .- k·A ·dr
Conduction c:qu:uion for one dimcnsion:il (radial) Heat flow
(~itbout g) "ilJ be [Refrr Equ:nicn (1.1 .3)) = - k . 41t r2 . dT
dr

;:! (r=:) = 0 ... (i) But.

dT
dr =

2 C1
... (ii) therefore Q = - k • 41t r · - 2
r
=- 41t k C I

On in!..~~ On substituting the value of C1,

.• dT
r"·-;t; = Ci
dT Ca
-::;:
<U
=-. ,.-
... (iii)
... (2.8.2)

c,
T = --+C,
T -
... (iv) :. Thermal resistance,

Boundary renditions art':

(a) At r =r 1• T =T1 .. . (2.8.3)

(b) Al r = r:- T=T2

 ""'.iij
. , ~.
..,. ·1.
V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2-14

~ Alternate method Where, T1 and T0 are temperatures at inner and out.er sides r· .•
0
composite wall respectively and T1 > T0 • • J
\
..
.

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient

LR =
_1_
UA

= Overall or combined thennal resistance of the wau

The overall beat transfer coefficient, U can be defined aa

the ability of a composite wall to transfer heat rate through iL

Fig. 2.8.2 : Heat transfer through h U
n o owsphere
2.1 o Analogy between Heat Conduction
Refer Fig. 2.8.2.
and Electricity
Consider a hollow sphere of internal and ext al rad'
em 1us as r 1
and r 2 respectively with respective temperature T d T Rate of heat flow has an analogy with current flow in an
I an o·
Heat conduction is in radial direction. electrical system having the electrical resistance R with potential
difference V as shown in Fig. 2.10. 1. ·
Consider a ring at radius r of thickness cir.
R
Surface area of sphere, A =4m2
dT Q a
Q = - k · A· "dr" = - k · 47t r2 · dT
cir

r? To
.. Q jd~ = -k· 47t JdT (a) Heat conduction
r, r
T;
(b) Electrical system
Fig. 2.10.1 : Analogy between electri~ conduction and heat
Q [-~] '2 ;:; -k · 47t [T]
T0 conduction system
rl Ti
From Ohm's law for electrical system we can write,
47tk-{T;-T0 ) (T1 -T0 )
or Q = I = V
[r: -r~] =4~ [r: - r~]
: .. Current flow,
R ..:(2.10.I)

For heat conduction systelJ!.

.1T
= R ... (2.I0.2)
(~)
(r2 - r 1)
hence R ::: _._ represents the thermal resistance.
4 '""" r 1 r 2 .
By comparing Equations (2.10.1) and (2.10.2) we draw the

2.9 following analogy between electricity and heat flow.

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U
(i) Temperature difference ( T1 -T1 ) across the wall represents
~

Heat flow rate through a composite wall and considering all the driving force equivalent to potential difference, V.
modes· of heat transfer (i.e. by conduction, convection and
(ii) Heat flow rate Q corresponds to current flow I.
radiation) can be expressed as.:
(iii) ( ~) represents the thermal resistance to heat flow rate,
... (2.9.1)
R equivalent to electrical resistance R.

v• TlllbRIMl!li
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"'"" &
..,. Heat Transfer MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2_15 Conduction

. .1o.1 Procedure of Applylng ..Electrlcal. ,'

2

Q~
Analogy to Heat Transfer Problems

following procedure is followed to determine the heat

tta11sfer rates in composite structures. ___JL
_ __
_ _._
_ _ t(TT. --TT.\)
1 0

(i) Draw schematic diagram of the system. (b) Equivalent electrical system
Fig. 2.11.1: Composite wall in series
(ii) DraW an equivalent electric circuit of the system.
1 x,
Where, R, = h A'
(iii) compu~e all the thermal resistances in the circuit. I
Rz=kA'
I

alculate the equivalent resistance, I R.- Xi 1

(iv) C ~ ·=
T1 -T0 ~A' R•=h0 A
(v) Using equation Q = ~ R • then the heat transfer rates
Total resistance, ~ R = R 1 + Rz + ~ + R4
across the system can be calculated.
.••• ·Q =
syllabus Topic : Steady state heat conduction
through Composite wall, Composite cylinder and Q =
1 X1 Xz 1
composite spheres h;A +k 1 A +kzA +h0 A
Ti-To
2.11 Heat Transfer Problem for
= _1_
...(2.11.l)
VA
Composite Wall having Resistances
:. Overall heat transfer coefficient,
In Series ·
1 l X1 Xz }
... (2.11.2)
U = h;"+k.+ kz +ho
Consider a composite wall of thickness x1 and Xz of surface .
~A in the perpendicular direction to heat flow having hot fluid · 2.12 ·Heat Transfer Problem for
at temperature Ti on one side and cold fluid of temperature T0 on Composite Slab having Resistance
other side (Ti> T.J at shown in Fig. 2.11. l (a). in Parallel ·
Let hi and b0 be the coefficient of heat transfer of films for hot
(i) Neglecting Convective Heat Transfer
fluid and cold fluid respectively.
(ii) Composite slab with convective Heat transfer
The heat transfer from hot fluid to cold fluid is subjected to
(combined resistance in series and parallel)
four resistances as shown in equivalent electrical system in
Fig. 2.11.l (b).
(I) Neglecting Convectlve.HeatTransfer

Consider a heat transfer system as shown in Fig. 2.12. l(a)

and its equivalent electrical system is shown in Fig. 2:12. l(b).-
Cold
fluid
a a a a

T1 T0
(a) Heat transfer system (a) Heat transfer system (b) Equivalent-electrical system
Fig. 2.11.1 (Contd ....) Fig. 2.12.1 : Composite wall in parallel

..,;t::
V°
Ttthllao111\tdge
Pt1?:1lh. .ali!!ift!l
 V Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech) 2·16

. Y;iflous resistances in the system are : Refer Fig.. 2.12.2. Variou5 resistances are·as foJJows·: ·
n X ' J • X · ·X . J
R I = h. A' Rz =Jc I A I • RJ = ~ =hA
n.: = kz A2 1
/1..
-Z'"Z
• R4
o

Le1 Q1• Q2, Q 3 be rhe heat transfer rares in slabs 1. 2 and 3 A 1 + Az

.. Where, A =
respecrfrely. Th~n.
T;-T,, Equations for heat flow rate are :
Q,=-·
R,
But roral heat tran~fer rare.
Q =
Q = Q, + Q2 +Q3 . . . (ii)

Q = -l:RT; -T0
... (iii) Combined resistance of the s)'stem can be calculated as follows:

· Substituting the · values from Equation (iii) and set of

For resistances in parallel,
Equation (ij in Equation (ii), we get, ] ] Rz+~
R. = jf+~=Rz •..(i)
2 • R3

.. LR = R 1 +R0 +R4 . .. (2.12.2)

_1_ T1 -T~
i.e. . .. (2.12.l) Q =
LR LR
... (2.12.3)

(Ii) Composite slab with convective Heat transfer 2.12.1 Thermal Contact Resistance
(combined resistance in series and parallel)
~ (MU - May 16) Consider one dimensional heat flow through a composite slab
A/..'. - "- ,1~ ~ • .W. • •. - •·. ·.,'~ ~. -",.:.." ' - : ;. ':?{~'!i.:_~~·:·i:'.-r,:'1_·/.:, :.1..,~ having two solid surfaces as shown in Fig. 2.12.3.
!~Q'J.'?.~1't.':l·''W11m : :..... -.~,·;:-~~1t~t~~;;,
~:.:;· .Discuss ''Electrical analogy'· . of · -combined}:: heat The temperature profile through the solid surface at their
'<::
'"-/-iT,-,, •• - ' . - ,· . •• • •, ••,", ,., , ".

·;. .....;::··conduction and convection in a composite wall:' :;:··'.... interface experiences a sudden drop in temperature between
~,_ ,
~
__ ,.··· ,, .··.
.. ":'"· ·- • __,.-: • - -: . . . • . .::-- ... ,. • -
.
. - :: ,_,,,
. .. . ·Eilii - ,..:<.·~-:

two bodies as shown.

.... • ""· • •• w ' "' :

Hot fluid This temperature drop across the interface is as· result Of
T1---.
thermal contact resistance.

This thermal contact resistance at the interface develops

Hot
fluid when the two surfaces do not fit tightly together and a thin
film
layer of fluid (air or surrounding fluid) is filled between them.

This contact resistance is the function of surface roughness,

J-x-J
(a) Heat transfer system ·the pr~ssure holding the two surfaces, the property of fluid
and the interface temperature.
1
R1= h · A
I
The expanded view of the interface is shown in Fig. 2.12.3.

The direct contact between the solid surfaces takes place at a.

a limited number of spots and the void is filled by the
a
surrounding fluid.

(b) Equivalent eJectricaJ syst.e m

Fig. 2.12.2 : Composite slab with convective heat transfer
0
Ttdilln!tfl
V ruw111i11
~ .· .· · ·· .
.~ . . . '

:( ·•." . .
\~. · · ~·~
··~H~e~a:.:tT~r;;:;a;;ns;:;fe;.;r;;<;;M:.:U=-S;;;;e~m~S:::;;-M~e;;;c;;;h:=:)=======2~~~17~==:;:;;;:==~=========~C;;o:=n:=d=-u=-ct=-io:; ; ; n
~ ;;;;;
Heat transfer can be detennined for a. composite wall by
'}
i considering the thermal resistance of convective heat transfer
l Gas
l · between al inner layer, thermal conductance of cylinder 1 and 2 and
I

1 a &Olide
convective heat transfer at outer layer of cylinder Ienglh L.
~
Expanded or
'1
mlcrpscoplc view
, or Interface
l
j
J I
I
I
T To
~~~.;J-- Cylinder 1

..__ _......._ ___,,__ x Fig. 2.13.1 : Heat transfer through a composite cylinder with
conduction and convection

fig. 2.12.3 : Contact resista.nce between two solid surfaces Resistance due to convection R 1 and R4 and conduction ~

The beat conduction through the fluid filling the voids is and R3 are as follows :
mainly by conduction, since there is no convection in such a
. ( '2)
Jog. ~
thin layer of fluid and the radiation effects are negligible.
R1 = h;·2nr 1 L' ~ = 21t k 1 L
er Definition of Thermal Contact Resistance

.log.(;;) ].
RJ = 2
2n k L • R4 = h0 • 2n r 3 L

Heat transfer rate through various layers is as follows :

Q = h1 • 21t r 1 L (T; -T1)

2nk 1 L(T,·-T2 )
2.13 Heat Transfer through a Composite
=
Cylinder with Conduction and
Convection
2 7t kz L (T2 - T3)
=
~ (MU - May 10, Dec. 10) f3
log• r
. 2

... (2.13 .1)

(T 1 - T~
Q =

... (2.13.2)
Refer Fig. 2.13.1.

'*
V
lechKMWl~dgi
Pu tdl t " \ t i:in !.
- ---------------··-·---·-----·· ·-·

¥ Hetti Tranator (MU-Som 5-Mech) 2-18 . Conduction

~
_2.14 Combined Heat Transfer by
Conduction and Convection In
Compound Sphere
Syllabus Topic : Critical Radius of Insulation In
Refer PJg. 2.14. 1. Cylinder and Sphere

11
Conllidcr hollow sphere huvlng gn11 .a tcmperat.urc T 1 and 2.15 Thermal Insulation
out.9idc temperature Js T . Let ·r T T be lh ·
o 1• 1• 3 c lcmpcratures on
inside surface, ut Interface of two sphcrc11 and T3 nt outer surface of A heat Insulating material is one which has low thcnnai
11phcrc rcspccrivcly. conductivity.
To
Thermal insulation is provided in thermal systems to reduee '
the heat losses

For example, the steam generated in the boiler is taken into

pipes upto the steam turbine. To reduce the heat losses, the
pipe is lagged with some form of jnsulating material.

~ Required properties of lnsulatlng materials are :

(i) It is able to withstand high or low temperatures.

(ii) It should have long life and could withstand rough handling.
0 Q
(iii) 1t must be easy to apply.

FJg. 2.14.J : Compound sphere having heat transfer by (iv) It is economical.

conduction and convection (v) It should not have any fire risks.
. .
Various insulating m~terials used i_n practice are asbestos,
glass and rock wool, cork, a man made plastic material like
expanded polystyrene, magnesium carbonate etc.
=
Coefficient of thermal conductivity of various materials is

given in Table 2.15.1.

T1-T1 (T 1 -Tz)
or, Q = J r2-rl Table 2.15.1 : Coefficient of thermal conductivity (k)
A;hi 41tk1 r1 r2

(T2-T3) T3-To
= r3-r2 = J
.. .(2.14.1)
Asphalt 0.75 Marble 1.3
4n ~ r2 r3 ho· Ao
Fire brick 0.14 Cement 0.29
2 2
where Ai = 4n r 1 and Ao = 47t r)

Glass wool 0.038 Glass 0.75

_J_ (r2 - r 1)
R1 = Aih;' ~ = 4nk 1 • r 1 • r2 Mica 0.58 Asbestos 0.15
(r3 - r,) _J_
~ = andR4 = Gypsum 0.30 Cork 0.042
4n ~ · r2 • r3 Ao ho
Brick 0.7 Fibre 0.049
...
Ti-To
Q = .. .(2.14.2)
R1+~+~+R4

v, ..
•Tim.....;
11 .. 1111•

SConn«i wit h C:imSc::mncr

 ;

Conduction

l
I
i
" 1.38 Saw dust O.Q7 Tc.o
~ .
.l
l
0.80

·'-k"t5f 4-
16
crltlcal Thickness of Insulation .,i~~~ I h
~ ~ (MU· Dec.10, May 11, Dec.12, . ~-b-·~a~
May 13, Dec. 13) .T1 >Tao
J (a) Insulation on plane wall

r
I
I
!

'
Purpose of insulation is to reduce the heat transfer rate but Is
it always true ? Let us examine.
(b) Critical thickness
L · Insulation in case of plane walls
Fig. 2.16.1
2. Application of .insulation on cylinders
2. Application of insulation on cylinders
1. Insulation in case of plane.walls ~ (MU - May 17)

Consider the case of heat flow across a steel plate with a layer
of insulation applied on it as shown in Fig. 2.16.l(a).

Heat transfer rate without insulation,

Consider heat flow from steel tube of outside radius of

Q=cb I)
k A +hA
... (i) · r 1• This is insulated by a layer of insulation so that outer
5 radius of insulation is r2•

Heat transfer rate with insulation, Let the temperature of outside surface of steel tube be
T1 -T.. T 1, conductivity of insulation be k (W/mK) and let this
...(ii)
insulation be exposed to atmospheric air at temperature.
T.. with convective heat transfer coefficient as
Due to in.crease in thermal resistance of insulation equal to 2
h (W/m K) and length of tube L meters. Refer
(a I k; · A), the value of.Q1 is always less than Q. It implies
Fig. 2.16. l (b).
that the heat transfer rate will always reduce with insulation
in case of plane walls. Now heat transfer rate from this insulated steel tube

UTetU•••ledgt
Y f\ubllt.illD n s

Scanned with Cam Scenner

, •'
•
~.fi Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
2·20 Conduction
~ I.~
...",,
., . · i

·..: ·
...
Q = ! I k
... (2.16.2)
·~·
~. j
. .. (2.16.1) k = h r1 or r1 = ii= r •
/n ( r1)
r1 I
-;;----
-1t k L
--=--
+ h . 2n r • L
1
re is called critical radius of insulation.

From the above eq ti ·

. . ua on it can be seen that on increase 2.16.1 Important Aspects of Critical Radius of
of msulat1on I.e. r2 , heat now r t Q ",,
ae may decrease or Insulation l
increase with increase in r2 since d . .
~ (MU • Dec. 09, Dec. 10, Dec. 12,
•I
r) con uctive resistance . I
2
ln ( - May 13, Dec. 13, May 17)
_!J_
2- 1t k L increases logarithmically but convective
1
G
resistance 127t r L) decreases linearly.
2

1
Q

0 r2-+

Fig. 2.16.2: Variation of heat transfer

w.r.t. insulation radius
With the increase in thickness of insulation (r2). conductive
If we plot Q as a function of r2, (Refer Fig: 2.16.2), we
resistance increases logarithmically and convective resistance
see that Q first increa.Ses with increase in r2 and then
decreases linearly, hence total resistance first decreases,
decreases passing through a ma."{imum value.
attains minimum value (corresponding to. maximum Q) and
dQ
To fi11d the value of r2, for which Q is maximum, dr then increases.
2

should · be equated to zero or denominator of Critical radius is independent of tube/pipe radius. It only
Equation (2.16. l) should be · minimum, hence depends on conductivity of insula~ion and 'h' between
differe~tiating denominator wiU1 respect to r2 and exposed surface of insulation and its su~oundings (re=*).
equating it to zero, we have
If the purpose of insulation is to reduce tlte heat transfer rate

d[ln(~)
dr 27t k L + h · 2n r
1
•
]
L = O
then outside radius of tube (r 1) should be greater than critical
2 2 radius (r.). Example : Steel tubes _carrying steam from boiler

or •~, [1o ~;:) + h J = 0

to turbine.

If purpose is to increase the heat transfer rate, then outer

radius of tube (r 1) should be less than critic~ radius (re).

.. _g_
dr
[ in r2 _
k2
in r 1+ _J_
k hr
J = 0
Example : Insulation over current .carrying electric
conductors/cables.
I I Heat tra11sfer will always reduce on applicati01~ of
--O-:-i = 0
r2 ··k hr 2 i11su[atio11 Ort wall . or similar structure 3S conductive
l _!_ resistance will increase with thickness of .insulation while
k-h r2 = 0
convective resistance will remain unchanged. Hence aspect of
critical radius is not applicable.

\
':
:'· WT1tbbt•llilgt
V rurtlllU ltAI
~ '
l.: 1
Scanne<I w 1tfl C11mScanner
p

fer (MU·Sem 5·Mech)

2·21 Conduction=

= 0
2k
rz = 11=rc . .. (2.17.2)

where, r is called the cnttc

. . al rad'iu s of insulation.

. "i!t~~p
~ife.;::.· ~:... ~
. .. .:.. ....... , •..,... ,.,. .. '·''"'-. \:>c:;:;:
' ~ Refemng o Fig. 2.17.I, consider of. hollow
. t . sphere at. outer
. r, at temperature T1 which ts covered
radius · with an
insuta11on
. of thickness (r2 - .r 1) so that its outer radius in r •
2

Insulating
layer ..
->:·.·~;~~/. '·
~

(r2-r1l Too ':~· . .. ·.. :;~.

. ·~. ':. :·
. ~ . ': ~···
-' ;r. ''

Fig. 2.17.1: Sphere with insulation

It is subjected to convective heat transfer h having fluid.

temperature- T... Let k be the thennai conductivity of
insulation.

Heat transfer rate across the sphere can be expressed as :

(T,-T..)
Q =
... (2. 17. I)

Where, conductive resistance due to insulation,

Convective resistance to atmosphere, ~ :::: ~

. 4n s h
dQ :::: O
For maximum heat transfer rate, -d
f2

~ [(r- 2 -~~-+:-4--J :
Therefore,
-T.., 0
4n k r, r2 4 7t r2 h

:i_G-'--~+~
d [ T -T ] .
d<; 4n k r r1 h 2
,a
4 1t r2
Differentiating the denominator for its rn. .
i[ 1 1
d 2 ----+....,,_
r kr 1 k · r 2
1
:::: 0
J in1rnurn value,
2 r2. h

$c;i:mii~ with Carn&: a1111t"r

 ~
.
/ •
..
"
,I
. ,;

Hoftir l'lt. I'. 2.17.2.

Jl1111t now r1H4l uerollll lhu wull, Q

k A ( 1'1 -1'1 ) 'J.!5 x4.~ (l:'m -4$)
Exompln 2.11.1 C) e " .c 0,1,
Tho wc.111 of a ovon ln 40 "' 1991~ w ... An/j,
conductivity of o.1 WlniK Tho ~m Ulick hnvlna Ila thormal
molnttdnod at 0 lornporo;uro ofn~~~~~l'.turfnco of tho ovon ltl
tomporoturo lfJ 200,;C Tt Md tho OUlbldo woll
• 10 total ourfnco 0 f
ovon la 2 m2, Find tho thormal rtHilo roa o wall of tho
tho hoat flux. l.tJnco, hoot flow mto ond lnrM!r .,,
•urroc.
Sofutlon: ":' Out.or
""'""'""""--..:..:+-~

Given:
. .. _,,"__ Ol.llfllC(J

Thlclrncl'N, x u 40 cm .. 0.4 111 : • - l! • 1Dan -

'I11crm11l cont1uc1lvlty, k • 0,7 W/niK: 171ic. ... 2.17.2

TI .. 8()()!1C : 1'2 ti 200''C • d1'

(II) 'I'cm11~rn ,·urc Kriul Icnt In the heni now direction -d
/\ • 2 m2, ' x
(I) Thormof roafotonco, A
l'rom JlourlcrH Juw of henL contluc1lon,
I< ~
rs
k •A n 0':0.4
7"X2 ., 0.2H~7 K/W ... AnN. Q II -k A~'!'
(II) Hoot flow roto, Q d'J' Q
:. dx • -k'A
( 1'1 - T: ) 1T 2
- T
Q n a ---;{' 29925 7000('/
(E\) .. - 9.!5 x 4.!5 .. - ~ Ill ... AnH.

1100-200 (Ill) 1'c11111cr11turc or H11rr11ccr1 nl x1 a 5 cm a 0.05 m nnd at

a 0.28~7 a 2100 W ... An., , x1 • JO cm • 0.1 111 from In ncr Hu rfacc•

(Ill) Hoot flux, q Lei T 11 nnd T12 he lhc tcmpcralltrcH.ut rc11pcc1lve HurfaceHat a
diNlancc x1 and x2• Since the hcut transfer rate Q is constant
Q 2100 . 2
q .. A c 7r: 1050 W/m ... Ans. lhroughoul, under steady 11tute conditlonH, il implies that:

Example 2.17.2

A plane wall is 15 cm thick of surface aroa 4.5 m2• Thermal

9.5 x 4.5( 150-T11 )
conductivity of the wall is 9.5 W/mK. Tho Inner and outer 29925 1:1
0.05
ourface temperatures of tho wall are maintained at 150°C
and 45?C respectively. Detormlno, ... Tx1 .. l15°C ... Ans.
(I) Heat trow rate acros:l the wall. k A ( T 1 -T12 )
(II) Temperature gradient in tho heat flow direction and Q =
X2

(iii) Temperature of surfaces at 5 cm and 1O cm away

from the Inner surface. ... 29925 c
9.5 x 4.5 ( 150-T12 )
0.1
Solutlon:

111icknes~ . x =IS cm:: 0.15 rn;

... ... Ans•
Gh'Cll:
 : I

~
'
.
I Conduction
l
. "- 1-ieat Transfer (MU-Sam 5-Mech) 2-23

(ii) Temperature or other &lde or the plate, Ti

k·A·(T2 -T.,)
oc blows over a hot plate of 0.5 m x 1 m surface
Air at 27
Q = x
which Is maintained at 221oc. The film conductance is
43 x 0.5 x (T2 -227)
W/m2K. There is a heat loss of 280 W by radiation from 2780 = 0.02
25 f the plate. The plate ls 2 cm thick. Calculate •
surface O . . ••• AnS-
Heat transfer rate. = 229.S86°C
TM temperature of ·the other side of the plate
00 .· Example 2.17.4
Assume thermal conductivity of plate material as 43 W/mK. In an air conditioned room. the wall of the house measures
2 m x 6 m. It consists of 1 cm thick wood paneling of thermal
solution:
conductivity 0.06 W/mK and 20 cm thick concrete wall having
oeferfig. P. 2.17.3
Gh·en: l ' the thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/mK. The inside
l{eat loss by radiation, Q.= 280 W temperature is maintained at 2s0 c and the atmospheric
temperature is 40°C . Find the gain of heat transfer .rate by
Air (fluid) temperarure, T_ = 27°C
the room and the temperature at interface of wood and
surface temperature, T,. =227°C concrete wall.
Film conductance~ h =25 W /m2K, Solution: Refer Fig. P. 2 .17.4.
Wood Concrete
nucknCSS of plate, X=2 Cm, =0.02 m ; k =43 W/mK.,
2
surface area of plate, A = l x 0.5 = 0.5 m •
Q
T""=21•c Room
T0 =40•c

Fig. P. 2.17.3
Surroundings
(i) Beat TranSfer rate
Q
Q
Heat from upper surface is lost both by radiation and
convection. However, other side of the plate is being heated so that

the upper surface temperature of plate could be maintained at Flg. P. 2.17.4

T,. =227°C. It implies that the heat conducted through the plate
thickness must be equal to heat lost by convection and radiati~n.
Heat lost by convection,
~ = h ·A ( T., - T..) =25 x 0.5 x (227 - 27) =2500 W
Since ' h' values on inner and outer surfaces note given, we
will have to ignore convection and ~mperatures of 25° and 40° C
will have to be taken as wall surf~ temperatures.
Surface area of wall, A= 2 x 6 = 12 m
1
.

:. Total heat lost or heat transfer rate, x2 = 1 cm =0.01 m

Q = Heat lost by convection. ~+Heat loss by radiation, Q. k-i = . 0.06 W/mK; x. 1 = 20 cm= 0.2 m

= 2500 + 280 k1 = 1.2 W/mK; T0 = 40°C;

= 2780W ••• Ans.

 . ~:
'.·

V Heat Translor (M_U·Som 5-Moch) 2·24

Totw reslscance,
Solutlon:
: .1 .
Refer Fig. P. 2.17.5 .
.,.
Let ~ and Q, 1 be the rates of heat transfer by convection and
X1 x2
• --+...__.. 1
k1 A k2 A
radiation respectively from gases to inner surface of the Wall
= 0.2 + 0.01 mainlJlincd at temperature T 1• Let T2 be the temperature on outer
1,2 X 12 0,06 )( 12 D 0.027_8 K/W
surface of the wall from where the rate of heat transfer by
(I) Gain of heat tranater rate by room, convection and radiation be ~ and Qr1 respectively to the
0
surroundings at T_.
Hent will be transferred from surroundings to . 'd th
• 1ns1 e e room
stnce T0 > T1• 111erefore, Given : Temperature of hot gases, T 1 =2100°C, T_ = 40°C,
2
Qr1 = 23 kW/m1• h1 = 12 W/m K,
Heat transfer rate,
Thermal conductance of wall,
I 2 . 1
40-25 . . R = 58 W/m K., Q,2 =IO kW/m , T 1 =900°C.
Q = Ofil:78'=540 w ••. Ans. c

To find : T2 and h0 •
(II) Interface temperature, T1 at the concrete end wood
surfacee Assume, A= 1 m2 •

k 1 A(T0 -T1) (I) Temperature at outer surface of wall or slab, T2

Q =
~
1
X1
. h;·A(T8 -T1)
1.2 x 12 (40-T 1) = 12X 1 x(2100-900)
540 = 0.2 2
= 1
14.4 x 10 W/m = 14.4 kW

.• T 1 = 32.S°C ••. Ans. Tola! heat transfer, Q to inner wall is by radiation and
convection. Therefore,
Example 2.17.5
Q = Q.,I +~I
•I In a lumace, temperature at hot gases Is 2100°C. Ambient 2

temperature is 40°C. Heat flow by radiation from hot gases to

= 14.4 + 23 =37.4 kW/m

inner surface of the wall is 23 kW/m2 • Convective heat This heat is conducted through the slab._Hence,
transfer coefficient between hot gases and the inner surface T, -T2 . I 2
j I'
2
of the wall is 12 W/m K. Thermal conductance of the wall is Q = Re= ~ Smee Re = 58 WI m K
flo~ by radiation
2
58 W/m K. Heat from external surface of
2
37.4 x 10
3
= 58 x 1 x (900 -T2 )
the wall to surroundings is .10· kW/m Temperature of inside
.. •

surface of the wall is 900°C. For the external surface of the

T2 = 2ss.2°c •..Ans•

wall, find surface temperature and convective heat transfer (II) Convective heat transfer coefficient at outer
coefficient. surface, h 0

• • Q = Q, + ~ as under steady state Q will remain same.

2 2 '

I, 37.4 = 10 + Q"l
! 4:
: I ' Q"l = 27.4 kW
11 ,
'1
!: But = Qci h0 ·A(T2 -T..)
27.4 x 10 · =
1
h0 x I x(255.2-40)

h0 =
2
127.32 W/m K ••• Ans.
Fig. P. 2.17.5

:,
v. ,........
~
11u l1 1u
>

if Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech) 2·25

Conduction

......
Example 2.11.6
A furnace wall lining is made up of material with
k :::: .5 W/mK. The temperature of the Inner and outer
2
surface of this plane wall lining are 810°c and 3300 0 ... Ans.
x1 :::: 1.05 m
pectively. The outer surface Is exposed to ambient air at
~~~C with convective heat transfer coefficient 1o W/m2K. =
calculate :
The rate o,f heat flow p'er unit area.
(i)
Thickness of lining .In given situation.
(ii)
Thickness of lining If the heat. flow rate is to be
(Iii)
reduced by 50%. ·

Solution : Refer Fig. P. 2. l 7.6.

Solution:
I

T1' k k1 h=
Ia
2a·c
r, • I
810'C I
I
I
h I
I
I
I
I
q I
Fig. P. 2.17.6 I
I
I
I
x, X2 I
I
I

15cm 1ocm

(i) . Rate of beat now/unit area, q =~ Fig. P. 2.17.7

Refer Fig. P. 2.17.7

Since

= ~ ._(330 -30)
T1 = 400°C; ~. = 28°C
q Rz 0.1
2
k = 10 W/mK; k;= 30 W/mK
= 3000 W/m · ... Ans.

(ii) Thickness of the existing lining, x

h = 15 W/m K
2

Ti-To (i) Heat transfer rate/unit surface area , q-

q = = T,-T, 400-28
q ~ ~ l = 0.\5 0.10 l
k + k. +ii w+To+TS
I
810- 30
i.e. 3000 = X1 - 372
2.5 + O.l =- 0,015 + 0.0033 + 0.0667
2
:. x1 = 0.4 m or 40 cm ... Ans.
= 4376.S W/m ••. Ans•

(ii) Temperature of insulation, T 2

(iii) Thickness of lining x required
1 if the heat flow rate

is reduced to 50% i.e. q 1 = q ! q = T1-T2

~
400-T2
4376·5 = (0.15/10)
k
(T1 -T0) • q (T1 -T0)
R, +R2 t.e.. z x, 1 T2 = 334.35°C ... Ans.
-+-
k, ho
 -·-~
':~·_;~ .:1
....·...
·~

'../ .

•
Y. · Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2·26 Conduction
SQ
{IU) Temperarure or outside surface, T~ · I
. .., A' [ 0.129 + J.4286 x, 1 ... (ii)
I. . 334.35 -T,
4376 .S = (0.1/30)
For the snme hent flow rate, it implies thnt
:: '
T 1 -T1 T 1 -T2
t ~ I Qa-=-
... Ans. LR LRo
Example 2.17.8 i.e. IR • · tR0

A brick work of a furnace Is built up of layers laid of fire clay 0.8708 I

--X- .. 'A [0.129 + t .4286 x,J .
(k 1 =
0.93 W/mK) and red brick (k3 =
0.7 W/mK) and the
space between the two Is filled with crushed dlatomlte brick x4 = 0.5193 m or 51.93 cm •.. An,,,
(k2 = 0.13 W/mK) as shown In Fig. P. 2.17.8. What should be
Example 2.17.9
the thickness red brick layer If the brick work Is to be laid
without diatomite filling between two layers so that the heat An exterior wall of a house may be approxl1J1ated by a
flow rate through the brick work remains constant with same 100 mm layer of common brick (k 1 = 0.7 W/mK) followed by
temperatures of the furnace and outside temperatures. a 40 mm layer of gypsum plasler (k2 =
o.065 W/mK).
Solution: What thickness of loosely packed rock-wool Insulation
(k3 = 0.065 W/mK) should be added to reduce the heat loss
Fire Oiatomlta Rad
clay Fire Rod bndl (or gain) through wall by 80%.
brick clay
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 2. l 7.9.
T1 k, k1 k, Ti T1 k1 k3 r2
• 0.113 W/mK • 0. 13 W/mK • 0.7 W/mK
• 0.113 W/mK • 0.7 WlmK

x, x x
=0.12m =0.05m =0.25m
x,---"'--- x
•0.12 m

(a) Brickwork with dlatomlte filling (b) Brickwork without

dlalomlte fillln&
Fig. P. 2.17.8

Case I : When diatomite filling is used

Fig. P. 2.17.9
[Refer Fig. P. 2.17.8(a)]

Let A be surface area of composite wall with T1 as furnace x, = lOOmm=O.I m

temperatures and T2 surrounding temperature. kl = 0.7 W/mK

Combined thermal resistanre, Xz = 40mm =0.04 m

~ = 0.065 WlmK

~ c: 0.065 WlmK
x1 ~ X3
q2 = (1 - 0.8) q, = 0.2 x q, ...(i)
= k1 A + ~ A + k3 A
(Since 80% i.e. 0.8 times the heat loss or gain is to be
.l[0.12 + 0.05 + 0.25] 0.8708 ... (i)
= A 0.93 0 .. 13 0.7 =-A- reduced). Consider (T1 - T0 ) be the temperature difference across
the wall. The rate of heat flux q1 without rockwool insulation and
Case II : When diatomite is not used, Jet x4 be the thickness of
red brick as shown in Fig. P. 2.17.8(b). New combined q2 with rockwool insulation can be written as (where, q = ~)
resistance,
p
."1 Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5·Mech) 2·27
Conduction

Consider unit area of s~rface i.e. A= J m various resistances are :

2
= ... (ii)
J I _,K/W
= ____ _..;.,__
CT1-To> R1 =
h. A= J4200 X I =7.04Zx JO
J

= (0.7582 + 15.384 X3) ... (iii)

Combined resistance, 1:; R =R; + R1 + R0

Since qz = 0.2 qt
0.2 x (T1 -T0 ) = (7.042 x 10- 5 +8.114 x 10- 5 +43.011 x 10-')
,'. Q.7582 + 15.384 X3 0.7582
= 58.167 x 10- 5 K1W
0.7582 : 0.2 X 0.7582 + 0.2 X 15.384 x3
(I) Heat transfer rate a
x3 = 0.1971 m = 19.71 cm •••Ans. T; -To (100- 30)
Q =~ =58.167 x 10- 3
Example 2.11.10 .
A 8 mm thick metal plate, having thermal conductivity
= 1.2034 x 10
5
w ... Ans.
(k = 98.6 W/mK) Is exposed to vapour at 100°C on one side
and cooling water at 30°C on opposite side. The heat . (II) Drop In temperature on each side of heat transfer
2
transfer coefficients are h1 =
14200 W/m K on vapour side
2 (a) Temperature drop on vapour side (T1 -T1) :
. and ho = 2325 W/m K on the water side. Determine the rate
of heat transfer, drop in temperature of each side of plate. T. -T

Solution : System is shown in Fig. P. 2.17.10.

.Q=T
CT;-7 1) = Qx~
Vapour Metal Water

T1
plate (Ti -T1) = (1.2034 ~ 10s) x (7.042 x 10-s)

T1 =1oo·c T0 =3o·c = 8.47°C . ... Ans.

(b) Temperature drop on cooling water side (T2 - To>

To

R1 Ro Q =
ho

R1 Ro
= Sl.76°C .•• Ans.

Q Example 2.17.11
A furnace wall is made up of three layers of thickness
250 mm, 100 mm and 150 mm having coefficient of therr:nal
Fig. P. 2.17.10 · conductivities of 1.65 W/m~, 9.2 W/mK and k3 (W/m K)

3 respectively. The inside surface is exposed to hot gases of

x = 8 mm= 8 x 10- m =0.008 m
furnace at 1250°C with convective coefficient of heat-transfer
2
k = 98.6W/mK, T; = 100°c of 25 W/m K and the inside surface temperature is 1100°C . .
The outside surface 'of composite wall is exposed to air at
T0 = 30°C, h; = 14200W/m2K. 25°C having coefficient of convective heat transfer of
2
12 W/m K.
. ho = 2325W/m2K.

VTHUH•!Mti
Y ru•11c11l) o ni

Scanned w ith CamScarmer

 • •
Heat Transfer MU-Sam 5·Mech

Determine the followlng :

2·28

I.e. 3750 .a
(1250-25)
Condu~ .

(I) Heal transfer rate per unit surface area. (0.2857~ +0.J~
(II)
Thermal conductivity of third layer, ~
On solving, k3 = 3.662 W/mK
(Iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
... ~
(Iv) Intermediate surface temperatures. (Ill) Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
Solutlon:

'Tj (1) ® ®
3750 = u x] (1250 - 25)

U = 3.0612 W/m2J<

(Iv) Surface temperatures T2 , T3 and T4

For layer l :

Fig. P. 2.17.U Q =
·1". Refer Fig. P. 2.17.11.
l.65 x I x (1100-T2)
,." 3750
0.25
/: Ti = 1250°C;
.. Tz = 531.82°C ...Ans.

Xi = 250 mm= 0.25 m For layer 2 : .

~A(T2 -T~
X2 = 100mm=0.1 m Q = X2

X3 = 150 mm= 0.15 rn 9.2 x 1 x (53 l.82-T3)

37~0 = 0.1
kl = 1.65WlmK; k2 = 9.2W/mK;
.1
I
.' 25W/m K;
2 2
TJ = 491.06°C : ..Ans,
hi = ho 12W/m K .
'
For layer3:
(I) Heat transfer rate, Q
k3 A (T3 -TJ
Q - X3

3.662 x 1 x (491.06 -T4 )

= 25 x 1 (1250-1100)=3750W/m2 ••• Ans. 3750 = 0.15
(II) Thermal conductivity of third layer, k 3
T,. = 337.46°C ..;Ans.
Total thermal resistance,
Example 2.17.12
1 X1 • X2 X3 1
LR = h1 A + k1 A + ~A + k3 A + h0 A The wall of a cold room has three layers. Outside layer Is
made of brick of 200 mm thickness. Middle layer is of cork
1 0.25 0.1 0.15 l
= 25 X l + 1.65 X 1 + 9.2 X 1 + k 3 X 1 'T 12 X 1 100 mm thick. Inside layer is of cement 50 mm thick. Outside
air is at 25°C and inside air is at - 20°C. Film coefficient of
0.15 0.2857 k3 + 0.15 2
outside air/brick is 45.4 W/m °C and inside film coefficient for
= 0.2857 + - k -
3 k3
: .. (i)
2
air /Cement is 17 W/m °C. Values for 'k' .for brick, cork and
cement are 3.45, 0.043 and 0.294 W/m°C respectively.
Q =
i/- Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2·29
·· · · Conduction

Sketch the cross-sectlon · of composite wall with ;,. : 2.32s.5s KJW

(I)
temperature profile and an analogous electrical circuit. ·
X3 (200/l 000}
(ii) find the rate of steady ' flow under steady state R4 = k3 A - 3.45 x 1
conditions.
(Ill) oetermlne the temperature on exposed wall surfaces. = 0.05797 K/W
1 1 .
solution: R5 = h0 A = 45.4 x 1
(I) Sketch of cross-section of composite wall
= 0.02203
It is shOwn in Fig. P. 2.17.12(a) and equivalent electrical
system in Fig. P. 2.17.12(b). Combined resistance,

(II) Heat flow rate, a

Consider unit surface area of wall i.e. A = 1 m2• Resistruices = 0.05882 + 0.17007 + 2.32558 + 0.05797 + 0.02203

of various surfaces per unit area are : = 2.63447 KfW

1 1
R, = hiA =f7Xi Q
<T1 - T.,).. - 20 - 25
= LR - 2.63447 .
= 0.05882 K/W
-17.0SW ... Ans.
~ - (50/1000)
Rz = k1 A - 0.294 x 1
Negative sign shows that beat will flow from outside to

= 0.17007 KfW inside. The direction of heat flow is shown in Fig. P. 2.17.12(b).

-2._ (10011000)
Rj = kz A - 0.043 x 1

Outside
Inside T0 = 25"C

(a) Heat transfer system

a~a (T1 -To)

(b) Equivalent electrical system

Fig. P. 2.17.12

·a"Y" l1dlKH•ledgi
r b l 11.·• Ll • n 5
\l
·
, · .. : .. · - ·.' . ._......... ..... . .. . -~ . - . . . _. . ·..... !' . . . .. ' · .. . ...

. ·· : '_ ··. .. .. . Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) ··: 2-30 ' J '. .··.: ·.
•"· ~ .. .
.·. :'· ' · :.._(Ill).. Tem~ratures on exposed Inside wall (cement) . Resistances of various walls are : .
:' :·. · · ' · ·aurlace, T1 . and 0 n· exposed outside wall (brick) :: , . ... .
' x, ·. ~ .-:_...:'
surface, T4
R1 ·= - k A
I I ·
. ·· .....:-· .

. Q · ,;. ;. t , ;
-
0.1
= 4o'Xi = 0.0025 K/W ·.·....
-20~T
1
-17.08 ..
0.05882
- ~ = kzAz - X2 . ' _.
..•

.. T, = -18,995°C
...Ans.
. ·;>.

0.20 5 = 0.04 KIW

= 1ox
T4-To .
Also, Q = R, .·.
X3

T4 -25
RJ = k;A;
-17.08 = 0.02203
= _..Qd_ = 0.0067 KJW
6x0.5
.. T 4 = 24.624°C
... Ans. X4

Example 2.17.13 R4 = k4A4

Calculate the heat transfer rate through a composite wall ..... ..Q& = o0024 KIW
25 x l .
shown in Fig. P. 2.17.13(a). Given that:
k1 = 40 W/mK, k2 = 10 W/mK, .Equivalent resistance of loop having resistances in parallel is,
k3 =6 W/mK, ~ =25 W/mK _1 1 1 I __L_
x1 =0.1 m, Req = ~ + R3 = Q.04+ 0.0067·
T, =1000°c . T2 =200°c, A1 =1 m2 , R eq = 0.00574 KJW
A2 = A3 = 0.5 m2, A. = 1 m2.
Combined resistance,
Also draw equivalent.electrical system.

Solutfon : Heat transfer system and equivalent electrical system

are represented in Fig. P . 2.17.13.
= 0.0025 :+ 0.00574 + 0.0024 =0.01064 K1W
Heat flow rate,Q =

1000-200
= 0.01064

= 75188 W or 75.188 kW

Example 2.17.14
(a) Heat transfer system
R2 A room wall 4 m x 3 m of ·t hickness 30 ~m is made of brick of
thermal conductivity -1 .34 W/mK. It is -covered on both ·sides j
R1 R4
with 20_mm thick plaster of thermal ·conductivity ·0.8 W/rriK..
R3
The wall has a window of size (1.5 m x 1 m) having glass ot
Q Q 1
thermal conductivity 0.75 W/mK and thickness of 12 inrn. /
The inside temperature is maintained at 20°C and the
(T1-T2)
surrounding temperature
. is 40°C. Find the heat .gain by the
(b) Equivalent electrical system
Fig. ·p, 2.17.13

SCannecl with CamSca nnef

~
i .
'
I.·
.if_ Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) · Conduction;;;;
2-31

,,.-__. n. Refer Fig. P. 2.17.14. Req = 0.00757 K/W

50lu•O 1 •
Plaster . :. Combined resistan~, l:R =R1 + Req + R6
Wall Plaster

,. 1m
= 0.00556 + 0.()(1151+0.00556=0.01869 KJW

3m -1. Rate of heat gained by the room,

!.1 .5 m .J Surrounding temperature, T, - Room Temperature, T.
Q = I

I- 4m
40-20 ••. Ans.
(a) Q = 0.01869 = l070.l w

R2 R3 Example 2.17.15
A furnace wall is made up to 2 cm thick M.S. plate
(k = 55 W/mK) followed by asbestos insulation of B cm
thickness (k =O.Q4 W/mK). Plate and the asbestos insulation
a a are joined together by ten M.S. bolts (~ =. 55 W/m_K) . of
1O mm diameter. Inside temperature of hot gases In the
furnace is 250°C and outside air temperature is_" 30°C having
. (b) the respective convective heat transfer coefficients as
30 W/m .K and 20 W/m K. Given.: Ar~a. for.both the furnace
2 2
Fig. P. 2.17.14
2
·wall and insulating material. _as 3 m excluding the area of
.Aie8 of waJI. Aw= 4 x 3 =12 ml bolt. Find the heat transfer rate . .. · - -·

Solutlon:
AJea of window. A...u..i =1.5 x 1 =1.5 ml
Refer Fig. P. 2.17.15.
Areaofplaster.Ap= A..-"1.d =12- 1.5 =10.5 ml

Con,·ective resistance, · . : ;i:r · i '

1 1
R1 = ~ = h . A.. =15Xi2 =0.00556 KJW

Resistance for pl.aster, ...

·'

Resistance for brick.

x,. (30 x 10-1
R3 = k.~ 1.34 x l0.5 =0.02132 K/W
Resistance for window glass,
a a
x, . 12 x 10- 3
~ = k, . A..md - 0.75 x 1.5 0.01067 K/W " - - - - - - ( T 1 -To> - - - - - - - '
'~ l •

Equivalent resistance of the resistances in parallel, Fig. P. 2.17.15

. ·1

ki (M.S. plate) = 55W Im K=k4

~1 1 1 k3 (Asbestos) = 0.04 W/mK

Req . = 0.00238 + 0.02132 + 0.00238 + 0.01067
vY T1tH11w1e118'
P1.1 ~11 t alto n1

·· ~- -- -- ------- - -
SC::anned wit h Csm Scanner
 2
Example 2.17.16
bi = 30W /m K
A comP<>site insulating wall consists of three layers. These . ·~:
2 '
h0 = 20W/m K are held together by 2 cm diameter aluminium rivet PGt · . 1
I

I . 2
0.1 m2 of surface. The layers consists of 10 cm thlcl\ bricit . ·.~
Area ofM. S . Plate I Asbestos = A 2 = A3 a 3m
with hot surface at 19occ, 1 cm thick wood with cold surface· ...
1

.~ 10 x ~ ~ at 2occ. These two layers are Interposed by a third layer 0; ·1

Anea of ten bolts, =
insulating material 25 cm thick.
.
I

Assuming one dimensional heat flow, calculate the

4 2
percentage increase in heat transfer rate due to rive~. The .
. Total area of (Wall + bolt) A = 3 + 7.85 x 1o- m conductivity of materials are :
Resistance to inside convection ~rick= 1 W/mK, k;ntu1a11on =0.2 W/mK,
I 1 kAI = 220 W/mK, kwood = 0.2 W/mK.
R1_ = }\A 30 -x (3 +?.SS x 10_4) - 0.01111 KJW
Solution:
Resistance to outside convection, Refer Fig. P. 2.17.16.
1 l Brick Insulation
~ = I\, A= 20 x (3 + 7.85 x 10-4) - 0.01666 KJW

Thermal resistance due to .M.S. plate,

2 x 10- 2
x =0.00012 K/W
55 3

Thermal resistance due to insulation.

x s x w-l
R3 = k'.\AJ =o._C» x 3 = 0.66667 K/W
(n) Heat trun.sfer system
Themcl resist.:lllce due to bolts,

(2 + 8) x 10-l
4
2.3161 K/W
55 x (7.85 x 10- )

Equi\•aleot resistance due to resistance in parallel we get,

-----e {T1 -To) - - - - - '
(b) Electrical system without rivet
I I 1
~
= ~+R~+R4 R1

_1_ 1 1
~
= 0.01666 + 0.66667 + 2.3i6t

Re+ = 0.52765 Kl\\' ,___ _ _ _ _ (T1 -To> -------1

Combined resist.ance. (c) Electrical system with rivet

Fig. P. 2.17.16

2
= 0.01 )J J + 0.52765 + 0.01666 =0.55542 K/W Let surface area of composite wall, A= O. l m
2

Surface area of rivet, Ar =~d

2
. Heat flow rate through the system.
·=~ ( 1 ~) = 3.14 x 10-4 rn2

(Tj -TJ f250- 30) Resistance in the circuit are :

Q = LR = 0.55542 =396.1 w ••. Ans.
- ~ (10/100) .
- k1 A= 1 x O.l =1 K/W
'fiflTtdiKMew.i
....,. 1'1UIH1\ltll

$c.:1111111:Kl w 1l1 1C111r1&1m1iwr

J? ,
r. '

-if Heat Tranafot (MU·Sem 5·Moch)

2?_ • !2~/IOOt
Ri • ki A 0~2 x O.J • 12.S KIW

X3 <l/JOOl
2·33

Solution: Refer Pig. P. 2.17.17. '

·I
R, • k, A D 0.2 >< 0.1 "" o.s K!W
"
--i.. .. .JIO + 25 + J )/100

n·
R11. 1
111
I
k A •
••
•' ' 220><(3.14x JO-•, :l

µ;:f 1m
(I)
= 5.21 K/W

Heat transfer rate, Q 1 without rivet

t---m----'-1

~-4m--i~
J.cm

[Fig. p, 2.J7.J6(u)]
(T1 -TJ (a) Heat transfer system

R2
. (190-20)
= l + 12.5+0.5=12.143 w ...Ans.

(II) Heat transfer rate, Oz with rivet [Fig. P. 2.17•16(b)J a a

_L = I +..l_ 1 I.
~R R1 + Ri + ~ R4 - I + 12.5 + 0.5 +ill

~ R = 3.797 KIW (b) Analogous electrical system

(T1 -TJ (190- 20) Fig. P. 2.17.17

·· Qz = ~R 3.797 = 44.77 W •..Ans.
T 1 =45°C, T2 = 20°C, k3 =koock =0.72 W/mK;
X3 =15 cm= 0.15 m, ~W!Er = ~ = k4 =0.1 W/mK and
(Ill) Percentage Increase In heat transfer rate due to
X2 = X4 = 2 cm= 0.02 pt, k,1&u = k 5 = 0.78 W/mK
rivets,
and ·x5 = 1cm=0.01m,h1 =10 W/m2K = h
( Q2 - QI~
6
(44.77 - 12.143:'\
= \ QI X 100 = J 12.143 ) X 100 Area of wall,~= 4 x4 =16 m , 2

Area of glass.A, = 1x1=1 m2

= 268.7 % ... Ans.
:. Area of brick and plaster, A= Aw -A&= 16- 1 = 15 m2
Example 2.17.17
(i) Analogous electrical circuit is shown in Fig. P. 2.17.17(b)
A ·4 m x 4 m wall consists of 15 cm thick layer of bricks with
k = o.72 W/mK. It Is covered with 2 cm thick plaster layer on ... Ans.

both sides with k = 0.1 W/mK. A through cavity of

size . (ii) Heat transfer rate, Q
1 m x 1 m is created in the middle of the wall and is
.Resistance due to convective heat transfer on both sides
completely fitted with a 1 cm thick glass window with
k = o.78 W/mK. The assembly is exposed to air at 45°C on
one side and air at 20°C on the other side. Heat transfer
2
coefficient between plastered surface and air is 1O W/m K. Resistance due to plaster,
2
Heat transfer coefficient between glass and aii = 10 W/m K.
Assume that, temperature of plastered surface =
temperature of glass surface on each side. For one
dimensional axial heat flow across the wall, Resistance due to brick,

·(i) Draw analogous electrical circuit for the arrangement.

(ii) . Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient.
(iii) Calcurate rate of heat flow.

fi:WIWKi -

scanned w fth CamScam'ler

•:•''

'i
>
'l

;'. 1

·)"
Equivalent resistance of the loop (due to resistances in parallel), 10 cm
I 1 I
R1oop = ~ + R3 + R4 + R5
I I
R1oop = (13.33 x 10- 3 +13.88 x 10- 3 + 13.33 x 10- 3)

+ I
12.82 x 10- 3

R1oop = 9.745x10- 3 K1W

r, =o·c
Fig. P. 2.17.18
· .rR
=. R, + R1oop + ~
Surface area of cover,
= 3 3
6.25 x 10- + 9.745 x 10- + 6.25 x 10- 3
20 20
A= 20cmx20cm= 100 x 100 =0.04m
2

= 22.245 x 10- 3
K1W
(T, -T2)
Combined resistance,
. (45-20)
Q =
~R 22.245 x w- 3 ~R = hA
I x
+k · A. +h.•A
1 I [1
=A h+i(+iJ x IJ
0 I 0 I

= 1123.84 W/m2 t [ 1 (1/100) I]

... Ans. ~R = Q.04 Io+ 0.33 +8 =6.3826 KIW
(iU) Overall heat transfer, coefficient, U
(T0 - T) (25 - 0)
-.L ___:___ Q = 6.3826 =.3.917 w
u = 3
~R
.r R 22.245 x 10-
Energy required to melt m; = 3 kg of ice will be,
= 44.954 WI m K 2
... Ans.
Q = m1 x Latent heat of ice = 3 x 330 = 990 kJ
Example2.17.18

An ice box (20 cm x 20 cm x 1Ocm height) is filled with 3 kg :. Time required for cooling,
3
of ice at 0°C. All vertical sides and bottom of the box are well Q 990 x 10 3
insulated. The top cover of the box is 1 cm thick and is made t = -;- := 3.917 =252.74 x 10 s
up of a material with k = 0.33 W/mK. This cover is exposed 3
to ambient air at 25°C with h -= 1o W/m K. Heat transfer
2
= 252.74X 10 hrs- -_ 70l07b
. rs
3600 •••Ans.
coefficient between inner surface of cover and air inside the
2
box is h = 8 W/m K. Calculate the time required to melt Example 2.17.19
the ice in the box completely. Assume, latent heat of A wall of size 3m x 2m consists of 2 cm thick steel plate
-ice =330 kJ/kg. (k = 15 w /mK) followed by 50 cm thick asbestos Insulation
Solution: (k = 0.2 W /mK) and 4 cm thick layer of wood
(k = 0.3 W /mK). These three layers are held together with
- Refer Fig. P. 2.17.18. Heat will flow from outside to inside the help of mild steel bolts (k = 40 w /mK), each of 12 mm
due to which ice melts. Heat flow is in vertical direction since all diameter. Find the rate of heat flow through this composite
vertical sides and bottom is insulated. wall when. the temperature of hot gases on the outside of
steel plate is maintained at 500°C with convective heat.
h0 =JO Wtm2K.. k = 0.33 WlmK. hi = 8 W/mK. · transfe~ .coefficient 2
. . of
. 40
·~·
W/m K . and the ·wooden layer is
. . , . .
~

exposed to ambient air at 20~C. with convectiv~ . heat transf~~

2 ,. . '.
coefficient of 12 W/m K.

Scanned w ith CamSca nr1er

r "1 Heat Transfer (MU·Sem S·Mech)
"'solution: Refer Fig. P. 2.l7.19.
2·35 .
.Conduction .

Equivalent resistance of the resistances in parallel,

Given: Wall surface nren. A= 3 x 2 = 6 m ; 2

l
Rcq. =
=
steel plate, k1 15 W /mK
1
Ten bolts made of steel, k =40 WI mK R; = (0.223 x 10"3 + 416.67 x 10"3 + 22.223 x _
10" )
3

2
h8 =40W/m K, h,.= 12W/m2K 1
+ 10.316
Asbestos insulation, "2 =O.i WI mK

0.4212K/W
=
Asbestos Insulation, k2 0.2W/m K

=
wood, k3 0.3W/m K
3 3
= 4.167 x 10" + 0.4212 + 13 .888 x 10"
0
Tg=SOO C-· -·-· ~~"'"-'~'4-1
= 439.255 x 10"3 K/W
kb=40 W/mK
0
T8 =20 C Heat transfer rate,

Q = Ta-T• _ (500-20)
LR - 439.255 x 10·3
Fi~. P. 2.17.19(n)

cross sectional area of 12 bolts, Example 2.17.20

Ab = ~(0.012>2 x 12 = l.357 x 10·3 m2 A homogenous wall of area 'A' and thickness 'L' has left and
right surface temperatures at 0°C and 40°C respectively.
This cross sectional area of 12 number of bolts is very small Determine the temperature at the centre of the wall. ·.
(i) How much material must be added and to which side
compared with the surface area of the wall. Hence its effect" is not
of wall if the temperature at the centre is raised by
considered.
S°C?
Thennal resistances are as follows :
(ii) How much material must be removed and from which
I I 4 6 -3
Gas, R; = W=40 x 6 =.I 7 xIO K/W
g
side of ~he wall if the temperature at the centre line of
the wall is to be lowered by S°C ?
0.02 L, _3
Steel plate, R1 = k,·A= 15x6 =0.223xIO K/W Solution : Refer Fig. P. 2.17.20.

~ 0.5 -3
Asbestos, ~ = "2. A = '0:2"X"6 = 416. 67 x IO K/W

~ 0.04 -3
Wood, RJ = kl . A = 0.3 x6 = 22.223 x IO K/W

I 1 3 88 -3
Air, Ro = )\·A =12x6=l · 8 xl0 K/W

. - <Li +Li +LJ

BoltS, R., =
~ · Ab

(0.02 +0.5 + 0.04)

= 3
=IO .316 K/W Fig. P. 2.17.20
40 x (1.357 x 10" )
k A (T2 -T1)
Since, Q = L ... (i)

ff Tec~K11wlld(li
v ru•.flcilll ftl

Scam'<."() wl!h CamScarn~'I

~-
' 1

For temperature at the middle of the wall, we cnn write,

, Q =
\

On equating Equations (i) and (ii)

20 L - 40 x = 25 L - 25 x
k A (T2 -T1) k· A· (T2 -Tc)
L = 15x = -5L
(~) 5L L
x = -15=-3
T2-T1 = 2(f1-Tc)
i.e. . . Tc = T2 -(T 2-T ) -- T 2+T
2 1 2 1 NegaJive sign shows tlzat tlz~ material. of t thickntis ht

removed from left side instead of from right side to get lSt
= 40;0.= 2ooc ... Ans. temperature at the middle of the wall. "·'Ans.

(I) When temperature at the centre of wall Is raised Example 2.17.21

' 2 •
by5°C A kW heater element of area 0.04 m is protected on the
2
backside with insulation 50 mm thick of k = 1.4 W/mK and 00
Tc = 20 + 5 = 25°C ·
the front side by a plate 1O mm thick with . lherrnai
Let x be the thickness of material added right side of the wall. conductivity of 45 W/mK. The backside is exposed to air at
2
Then modifying the Equation (i) we get, soc with convection coefficient of 10 Wlm K and the front Is
exposed to air at 1s c with convection coefficient including
0

k A (T2 -T1) 2
radiation · of 250 W/m K. Determine the heater element
Q = L+x ... (iii)
temperature and heat flow into the room under steady state
For midd!e temperature condition.
Solution: ·
Q = .. . (iv)
Refer Fig. P. 2. 17.21.

On equating Equations (iii) and (iv) Heater element, 2 kW

Insulation of area, A = 0.04m2

Outside
= air fi/m.
T0 =15•c

~ (40 - 25) Frontslde

L+ x = L
... (v)
2+ x

On solving, Fig. P. 2.17.21

Negative sign indicates that the assumption of adding the wall Rating of heater, Q = 2 kW = 2000 W, A = 0.04ml
. on the right side is incorrect. Thus the material of tlticktiess x = ~
. x, = 50 mm =0.05 m, k, = 1.4 W/mK,
=
'

must be added wwards tlte left side ofthe wall so that T, 25 'C
2
... Ans. hi = JOW/m K, X2 = JO mm = O.O(m,

(II) When Te Is lowered by 5°C I.e. Te = 20- 5=15°C ~ - · 45 W/mK ho = 250 W/m2K
Let x be the material removed from right side. Again Let T be the temperature of the heater element, for steady
modifying the Equations (iii) and (iv) by equating, state condi~ion s we have,

scanned w ith camSca nner

 tf Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech) 2·37
Conduction
........ --·-----
Q = Heat flow rote b11Ckwnrds, Q 1 · On integrating Equation (i)

+ Heat flow rate front side, Q1 T.

-k f dT =
r.

IT- 5) IT- 15)

2()00 = [ 0.05 . I
1.4 x 0.04 + 10 x 0.04
]+[45001 I
~ 0.04 + 250 x 0.04
] .. ,,. =
T
. .•• . (ii}

For boundary conditions,

:. 2000 = 0.2947 (T- 5) + 9.4737 (T- 15)
Atx =x, T= T1 and at x =~· T=T2
2000 ::: 0.2947 T- l.4735 + 9.4737 T- 142. 1055
Again integrating the Equation (i) we get.

2143.579 = 9.7684 T
~~f2 .dx -~2 [-!]~
T ::: 219.44°C ...Ans. 1t·A2
x
l - 1t· A x x
example 2.17.22 = ~[!_JJ
1tA2 x xJ
Derive · an expression for temperature distribution. and
conduction heat flow in a conical rod with diameter at any ...(iii)
. section is given by, 0 = A • x where 'x' is the dis.tance
measured from the apex of the cone and A is certain
numerical constant Assume no heat generation and steady On equating Equations (ii) and (iii)
state and the lateral surface is well insulated.
4Q-('
T- - -I)
I 1tA2k X1 - X
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 2.17.22.

:. Heat flow rate, ...Ans.

:a
-
Apex.., ... ----------
ec:------ __
......... Q

On substituting the· value of Q in Equation (ii), the

temperature distribution is given as,
---- - x -----.-1

..•Ans.
Fig. P. 2.17.22

Fourier's law of heat conduction equation is,

Example 2.17.23
dT 7t 2 dT
Q = - k · Ac' dx =- k x 4 D · dx
A uniformly tapered rod of square cross-section is shown in

Q = -k·~(A x )~; 2 2 Fig. P. 2.17.23. Heat is conducted along its X-axis at uniform
rate. The thermal conductivity of the material is 40 W/mK.
4Q dx
-k·dT = - -2x2 ... (i) Find:
rr.·A x
(i) The rate of heat conduction.
Boundary conditions are : (ii) Temperature at 40 cm distance from left face.
Atx=x 1 , T=T1 andatx=x, T=T.
 ~ ..
2-38
V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
(ii) 'l'eDlpero 1
11
re T •' " .. 40 cm .. 0.4 m

x ,., T, ,. 600°C 111td nl x • 0.4 m T

At x"" 0• T ' •T
. th bOUndlll'Y conditions i n Equution (II) wo get ' °"
challg1ng e •

.
04
dx - -= - 400
~J dT
x
---Im--_, Q I (o.o3+ o.os x)l 600
0
0.4
Fig. P. l.17.13 I · -] a - 400 (T• - 600)
Q [ -(Q.OJ+0.05 x) o
Solution:
1.::40\V/mK; -9600[0,03 +o'.os x 0:4-Q.03 + ~.OS x o] •400 [600 - 1',]
Leth, be the height of the section al a disl311ce :< from. left face.
_ g6()0 ( o]s-cdi3] = 400 [600 -T.J
h• = 0 .03 + (0.08
\ -1 0.03.'\ =
)' x 0.03 + 0.05 x
128000 == 400 (600 -T.)
Surface area, Ax = h. x b, = h: ('··section is squnr.e)
320 = 600 -T,
= (0.03 + O.OS x)
2

~-------------T_._=__~_0_c--~-----"·Alis.
0

(i) Heat flow rate, Q

From Fourier's law of heat conduction . example 2.11.24

dT A composite wall Is shown . In Fig . P . 2 .17.24. The
Q = -kA·dX" temperature at Inside surface of the wall Is 2000 K and the
outside surrounding temperatu;e Is 300 K. The heat llux rate
Q
A · dx = -k·dT across the system is 500 W/m . The convective heat transler
coefficient for air at the ~~terlor surface Is given by the
_ Q •.. (i) equation·, h =
2 .8 (t.. T) . Where, t..T Temperature =
(O.o3 + O.OSx)2 • dx = - 40 · dT difference between the ou~sikde surface andd the surrounding
temperature. Find the th1c ness X2 an outside surta~
The boundary conditions are,
temperature.
At x = o. T = 600°C Soiutlon: Outside surface
At x = Im. T = 100°c Air film, h0

On inte&rating both sides. T0 = 300 K

I 100 k 1=2 W/mK

Q f (0.03 +dx0.05 x) 2 = -400 f dT ... (ii) k 2= 0.4 W/mK
0 600

Q [co.03 : ~.05 x)X = - 400 CTJ:

- Q [ + 0.03 ~ 0.05 o.b3] = - 400 (I 00 - 600)

- Q[ o.bs -o.~3] = + 400 x 500

q
20.833Q = 400 x 500
,___ _ _ (T1 -To> - - - - - '
Q = 9600W ••• Ans.

Fig. P. 2.i7.•24
• ltd. . . .
• f 0 11 11 11111
 ·. i
J
. j:

f t-teat Transfer (MU-Sem 5·Me1ch) 2·39

Conduction . I:
I
.r
_r
· rate,q=
_3 _500 W/m2•
A- •
Example 2.17.25
· I.
"..
f{tllt t1~ A truncated cone which Is 30 cm high Is . made of l·
..
aluminium with k = 220 W/mK. The diameter of the top
surface"" 7.5 cm. Diameter of bottom surface= 12.5 cm. The
. f{enl nux rate remains constant, therefore, lower surface Is maintained at 93°C, while the upper surface ;·
•' '
I~
T -T 1 T 1 -T2 Ti-T Is maintained at 540°C. The curved lateral surface Is
q ::
-1R= R2 -
_--.!?,
R Insulated. Assuming one dimensional axial heat flow, what is
1 3
;.,(i) II
., ..;
the rate of heat flow at steady state ?
ii
th~rinnl resistances R1, R2 and R3 can be written as, (A= 1 m2)
Solution: I

1ltC
x, 0.2 "
i\
R·, :: k A= 2 x l = O. I_ KfW .. . ("")
II
1
r i<
X2 X2
l:
R1 :: ki A = 0.4 X l = 2 ·5 Xz K/W ... (iii) i
i
I

l 1 i
Rl = v= 2.8 Cf2 -T0 0
) ·3 x l KfW .. .(iv) h
\"I
\'
p,quation (i),
ftortl
T1 -T1 r
q = ~
Refer Fig. P. 2_.17.25. -
500 ::
2000-T1
0.1
\
=
r, = 1950K
T1 540°C

k = 220W/mK · d1 = 7.5 cm
II

T1-T2
Also, . q = Rz di = 12.5 cm

1950-T2 Consider any section (X-X) at_distance ·y and let the diameter
i.e. 500 = 2.5 x2
of the cone be Dy.

1250 Xi = 1950-T2 ... (v)

Tz-To T2 -300
i.e. 500=
~
q ::
And. 1
0
2.8 <T2 - 300) .3

300) 2.8 300)0·3

= 0.075 + 0.166 y
500 = <T2 - <T2-
1t21t • 2
1
178.57 = (Tz - 300) .3
A = 4Dy =4(0.075+0.166y)

T2 - 300 = 53.96 From Fourier's equation,

T2 = 353.96 Q = -kA·dT
dy_
1t . 2 dT
On substiniting the value ofT2 is in Equation (v) we get, = - 220 x4-(0.075 + 0.166 y) • dy

1250 Xz = 1950 - 353.96 4Q dy

.. 2201t 2 =.:....dT
(0.075 + 0.166 y)
X1 • J;277m ... Ans.

W
~
JiCllKatwltilai
r utdltil.hftl

Scanned with CamScannff

~·w~ · ..
~'I~ . .
. .
...v · Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2·40

Given data:
On integrating the above equation between lhe boundary

conditions as, 120 mm= 0.12 m

' At y = 0, T = T-1 = 540°C and Lz = 240 mm = 0.24 m

'.
A1 = unit
At . y = 0.3 m, T = T2 =93°C
93 Contact resistance,

.. ~ l
4Q 0.3 dy

(0.075+0.166y)2 =
- f dT Re = 0.0035°C/W
540
k, = t.7W/m°C
-1Q..._ I o.3 93
1t x 220 [-o.166 ( 0.075 + 0.1166y)] = - [T] 540 kz = 5.8W/m°C
• 0

T, = 7250 c, T_. = 11ooc

4Q [
.- 0.166x1t x 220 + 0.075 + 0.166 x 0.3
l
1 J .
0,075 = - (93 - 540)
(i) Rate of heat loss per unlt area of walls, q
4Q [ 1 1 . 2
- 1t x 220 Q.i248- 0,075] . = 447 Thermal resistance of silica brick per m surface area
_b,_ _ __Qjl_ _ 0 0709
Q = 2409.8 w ... Ans. R1 = k A 1 - 1.7 x 1 - .
1
k/W

Rz = ~= 5 ~82:i=0.04138k!W
Total resistance of system,

= 0.070549 + 0.0035 + 0.04138

= 0.11547 k/W
T, -T4 725-110
q = R, = 0.11547
2
q = 5326 W/m ...Ans,

(ii) Temperature drop at su·rrace, (T2 - T;i)

Solution: Refer Fig. P. 2.17.26 725 -T2 725 -T1
5326 = 0.07059 =0.07059 + 0.0035
T 1 -T2
q = R1

T, -T3
= R,+Rc

T1 = 349.04°C
T4
T3 = 330.40°C

.. Tz-T3 = 349.04.:.. 330.4

= 18.64°C •..Ans.
Fig. P. 2.17.26

vT1dlX.~
h•11ut1111
~
. _·.

f
'
I
- if Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
e iarnple 2.11.21

A circular plate heater (diameter 20 cm) is Inserted between

circular plates (diameter 20cm), slab A Is 3 om thick
2·41

(I) Maximum temperature, T111

Total rate of heat produced by heat.er will be transferred

through slnbs A and B IO surroundings. Let Tm be lhe
Conduction

•I

~o .
(k ::: 55 W/mK) and slab B Is 1.5 cm thick (k = 0.18 W/mK). maximum temperature at heat.er surface. Under steady flow
conditions :
The outside heat transfer coefficient on sides of A and a are
2 (T,,,-TJ
200 and 65 W/m K respectively. The temperature of
s~rroundlng air Is 30°C .ff the rating of the heater Is 2 kW,

find:
(Trn -30) X 0.03141 (T111 -30) 0.03141
(I)
Maximum temperature In the system. 2000 = (~ ..!..)
(ii)
outer surface temperature of two slabs. ( ss + 200I )
003 +
0.18 + 6s

oraw equivalent electrical circuit of the system

(Iii) 2000 = 0.03141(Tm-30) x190.46
solution:
T DI = 364.32°C •.•Ans.

(il) Ourer surface remperatures or two slabs, TA and TB

kA •A. (Tmai-TA)

kA ' CTmu -TA)

LA = hoA (TA -To)
55(364.32 -TA)
0.03 = 200 (TA - 30)

364.32 -TA = 0.10909 TA - 3.2727

TA = 331.44°C ... Ans.

<Tmu-Te)
Similarly, · ks ~ = hoe CTa -To)
. Fig. P. 2.17.27
0.18(364. 32 - T6 )
Refer Fig. P. 2.17.27. 0.015 = 65(1'8 - 30)

Diameter of plate heater= plates A and B "= 20 cm = 0.2m

364.32-T8 = 5.4167 T 8 - 162.5
1t 2 1t 2 2
A = 4· d ;::4(0.2) = 0.0314lm
2
T8 = 82.1° C ... Ans.
hoA = 200W/m K
2 (iii) Equivalent electrical circuit is shown in Fig. P. 2.17.27.
hoe = 65 W/m K
LA = 3 cm=0.03 m
Example. 2.17.28
~ = 1.5 cm= 0.015m.
The temperature of the inner side of furnace wall is 640° C
kA = 55W/mK,
' and that of outer side is 240° C and it is exposed to
ks = 0.18 W/mK atmosphere at 40°0. In order to reduce the heat loss form
the furnace, its wall thickness is increased by 100%.
Rating of heater, Q = 2 kW= 2000 W
Calculate the percentage decrease in the heat loss due to
Increase in wall thickness. Assume no change in properties
except temperature.
Solution : Refer Fig._P. 2.17.28.

SCannoo w ith CQir. Sc;:in n«

 . '
. _ii ...<
·

l(lr. Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech 2·42 -

".) ._
·;. ,. Example 2.17.29

A plane ·composite slab with unit cross sectional ·

Let tho thickness of the wall =b made up of material 'A' (thickness= 100 mm k are;r ia
·New thickness, b 1 = 2 x original thickness =2b ., 'B' (th' kn ' A::: 60W/tritr.
and materia =
1c ess = 10 mm, ks 2 WlmK) lh "'I
contact resistance at their lnterfa~ is 0.003 rn2 Ktwerrriai ·
temperature of open side of slab 'A' Is 300°C and · 'he ·
_q open side of slab 'B' is 50°C. Calculate, that Of
(i) the rate of heat flow through the slab. . ·~'
(ii) temperatures on both sides of the interface. '
Solution: Refer Fig. P. 2.17.29. ·I
Let ~ and ~ represent the temperature at the thco....: !1
Fig. P. 2.17.28 '""'Cal Plaiic 1
interface obtained consideration of heat flow in materials
' l
Case I : Original wall on eitbtr
side. Then for a given wall area A the thennal constant .
res1s1an
'•
Initial rate of heat flow rate,
Re is defined as, Cc

· ·T2-T3
Q = 640-240 240-40 RC = 0.003KfW=~
..!?.. 1 2
~ hA Let, A = 1m

. . 400k L,. = 100 mm= 0.1 m, k,. ~ 60 W/ml(

~ .. b = 200h ; _. h=2k
. . b- . . ...(i) .
· ·Le = · ·10 nim ~&en ffi. k~ ~·2 w1.mk ·· .-.-,
Heat transfer rate, T1 = 300°C, T4 =50°C
r 1·- r.
Q = R1+ D =-b+ -1-
T1 -T.. .
R,.
= ~
kA ·A
01
= 60
3
· =1.667 x 10- KfW
&'2
k·A h·A
Re
= ~=
ks ·A
O.Ol =5 x 10- 3 KfW
2
A (640 - 40) _A (600 x 2k)
Q = b 1 - 3b . ..(ii)
i(+ (2k/b) Total resistance, LR= RA+ Re+ Re
3
Case II : When wall thickness is doubled, b 1 = 2b = 1.667 x 10- + 0.003 +5 x 10- 3
T 1 - T. T 1 -T. A(T1 -T.) 3
- · 9.667 x 10- WIK
Q, = R 1 +Ri = ~ _1_ = 2b +_.!_
k · A+ h · A k (2k/b)

_ A (640 - 40) x 2k
QI · - 5b

A x600x2k
= 5b ... (iii)

Percentage reduction In heat loss,

A(600 x 2k) /5b]

= [ l A(600 x 2k) /3b x lOO

= ( 1-} ) 100 = 40% ....Ans• . =10mm

Fig. P. 2.17.29
p
if_ Heat Transfer MU·Sem S·Mech 2·43 Conduction
Rate or heat now tlirough slab, Q 2
(I) Area of air gap, A, =Ai -0.2 A 1 =0.8 A 1 =0.8x1 =0.8 m •
-T4 = (300-50)
Q = T,~R 9.667 x 10-- J

0.8

= 25.861 x 10 w 3
••• Ans.
0.2
Temperature, T2 and T3 on Left and RJght side or
(ii)
Interface
T1-T1
Q = ~;T2=T1 -Q · RA

T2 = 300-(25.861 x J03) J.66?x to""3 ·:

= 256.89°C
'"Ans.
T1-T3
Q = Re
256.89-T3
-3
zs.s61x10 = 0.003

T3 = . 179.307°C ...Ans. (a)

Example 2.17.30

A layer of 5 cm refractory brick (k ;. 2 W/m K) is to be placed

between two 4 mm thick steel plates (k =4o W/m. K). Both
faces of brick adjacent to the plates have rough solid to solid
contact over 20% of the area, where the average height of
asperities are 1 mm. The outer surface temperature of steel
...._~~~~~-- ~1-T2) ..,__~~~~~~--
plates are 400°C and 100°C respectively.
(i) Find the rate of heat loss per unit area assuming that (b)
the cavity area if filled with air (k =0.02 W/m. K.) FJg. P. 2.17.30
01) Find the rate of heat flow If the faces of the brick are
smooth and have solid to solid contact perfectly Thennal resistances are as follows :
over entire area.
bl 0.004
Steel plates, R1 = kl • A= 40XT = 0.0001 K1W
Solution:

Refer Fig. P. 2.17.30(a) and equivalent electrical circuit is Air gap, b3 O.C>OI
R, = k, . A, =0.02 x 0.8 =0.0625 KIW
shown in Fig. P. 2.17.30(b).
b3 0.001 .
Fire bricks, ~ = ~ . Ai = 2xQ.2 = 0.0025 KIW
Brick : ~ =5cm =0.05 m. ~=2W/mK

=
Steel plate: b1 4 mm= 0.004 m, =
k1 40 W/mK ThJckness or layer or rrre bricks

Cavity filled with air : k3 =0.02 W/mK, b3 = 1 mm= 0.001 m As the roughness of brick surface is relatively larger than the
steel surface, we can assume that the aspirates are inside the brick
Plate area , A,
Brick area , A = 20% = 0.2• T1 = 400°C, T1 = 100°C only. Hence the solid layer of brick has thickness,

Consider unit area of steel plate i.e. A 1 = tm2• b2 = (Thickness of slab- Thickness of aspirates)

=
Area of brick surface, Ai,= 0.2 A1 0.2 x 1 =0.2 m2 = 50-2=48 mm
·:; '
 -,
~"!·~H~ea~t~Tr~an~s~fe~r~(M~U~-S~e:m~5~-M~e~ch~)=-=-=:m;;;m-.iiliiii_.S2~4~4im:il-=m;:;;::;;;:;;::;;;;::;:::===;;;;:;;;;;::;;;;;;;;;;:;;-==-:;;m;;:;;;;;;;;;~
R_. = k:~A = ~~ =0.024 K/W
Contxt re...tjst3nce,

1 I l 1 l
°R; = R: + R~ =Q06E + Q00E
3m

R._ = 0.02.; K/W

= 0.0001 + 0.00::?4 + 0.0:!.;o +0.002.; + 0.0001

= 0.0l9K/W
fig. P. 2.17.31
(i) Ht.at flow rate-, Q

CT, - T:) ~OO-too Com·ecti\'e resi.st:mCC

Q = LR = 0.0!9 =10..'44.s w •••Ans. I J _ -OIY'I•, v ....
Ri = ~=b=A: =_
J5x 15 - ·"'.......,:u\\

(ii) Rate- or hf'3t Dow for solid conbct on stttl plate- O\W
the entire art.a. Q1 R.esist:mce for plaster
x. 2x J0" 2
t>, O.~ R,• -- R• =~
1.:..r · A.. =o6x
- 1·~ =Q0'.)2s6lC./'9i'
RI = G =40Xi ==0.0001 K/W
I

R~ for bricL: ..
Brick. h: 0.05
-
k: .-
A : :~ :
x -1 -OQ"l<Q _b_ =~ x Io-_· = 0.06593 Kl\\'
Pl\\ t
- . _, IV t1

R3 = k_.. • A;, o_,.s x b

LR = Rt + R!- == 0.000 l + 0.0::?.SO =0.0251 K/W

Resist:uicefor~indowglas.s
T, - T, <-mJ- 100)
Q, = LR . = 0.Q2.S l =11952.2 w ...Ans. & _12 x 10-:; =0005 K/W
R, = ~ - Awl:J J.2x2 ·

f.quival~t resistance oftbe resistances in~!)

. - .. - . - II
A wa~ 30 an thick of size 5 m x 3 m made of red bricks 1 1 .... J..
(k = O~ Wlm K). lt is COYefed·o., both sides b.j the layers~ R.., = R:+R3+~ . R,

~~~ 2 cm thick k :_ 0.S-\•itm-k. Th8 wart has a o{ \\~W

~
1 1
Size 1 m x 2 m. The Window door is made of glass.: 12 ~
1 +o:oos
= 0.0Q?-56 + 0.0659 + 0.002"6 i
,thick having . thermal condodivfy 12 .W/mK. Estimate .the.
'rate of heat tWW through the wall. Inner and outer surface,
I
•• Re.< =
I
o:o7i02 + Q.005
l
I
:tam?eratures ~ 10;C and 40"C. respedively. . 1 1
J~e h: is WtinX~"' both S!;ies of wall-~~- ~~ ..., - = 14.0S + 200

Solution:
R..,
R "' = 4.67x10
-3
I
Are3ofwall = .Sx3=15m"=A,.
..
:. Combined resistance
i
1
.~of~indow = l x2 =2.m-=A..~
IR =
= R1 + R,.. + ~ O.OO.t4 + 4.67 x W3 + O.oo+;
•.),r>....'.l of pl.b-ur = ..\_ - .~ = 13 m!
= 0.01347 k/W

..;.~
Y r u ·1 u 1.:11a
 . .
'
. I
J.;~ . .I
.;. :·. if Heat Transfer (MU-Sam 5-Mech) · 2-45 . Conduction ;··1
~
==
•f' ~
RnteO
fheat gained by the room
. . (I) Thermal circuit .1
l
'. surrounding temperature T, - Room temperature T ·1
Q=~ · .tR t I;
r, !
40 - JO = 2227 w ... Ans.
T1 T2 l
. ·" Q = 0.01347
1 . 1
(II) R, = h1 A =11.33 x 3.06
I

= 28.84 x 10· 3 K/W ... Ans. I

l
Ax, 0.003
~ = k 1 A = 40.278 x 3.06

= 0.0024x10· 3 K1W = R4 ••. Ans. I•

- 6x, -
RJ - k2 A - 0.052 x 3.06
0.06 f

= 377x10" 3
K!W •••Ans.
I
I I
~s = h0 A= 14.53 x 3.06

= 22.49x10· 3 KIW... Ans.

Total R = (28.84 + 0.0024 + 377 + 0.0024 + 22.49) x IO-3KJW

... Ans•

Solutlon : . . Overall conductance

Given: Axt = t.x3 = 3 mm= 0.003 in; ~2 = 0.06 m 1 I
k2 = · :6~ooo =0.052 W!t~K
0 18 U = R x A = 428.34 x 10" 3 x 3.06
145 x 1000 = 0.763 W/m2K ... Ans.
kl= is = 3600 = 40.278 W/mK
40.8 x 1000 6T 25-6.5
h; = 3600
2
- 11.33 W/m K ;
(iii) Q = R 428.34 x 10- J = 43.19 W ...Ans.
52.3 x 1000 2
ho = 3600 = 14.53 W/m K Also, to find T0 ;
. Area transferring heat
Q =
A = 0.60 x 0.45 x 2 + 0.60 x 1.20 x 2 + 0.45 x 1.2 x 2
3
2
43.19 x 22.49 x 10· = 25 -T4
= 0.54 + l.44 + 1.08 = 3.06 m
r, T2 T3 T4
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
Ti lhi h 0 IT0
I I
I J ~ I
I I
I I
I I
. I I
Ax, Ax2 _Ax3

Fig. P. 2.17.32

V TtchK•a•ltdp
V r 11 b l l< .- l l o n s

Si.:.irnlt.'1.1 w1l11 CarnSc•m111.'f

V Heat Transfer (MU·Sem S·Moch
Solutlon: TC(J• 40'0
I
·2·46 .

lhmt now prr u11l111rr11

"' .:

I
1'1 • T3 • 1~0 50 10
I
I
I Hcnt nux CJ 11
I Ax 1 A112 51ll QJl
I
k, "' kl 388 + 2,0
h
1 ••1\1~

'

..-2oomm-·•

Fig. P. 2.17.33
q
h = 7.85 + 0.08 AT
T1 -Ti_ T.-T..
Q= Ax.- I
k h Fig. I'. 2.17.34

1350 - T, = _ __;T;.o.,_-..;.40:;....__ (II)· Temperature nt the joint or two mutcrlnl, T1

= 0.2 I
1.35 7.85 + 0.08 (T2 - 40) 150-T2
q = 0.2~
388

9112.5 - 6.75 T2 = (7.85 + 0.08 T2 - 3.2] (T2 - 40) T2 = 93° C

=7.85 T2 + 0.08 Tl1 - 3.2 T1 - 314 - 3.2 T2 + 128
2
0.08T + 8.2 T1 -9298.5 = 0
1
2
T + 102.5 T2 -116231 =0
1

By trial and error, T2 = 293.6°C.

:. Heat transfer rate,

Q = 13:~93.6 =7130.7 W/m2 ...Ans.

2
1.35 k, = 0.25 (I+ 0.0009 T) W/m °C
k, = 0.8W/m°C; T1 = 1250°C
T3 = 40°C

Solution:

Given: ax. = 0.25m; 6x2 = 0.15 m

20 mm~· 600 mm ·
T1 = t50°C ; k1 = 388 W/m-K
Fig. P. 2.17.35
T3 = 40°C ; kl = 250W/m-K
I
.Ttdth•"""' I

~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- 1 1 : ;:io;.~
....... . . . . . . . . . . .
 ·if Heat Transter(MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2-47 · Conductlon
--- Mean conductivity of fire clay,

kmr = 0.25 [ 1+0.0009 (1

25
~+ T-2) J
= 0.25 + 0.14 + 1.125 x 10-• T
2

= 0.39 + 1.125 x 10- 4 T2

}Ieat flow rate.

1250-40 Fig. P. 2.17.36
Q = 0.12 0.6
0.39 + ·1.125 x 10- 4 T2 + 0.8 k = 50W/mK
1210 r1 = lOcm=0.1 m,
=
3.25 + 9:375 x 10- 4 T2 + o.75 rz = =
20cm 0.2 rn

~ T, = 100°c ,
Also, Q = 0.8
Ta = 30°C,
--~.!..:12:.:.1:..0_ _ _ = T2 -40
.. _ _ _.!.1 -:=-i-:=-
0 75
-~T + .
0.8 L = 20m
3.25 + 9.375 x 10 2
21t kL (T1- TcJ 21t x 50 x 20 (JOO - 30)
Q = = In (0.210.1)
Simplifying,
2
/nG2)
o.000703 T2 + 2.505 T2 - 3?87.5 =0
. or
2
T + 3563.3 T2 - 4676387 = 0
= 3
=
634.53 x 10 W 634.53 kW ...Ans•
2
Example 2.17.37
Ti =
- 3563.3 ± ;J3563.322- 4 x 1 x (-- 4676387)- A steel pipe is insulated which carries hot iiquid. Internal
diameter of pipe Is 10 cm of wall thickness 1 cm and·
Solving. T1 = 1020.3oC thickness of insulation laid on pipe is 3 cm. Temperature of
hot liquid is 85°C and that of surroundings is 25°C. Thermal
:. Heat flow rate conductivity of steel is 58 W/mK and that of Insulation is
0.2 W/mK respectively..Heat transfer coefficient on inside
Q = T2-T1 2 2
0.6 and outside surface are 720 W/m K and 9 W/m K
0.8 respectively. Find the heat loss per meter length of pipe.

Solution:
•••Ans.
. 10 .
Give~: r1 =2=5cm,r2 =5+1=6cm. r3 = 6+3 = 9cm
Example 2.17.36 ·

The thermal conductivity of the material for ~ long hollow

hi = 720 W!m2x., k 1 = 58 W/mK, kz = 0.2 W/mK,
cylinder is 50 W/mK having inner and outer radius as 10 cm
h0 = 9·Wlm2x.,
and 20 cm respectively. The temperature at the inner surface
is maintained at 100°C and surrounding temperature is at and L = 1 m.
30°C. Find the rate of heat transfer in radial direction.
Assume the length of cylinder at 20 m. Q =
Solution:

Refer Fig. P. 2.17.36.

V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5·Mech)
Q 2-48
.. l =
r2 r3
lo&e- lo!te-
-L
h1 r1
+--!t +-.!1. +-L
k1 ~ h r3
h0 = l5W/m2oc, L = 1m
0

Insulation, t ~ SO mm thick. therefore,

• 2 x 3.14 (85 -25)
6 9 -
~- = di+2t= l20+2X50=220mm
220

= 114.63 W/m
r3 =2 = l 10 mm, ki = 0.2 W/m c (insulation)
0

~--~~~---..
Example 2.17.38 . . - ---~~------------
...AIU. Consider unit length of pipe, L = l m.

Thermal resistance of pipe,

A pipe of inner diameter 100 mm and outer diameter 120 mrn
carles steam at 11 ooc. The thermal conductivity of pipe
material is 185 W/m•c. The pipe ls located in a roorn Where
the ambient temperature is 30' C and the convecuve heat
transfer coefficient between pipe and air Is 15 Wtrn'•c.
Determine heat transfer rate per unit length of pipe, If the
pipe is covered with 50 mm thick insulation of thermal
conductivity 0.2 W/m°C find the heat transfer rate per unit
length of pipe.

Solution:
:. Total resistance, R =R1 + ~ + RJ
Refer Fig. P. 2.17.38.
= t .569 x t o- 4 + 0.48235 + o.09646 o.57897 =
Heat transfer rate Q

Q=~=
Ti -To il10-30l_ . W/mlengthofpipe
0.57897 - 13818 ...Ans.

Pipe

Fig. P. 2.17.38
Solution:
Given : Since h value on inner surface not given, inner surface
Refer Fig. P. 2.17.39
temperature will
. have to be assumed that of steam.
r1 =0.5 m
d1 = lOOmm, di = 120mm
T1 = 120oc ; . h =25W/m2K
r1 = -2 =
100 _
50 mm, r2 :-- .llQ=
2 60 mm
T.. = 1s c 0

k1 = 185 W /moc (pipe material) k = 20x 10-3 W/mK

Ti = 110oc , ·T 0 = 30°C,

&::anne<1 ....·1t11 CamScanner

~
... · Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Meoh) 2·49
conduction
Heat
8242.S-2041.8 x JOO= 75.2% ••• AOS·
= 8242.S

Fig. P. 2.17.39

ansfer without Insulation from tank, Q1

(i) 11eat tr
T, -T.. _ (120-15)
QI : 1 - (. 1 )
hA \ 25 x 4n x 0.52
Solution:

= 8242.S W ...Ans. d1 = =
30 mm 0.03 m ,

. of insulation, r 2 when T. 40°C = therefore, r1 = ~-

0 03
· -0015 m
(ii) JUdiUS • 2 - 2 - .
T2 -T,. 40-15 2
Q2 = I = 1 - 1~50 r2 ••• (i) h = 12W/m K,
2
---z
h 4n r2 25 x 4n x r Thermal conductivity of insulation, k :a 0.3 W/mK
2

(I) Whetlier Insulation will be effective ?

}{eat •..ansfer
u ....
through insulation is equal to heat transfer rate
. tion to atmosphere. Therefore, Critical radius of insulation,
by convec
k 0.3
Q1 =
T1-T2
(r2 -r 1 )
re = h=J2= 0.025 m
47t k r2 r1
Since the critical radius is more than suction pipe radjus,
120 - 40 I 0.05r2 application of insulation will increase heat transfer rate rather
= r, - 0.5 = r2 - 0.5 .• . (ii)
than reducing the heat transfer. Therefore, insulation is
4nx20x I0- 3 x0.5 r2
Ineffective. ••• Ans.

On equating equations (i) and (ii) we have,

(ii)· Value ofk 1 to reduce heat transfer rate
2 10.05 r,
· 7850r2 = r2 - 0.5 re should be equal to outer radius of the suction pipe.

rs --~
h •·
3 2
7850 r2 - 3925 rl - 10.05 r1 = 0 =
2 -3
7850 /l - 3925 re 10.05 =0 ; r2 - 0.5r2 - 1.28 x 10 =0 k1 = r1• h = 0.015 x 12 =0.18 W/mK ••. Ans.

By bit and trial ; r2 =0.51 m (lll) Thickness of cork Insulation to reduce heat transfer
to 22% lfk2 ror cork Is 0.038 W/mK.
Thickness of insulation,
Given: .. . (i)
r2 -r1 =0.51-0.5 = O.Olmorlcm ... Ans.
Heat transfer rate without insulation per meter length i.e. L = 1 m
(iii) Percentage reduction in heat loss
2
Q2 = 7850r: =7850 x 0.51 =2041.8W

%heat reduction= Q, -Q,

o. ~ 100

a M.Mmnm•edu_"\:'n'•~-----~
"'. wr
v
.•cr Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech)
2·50
Conduction
.i ' l\T (b) Critical Insulation thickness .
(c) Maximum current carrying capacity.
(d) Percentage Increase In current carrying by P .
6T critical insulation thickness. rov1dtng
= ... (ii)
(Th) Solution:

Heat transfer rate per meter length with insulation or

Given: di = lOmm, r1 = 5 mm=0.005m
p = 70µ Ohm-cm= 70 x 10- 6 x 10-2 Ohm . m
.
rndlus r 2
T1 = 85°C, T.. =30°C, h.= 7.8 W/ml<,
k = O.JSW/mK

r2 = r1+thickness of insulation

&T = 0.005 + 0.002 =0.007 m.

[
In (tot) .I ] (a) Current carrying capacity, I
2 7t x 0.038 x l + 12 x 27t x r2 x I
T1 -T..
6T Q =
2
Q = . [ In (tot)
2 388
_l_J
+ 75.4 r
85-30
Q = 0.007) =17.12 w
But 02 = 0.220. In (- 0.005 1
&T 0.22 ·x 6T 27t x 0.18 x 1 + 7.8 x 2n x 0.007 x I
= _1_
:. [In (o.fil) I ] 1.131
(Assuming length of conductor as I m)
0.2388 + 75.4 r2
In (r1 I 0.015) __l_ _I_ :. ] =
' A fQ
\JR'
0.2388 + 75.4 r2 = 0.2488
L 70 x 10- 6 x to- 2 x 1
0.2388 x 75.4 r2 R = pA
75.4 r2 ln ( o.~15) + 0.2388 = 0.2488
1t (0.005)2 = 0.00892

7?.4 r2 In ( o.~215 )- 72.37 r2 + 0.2388 =0 I= ~ =43.8Amp. ...Ans.

By trial and error method,

r2 = 0.0421m=42.l mm

.·• Thickness of insulation,

••• Ans.
Fig. P. 2.17.41
Example 2.17.41
(b) Critical radius of Insulation
An electrical conductor of 1o mm diameter, insulated by PVC
k 0.18
(k = 0.18 W/mK) is installed in air at 30°C having convective re = i}= 7.8 =0.023 m=23mm
2
heat transfer coefficient of 7.8 W/m K. If the surface
temperature of base conductor is 85°C, Calculate : Hence, critical thickness = 23 - 5 =18 mm ••• Ans.
(a) Current carrying capacity of the conductor when
2 mm thick insulation is provided (resistivity of
con~uctor 70 µ ohm-cm)

scanned wit h C;:imsc:mncr

~.
;"-. . : ;
'.
2-51 Conduction

Maximum current carrying capacity

(C)
This will happen nt rz =re
T 1 -T..
Q01ax = (re)
.. /n r
.--1-+------
I r3 = · r2 + 30 =85 + 30 = 115 mm= 0.115 m
2n k L h · 27t re· L
r4 = r3 + 50 = 115.+ 50 = ~65 mm=0.165 m
85-30
= 0.023) . =24.56W Thermal conductivity of pipe, k 1 = 58 W/mK
In ( Q.005 + I Thermal of inner insulation, kz =17 W/mK
2nxO.l8Xl 7.8X21tX0.023xI
Thennal of outer insulation k3 = 0.023 W/mK

Length of pipe, L = l m
... Ans.
l
h1=40W/m K
percentage Increase In current carrying capacity =
T0 50°C, h0 =5.8 W/m K
2
(d)
I -I 52.48 - 43.8 100
~xlOO
I
= 43.8 x (i) Heat transfer rate (Q)

Resistance of steel pipe, R 1

= 19.85% ... Ans.
. ·_ log/r2 I r 1) _ log,(85/80)
• · R, - 27tLk 1 - 21t x l x 58
. ..~•'r~J:;.":'1 .,~·t··r ·~. "·,'1":··' ."' :·. . . . ._
.._\ ...
. . , . \ . . = 1.66357 x 10- 4 KIW

. Resistance of inner insulation, Rz

lo~(r3 I r2) logp55/85)

21tLkz .- 21t x 1 x 0.17

= 0.28299 KfW

Resistance of outer insulation, R3

Soln.: log,(r4 I r3 ) _ log,P65/l 15)

------- -- ........ R3 = 27tLk3 - 21t x I x 0.023

' ',, r0 =so•c = 2.4981 K1W

''
Convective resistance at inside, Ri

= 40 x 2rt x 0.08 x I

0.04973 K/W

Convective resistance at outside, Ro

l 1
Ro = ho 1td4L = ho x 21t x r4 x L
1
= 5.8 x 21t x 0.165 x 1 =0.I663K.JW

Fig.P. 2.17.42

U Tad1KH11tltdgt
...,. r ·ll b 11 c. I L l 0 n :Ii

Seam ed with CamScanner

 .. "'l .....

V.Heat Transfer (MU-Sem S·Mech) 2-52

Conduction
= l.66357 x 10·• + 0.28299 + 2.4981 ~
·ln ( ~) ln ( 2~5 )
+ 0.04973 + 0.1663 = 2.997 KIW Steel tube, R, = 21tLk1 =21tX20X 16
~ =300-50
:.Q
= ~R 2.997 4
= 2.338 x 10· K/W.

ln (rtr~ ln (7/4)
= 83.4 WIm length Insulation , ~
...Ans. = 2 1t L k2 =21t x 20 x 0.3
Example 2.17.43
= 148.443 x 10·• K /W
A steel tube of 5 cm Inner ~lameter and 8 cm outer diameter
Air, 1
(k = 16 WfmK), is ·covered with an Insulation of 3 cm Ro = h . A · L = h x 21t r x L
0 0 0 3
thickness (k ·= 0.3 W/m K). A hot gas at .3S0°C
2 I
=
h 400 W/m K flows. Calculate the heat loss from the tube = 60 x 21t x 0.07 x 20
for 20 meter length. Also calculate the temperature at the
interface of insulation and steel. 4
= 18.947 x 10· K/W
Sol~\lon: Refer Fig. P. 2.17.43.
LR = R1+R1 +~+Ra

Insulation,
, k 2 0.3 WfmK = = (7.958 + 2.338 + 148.443 + 18.947) x 10· 4

'' = 177.686 x 10·• K1W

' Steel tube,
=
\ k 1 16WfmK
1. Heat loss form tube, Q
I
"i:; . T3
}I- : (350-30)
,'To= Ta Q = = 177.686 x 10· 4
I
' . I h -h
' • ""' ,; o- •
' ........... ~ ,,_~"
= 3
w
---1--- 18.01 x 10

Fig. P. 2.17.43 = 18.01 kW ... Ans,

Steel tube: Inner diameter, d1 =5 cm i.e. r1 =2.5 cm= 0.025 m 2. Temperature at the interface of insulation and tube, T1

CT; -T2)
d2=8cm, r2=~ =4cm=0.04m,k1=l6W/mK Q = R1 +R 1

Insulation : Thickness, t = 3 cm 3
18.01 x 10
r3 = r2 + t = 4 + 3 =7 cm= 0.07 m . = (7.958 x 10· 4 + 2.338 x 10 - 4)

k:i = 0.3 W/ mK ...Ans.

Gas. T, = T1 =3~0 °C, h; =400 W/m1 K

L = 20m
Air. T. = T0 =30°C, h0 =h. =60 W/ml K
Thermal resistance s are as follows :

Gas,

= 400 x 2 x 1t x 0.025 x 20

= 7.958 x 10·• KfW

I I

0
TtdiKawl..,;
I
:
V rw111 1r .i1 1u t
. .
• I

L "1L'"---- - -- -- - - - - - - - ·--· l_
 Conduction

90111t1on:
r.flllllllUPI thickness Of lruulnllon
(0

lnsulatlon

Fig. P. 2.17.44

'f ::: 100°.

0

r2 = 255 = 0.0275 m

In[;~]
Where · R
.=
- .
21tkL : ·-
-· .. . ; !--· , .·. '
....
..... ,.,r: · · :· .;"; ,~.:· .','·~ ·-~ ..: ·. ·.

. poo- 100) x 2 x1t x o.02

:. 600 ::: [
In ·o.oi15J Fig. P. 2.17.45 .

There are a number of thermal resistances in series through

:. In[ o.o'i15] = 0.041
which heat flows from the steam pipe to the ambient iur. The rate
of heat flow per unit length
1.042
Q T 1 -T0
L = R, + Ri + R3 + R4 + R5 .
r3 = 28.65 mm
:.Thickness required= r3 -r2 = 28.65 -27.5 =
= 1.lSmm ... Ans.

(II) When k for pipe= 20 W/mK, T 1 =? Where,

Q = r 1 =80 mm, r2 =85 mm

r3 = I 15 mm and r4 =165 mm

E= 21t (300 soi

600 =
I
40 x o.os
+ :1fil/n (W)
ss 0.17 +
In (ffi)
0.023
1
+ss x 0.16
In[~] tn[~]
21t x 20 . + 21t x 0.02 - 500 7t
- 0.3125 + 0.00105 + 1.738 + 15.69 + 0.108

287° c ... Ans.·

= 88 W/m ... Ans.

.
'.
-
'9'T1clllC•1wle4p
Y ruti i"t t.1 t1 • ~ s

Sumn\,!t] w ith Cm 11& <.1rmer

 V Heat Transfer (MU-5em 5-Mech) 2-54
Conduction
Example 2.17.46
surface of insulation is exposed to ambient" air at 25°C With
2
A 1 mm diameter wire is maintained at a temperature of convection coefficient of 55 W/ m K.
400°C and exposed to a convection environment at 40oc Calculate :
with h = 20 W/m2cc. CaJculate the thennaJ conductivity which (i) Heat loss to air from 5 m long tube.
w4'I cause an insulation of 0.2 mm to Produce a ·critical
(ii) The temperature drop due to thermal resistance of
radius·. How much of this insulation must be added to
reduce the heat transfer by 75% from that which would the hot gases, . steel tube, the insulation layer and the
experienced by the bare wire ? · outside air.
Solution: Take conductivity of steel =50 W/mK.
3
Wue diametU, d1=Imm= 1x10- m.: T1 =4000C. Solution:
2
T.=40°C ; h= 120W/m eC; Refer fig. P. 2.17.47.

Critical radius, r., =0.5 mm+ 0.2 mm= 0.7 x 10- 3 :n Gas: T1 = T"" =330°C.
L Thermal condocthity of wire, k Steel tube:
~ 8
'z = 1=2=4cm.t=1.3 cm;

ConsideriDg wire of length I m. = r2 -t=4- l.3 = 2.7 cm

'1
Critical radius, re =
t
iJ: 0.7 X 10- 3
=tlo
.
Insulation : t, = 2cm; r1 = r2 + t 1 = 4 + 2 = 6 cm.

k = 0.084 WI mK -Ans.
kz = 0.2\V/mK

h,, =~ =55 W/m K

2
2. Thkkn~ or insulation to be added to red1;1ce heat
Air: = 25°C,
T0

transfer rate by 75% as against the heat transfer rate by Length of tube, L = 5m

bare wire

Heat transfer rate through bare wire

--~-""-''r'--':- Steel tube, k 1
-~:r:"'""

= 120 x n x (lxI0-3.) x i x (400-40)

= 135. 72 \V

Q' = (l - 0.75) Q = 0.25 x 135.72 = 33.93\V

(T,-T..)

= a
33.93
(400-40)
In (r.J0.0005)
[ 2 1t X0.084X J + J20 X 21t X r
I J
2X 1

By hit and trial ; r2 = 0.135 m ... Ans.

Fig. P. 2.17.47
Example 2.17.47
Resistances are :
2
A hot gas at 330°C with convection coefficient 222 W/m K is
1 I
flowing through a steel tube of outside diameter 8 cm and Ri = hi ·Ai =hi x 2nr1 L =222x 2 x n(2.7/100)5
thickness 1.3 cm: It is covered with an insulating material of
thickness 2 cm, having conductivity of 0.2 W/mK. The outer = 5.31 x 10- 3 K/\V
VTldlKMlllMli
Y P 1UJ1l ll l t U

Sc:innod with Com Sconner

l.
~
f '.
i;
I

i
if. Heat Transfer (MU·Sem S~Mech) 2"..55 Conduction
I
I - I
i ' I
I Example 2.17.48 I
I
!

In (r3'r3) ln (6/4) _3 A 60 W lamp Is burried in soil (k = 0.83 W/mK) at 0°C and I

R2 :: z;:i"L kz:: 2 7t x 50 x 0.2 - 6.453 x 10 KIW ·switched on. Find the temperature 0.3m away from the lamp, i
:
when steady state Is reached. I
. 1 1 · _ l
Ro :: ~ =1Jox27tr3_L -55x2x7tx(6x10-2)xs SoluUon:

Q =60 W. The heat is dissipated by lamp considering it as

I
I
3
:: 9,646 x 10- KIW
spherical in shape through the soil. Let T 1 be the temperature at
,.,l,;R 0 Jli+R1 +Rz+Ro 0.3 m radius from Fourier's Jaw,
dT z_ dT
== c5.31xicr3 +0.25 x 10-3 + 6.453 x 10- 3 + 9.646 x 10-3> Q = -k · A·Tr=-k-(41trJ•'df
dr __
3 Q. 2 -k·4n·dT ....(i)
:: zt.659 x 10- KIW r

(i) f[eat •~to air, Q Boundary conditions are : ' '/

T1-To (330-25) . At r = 0.3; T :: T 1
Q :: ~ = 21.659 x 10-3 = 14081.9 w ...Ans. At r = oo; T = 0
"-'R .
On integrating equation (i) within boundary conditions,
(ii) , Temperature drop due to tbennal resistance for the 00 0
following cases . f (~) .= - k · 4n f dT
T1 - T1 T1 - Ti Ti - T3 Tl - To 0.3 T1
Q = ~ =~=~=~ ...(i)
1 .. 0

(a) · Gases (T1 - T1)

Q [-;l.3. = -47tk · [T] . Tl

From Equation (i),

1
60 [ - :: + 0.3
]J =

T1 = ·19. 175°C ...i\ns.

= 74.77°C ...Ans. Example 2.17.49

(b) Steel tube, (T1 -Tz) A pipe of outside diameter ~o mm is to be insulated with
asbestos which has a mean thermal conductivity of
ff1 -Tz) = QxR1 0.1 W/mK. The local coefficient of connectivity heat transfer
2
is 5 W/m k. Comment upon the suitability of asbestos as the
3
= 14081.9x (0.25 x 10- ) = 3.52°C ... Ans. insulating material. What should be the minimum value of
thermal condu'ctivity of insulating material to reduce heat
(c) The insulation, CT2 - T3)
transfer?

CT2-T1) = Qx~ Solution : d0 =20 mm i.e. r0 =2~ =10 inm

3
= 14081.9 x (6.453 x 10- )
k= 0.1 W/mK, h = 5 W/m K
2

= 90.87°C ... Ans. The critical radius of insulation for optimum heat transfer is
given by,
(d) Outside_a1
k 0.1
re = il=s =0.02m or 20mm
3
= Q x Ro= 14081 .9 x (9.646 x
0
(T3 :.._To) 10- )

= 135.84°C ... Ans.

V• T1diKniitngi
rued1c a 11 11u

Scanned wtth CemScenoer

 ·Y Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
2-56
Conduction
l. Efrectlyeness of applied lnsulating material
Assume, L =l m
11;1 order to reduce the beat transfer rate then outside Radial heat flow through a composite cylinder
radius of tuber. should be greater than re-
T-T.
But. in this problem. r. (= 10 mm)< re(= 20 mm) . Hence
. Q =
In(~
. :..(i)
the applied insulating material is not suitable. I .
··.Ans. ------+---
21tr2 • h. · L 2n k L
2. Minimum value or thermal conductivity or insulating
material to reduce heat transfer, k 1 (90-25)
= ---------::--:"::::--
0.007)
=20.46 w
The condition is, l In ( Q.'005"
21t x 0.007 x 8 x I + 2 1t x 0.16 x I
i.e.
(()
Current passing through the conductor, I if resisfance
R = 9 x IO -J ohm •
k 1 = 0.05 W/m K
... Ans.

Thus the maximum conductivity of insulating material permitted is Q = 1 R

2
I =~
O.OSW/mK. •.. Ans. I = ~ =47.68amp ···Ans.
Example 2.17.50
(ii) Current carrying capacity of conductor when criticat
A cylindrical electrical conductor of 10 mm diameter, insulation is provided, 11
insulated by plastic (k = 0.16 W /ml<) is located in the air k 0.16
at 2s c
0
having convective heat transfer coefficient of
..
Cntical .
radms, re = h = - 8- =002
. m. = r1
a WI m2 K If the surface temperature of the base conductor From Equation (i) above,
is 90°C. Calculate; under steady state condition,
25
<90 - > -27 38 w
{i) Current passing through conductor when 2 mm thick Q1 = 1 ln (0.02/0.005)] - ·
[21tx0.02 x 8x I+ 21tX0.16xl
insulation is provided. Electrical resistance per meter
1o- 3 ohm.
length of the conductor is 9 x
11 = -\JR
& =-\J
- [filf_ - SS.16 amp
9 x 10-3- •••Ans,
(ii) Current carrying capacity of the conductor when the
insulation of critical radius is provided over it.

Solution: Refer Fig. P. 2.17.50.

d, 10
Given : Radius of electrical wire, r1 = 2 = 2 = 5 mm =0.005 m
Outer radius ·with insulation,

r2 = r 1 +thickness= (5 + 2) mm = 0.007m

SUiface temperature of conductor, T =90°C

Afr,
h 3 =8 Whn 2 K
T3 =2s•c Solutlon:
Insulation, k =0.16 W/mK
Given: D = 2.5 cm= 0.025 m, r1 =0.0125 m
2
h = 9.5 W/m K, k = 0.18 W/mK.

Fig. P. 2.17.50

Scanned w it h Ce mSc~
~
~ - .·..
.. ~ ·..

if Heat Tr~nsfer (MU-Sem S·Mech) . 2·57 Conduction

. .-- WIJetber inSUlation would be effective ?
(l) k 0.18
r, = ji= 95 =0.01895 m

since critical radius is more than suction pipe radius,

ticatlon of insulation will increase heat transfer rate rather than
apP • • • fli .
• "t. So insulation ts me ecttve.
ieauc1.0g 1
l· = ? to reduce the h~t transfer rate.
(ill •
r should be equal to outer radius of the suction pipe.
c . .
k
r, = r, =ji

Solution:
k = r 1h=0.0125 x9.5

= 0.11875 W/m.K (max value ofk) ••• Ans.

(til) Qu = 0.2 Q1 for cork k = 0.04 \V/mK

Heat tranSfer without insulation

6T :U:
I 1
Q, = 9.S x 21t x 0.012.~ = 0.74575

With circle insulation,

Fig. P. 2.17.!2

In(~) 1 r2 = 5cm=0.05 m

1:~ · 0.04 x I + 9.5 x 2:t x r: x I r, = 50 mm - 3 mm= 47 mm= 0.047 m

.ff f3 = 1
=
tn(o.fus) +l - T, = 325°C; T3 = 50°C
0.2512 59.66 r:
r. =· 2s•c
f<'C be:!! tr...:t..c:fe:- reduction to :!0%,
km .. 40 W/mK; kw• 0.045 W/mK;

Oo = o~ hi = 25 W/m K, h0
2
=10 W/m2 K
.i T 0.:? x ~T
= I Heat flow rate per meter length of cylinder can be written as
1n(a_;;15) +- - - 1 0.74575
0.2512 59.66 r: Q ::

fa (o~;15) I I
.. 0.1512 ""'59.66 rJ = 0. 1492
325-50
=
59.6S r: l::l GQ9i25"
r. ) + 0.25 J _ 1 = 100.45 f2 I
0.05)
In ( Q.047 In
(C3)
\Ms
25 x 21t x 0.047 + 21t x 40 x I + 21t x 0.045 x 1
r1 = 0.064 mm .-Ans.
50 -25
=

SCann@d with CamScanner

~~7 V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
2-58 Conducu°"
'-
· ,!'.·~ '

4 .379 =
r In·. (iis)] . (II) Heat trunsrer rntc wttb 2nd logging :
AT
J
25 Lo.13ss+o.0002.s6+ 0.2826 '

/n (7.) In (-~) I
= 3381 + o.00615 + 88.46 10 (0~5) 21t x k1 L + 21t x k2 L + h 21t rl L

~ _ 88.46 in (0~5)- 3.387 = o = 0.14)

AT
r3
In ( Q.i2 I
=
By trial and error. r3 0.086 m =86 mm 0.072 + 2Jt x 1.25 x l + 12 x 2it x 0.14 )( l

Thickness of insulation. ::: 86 - SO =36 mm •••Ans. = AT = 5.365AT

0.072 + 0.0196 + 0.09.5
MU· Ma 13. 10 Marks
Pc:rccnt.nge reduction -- Q!Q-lQll x 100

5 .477 AT- 5.365 AT

= SA77 AT .x lOO

= 2% ...Ans.
-----
MU • Dec. 13, 10 Marks

Solution:
Fi~. P. 2.17.53
Given: r1 = 50 mm = 0.05 m.
Given: D == I 6 cm, r 1 =8cm =0.08 m
r1 = 100 mm =O.l m
r2 = 8cm +4 cm= 12cm = 0.12 m
T, = 300°C
r3 = 12+2= 14cm=0.14m
T2 = 100°c
k1 =0.9 W/mK; kz =125 W/m°C
3
2 k (T) = 0.5 + 0.5 x 10- T
h = 12 W/m °C,

(i) Heat transfer rate without 2nd lagging (kz) (i) By Fourier's law

T -T~

JL. dr - k dT =- (0.5 + 0.5 x 10- 3 • T] dT

or 21tL r =
.1T Boundary conditions
= 0.12)
In ( MB I
At r = r1 ;
2n x 0.9 x 1+12 x2nx 0.12x 1

.1T At
= 0.072 + O.II I= 5 A77 .1T

v• TtcUnw1t4ti
l'll"IClllllU
,.........--
'. concfUciion
2·59

Internal heat generation in the body. The application of Fourier~s

law or heat conduction helped us to detcrmine the temperature
diatribullon within the regfon and the temperature at the critical
lnterfoccs.
Many cases are encountered in practice, in which the ~ Is
unifonnly generated within the body. Examples arc :

(a) Heal generated by nuclear fuel element in a reactor.

(b) Heat released in combu~tion and chemical processes.

(') ~[ 0.5 (100-300) +0.25 x 10· 3 ( 1002 -3002 ) ] (c) Heat generated by current carrying conductor.
:> .. - ( 0.1 ) '
L ln Q.Os (d) Heat released during curing of concrete slab in civil
engineering construction.
,. 9 [100 + 20] (e) Heat generated by electronic components in computers and
,. W/rn rrom Inside to outside ... Ans. electronic equipment. etc.
1080
or mid. temperature, Tm Cases of heat conduction with intemaJ heat generation shall
(ii) F
be discussed in this chapter for one dimensional heat flow under
soundll1Y condition ·
steady state.
. At r :: r,;
2.19 Unidirectional Steady State Heat
At r = rm;
Conduction with Internal Heat
rm = 0.075 m;
Generation In Plane Wall
Q = 1080
L
Three cases will be discussed.
3 2
_- -Zn [ 0.5 (Tm-300) + 0.25 x 10· ( T -3002 ) ]
- I
p
(Q&ll)
0.05 .
m
.
2.19.1 Specified Temperatures on Both Faces

69.73 = -: [ 0.5 Tm-150 + 0.25 x 10· 3 <-22.5] I

g=lntemal
to heat

= - [ 0.25 x 10· 3 < + 0.5 Tm - 172.5)

I
I
I
generated
per unit
volume
-3 2 throughout
0.25 X 10 Tm+ 0.5 Tm-102.77 = 0
2
T + 2000Tm-411080 = 0
m

- 2000 ±~2000 -4 x I x (-) 411080

2

Tm = 2

= - 2000 ~2375.78 =187.90 c ... Ans. Fig. 2.19.1 : Steady state heat conduction In
plane wall with heat generation

Refer Fig. 2.19.1 Let g be the internal heat generated per unit
volume in the system. Applicable Poisson's equation is,

2.18 Introduction ct2T g

dx
2 = k ... (i)

Till now, we have dealt with the cases, in which the heat flow
is considered under steady state in one direction without the On integration, ... (ii)

Sc.Jnncd wllh Co~nncr

V Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech)

On second Integration•. T = -r·g 2 + c, · x + c;

x2
2·60

... (iii) 2.19.2 When heat Is transfe~red from both

Conduction
.__
' . ,'l

sides by convection to surroundings

Boundnry conditions nee : at temperature T.. ·
(u) At x =0, T = T 1 (specified)
Consider •.he cnse when both surfaces of plate/wall lilt
(b) At x = L, T = T2 (specified) exposed to surrounding fluid at T.. and heat is transferred b)
On substituting the above boundnry conditions specified at convection from the wall surface at Tw to surroundings ns shown In
(a) above in Equation (iii) we get. Fig. 2.19.2.

... (iv)
Equation (iii) becomes :
-g x2
T = T' 2 +C1 x+T1
At ·x = L, T =·T2•

g L2
T2 = -"k"T+C1 ·L+T1 L L
x=o

... (v) Fig. 2.19.2 : Plane wall with Internal heat generation and
dissipating bent by convection t~ surroundings
On substituting the values of C1 nnd Ci in Equation (iii), we
Maximum temperature occurs at the centre of the slab since
get the temperature profile as :
the snme conditions exist on both sides of.the plane ~ull.
.
T =
g x2 [T2-T1
g
-r·2+ ---i::--+2k·L x+T1
J ... (2.19.1) Due to symmetry in temperature profile, half the slab can be
analysed with boundary conditions as :
2
Since T is function of x • the temperature distribution is not
(I) At x =0, dT O (',
dx = .
• center temperature 1s maximum)
linear as in case ofplane slab witliout heat generation.

In case both surfaces of the wall are maintained at equal

(ii) At wall surface, i.e. At x L, =
temperature i.e. T1 = T2• Equation (2.19.1) reduces to: Heat conducted to th.e surface =Heat convected from surface to
surrounding fluid
g x2 g g 2
T = -r·2+2k · L · x+T1 =- 2k(x -Lx)+T1

...(2.19.2)
...(i)

Thus the temperature variation is. parabolic and maximum

Poisson's equation,
d2T
-+- = 0
g
temperature occurs at the centre of slab. On substituting the value dx2 k
of C1 in Equation {ii) when T2 =T1•
. . dT
dT g g g 0 n mtegrat1on, dx = - kg x + C1 ...(ii)
dx = -k·x+2k · L=-2k<2x-L)
'dT
. . dT
=
But at x 0, . dx =0. =
Therefore, C1 0
At the pomt of maximum temperature, slope dx =O
Above Equation (ii) reduces to :
g L
:. - 2k (2x - L) = 0; x =2 dT g
dx = -I ·x ... [(iii) A]

It shows that ~he maximum temperature occurs at the centre g

ofslab in case T1 =T~
dT)
" ( dx = --·L
k ... [ (iii) Bl
Dll•L

UTtdllH•IMti
Y Puu1u1 \l u
 ~
• :. · · · Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech)
if.. t-feat 2-61 Conduction

.r~on ..rating Equation [ (iii) A],

1ntec.·-
,.

g xi . I
I
T = -r·-z+c; · ... (iv)
rnsulated
g :s~owiding ";
hI
I
At x=L. T=Tw .I ,i
I l
I .
g 2 I

... T., = -2k·L +c; . .. (v) 'iTcn

I
I
'
;.
'i
EqlllltiOll (i)
fiottl
· dT . Fig. 2.19.3 : Plane wall one surface insulated and other
()II Sil
bstituting the value of (iX' from Equation [ {iii) BJ at
having convection . l
the ya]ue ofTw from Equation (v) in the above equation
Jt"'L1111d . ' Boundary conditions are : ·
-k(-f·L) = h(-2~L~+c;-r_) (a) At x = 0, Q = 0. It follows that,

.. .(vi) -kA (~!) = 0

a•O

'tu ting the value of c; in Equation (iv), Since neither k nor A are zero, it imp1ies,
SobsU .
_! 2 g· L ..! 2
T = -2k·x + h +2k · L +T_ .. . (i)

(b) At x =L' we have,

... (2.19.3)
Heat conducted to right face = Heat convected from right face
Above equation · represent the .temperature profile at any to surroundings
. t distance x from centre.
secnon a
Since maxiinum te~perature occurs at x = 0,

Tmax =
g 2 gL
2k L +h+ T,. ... (2.19.4) -k(~)x=L = h(Tx-L-T..) .. . (ii)

For surfac~ temperature, Tw at x = L, .

P01sson • . d2T g
s equation, - 2 +-k =0
dx
From Equation (2.19.3) we get,
dT g .
g 2 g·L g 2 On integration, di'- k .. x + C1 . .. (iii)'
Tw = -2k · L +h+2i( L +T..
dT
gL But, dx = 0 at x = 0, therefore,
i.e. Tw = h+T..
g
0 = -k· 0 +cl i.e. C 1 =0
2.19.3 Heat Conduction In Plane Wall with
One Surface Insulated and Other
·exposed to surrounding Fluid
.. dT
dx =
g
-k·x; (~~) X•l..
=-::L ... (iv)

On further integrating,

Consider a slab of thickness L with internal heat generation

3 ... (2.19.5) .
g \f//m ) whose left surface is thickly insulated while the other
surface is exposed to surrounding fluid at temperature T.. as shown Atx=L
in Fig. 2.19.~.

. ... (v)

lW T1cl11Cat•IMgi
V Pub.l.ltal'len5

Dl'Jt.·HlUt

SC:;mncd v.itr. C;JmSconncr

 . . Heat Transfer (MU-Sam 5-Mech) . 2-62
Conduct1on
On substituting lbc values from Equation (iii) and (iv) in
2,20.1 Long Solid Cylinder with Specified
. Equation (ii) we get,
Surface Temperature
h(-f ~ +<;-T_)
2

-k(-f.L) =

... (2.19.6)

On substiiuting lbe value of<; in Equation (2.19•.5)

g 2 g g 2
T -2kx +jj·L+2i(·L +T.
Fig. 2.20.1 : Long solid cylinder with heat generation
g 2 2 g
T 2k(L -x)+jj·L+T. Refer Fig. 2.20. J. Let the outer surface temperature be T .,.
... (2.19.7)
Boundary conditions are :
Above equation gives lhe temperature profile at any section x
of plane wall. ·
(a) The temperature al lhe centre line wiU be maxirnurn,
Heat transfer,
therefore lhe temperature gradient (~) at r = O must be
. equal to zero. i.e.
dT
At r = 0, dr =O.
= A· g · x =A.g.L from face ar x=L . . . (2.19.8)
On substituting the above condition in Equation (2.20.2),
2.20 ·Heat conduction through Cylinder we gel C1=0 •. .(i)
with Internal Heat Generation
(b) At r = R T := Tw (specified)
The example of steady stare one dimensional heat conduction . Substituting the above boundary conditions in
with internal heat generation is an eJectricaJ conductor carrying Equation (2.20.4) with C1 = 0 we get,
current Temperature distribution can be given found out from the
g R2
Poisson's Equation (2.2.4). Tw = -21C·2+o+c;

f.; (r· ~ + : = 0 . .. (from Equation (2.2.4)) c; = Tw+2k

. g R1 .
'2 ...(ii)

Assuming constant heat generation · and conslant thermal On substituting the values of C 1 and <; in Equation (2.20.4)
conductivity with one dimensional heat flow in radial direction, we get,

above expression can be rewritten as,

... (2.20.1)
T = 4kg (R2 -r2) + Tw ... (2.20.5)

.. . (2.20.2)
Equation (2.20.5) represents the temperature distribution in

... (2.20.3) solid cylinder.

. dT
Heat conduction, Q=.- k · A · d;
Integrating the above equation again, .

T =
-g r2
2k 2 + C1 In (r) + Ci
... (2.20.4) Q = - k · 2n L · (- 2r !·r) =1tr2 Lg ... (2.20~6)
If outer surface is exposed to surrounding fluid at temperature
T. with convective heat transfer coefficient, h then

• Ttdllllww.i
• l'tUlh1 l ltt1
 . . .'

j/ Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech) 2·63 Conduction

· Q = hA(T.,-T..) On substituting the value of c; in Equation (i),

_g gR2 gR
= h·21tRL(T.,-T..) 2
...(iii) T = 4k' r +0+4jC+2ti"+T..
At outer surface r = R, in Equation (2.20.6) and equating to
... (2.20.8)
Bquati~n (iii)
Above equation represents the temperature profile across the
nR2 Lg = h ·21tRL(T.,-T..) cylinder.
R··g Maximum temperature occurs al ihe cenlre ofthe cylinder i.e.
T.,. - T. = 2h al r =0 Therefore,
R·g
i.e. T.,. "' 2i)+T.. ...(2.20.9)
. , . (2.20.7)

Temperature at surface, T.., occurs at r =R i.e.

2.20.2 Solid Cylinder exposed to convection
of Heat to surrounding Fluid gR
T .. = h + T. . .. (2.20.10)
2

Heat flux, q = ~ =- k (~;)

r•R

gR
q = TW/m2 ... (2.20.11)
Fig. 2.20.2 : Heat conduction solid cylinder with beat
generation and exposed to convection
2.20.3 Hollow Cylinder with Uniform Heat
Refer Fig. 2.20.2. Rewriting Equation (2.20.4), Generation with Specified
g 2
Temperatures
T = - 4k · r + C1 log0 r + c; ... (i)

Temperature gradient is given by Equation (2.20.3) as,

dT g C1
'dr" = -2k ·r+7
..
Boundary cond111ons are, A t r = 0, 'dT
dr" = 0, thus C 1 =o
At outer surface where r =R,
Fig. 2.20.3 : Hollow cylinder
Rate of heat conduction to outer surface = Rate of heat ·
convection from outer surface Fig. 2.20.3 shows a hollow cylinder at internal radius r and
1
outer radius r0 • Rewriting the Equation (2.20.4),

g 2
T = - 4k r + C 1 In r + c;
-k
g·r)
(-2k
.. .(i)

r• R Boundary conditions are :

gR g · R2 (a) At r =r1, T =T 1
2h = -~+c;-T..
(b) At r=r0 , T=T2
gR2 g · R
.. c; = 4i('+2h+T.. .. .(ii)

f f Ttdlkaewleclge
V P ub,11,1111 11• '

Scanned with CilrnSc aru't«

 - ...,;
a
~ -
)11 Hl\,m\u11t1~ \I~ lhnu\\li\ry n1fi..lilh*~ in Eq11;i1lc1J1 (Ii 2.21.1 S<>lld Sphtre wfth SpecffJed Surtace
Temperature
·r, .. . . *· ·~ . . c, 11ir, ~ c,
ftt fr1 1:1i, 2. ~ J.I. l.cJ 1t~. t'V~t ftm;ci smrt (!1 ~faj tff:.:r~· ~
~ II 1 (' I • m..,ir;Wnu1 sol l,. ltactl ~ t;(>urd.uy c01'1JWmt (D.C.) ltt1
'l': 111 7r · I ~ •t· • 1 fl rl! t I .. ,(hi)
(1-) Al rctltft", r,. (J,
lrr • 0,()1'1 J.tMtl!Ufl~g Jtl "..'f"'~OC Cl21,J}
dt l ' ' ' C •

011 .11t•1mc1!1'~ 1he lli1un1h 111illl hull\ l:C1u:iiio11 (ii},

1

~C: £.Cl, C a{I

1
T1- Ti • ~: ll'~ - r:)T C1 /11 (~) (b} AUUrllll'.'(', r"" P.. T .. r ..
a 1· *(r! -r~1 -c1 1n(~)

...(iv)

Fig. 2.21.1 : Solid spbtrt Mith •pedntd kmptra.bsru

On sut'lstiluling In Equation (iii) we get, On substituting~ bound:uy conditions in Eq~on (2.11.2J.

g 2 2 wege1,
g ~ (T:-T1)+:tt((r0 -r1 ) .
Tl::; -4k' ro+ (ro) · lnro+C,
In -
r,
S 2 [ g 2 2 In (r.,)
C: = T2+4k ' ro- (T2-T1)+4k(ro-r1) /n(ro Ir,) ... (v)
J Therefore F.quation (2.21.2) by substituting cl :ind C: Cll:i be
writttn :is,
On substiluting the value of C1 and <; in Equation (i) we can l 1
gr gR' g •
1
gel the temperature, Tat uny radius r. T = -6k"'+T. +6i:'"'= 6k(R"-r)+T,. ... (2.21JJ

Abo\•t Equation gfres the ttmpaatur.: distribution throu 1:

2.21 Heat Conduction In Solid Spheres solid sphtrt. 8
with Internal Heat Generation
2.21.2 Solid Sphere with Heat Convection
The one dimensional heat conduction equation in spheres
with hent generation ns given by Poisson's Equation (2.2.4) can be
rewritten as,

or, .2, (. l dT) Fig. 2.21.2 : Solid sphere with heat connction
dr r · dr

Refer Fig. 2.21.2.

On integrating,
Boundary condition at the centre are,
dT
... (2.21.1) (a) At x= O, d;'=D

· g· r2 C1 By substituting in Equation (2.21.1) we get, C1 = O

On integrating again, T = -""6k-7+ c; ...(2.21.2)
Equation (2.21.1) can be written as,
where, C1 nnd c; nre the constants of integration.
dT g·r
d;' = 3k ...(2.21.4)

&.:a1111W with Ce111!&.:amM:!I

 if Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech) 2·65
Conduction

··:. .-::·Q·~, ; ::;( T· · :- ~; L~ 'C he·n·~··YI -:.:o-~···

:·,.·-,.·( ·\:.: ·\; A , ...
Boundary condition at outer surface at r =R; f" n,,· -:' t..;X·=. ,,.-..,. :., ... ·=:··'IJll.'> " · ... d:oc. · - . ·
(b)
~\h~~;'..::.f. (~. ~·:. :.~~.1-1 ·:·/\-/:~:'.::·":~"" ,:" . :·;.: '. :. :::: . . . :_.,,.
'-'~:- -..'.>n.·c 1··"'-At.'. ; ;,'L.: · " "·T:T '-"• and . .. .
·t conducted upto surface = Heat convected from surface w .
B~ . • \"''} • •' t

·~~~~)t·: \~:·~... ._. . . :·:...,. . . .' ' - ' . ~ •' . : . .'. .

- k·A (~;) r•R = h · A [T - T.J
r•R
:;·.._.(:·:.;_,..~, ">- He.at cond~icte'd'. =·.Hl!at Ci>ll\'Crted.
dT · . ;:r:;_. >·:"·~'::.·~ ·,. . dT . . _ .
"~'··," . . -k·.A(dx) 1.; .,.. 11.A, lT.,.~ .-TJ
.
Vsing Equation (2.21.4) for dr and Equation (2.21.2) for T, we get,
·::i{~'f'·'::: =:·:. ' · . .·,_ ·. A".. ' ,- : • .

~~iii: ~ '- 01;c surfn~~ ls tn's~iu~d.an.d otlwr exposed to

= . ;:·;," \~. . .., .
..~-... ." ...,~... _·surroundings. .
'.' "! '1 •• : .•• ; • • • • • • •

.:;-.:. ·~~Ca).:'· :At x=O, ·Q=O. hence, 21· - ·O

dx - ·
.. c; = ..·: ' -- '
'\., ~ ' ..
.. .(2.21.5) '· . · ~· :"' -- :: ··""' · · dT .. .
~~·:-~·\(b).'~< At :< ·;,, L ;-·k; A· ( - ) ,;, h. A (T,.t -TJ
:~~Jr;.-;·"''. · · . , ·• " . dX ~·L, ..

On substituting the value of Ci in Equation (2.21.2) we get, 2!~{~~-ppiicatlo'~ of steady 'state heat conductl~n through
2
...~ .. ~ ... '· ~ . . - .
~~- ; ~~~'''- ·~ '

gR gr2 gR S::~Tpyiln.der with.heat 'generation ·

T ::: -6[+3h+ 6k +T_
'~ji1~tL~ I< ~ a .... ~: . s .
-~~~~:;;·:«-,,~-'.'":'.'·a· (r,~)· ·f"k
... (i)
t.,c,..~.{~-~,~--:: . . .. ~-::-~ r-~-. ·ur
. = "O
·- . .
g 2 2 gR · 1 .• , · : ·

T :: 6£ (R - r) + 3h + T_ .. .(2.21.6) .
g
; '

.. . (ii)
-r.·'.· ·.
... Q :: -k · A (CZ)· r=R
-·

..... (iii)

-k·A
( gr)
-3k 6&R
r=R= 3 (Watts) ... (2.21.7)
::

gr 3..
.. .(2.21.8)
Heat flux• qr = T (\VIm J at any r.
·,

.. ,_ ~is~'iic(~~lin~;r· Wi.tli'~pcci,fie~- ~u~race "·::

..,.· 0-\. • f\ • v.;;:......,~~.......~":.
".\(~~~~~~.,..~~z..~t,~- · ~~~'\-V..,~., .<,r,~·--.:· ~~'' --~:'£ '
,..z*(;~ +\'*~.... £:_:;:- ..,,..,
~~ ~~-~ -~ ~;;~\ <~·~:: t~·\·~ \·,:· · '{i,·- ~ ~,:-~~.../.:·· .'· \- ~ '. \:~;
" ..
..:. ·"'teri1peratures -'" . . .., .,.:- · -.,, •" · .,.,.,., ' . ...
·:.,·plicai1.
.-- '·oi\'
_. "--." ____,. Y~'statef
.01:sieacr
· >.."l ~ -~"r.1• -.i ·.'
unl
, ,. "''"" ;)_. u
,,. ,,,,,~""'
~'t < ;_.:,!>. ..._~._.,, :.~. • • ::-~ .i;'·~· · :~~-=-. f'..,':$'.:..•..,, ~,._,t.,·

· iteiiilaFeCiuaiioil~ ~i.tHtl~t.erri,al/h:~a,. ~

~-¥~ !f'.~;-, ;~~u~: ~~-~'n'.~~~,~~~~~~~:~6· ~n~''.J~t~,~~ ?!_~~· to .

' ..
"\ .:~~'- f0 onditioils for \'anous cases are.:: ,: -- . :_, .·• ,,. .....~ ·-"-

~i:]i~~~~ l~~P•;~.u;~.~~. ~ ~~!~~:J:t}SI~~~~

.•

:!..:>J(a). :f.::= ..>.· _.../':

· . At x·~ O, .. T1 <f;~::i·t'-

'ii\~ii'i ;\~N::,~:; ;i.;.:~,~·tti:);;z;f~i{~

';t"'·;j;~~"ii'~ai'i~ 'transferred on both sid~.b~ . .
:!.~,.:-...•;_, ,...;:'-? ·.; .... t f,.J· ""'• ..~1.·': :.:: ' "f .. : ! " <' ::~· .• x. .J..·.-:~J-:_..:~.': ._. .::--~~-· ·,.
:-n\'eetion :to·snrroundin~..atT:~ .T~. ,:;,,. ,,.·:.,;;:. :-

.l~~I!;~~!~~~~~
----~·---"'""'--"'"'"'™
..."'"lllD'Madlllftil\l fil'iaii- •
Scanoed w ith CamSconner
- _, ,,

A Plaoa rna1o1 Plato 12 crn thick gooeratas heat •I Iha rate OI

5 • 10• Wirn' Whoo ao electrical curreot Is Passed through ;
II Iha .•urtace temperatures oo left •Od right •l<le a,1
rnelotaloed a1200°c aod 1so0 c reopeC1Jvely, find:
8

T •rnperature distrlbulloo across lhe plate •ectJoo.

Posilloo and rnagnllude of rnaxJmum temperature.
Heat flow rate from each surface or the plate.
Assume. k ::: so W/mK

t---....___T""-_Q
l
l

I
I
I
I
I
1Tmax
I
I
Xm"'J
I
'----.i_----~.-----x
x=o x=L
1-L:.: 12 cm-j

Fig. P. 2.21.1
Refer Fig. P. 2.2 t. I.
5 3
g =5xJ0 Wtm , L =12cm=0.12m
k = 50 WtmK, T1 = 2oooc. T1 = t.Sooc
Temperature distribution, T

From Poisson's equation:

d2T g
-+-::::
dx2 k
0

On integrating twice,

g
21:::
dx -k x+c1
. .. (ii)

T = - g 2 ('
-2k · x +C 1 x+'-2
. .. (iii)

Boundary conditions are :

· g1'ves
Atx = 0, T =T,. it
...(iv)
At x =L, T =T2, it gives,
..!.L2+CI -L+T1
-2k
 •. . . •· i

iI
·· i
if Heat Transfer (MU-Sem S·Mech) 2-67 '
.Conduction

Cross check: Tota.I he.11 transferred = Heat generored

On substituting in Equation (iii),
50833.5 + 9166.7 = Volume x g =Ax L x g
g 2 [(T2-T1) g·LJ
T = -2k·x + L +2k x+T, .. .(v) 60000.2 = I x 0.1:! x 5 x 105 =60,000 W
5
sx10 :: [.050-200l 5x I05 xo.12J Also 50833.5 + 9166.7 =60,000 W - ...Ans.
.. T = - 2 x 50 x + 0.12 + 2 x 50 x + 200
Example 2.21.2
2
.,. = -5000 x + 183.33 x + 200
... (vi) ... Ans. Rate of heat generation in a plane wall of thickness 10 cm is
5 3
1.5 x 10 W/m • One side of the wall Is insulated while the
position and magnitude of maximum temperature
0I) . other is exposed to a fluid of temperature 100°C where heat
Differentiating Equation (vi) w.r.l. x and equating to zero we get, transfer coefficient is 500 W/m2K. Thermal conductivity of
wall is 15 W/mK. Determine :
o = - 5000 x 2x + 183.33
:. - x = 0.01833 m (i) Maximum temperature in the wall and its location.
•.•Ans.
(ii) Temperature of the surface exposed to fluid assuming
On substituting in Equation (vi),
that entire generated heat is to dissipated to the fluid.

Tlllil = - 5000 (0.01833)2 + 183.33 x 0.01833 + 200 Solution: ·

=. - 1.68 + 3.36 + 200 = 201.68°C •.. Ans.

Given: L= fOcm=O.I m, g =1.5.x 10s W/m3
.... :: .
·~.
h :::: 500 W/m K,
2

Oil) Heat from each surface of plate

k= 15 W/mK
from Equations (ii) and (v)
(i) Maximum temperature, T max
£.I g (T2-T1) gL
dx = -kx+ L +"'ik Relevant Equ.ation is,
5
. 5xl0 (150-200) 5xl05 x0.12
=- 50 x+ 0.12 + 2 x 50

£.I = 4
-10 x+ 183.33 But T =Tnw: at x =0 (i.e. at insulated wall boundary)
dx .. .(vii)
g g·L
(a) · Heat flow rate at left surface, 0 1 at x = O : .. Tmu = 2k. Lz+-h-+T_

Assume, A =1 m
- 2
!
(1.5 x lOs) 0.12 ( l.5 x Os) x 0.1 + 100
= 2 x 15 + .:iOO
Q = -kA(~)
X•O ••. Ans.
= -50 x 183.33 =-9166.7 w .•. Ans.
(ii) · Tempe~ature at surface, Tw if entire generated h~at
Negative sign shows that it is in opposite direction to heat
Is to be dissipated to the fluid
flow Q. i.e. it leaves from left side.

(b) Heat flow rate from right surface, 0 2 at x =L :

Assume, A = Im
2
1.5 x IO~ x A x O.l = 500 A (Tw - 100)

Q = -kA (~~)x=L 15000 = 500 CTw - 100)

= -k··A·(-I0 x+183.33Jx=0.12
4 Tw = 30+100
4
= -50 xlx (-I0 x 0.12+183.33J i.e. . Tw = 130°C .•. Ans.

= 50833.5 w ••• Ans.

Scanned w ith Can&onoer

 ·.
~
, •I, ·

' ;.:'' f·
.,
,:. .... Conduction
2·68
":!lr:t
y ·, Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
(On substitution of~
... ··: from Equation (1) and c, =OJ
~.I dr
Example 2.21.3 .
Consider a solid cylinder of radius r "' b, 1~ which energy Is .. •(4) ••• Ans.
...'
i
generated at a constant rate of 9 W/m while boundary
surface at r == b Is maintained at temperature T2 • Develop an
expression · tor one dimensional (radial), steady state (I) Numerical : Temperature at centre I.e. at r =O ·
tomperature distribution T(r) and heat flux q (r)· Calculate
g=2X 108 W/m3 , b= 1 cm=0.01 m.r=O,
centre temperature and heat flux at the boundary surface Given :
6 3
=
r == b for b ==· 1 cm, g 2 x 10 W/m , k == 20 W/mK and
k =20 W/mK. T 1 =100°c
T2 == 100°c.
1 2 8
g (b - r ) 2 x 10 <0.0tJ 100
Tu.nuc = 4k +T2= 4x20 .,. .

= 350°C ... Ans.

Fig. P. 2.21.3
(II) Heat flux at boundary I.e. at r =b =0.01 m,
From Equation (4),
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 2.21.3.
8
2x t0 xo.01
Theory : Relevant Equation is : qr•b .- 2

= 6
10 W/m
1 ... Ans.

gr Example 2.21.4
.f!.
dr
(r dT)
dr
= k
An aluminium rod of 15 mm radius carries an electric current
2
gr of 1200 amps. Thermal conductivity of rod Is 30 W/mK and
dT 4 1
On integrating rdr = -2i(+C1 its electrical conductivity is 1.5 x 10 (ohm cmr • The
surface temperature is maintained at. 300°C. Find the
gr c,
5IT = --+- .. . (1) allowable temperature at the centre of rod.
dr 2k r

gr
2 Solution:
T = - 2k +. cl In r + Ci . . .. (2)
On integrating again, R=l5mm=15xI0- 3 m, 1=1200A, k=30W/mK

Boundary co11.ditibns arc : p = Electrical conductivity

(a) At r= 0• ddT
r =0 1 1
= 4 ohm-cm= 6 ohm.ni
1.5 x IO 1.5 x 10
Therefore, C 1 =0 from Equation (1)

(b) Atr=b, T=T2 .

. On substituting in Equation (2) Heat generated/unit volume,

g bl
Heat generated _ 12 R
T1 = -4i(+O+Ci g = Volume - A·L
On substittJting t11e values of C 1 and
temperature distribution becomes,
Ci in Equation (2), the
g = A·L
1 (p•L)
2
A =
fp A2
g r2 g b2 g (b2 - r2) 2
(1200) 1
T(rJ -- ---+--+TI
4k 4k = 4k + T2 · , .(3) ••• Ans. = [1tx(lS X 10- )2] x 1.S x 106
3 2

Rate of heat flux,

=
From Equation (2.20.4)

VTtellh••'""
Y l'll!>iltlllllUi
 ... . ..
.,.~
: ~

Conduct13 ·
·fl Heat rranefer (MU·Sem 5-Meoh) 2·89
,- . g?
. 1' "' -Tk + C1 ln r + c; ... (I) Refer Pig. P. 2.21.S.
Consider elementary ring at radius r of thickness dr and length L.
gr C1
!!!
dr
:: -2i(+7 ...(II)
Heat conducted,

Heat generated in the element, Qs = g (21t rL) · dr

·For steady state heat flow,

Heat flow in Qr+ Q,

d
= Q, +'dr (Q,) · dr

d
i.e. Q, = dr(Qr)dr
d ( . dT)
dr - k . 2n rL · dr · dr
,4Uowab1e
temperature at the centre, Tc i.e. at r = o
6
g· 2n · r L dr =
l.92X 10 -3 2
r::::T,:::: 4 x 30 x(t5xt0 ) ·+300 .. k . dr dT) + g . r
d ( r. dr = 0

= 303.6°C ... Ans. d ( dT) S

dr r · dr +k·r = O
------=::
fJtllll'IPI~ ~·: :yllnder has ~~ in~~r ·~nd ~u~~~ .radlu.s' ~i 5 - ~~ : :·oR -~ ~ing·-;·~di~d ~~a~i~~ ·i~;
1

A1on9 ho o
d
15
.
cm respectively. It generates heat at the rate of l.&_ dT)
r dr ( r· dr + .& . (2.2.4);
k =0 from equation
an wi
1 k /rn
3 the thermal conductivity of material is 0.5 W/mK. If
I

aximum temperature occurs at radius of 1o cm and We have;

· surface ·1s so·c, t·ind :
the m ture at outer ·
ternpera .
Temperature at inner surface. On integration,
(I)
Maximum temperature at the cylinder.
(ii) dT g C1
oenve the formula you may use. dr +2k ' r = r
. . .(i)

Solution: .. . (ii)
r
1
= 5 cm= 0.05 m, r2 = 15cm=0.15m,
3 . 3 Boundary conditions are :
g = 1 kW/m = 1000 W/m , k = 0.5W/mK,
T = Tnw: at r =to cm, Tr= rl = 50oC =To (a) Given : Maximum temperature occurs at r = 0.1 m
. i.e.~~ '."' 0. Using this condition in Equation (i),

1
.!.:.._ 1000 x <0.1)2 - .. .(iii)
:. Ci = 2k - 2 x 0.5 - 10

From Equation (ii),

Fig. P. 2.21.5
. 2
5
50 + lOOO x 0.1
2 x 0.5 2 .
= 10 ln (0.15) + <;

C1 = 80.22°C ... (iv)

ff TtcU111wttdgi
V Pu tlJ IC. Jllons

~!\l!f111
· - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - ·- - -- - - - - - - - -

Scanned with CamScanner

 ·~
.. ~,

·; V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2-70 Conducuon

On sub$tituting tho ,..iues ofC1 and c; in ~uation (ii).

., g rl
T ·~ · I • tolnr+so.:: ...(v)

(f) Temp«ature at ln.ner surfltCe, T,

L~. al po: r 1 • 0.05 m from Equation (\')

Solution:
loo:> (0.0S\i
T1 + r;o:sx : = 10 ln (0.0~) + 80.~
Hc.\I gcne~ed. g ., 4715kJtm'hr, k•0.175\V/mK

•••Ans. g .. HI~ X to!

3(>C.)Q
\l'I/ ~ 131'V'\1.)' 7 \' '/m3
" II\ I :
. .
(U) Uaxlmum temperature, T... at r • 0.1 m.

From Eq.u:ioo (\r). Trmpc"flll\ll'l:' ut tho ~<'ntro (Rdrr Equntlon 2.2 l.3),
J().""() x (0.1 \:
T-. + : x 0..5 x ~ = l 0 .!n (0.1 ) ,.. SO.~ At centre, r r: o

. J~M.6 ,,~1 0
T ~ "' 6X0.175 (" - )+lS ... Ans.

Eump&e 2.21 ~s ~aampt• 2.z1.a Util.!!111,HIS ,:1 1

. . . ' . : .\ i
A 1 m ~ N:'d\~~ \\~~ ~l?st~s a ~w~r ct 10 i..w to 'An 8 cm dlAmotor Omngo, nppro)(lrruttoly ephedcel In shape·
s.~tx....~--i~ ~.vjj &t SO'C. Fltl~ thl dr.lmei:er of rh~ \\~rt If the. t ndotgoos rlponlno procoss nnd oonorotoe .6000 W1m1 ~i
rr~~ ~'"~~ tti.~.,,~~ (If \'°''~ is 101.'.YC.
ll
(
•norgy, If tho oxtomal su1face of tho <;minge i5 at 6.5•C.
' • - I

:CAlcutato tho tomporoturo at the center O!ld olso find the heat
Ta.'"'e · h .. 100:1 W mtr{ ~~)(.tot Ni~romt H ~ W.'rnK
ftow trom tho outer surfoo(l, · : 1
Sol\:tian: !Ta._, i-. • 0.2.2 W/m·t< tor. tho orango. Astume eteady ~tarel
Cl-wnr:: L • h:\. fl.'¥'t'it • 10 \.\\', T. " sll''C. htll.tr40tfor __
_,..

T...,., • t :t. Y''C", :ti• l (t~.) \\','C\:K. \.•NlWJ:nK Solution:

ti
J •S'"1u; R .. ;- "' 4cm a 0.0-lm

H' " ~ (t-){I c\\'\ s"' :tOOO \\'/1111 ; i.:;:; 0.22 W/m·K: T, 6.5°C =
~ J\' L
{II l 'C'ltll><'raturt ac lht rrnttt,
r. Cl ~ rn: I() W'.t'.1.1
... ~r.· ~ 1
-~
~R-
. . (I)

JL l ,
T • T,. • ok (R - r") + T,

5000 ,
T "' (i x o.i:! x (0.04 - 0) + 6.5

= Jl.56°C (C~ntr~ tem~rature) ... Ans.

(ti} Hr.at no" nti' from OUlt'r surfact, Q

Q =
! )i ...
= sooo x 1n x o.o.i 1
=I-'-'\\' ••• Ans.

•• ,.\.tl.S..

Sc~ with CemSc~nner

 Conduction

r, a I cm a 0.01111.

r: a 3 cm= 0.03 m,

T1 ""3oo·c. k 11 o.s W/mK.

3
S • 0.6 x 10° W/m
Fig. P. 2.21.10
d
d ..
3• .1 tlll\\ = o.oon m R =~ =0.00t6 m To nnd : Outsido surface tcmpemture of cylinder.

From Poisson's equution :

I = 30 cnl = 0.3 m
V = tOV ; I d
r<k ( dT)
r·Tr +rg = 0 :
k = 21.5 W/mK; T, :::: 93c-c
dT)
L 70xl0-sx0.3
d (
dr r•Tr = - .!.:!
k
R =PA= 1t =0.0261 ohm
:rx 0.0032l On integration :
dT
r·-
g. rl
= -2k+c,:
dr

I
v =0.0261
=R 10
=.~g3
:- .1 4 Amp. dT g. r C,
... (i)
dr = - 2k +-r-
rR g . rl
On integration : T = - 4k + C1 In (r) + c; ...(ii)

3S3.1~ x 0.0261
2

= 1t x 0J)Ot6· x 0.3
(where, V =1t R2 x L) Boundary conditions are :

= l5.S9 x 10s W/m

3 (n) At r= r 1 ~~ =0 (insulated)
(b) At r= r 1
fom .....rsture of\\ire, Tc
centre~l'--
On using condition (n) in Equation (i),
.S.. (Rl - rz) + T
.. T = 4k • l
g · r1 C1 .!.:..:i.
Rz 0 = -2'i( +-r- .; c, = 2k
Tc = L+T
4k s
atr=O I

5 2 Therefore Equation (ii) becomes,

t 5.89 x 10 x 0.0016
= x _
4 22 5
+ 93 =138.2°C ••. Ans.
g •r
1 g·r
l
I
·
T = -4k + 2k ln (r) + C;i ... (iii)
Example 2.21.1 O
A chemical reaction takes place in a packed bed between Using boundary condition (b) given above i.e.
two co-axial cylinders with radii 1cm and 3 cm. The inner
· surface is at 500°C and it is insulated. Assuming the reaction T= T 1 at r = r1
6 3 2 l
rate of 0.6 x 10 W/m in the reactor volume, find the
g · r 1 g · r1
temperature. at the outer surface of the reactor. Take T1 = -4k+2kln(r1)+C;i
conductivity for packed material as 0.5 W/mK. Derive the
. l l
equation you use. g · r1 g · r1

Solution: Refer Fig. P. 2.21.10

C;i = T 1 +4k-2k · ln (r1)

Given : A chemical reactor in the form of a cylinder.

. .
Then by substituting the value of C;i from above in
Equation (iii), the temperature distribution becomes;
' j ~
.' . '

2 2 2
g (r -r ) g. r 1. Formulae to be used : It is .the case of a solid cyu , :
T = Ti - 4k t +-2k1 In (rr)
1
...(v) 'ch temperature at surface is specified ford . lldtr~· ;
wh 1 en.,.~.,
""l()~ " '
fonnula, refer Equation (2.20.5), . ti(. 1
Equation (v) gives the temperature distribution equation In
..&..(R2 l .
· the cylinder. T = 4k -r )+T·W '',.I
...G1· '.
Temperature at outer surrace, Ti at r =r1 =0.03 m ' ··, ;
Maximum temperature In wire, Tmax . i
2. :!.
On substituting the values in Equation (v),
2 2 2 T = T,,,.. , at r =0. .\

T1
=
T1 -
g (r2 - r1)
4k +-:- ln
g . r, .(
-
r2) j
J
2k r1 Using this condition in Equation (i), ·j
6 8 i
.T = SOO _ 0.6x 10 (0.03 -0.011 )
2 JL 2T _ 15.873 x 10 x 0.00162
I I
2
. 4X'0,5
Tmax = 4k R . + 91 - . 4 X 22.5 ---..... +93 . ·;

6 1
(0.6 x l 0 ) (0.01) ( 0.03 = t38.1°C
+ 2 x 0.5 ln om)
Example 2.21.12
T1 = 500 - 240 + 65.9 = 32S.9°C ... Ans. A metal slab of 2 cm thickness (k = 25 W/mK) Qen
. e a eraie
Example 2.21.11 . ternal heat energy at a uniform rate qf 1O W!m . On '
m . ef~Ct
f this slab is insulated and the other face 1s mainiain
0 . ~~
300°0 due to its exposure to a fluid. Determine maxi
A 3.2 mm diameter wire which is 30 cm long has a voltage
difference of 1OV across it. The outer surface temperature of · 1 t' A ll'lurn
temperature in the slab and its oca ion. Isa, find out to1a1
wire Is 93°0. · Resistivity of wire = 70 x 1o~· ohm. cm. heat flow out (rate) from the slab.
Thermal conductivity of wire = 22.5 W/mK. Find the
maximum temperature In the wire. Derive the formula you
Solution:
use. Given: Thickness llx = 2cm=0.02 m
8
k = 25 W/mK ; g =10 W /m
3
Solutlon:

T2 = 300°C
Given: Diameter, D =3.2 mm,

R= ~ 3
= ;} = 1.6 mm= 0.16 cm= 0.0016 m
Heat flow rate from the slab.
8
·Q = g x Volume= 10 x 0.02 x 1 x l
L = 30 cm = 0.3 m, V =10 Volts, Tw = 93°C
2
-6 -8 = 2x 10 W/m
6
p = 70 x lO ohm · cm=70 x 10 ohm·m,

2 2
k=22.5W/mK ; A=1tR =n(0.0016)
. v 2 yl
Heat generated, Q = I1R = ( R) . R =R -~a

R = Resistivity x ~
-
Insulation
g

70 x 10- 8
= 7t (0.0016>2 x 0.3 = 0.02611 k=25

yl (10)2 ~ 2 cm~
Q = R = 0 .02611 = 3829.75 w x=·o x = 0.02
Fig. P. 2.21.12
 if_ i-4eat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 2·73 Conduction·

> .p##" nduction equation in the slab is given h= 1.15kW/m2K, k= .17W/mK

I ·
g~t~ . T.=20°C,
2
i d T .&
I
I
d7+k = 0 Let 'd' be the diameter of heating wire.
'
"' Internal heat generation,

g = __Q_ 10,000 = 4~ W/m'l.

dT =-8! volume =n d2 nu
<1x = k +c1 4x x1
: ..(i)

T = d-
2k +C 1 x+c, ...(ii)
Since temperature nre given, temperature expression with
internal heat generation is requirCd to be worked out, we known
datY conditions that,
soun ·
!!! = 0 at x =O(as face at x =0 is insulated and rI drd ( 'Cir
dT) &
+k = 0
I) dX
~..,.rure shall be ma.timum)
teJil....... - -
or d ( dT)
- 3()()°C at x =0.02 dr rdr =
Z)
T= T:-
,A.pply bOundar)' condition (1) to ~ua?on (i), we get c 1 0 = 11\tcgroting,

Hence Equation (ii) becomes,

dT =..&!'. c.
or
- sx: dr = 2k +-r
T = 2k +C, ...(iii)
BCL: As f!I = 0 at centre of wire r =0
de
Using~· c"'nditfon (~)in ~u:ition (iii),

-~\:: c1 = 0
T = ~+C,

-10' x o.oi
.. dT =..fil
dr = 2k ... (i)
300 = ~x~ +C, 2
or =..&...
.. c, = 1100
T = 4k +C, .. ~(ii)

BC2: At'outer surface r = R

'
- t!'("
T = ""11"+ llOO Rate of heat conduction to another surface = Rate of heat
convection from outer surface.
Tc:;-.eno::tt 'Shsll be m.u.imum :'ii x =O.

T._. = 1100°C ·-Ans.

Substituting~; from Equation (i) and TR from Equation (ii).
~221.13

aif~e v.~e. t.iavlng a resistivity of 100 µ !l - cm, is to be

used es a ?:Jea!· r.ig element in a 10 W</ heater. The wire
2
~.ace wnpe-ra.:i:re should not exceed 1220°C. Take gB. =-BB..
2h = 4k -T_+<;
Sl\.rm:.t."!tcCo".l~ .:2r 1e!Tt?firature as 20°C, convective heat
2
tra,"!:51=1' c:i:fticie-r.t cf 1.15 W<//m K and thermal conductivity gB. gR2
C2 = 2h + 4k + T_
ct t..'l:fu'OOle .a:s 17 W/mK Find out what diameter of
Kdl..-ome •v/:e ts n&cessary for 1 m long heater. 2 2
=-.&!:.. gB... gB.
Substituting <; in Equation (ii)T = 4 k + 4k + ih + T•.
Solution:

Gh<tSi: Q=IO l:W, k ngth of wire= I m. :. To = .&B.

2h +T..

T.,= 122lfC.
 2-74
V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
4000<! d (Ii) Heat conducted, Q
1220 = --;f ><2x2x 1150 • •t,

= - kA (&!)
l • . ·'·
Q dr r•R
I ... Ans.
•• d = 2.3xlO.Jm•Z.3mm G2~ R)
= - k • (2 7tRL) •
Example 2.21 .14
= 7tR\ ·g
Solid cyllndrlcal rod a cm In dlam~ter (~ 50 W/mK) = 2 5
gen~rates heat at the rate of 2 x 1O W/m • If centre line 1t x (0.04)

,
= x 1 x 2 x 10
temperature is 1so°C, Calculate = 1005.3 w ...
(i) Surface temperature
(ii) Rate of heat conducted at outer surface per metre of (iii) Derivation or Equation used bas been given above.
rod. Consider only radlal conduction.

Solution : Example 2.21 .15

Given : =
D 8cm =0.08 m, k =50 W/rnK, A 3 mm diameter and 100 {Tl long stainless steel.wire ha , .
. s 3
g=2X 10 W/m. At r=O, T= 15 C ·
00
k =20 W/m°C and resistivity, p = 10 x 10-a ohm h ~
'.
voltage of 100 V. The outer surface of the wire is main•~~ 8
=
R = P/2 0.04 m I
at 100°c. Calculate the centr~ temperature of the wire. 11
IQJO&J

By Poisson's equation in cylindrical co-ordinates we have, heated wire is submerged in a fluid maintained at sooc I
,,tie
111\d
g the heat transfer coefficient on the surface of the wire.
1 d ( dT) = -I
r dr ~. dr
So"lutlon:
g
R = 1.5 mm= 0.0015lll
d
dr ( r. (i;'
dT) = ... k ·r Given: d=3mm,

=100 m, k=20W/mK
dT g r2 l
r . (i;' = -I ·2 +C1 8
Resistivity p = IO x 10- ohm · m,
dT g c, : ..(i)
dr = -2k · r+7
Voltage V =100 V

At r =0, ~; =0 (at centre the temperature is maximum) T1 =100°c. T.. =50°C

Temperature distribution in radial direction in a cylinder is

... (ii)
given as,
. .. (iii) g 2 2 .
T = 4JZ (R - r ) + T1

At r =0, T =150° . On substituting in Equation (iii)

For centre temperature, r = 0
Cz = 150° c Rz
:. T, = . EJf-+ T.
g 2
Thus, T = - 4k · r + 150 ...(iv)
. . . y2 y2
Heat generation rate in the wire= 12R = R2 x R =R
(i) It's outside surface temperature, T2 i.e. at r =R =0.04 m
R = p ~= 10 x 10- x =1.415 Ohm
8
g 2 . IOO
~x0.003
2
T2 =- 4 k · R + 150

v~
5
2x 10 1002 ·
= 2
4 xso x(0.04) +150 .. Q = r2R =If= 1.415 =1061 w
Q 7067
Tz = - 1.6 + 150 =148.4° C ... Ans. g = Voiiime - 10 x 106W/m3
~ x 0.0032 x 100
 1
.i
I
l
i
;
I

,,. J00.28°C (centre temperature)

... An1. One dlmerulonal Pob.'°n'• equation

7067 ::: h x 7t x 0.003 x 100 x (100 _SO)

~· :r v·~·:
Overall heat transrer wettklent. U
· 0

1
h • JS0Whn K Heat flow rate through a composite wall by all modes of heat
•.. Ans.
transfer (i.e. conduction, convection and radiation) can be
expressed a~ :

Q =

l. I X1 X, I
r ,.1.beat conduction equation in Caneslan co· ord'1nates
u = jl+'k+T+
I I "2
··· +i)o
Gene..
. tropic material is given as : 1
for iso Where, U is called overall beat transfer coeflldeot and UA
a2T a2T a2T g 1 at
ax' + ay2 + oz2 +j( = a'at is called combined thermal resistance to composite walL

a (Thermal diffusivity) = -1._C {I) Resistance in series : L R =R1 + ~ + ~ + ...

h re •
we . P· P
I 1 I I
(li) Resistance Jn parallel : - - =R + v +if + ···
special cases or heat conduction· LR I ."l l

J. Poisson's Equation (Steady state condition i.e. ~= 0) Conductive Resistance, R = k ~A' convective resistance
a2T a2T a2T
-+-+-+
g I
2 - 0 R=h · A
al ay2 oz k =
Estimation or intermediate temperature in a composite
2. Fourier's equation (Without heat source i:e. g = 0) wall
a2T a2T a2T i OT.
ax2 .ay2 az = -.-
- + - + -2
ex at

3. Laplace equation (Steady state and no heat source)

2 2
a2T a-
-+
T aT
2 +- = 0
ax ay2 az2 Interface there is sudden drop in temperature due to low
conducting of fluid.
Heat conduction through hollow long cylinder

Q =
One dimensional steady state heat conduction equation
with beat generation
1 o( ID
Poisson's equation : ; · or \,!" · or) + j(
g
=0 ln(;~)
Where, R = 21tkL
conductive Resistance
General heat conduction equation in spherical co-
ordinates.

• TtcUH•IMti
. . P 1Ullt1ll1n1

Scttr11Ww1thC11JnSc1m1~
 MMI Trnnolor MlJ·O~m O·Mooh

1111111 1r1111111f1ir 1hr11uj(h c111111111111ll4t &·yfhutcir wllh t•m1d11ctlo11

1tnd l'OllV&1l Clcu1
1
I

Q "' h1 2n ... ' ·

2n kI L. n·,n·,...~,.,,·r,) :Zn k, L CT2 - 'I',)
w 111(f) • in(~)
"' h,, 2n r.1 • J.. ('I'~ - 'f1,)
'1'1-T,,
Q "' I<' .,. J<.J + l<J ,.. I<~ ;·I v;;, ( ,.!a.)
;i, +rl! • o,
.. ('I', - 'J',.)
II (
dr ' 'Tr dT) . -- gr
k

clT g C1
-dr • -2k
-· r+-
r
I kut tr111lllfcr thro11Jth 11 hollow "11hcrc :
T •
Q a

Vnrlou# cuw&·# of hcnl coud uctlon 111 *<.llld cylinder ore :

Cotro 1 : With Npeclncd 11urfucc tcm11craturc,
Jlc11t trUIL'ifcr through 11 com11ound 1111hcrc wllh
'J' a 'J',, Ill r. Jt
convection
1'1-T0 (T1 -T2) (T2 -'1'3) (T~ -T0 )
Q a I a (r2 - r,) = (r1 - r1) c:i _L
47t ~ r2 r3
11
A, h, 47t k1 r1 r2 Ao u
C1111c JI : Solid cylinder exposed to convection lo
l
Where. A1 • 47t r 1 , 1m_rroundlng nuld ut T...

Boundary condltlo11s are :

· dT
(u) Al r::: 0, dr =0
(b) Atrc::R, -kA (~~) =h·Af!r·R-T..J
r• R

g 2 2 gR
T = 4i{ (R - r ) + Zh + T...
Section JI : lnsulatlon.
gR 2
A marcrial having low tl1crrnal conductiviry is called Heal flux = T(W/m )

Insulating mar~rlal. II ls used to decrease lhe heal transfer

rares. Cusc III : Hollow cylinder with uniform heat generation
and H&>cdncd wmpcraturc,; T = T 1 ot r 1 and T = T2 at r1
Examples of lnsuJaUng, mnterlols are asbestos, glass, rock
wood, cork, plasric materials ere. g
T = - 4k r2 + C1 ln (r) + C2
CrJrlcof thickness or Jnsulallng mowrltll

(ll) For cylinders : r2 = re = * Boundary condltlo11s are :

(a) Alr=r,. T=T1
(b) For spheres : r2 = r c
2k
c h (b) At r =r2, T =T2
~·. ~~n~fer •. (MU.Sem 5-Mech) .
.:'. - f. ..ie~atb!•~·..-~~===:~~;:;;;;a;:;-~·2~·7~711:;;:;;·;;:;;;;i::m;;;=:=;~=;m;;;~~=:;;;i;~==Co~nd:gu~ct~io~n
'. ductJon In solid sphere with heat generatlo
. ;..
. Jlellt con : n. a.2 Write the three dimensional general heat conduction

..!.l .-drd(ldT)
r ·Tr + 'kg=
. .
P .
(Poisson's equation) equation for Isotropic materials and deduce them as
r· Poisson's, Fourier's and Laplace equation, by

(2
d r, dT)
-dr dr
specifying the required
equations. [Sections 2.1 and 2.1.2)
eondltions for these

Q,3
Define overall heat transfer coefficient.[Sectlon 2.9]
Q,4
Write the equations for conductive and convective
resistance. Draw an equivalent circuit for heat
transfer by conduction and convection In ·a
composite wall. [Sections 2.11 and 2.12)
· cases for solid sphere of radius R are
\'llffoU5 Q, 5 Write the equations for resistances in a he.at transfer
.- 1 . With specified surface temperature T
case . ' w problem in case of :
conditions are :
901mdary (a) Series [Section 2.11)
dT
.At centre r =0, Cir= 0 (b) Parallel [Section 2.12]
(a)
At surfacer= R, T =Tw Q, 6 Write the equations for heat transfer in the following
(b)
g 2 2 cases when heat transfer Is purely by conduction in
T = 6k(R -r)+Tw radial direction.

(i) .Through a long hollow cylinder. [Section 2.7]

case 11 : Solid sphere with heat convec~on to Ouid
(ii) Through a hollow sphere. [Section 2.8]
soundary conditions
. are :
dT dT gr Ct 7 Write the equations for total resistance offered
(a) Afr=O, dr=O :. (jf=-3k
during heat transfer by conduction and convection in
· (b) .At r= R the following cases :
Jieat conduction to surface= Heat convection. (I) In a compound spheres [Section 2.14)
(ii) In a compound cylinder [Section 2.131.
~k·A (~;)r=R = h.A(T -T0 ),.R
a. 8 What do you understand by critical radius of
g 2 2 g·R insulation 7 [Section 2.16)
.. T = 6k (R -r ) + 3.b+T..
Q.9 State any three important aspects related to critical
Ag · r gr
Q = 3
and q,= T radius of insulation. [SectlC?n 2.16.1]

a. 10 Write equation for critical .radius of Insulation In case

of :

(i) Cylinders [Section 2.16]

[Note : For answer please refer the section number
(ii) Spheres [Section 2.17)
· indicated in bracket.]

Theory
Short Answer Typ~ Questions
a. 1 Derive the general heat conduction equation in
a. 1 Write the general three dimensional heat conduction
Cartesian co-ordinates for isotropic materials.
equation
[Section 2.1]
(i) In Cartesian co-ordinates [Section 2.1.1]
(ii) In cylindrical co-ordinates [Section 2.2]
a. 2 Discuss "Electrical . analogy" of combined heat
conduction and convection · in a composite plane
(iii) In spherical co-ordinates [Section 2.3]
wall. Hence define overall heat transfer coefficient.
[Sections 2.10 and 2.10.1]

V'ftcU11•ltdti
"'I" ru&ll f. lll•n s
 2-78 Co _....
Y Heal Transfer MU-Sem 5 -Mech) Deduce that the maximum temperature ~'
. . ductlon through a hollow
Q. 3 Prove that the heat con the centre of slab in case T1 =T2 • (Section~te ~
long cylinder Is given by : 1a.11
Q.9 Derive an expression for steady state tern
~ (Section 2.7]
distribution in a slab of thickness L h .Per"~•
Qs> Ai(:,9 .. 3 av1ng h......
generation g (W/m ) and thermal cond . . ~ ·
when left face is insulated at x =o and ri ~ ~
2irkL

Derive th e eq
uation tor thermal resistance for heat kept Tw· The heat is conducted to fluid frogrnt~ee 1'
Q.4
conduction In hollow sphere. [Section 2.8] face and maintained at Tw· [Section 2.19..3] ~
What do you understand by critical radius of g 2
0.6 [Ans. : T =2 k (l - x2) +1 l
Insulation ? Derive an expression for critical radius h +l.J
of Insulation In case cylinders. State its physical Q.10 Show that the maximum temperature in a cylilld .
significance. [Sections 2.16 and 2.16.1] rod with heat generation is given by : ~
a. 6 Derive an expression for critical radius of insulation Tmax 9· A ( h· A:\
T.. =1 + 4h · T. 2 + -k-)
In case of spheres. {Section 2.17]

a. 7 A solid cylinder and a solid sphere are of the same

where, T_ = fluid temperature, g = heat generation
radius and material. These have the same outside rate per unit volume, R =outer radius, h :: coeffiic·ient
surface temperature with same amount of heat of convective heat transfer and k = thelll\al
generation.Determine the maximum temperature in conductivity of material. [Section 2.19.2]
each case. [Sections 2.20.2 and 2.21.1]
Q.11 A solid sphere of radius R, thermal conductiVity k
Ans.: has the uniform heat generation rate of g (Wtm\
Show that
(i) Temperature distribution in the sphere is ·
given by,
g 2
Tc = 6k' R + Tw (Sphere) g 2 2
T=sk(R - r)+Tw,
Q. 8 ·Prove that the temperature distribution_ in. a plane If outer surface is maintained at T..
temperature .
wall having heat generation. g (W/m3) and
9 2 2 9R
maintained at temperatures T 1 and T2 on its sides is (ii) T = 6k (R - r ) + 3h + T- ·
given as
If there is convective heat transfer from outer
-g 2
T = 2k . L
(xL2-tx) + T,·
2
surface to fluid maintained at T_.
[Section (i) 2.21.1 and (II) 2.21.2)
CJOQ
 Extended Surface, Unsteady State Heat
Transfer {Transient Heat Conduction) and
Numerical Methods In Heat Conduction

syUabUS:
Heat transfer from Extended Surface : Types of extended surface and its significance, Governing differential
equation for fin and its solution, Fin performance: Fin effectiveness and Fin efficiency, Thermo Well
unsteady state heat transfer : Applications of unsteady state heat transfer, Lumped system Analysis, Criteria for
1urnped system analysis: characteristic length, Blot Number, Thermal time constant and Response of a
thermocouple, Heisler Charts
Numerlcal methods In heat transfer : Significance of numerical methods In heat transfer, Finite difference
formulation of differential equations, One-dimensional heat conduction.

Extended Surfaces-Fins
.+ (MU - May 13, Dec. 15)

-- syllabus Topic : Types of Extended Surface and

Its Significance

1 Introduction to Extended Surfaces

3.i__~---------...:..:..:...::..=__

There are large number of engineering equipments where the The rate of heat transfer from solid surface to fluids/
atmosphere is given by the equation :
unutilised heat energy is required to be dissipated I discarded to the
Q = h·A(T - T_)where,
a!JJlosphere. If this heat is not dissipated, the system will fail due to
overheating. h = convective heat transfer coefficient

Examples of engineering systems needing the heat dissipation A = Surface area

are the cooling of internal combustion engines, heat removal from ( T - T_ ) = Temperature difference between the solid
nuclear reactors, cooling of electronic components I integrated surface and the fluid I ambient air.

circuits, transfonners, motors, compressors, refrigerators etc.
In most of these cases the heat transfer takes place by
conduction and convection. Heat is conducted in solid material
upto its surface and finally the heat is rejected by convection from
its surface to the surroundings.
Thus the aim is to increase the heat transfer rates from the
surface so that the temperature of solid surface is maintained
within desired limits to avoid failure of the system.
In above heat transfer equation, the value of h is almost
constant (5 to 12 W I m2 K) whenever the heat is convected to
atmosphere and the temperature difference· (T - T _) can not be
controlled.
TI1ereforc, the only way is to increase the heat transfer
rate, Q is by increaslng the surface oren A. This surfnce area of
solid ls Increased by providing extended surfaces called fins.
The heat is transferred from liquid to gas or vice-versa
through a solid conducting surfaces. The convective heat trnnsfer
 ··V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem $-Mech)

. .
coefficient ·. . •
for gas ( _h, )· is u:sunlly mu
ch smnllor thnn thl' h\'lnt
· . · of liquids
tninsfer coefficient . . . · ( h1 ). • Obvious!)' tht'I convoctivc. hont
y
· · · . · d · • 1 ll~h sm:\llor thnn tho c.onvc.ctlve .
! r ~­
transfer between solid an gas s m . . t
d liquids. In ordrr to ~mpensntt.
·; ~
I
( .· heat ·. : · - ·between so
transfer . I'd
1 ~ {.
.. . , ti , heat transfer coelnclcnt In case of gnses
for low con\ec 'e .
. Ids' the surface nren on the gns side cnn be
compared to I1qu
extended by providing fins.

3.3 Types of fins and Applications (11)

~ (MU - Dec.10, May 15)

l
'
I
The fins are normally thin strips of high conducting materinls
such as copper, aluminium, steel, brass etc. I
Fins can be of different shapes and sizes depending upon its I
application as shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
(b) !
Fig. 3.3.2 .t l,lntc nus In 1.C. Engln~s I
An at1nular firr is 11 fin nttnched eircumfere'ntinll
Y la I
cylinder. The pin Jim or spirre Is nn extended surfnce of clrcu\ilf

(a) Rectangular or cross-section. Usunlly the dl:\meter of pin fin~ Is much less thnn lb
(b) Tapered fin (c} Rad isl plate fins
Plate fm length. The pin fins mny also be uniform or vnrylng cross.section
according to the requirement nnd npplication.

er Appllcatlons

As discuss.ed nbove, usunlly the fins nre provided on the

surface where convective hent trnnsfer coefficient is low ns in cnsc
(d) Disk fin/ (e) Pin fins
Annular fin of gases e.g. extended surfaces are ·used in rndintors, cylindc~ or
compressors nnd engines, trnnsfom1ers, motors, vnrious types of
Fig. 3.3.1 : 'I)'Pes of fins heat exchangers etc.

The fins which are attached to the plane walls are called cr Selection of fins

straight fins. These fins may be of constant cross-sectional area The geometry of fins are selected . based on the cost,
like rectangular plate fins or it may be of varying cross-sectional efficiency, performance, weight, availability of spnce, pressure
area like tapered fins, radial plate fins etc. The u.se of plate fins in drop in the heat transfer fluid etc.
I.C. engine is depicted in Fig. 3.3.2.
 if_

5Yll8
,-
Heat rransfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)

~bus roplc : Governing Differential Equ8 ti

and Its Solution
.
on for Ffn·
3-3

5.
.
Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Tra • .
Base temperature is miUntained constant at To·
. e . nmeter of the
Let Ac be cross-sectional area and P be th pe
ns Heat cond.)

I
gth of the fin .
fin, T.. the atmospheric temperature and Las Jen
through the tin
The heat is conducted from the base surface .
. . . tin surface by
and to atmospheric surrounding fluid from
convection simultaneously.
. f thickness dx at
Consider heat flow to an elemental section °
a distance x from the base temperature, To-

Heat entering into elemenllll)' section,

.. . (i)

Heat conducted out from element at (x + dx).

...(ii)
d
Q. +d• = Q. + dx ( Q.). dx
Heat convected out from surface of element of thickness, dx,
... (iii)
Qc c h • P • dx '( T - T.. )
Oc.nsidd .:s thin reC'l.lngulnr fin of unifonn cross-sec1.1onnl
. · . (P dx) is the area
where, T is the temperature at section x, •
are-1 ~ . , s,hown in Fig. 3A.J(a) or n pin fin of unt1onn ·" cross-
for convection.
. ..:i) art.'! shown in Fig. 3A.l(b). In each C"' th· fi
i;t1.-nc... ....e e rn is
,_iue~ I.:>~ bs..~ ~wf:t~ at temperature To: Writing energy balance equation for element dx.:
Heat conducted into elem~nt = Heat conducted out + Heat
convected out.

d
Q,. = Q,. + :x (Q,.) . dx + h · P • dx • (T-T.. )

d
- a; ( Q,. ) · dx = h . P • dx '( T - T.. )
f---l
Ac=~d
2
QcSS~M.!.l area, A: =w · t
Ferin"..eter, P =2 (w + t) ::::: 2w if (t <« w) P=n·d

~(oh. L Length= L
(i ) Tb1n recungular pla le f1n (b) P1n fln h·P ... (iv)
k'.A (T-T.. )
f1i.. 3...1.J : Analysis of (ms of uniform cross-sectional area
Let, ( T - T_) = 0, the excess temperature. .. .(v)
fvTW.OiLg .ti'StUDptioos ue made in analysis of pin fins :

1. Htal crodu..'1.ion is along the x-axis under steady state. On differentiating above equation twice
2
2 Ccn,·eafre heal transfer coefficient over the fin is unifonn .!!I d0 d2T d0 . .. (vi)
dx = dx and d;r =dx'1'
o\·er the entire rurface.
Let, .!!..:f.
k. A •
2
m (for convenience) .. .(3.4.1)
3. There is no beat generd.tion within the fin.

.:. -'!aterial is isotropic i.e. l: i~ con ~tanL

Sct11111al withCi:111 1&.:imrn:~f

 , I Ollffl'lon, Unfit, Oleln M~t TUM, (Trtmri I . .:
:J·'1 - y1 JC • - . . . - - • hlftl
!'fot\t 1'r.em11ht_r (MU.fJmn fil·Mlloh) _
· •1
-
ooun cJ" ry
uoncJltlon• (0•o)• " r• 1 (' •• o•'I' .. T ) · 'I
. ..
~
ll"lllll l!q111111t111N (vi) 1111.t (,l,il. t), 11111 uhovu l((111111lon ( v) 'J' ,,;'1'11 l.o, 11 11•1·
H 1110,
Al 11" '1'
..
111~1'~ lht• r1111n,
At
11 "°L _, , . ,, 'I' ;.,'f'.. I.~.
".. ,,
,j';1 ~
11111 2.
1114 •II '" II

JJq1111llt•11 t:IA,2) 111 1111, ~1·1·111111 11nh•1' 1llffofllllll11I 11q1111tl1J1l, It twuml11r,Y c.:011dltlo11 ( l) 111 B11u1111c111 (:l 4\ ~
n1pn·~c11IH tlil'l ll'11tp1•1'11t11n11llHlrll1111lo1111h•11)! 1hn fin, (Jn llJlJl IYI"'"11 · •JJwe t'I
'l'lt1:1 p.1!1111rnl n11l11tlo11 to 1ho 11livv11 ~ucoml nr1ll1r tllf'forot1llul IJ,; a C1·I· C~ .
'•of)
Hc11111tl1111 I~. 1
na 1.wumf111·y comlltlo11 (2) 111 1J<1u11tlon (~ 4 3
llt4 ~ • fllA ,,.(3.11.:l) ()Jl llJ>Jl IYI f' ' ' ' ) ~It•·
..1,
II .. CI I ll .,. C2 I (.I

(I fil
F•
'-'I• o
111' .. •·t''o•lll"•
'-2
Aull tho "'"Ii' •
~ ~ nl'C1 0"'1 - 111• C1 •1,"""

111Ol'll11r111 ,l'fl/111! the' Hq11a1/011 (:t..t ..1), '"'' 111•1•tl to d1•1t•mi/!lll Thi~ i:quollty cun holtl gootl Jr c, ill 0
thi• l 'll/Ml!lllf.I' C1 11111/ (,.'' f ill' w/t/t'/t IVI! ilt't~d /WO /JOtllll/llfj
<'fl11il/1/(111,v, Wo ~ltull uhtnln thu ~ol111lo11 ol' tht1 nhuw Hquntloll hy 11,.01111Jq11111lonii (I) nntl (II),
1·1111Hldl11'l111! tltl'I l'nllowl11tL tlirr.o cun~H :
Cu111• J I 'l'ho 1'111 In l11f'l11l11:ly lonii 11111l th11 10111pcrntun.1 11t tho oml
or fin IN 1111c11tlnlly r 111111I to "11rru1111dh1B f luld
11 l.o• . "~ttii
to111pcrn1ur11. On Ht1bntltutlng tho vulucHof C 1 nnd C2 111 f.!<1u111lon (3.4.3) we.",q. 1I
' I
Cn11c I I 1 Adc11111111.1ly 10111;1 fin with lr1Hul11tod oml tfp.
Cnllll Ill : ·mo "horl 1111 which IOOllON hout by cunvi:ctlon from nn
cl'OHH Hcctlo1111l 111·111111t fo1·01111. dO .. -('fo-T_) mc· "'~
(Jx •o.OiJ I

3.4.1 Coeo I : Analyele of lnflnltoly Long Fin

J{owrltlng cquutlon (3.4.~)
I
I
.+ (MU· oco. 17)
J I
~t -~'.Li
( 'fo - ·1·... ) ..""- "'~
I
I
! • I I 1•' ' II ' I: I
'r --r... ...(3A~) ;
'• 1rma.0t!JrJ·hf·MitMJ · · · " · .... d
,
tronofo~ fhro~gh .. 1nfln1toiy
. I
Q, Do(lvo a rolatlon of :1ioat I
...(3,4,)) I
I ' long fir). •' . .. ·' ;l'f.t&fJ.
Above equat/011 rcpres1111ts tlw tem(lerawrc distribution ~ii, I
An lnllnltcly lon11 lln IH ~hown In Jllg. 3.4.2. Jn HUCh l.i c11No
tho rcmpcrnturc ut the end of pin 11ppro11cheH to Ht1rroundlng fluid lt1,fln/tcly tong fin. Tho hout flow through the fin cnn cl~r ~
tcmpcmrurc, T.. M ~hown In Fig. 3.11.2. Such n condition cun be culculntcd by heul conduction from bosc or by conHldcrlng !ht ~1

prnctlculfy rncl by 11 0.5 111111 dl11111e1cr rod which IN 11bout 8 cm Jong trnn~fi:r hy convection from the onllrc fin .

Hoat tronefor by conduction at boao

T
Q c -k · A·(~'\
( XJ•• o
To
Tomporoluro protllo,
Tx
rf
Q ., +k· A · m·(T0 -T.. )
I Tc: T(/)
'--~~~~~~~~~~--~x c ·· · k· 0A x.~(T0 -T~ ) ...
fo"lg, :l.4.2 : Jnnnllely long nn
 .. . - est cond.)
. crrsns. H .
3·5 . Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans.

...(3.4.8) Boundary condition• are e:::ro-r.. ==0o

l. At =
x 0, T == T0 and
convection. ~-0
lfll115fef b)' 2. At x =L Q = 0 i.e. dx - ••. (D
it~ "" b. p. dx · ( T-T.. ) mx C -mx

Q,.::;
•
f
0 .
0 = C1 e + :e .
d'tion in equauon
. (i) we get.

On applying first boundary con 1 • ••• (ii>

"" h. p. (T0 -T..) ; c-mx · dx B0 = C1 +<;
::< f
0 Differentiating Equation (i), . .. (iii) ·'
~
I

h·P·<To-T..) [-!·e-ou]: dB mx -inx '

= m c, e - m c; . e
I
dx
'l.
.
~ h·P ·<To-'T..>[-!·(e-m·· -e-"'"o)] On ~plying boundary condition (2) we get, 'I
'
"
1:rl
mL -mL
0 = m C 1 e - m <; e
~ b · P(To-T..)(:-!)<0-1)
... (iv) .I
.,'
c; = ..'t.,'
-
h.p(T0 -T.. )
m
=
h·P(T0 -T.)

~ ·Combining Equation (ii) and (iv), ·

•
0 = e
mL
C 1 + C 1 • e-mr: :::: c,
ce-ruL
-
+ e::)
e-
inC
I.
I
.'!
I

...(v)
0
1,'I
·~'.
. .. (v) l;
· ,"· . ' • I '
li
af>OYe Eq~ation (v) is same as Equation (3.4.8». . .. ··.
II,,
'fhUS the
Using C1 in Equation (iv),
0 ~ QC -mL ) mL
i.e. Q-'' • B0 ( e _£+ emc X ;.-m-r:
case If : Adequately Long Fin with
3.4·2 insulated End Tip emL · ) ••• (vi)·

~ (MU· May 14) = B0 ( e - mL + e mT:

On substituting the values of C 1 and C 2 from Equations (v)

I
and (vi) in Equation (i) we get, I•
I

a ao[;~:~::=~J+e0 [;:~~+e::J
•.I
= I
fl
I

·'
1'
1'
Refu fig. 3.4.3. ·I
Practically the' heat loss from the long and thin fin lip is e-m(L-x) +em (L-x) cosh m (L- x) ... (3.4.9)
,I
t
I
e-mL+ emC = cosh rnL
~gligible, thus the end of the lip can be considered as insulated. ii
Oc
t h [Note that : cosh a= ea~e~a J
x;ie:a· "''/•v.iAl,.,.!f.o t

L-----'•/x=L But .0 .= T-T_ and 00 = T 0 -T_

I
T I Therefore,
To I
Temperature profile
I
. !. T - T_ cosh m (L - x)
... (3.4.10)
Tf I
I B0 = T0 -T_ = cosh mL
TL
T.., Temperature at the tip, TL i.e". at x =L will be :
x=O x=L TL-T-
Fig. 3.4.3 : Long fin with lnsula~ end tip To-T- = cosh mL .. . (3.4.11)

Sc..:mned wtth C.:.mScanncr

 -~--------------~-1---.~..-.is;;l;;i----~~~s·~e~at~~~d.)
. . · Heat T•anaf0r(MU-S.m •·Mech)
llt!il/ flow rau from /ln Q : Heat conducted to fin at the bllSc
sha.11 be the heat Oo\v rate from fin, Hence,
3·B Ext. Surtace, Unat. Stata HaatT;ana,

Also \lnluc of 0 nt rnL • 3 app.roachcs zero It ·

•an H

-kA(~) . Increasing the \laluc of ml beyond 3 win not subs•~ftt.aU . Ui

· _ 1rnplica ~
Q =
l( -'1•0 •.. (vii) lhc hont ""'"'" '11te. Hoooe,Jln w;th .,L =3 ~ <aU~d1 ad ""
"""'' Y1ncre:..
On diffcrcntillting Equation (3.4.8), long fin orJin with insulated tip or adlabmic tip. et/"<ue/}

dO
di' .. 9
0 •
c- m sinh m (L -
cosh mL -
X)J 3.4.3 Case Ill : Analysis of Short Fin
... (viii) The boundary condltlona are ·
From Equations (vil) and (Viii).
l. At

Q = -k·A·e0 [ -- m sinh m (L- -x)J 2. At

X=L, Q=Q.,
COSh fnL _._

1 1~
0
This is referred as the condition for a slum or finite jj,
= -k·A ·0 0 • m[ - sinh rn
-COsh ml.•-L]
the raJe of hcaJ conducted to the end is convected awrn.1 ·~,~

'""ounding, -•ding to bound"Y oondition (2) 'P<cif,oj

=
Hence, Q Q., i.e.
• -J
"'°
10 llze

= '-Jh • p . k · A · 0o tanh ~
• Ye.
~o-
... (3.4.12) T.o ~ ... . ..
c" -~- -1::.°: T:.c
(: m=\[H) T
. I
I
I
In case or loftnltely long ftns, tanh mL 1 = Temperature profile
I

I
The Equation (3.4.11) reduces to : I
I
Too I
Q = Vh'.p . k • A . 80

= Vh. p. k. A <!o _T..) . .. [Same as Equation 3.4.~)

Fig. 3.4.5 : Heat transfer by convection at the tip
The variation of Q Vs mL and variation of e
0o can be plotted
-k.· A. (dd6)
X x•L
by const'dering Equations (3.4.12) and (3.4.10)
. .. ·0)
respectively as
shown m
. p·tg. 3·4·4 · According to these equations,
(where a:::: T -1'.,)
0 l
Q oc tanh mL and 0 oc cosh mL · Since, e = cl . enu + C:z . e-nu
0
...(ii)
.. d6 au
As m L or
. L increases,
. the value. of tanh mL first increases dx. = C 1 ·me -<;.me-nu
... (iii)
rapidly
. and then the rate slowly decreases and finally it become
asymptotic at mL 3. = Combining Equations (i) to (iii),

-k. A . [m . ~. e"" - m c;. e-"'•1•• L =

1.0
..-----====i h. A · [C, · eIla + ('1
'
' c- . . ],.L

_ k . A • m CC1 emL - <; e-mL ] = h·A[C1 emL+C:ze-mL]

cl - emL (le. m + h ) = '"'2 •

r' e-mL (k · m - h ) ... (iv)

Using boundary cond"tion

t (1) in Equation (ii) as x = 0, 9:: 0
0
we get,

ol._~~-
0.5 1~.0~~,~.5~?2~.0:"""'"2~.55~3. o
...(v)
ml-

· Fig. 3.4.4 : Variation

· of Q and 99 a Iong the length of thin
.
0
ad tln
 . Heat cond.)
3·7 · Ext. Surface, Unst State Heat Trafl5· (TraltS·
- . uans(et ·
·· · · ncrea"! the bal
1
· The aim of providing !he fin• '' to
J area. }'{o-...•ever, the (in
rate: from a surface by increaiing the ,uua.ce . ·-...r" w
nnd ltCU as a res"'""'~
it11Clf bl<ick.s the balle area"' the Jurface . u.rface
. ... (3.4.13) ~ fi om the b;i.'lt '
heat conductioo. Therefore, the heat uans er r ra£el'l will
... ~ the heat uanift:r
decrcw;e8. Thu11, one I• not ~ure wfleuK>r H is
the b~ suuace·
J

increase or not by providing the fin~ on

nuegsed by a term called fin t/ftct/venesJ ( e ).
... (3.4.14)
Ci ~
A Oo ... -:;:"'" - niL) +
(e +e (..!!...)
mk
(emL - noL
-e )

rhe values of C 1 und C2 in Equation (ii) we get,

bstil\ldng
Oflso h .
cosh 111 (L - x) + mk · sinh m (L - x)
0 ---- h ... (3.4.15)
,.. "' cosh mL + mk · sinh mL
80

let 0 = 01-
p.t '}("' LI
.. . (3.5.0
0L ... (3.4.16)
-0=
o cosh m+L
mkh· smh
. mL . . . b n eff~tiveness
. 1usufied only w_e
· Naturally the use of fins is the cost
of fin is greater than I . Practically the use of fins UlCreases
a~t now rate from flo, Q . . . , . . .. . - ..
.:ofthe-system:· Thus the
fi ·sonly justified by
pro\iisioiiing of the ins l .

Q = -k · A·(~~). atx=O
.
. taking into consideration the cost element v. en e
·h ffectiveness. e is

d0 more than 2.
on substituting the value of dx at x =0 we get,
fo case of insulated tip,
. h
sinh (mL) + ffik cosh (mL) Q So vP h k A · tanh ~
Q = k ·A· m · 00 • -----=~--_:_ E = h · A · 00 - h · A · S0
cosh (mL) + ~ sinh (mL)
tanh mL

Substituting, m =~ and dividing the Rl.!merator and

=~

. ator by cosh (mL) in the above equation we get . When mL is large i.e. mL ;?; 3, tanh (mL) tends to becorne I.
denomJn •
tanh (mL) + ] ~ Hence, for infinite long fin,
Q :: {hP k A · 00 · - h -.____;.;.;:,:..., ... (3.4.17) . .. (3:5 .2)
[ 1 + mk · tanh (mL)
e
- fD.
= \J'h-A.
';iiabus Topic : Performance of Fins : Fin Effectiveness er - Important Conclusions
and Fin Efficiency
(a) Effectiveness .increases with increase in k . Hence materials
- ' J •

- .. used for fins must have high thermal conductivity ·e.g.

.s
--
~ --~ ,.

Effectiveness of Fins (E or e) materials like copper, aluminium etc. However, the weight is
3
-+ (MU • Dec. 13, Dec. 14, Dec. 16)
also taken h1to r.onsideration while choosing the materials.

(b) Effectiveness increases with ino;;rease in (P/A), for this reason

thin fins are preferred.

(c) Effectiveness increases if the convective heat transfer

coefficient 'h' is low. For this reason the fins are provided on
the gas side having natural convection.

f f T•ttllCHwled~
~ r llbllc;;all on s.
 ..
.
'9)'· Heat Transfer MU-Sem 5-Mech) 3·8 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans.' (Trans. Heat' Colld. ; · '.:
3.5. 1 Overall Fin Effectiveness ( E 0 )
Example 3.5.1
A cylindrical metal rod of 5 cm diameter and 20 cm long Wilt)
The overall nn elTectlveness, E 0 for a finned surface is
thermal conductivity 225 W/mK protrudes In atmosphere t
defined ns: 30°C. It projects from furnace wall at 300"C. A convecti:
2
Total hent transfer from finned surface, QlaQJ heat transfer coefficient of air Is 10 W/m K. Determine
Eo = Hen! trnnsfer from base surface if there were no fins Q temperature at the free end of the rod assuming it as a ,.e
' nonn1 Insulated at end. •n
Solutton:
... (3.5.3)
Given: d =5cm =0.05m
Let.
n 2 n
A = 4 d = 4 x (0.05) = 1.963 x I
2 o-3
Au.atin := Area of unfinned portion of the wall

Atin = Total surface area of aU the fins. l =20 cm =0.2m

k=225W/mK,
l1 = ·fin efficiency h=IOW/m K
2

·! = Area of surface when there are no fins. T_ =30°C; Tb= 300~C:

h ( Aunflfl + l1 · Arlfl ) (To - T .. ) 00 =Tb-T_ =(300- 30) = 270°C
h ·Anolio ·(To T .. ) .. . (3.5.4)
Ffn tip fs iosuJated :
were
h Alinl·s loro..I surface area of
. all lhe fins

It is obvi~us from above equation, the overall effectiveness of m = ~=

~ finm·11 depend on lhe number of fins per unit length and
· lhe
4x 10
, r efficiency of the fins. = 225 x 0.05 =1.88
Area Weighted Fin Efficiency ( 'l1oi.1 )
Heat transfer rate, Q = m A k 00 tanh ml
Practically from a finned surface, the total heat transfer is the
Q = 1.88 x 1.963 x 10- x 225 x (270) ~ tanh (l.88 x 0.2)
3

sum of heat transfer from the finned surfaces and the heal transfer = 80.55 w
from the unfinned surface. Thus,
Tip temperature , T 1 or TL at x =L
01oul - . Qclll + Qtiaf'IMcd cosh m <L-x)
= TJ x h · ArlD • ( T0 - T.. ) coshml

+ (~-ArlD)-h. (T0 -T_) .. . (3.5.5) T, -T..

Tb - T.. = cosh ml
where, AIOUI =Aunrtanec1 + AWi
T 1 -30
Therefore, we define the total fin efficiency or area weighted 100 - 30 = cosh x (I. 88 x 0.2) =0.933
fin efficiency, TJUl!&I as :

Total heat transfer from finned surface

TL = 281.91°C .-:r
~ .... .·
...Ans.
11101al = The heat which would be transferred if the total area Example 3.5.2 . ... .,,,.-
were maintained at the base temperature, T 0
A cylindrical.fin is :ff;;~ in diameter and 3 cm long. Calculate
TJ x h · Afin · (T0 -T_) + (~-Ann) b (To-T.. ) the value of the temperature at fin tip if the fin is made of
= h·Aiow(T0 -T_) (i) Copper (k =350 W/mK) and
(ii) Teflon (K =0.35 W/mK) .
... (3.5.6). Assume that heat loss from fin tip is negligible.
2
. Ann Take h = 10 W/m K, T, =20°C, Tbese =120°C.
= 1- ~ (1-TJ) ... (3.5.7)
Solutlon:

d = 3mm =0.003 m,
 . . . . Heat c"ond:}
· : 3.9·. Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans.

Solution : · ·d =2 cm =0.02 m,
L= 10 cm= i:>.t m,

T0 =300°C

T_ =1s c 0

2
h=20W/m K

k =200 W/rn K.
0o = To - T _ =300 - 15 = 2850 C

p = n d =n x 0.02 ::; o.06283 rn

~-
1td x h
kA- k x 1ld2
!J1 "" 4 20 x o .06283_ = 4.472
m· = 200 x o .0003142
4 X 10
-~ = 350 x 0.003 with insulated
"" This problem is based on adequately long fi10

.,,. 6.172 end i.e. (Case II)

120-20
(i) Total beat dissipated by rod, Q
01 ::: ~ h (6.172 x 0.03)

100 Q = ....)h P k A • 0 0 • tanh mL

= -0172
}.
=98.31.
. .. (From Equation 3.4.12)
98.31
T1- Tr = = "120 x 0.06283 x 200 x 0.0003142 x 285 x tanh (4.472 x 0 .1)
.•• Ans.
'f, = U8.3°C Q = 33.6W
... ADS·

feflon {ID Temperature of rod at 4cm from the wall,

(ii)

ro =~d = '1 4 x 10
0.35 x 0.003
(ii)

i.e. T at x =0.04 m
T-T.. cosh m (L-x)
195.2
= T0 -T.. = cosh mL
120-20
0.57
T,-Tr = cos h (195.2 x 0.03) T-15 · cosh [ 4 · 472 (0 .1-0.04)1
300-15 = cosh[4·472 x 0.l]
T1 -Tr = 0.57
T-15 ~
285 1.1017
T, = 20.57°C ... Ans.

T = 283.06°C .. . Ans.
example 3.5.3
An aluminium rod 2.0 cm diameter and 1O cm long protrudes (iii) Temperature at the end of rod
trom the wall maintained at 300°C . The rod is exposed to
surroundings at 15°C. Heat transfer coefficient between rod
2
i.e. Tat x =L =0.1 m
surface and environment is 20 W/m K. The thermal
cosh m (L-x)
conductivity of the material is 200 W/mK. Find :
cosh mL
ul Total heat dissipated by rod _
Ui) Temperature of rod at 4 cm from the wall. cosh ( 4 · 472 x (0.1-0.1)]
T-15
(iii) Temperature at the end of rod.
300-15 = cash [4 · 472 x 0.1)
(iv) Fin efficiency.
Assume that the rod end is insulated.

Scanned wit h CamScanner

 . . Heat Transfer CMU·Sem·s-Mech 3-10
Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans n-
T • 273.7°C - . '\•rans~ :.'"'

•••Ans. - . . .
'le~t ,
(Iv) Fin emclency, TJ :
:. (mL) = 3.714 .
But m
tanh mL tanh (4.472 x 0.1)
mL = 4.472x0.1

a: 0.9383 or 93.83%
... Ans.
Example 3.5.4
= . . _ / _4X40.7-
An electric motor ls to be connected by a horizontal steel \J 42.56 x 0.025::: 12.37
=
shaft (k 42.56 W/mK), 25 mm In diameter to an Impeller of
a pump, circulating liquid metal at a temperature of 540~C. If But, mL = 3.714
the temperature of electric motor Is limited to a maximum
value of 52°C with the ambient air at 27°C and heat transfer 12.37 L ::: 3.714
2
coefficient of 40.7 W/m K, what length of shaft should be
sp~cified between motor and pump? Assume insulated tip :. L = 0.300 m
condition, for fin analysis. .
Solution: :. L = 300mm
Refer Fig. P.3.5.4
Example 3.5.5
= =
Steel shaft, d 25 mm 0.025 m
A copper rod 0.5 cm diameter and so cm
1
a wall . maintained at a temperatureong Protnides
surrounding temperature is 30°C. Convecuof Soo0 c. 1~
coefficient is 40 W/m Kand thermal COndu v~ _heat transi
2

is 300 W/m K. Determine .: . CtiVity of mare~

Pump circulating K = 42.56 W/mK
(i) Total heat transfer rate from rOd
liquid metal
atT0 =540"C (ii) Temperature of the rod at 20 cm from Wall.

Fig. P. 3.S.4 Solution:

Given: d =0.5 cm= 0.005 m,

d = 25 mm =0.025 m, T. =27° C, L=50 cm=0.5 m

k =42.56 W/rnK T0 =500°C, T.= 30°C

T 0 =540° C,
h =40 W/m2 Kk =300 W/m K.
=
h 40.7 W/m2 K .. p = 7t• d =7tX0.005=15.7X10- 3 m
·: One end of shaft is connected to motor, therefore assuming
no heat loss from fin tip.
·A = 41t · (d)2 =41t x (0.005)2 =1.9634 x 10-stn2

The ternperatu~e distribution, treating the shaft as a fin m =~= 40 x 15.7 x 10-
300 x l.9634 x 10-!= 10.325
insulated at the tip is given by
mL = 10.325 x 0.5 =5.163
TL-T.. cosh[m<L-x)J
T0 -T.. =
cosh (mL) Therefore, fin can be assumed to be infinity long fin sin~
mL>3.
At x = L, T = TL the above equation reduces to
(i) . Tot.al heat transfer from fin, Q :
TL -T.. l .
T0 -T~ = cosh (mL)

52 - 27 I
540 - 27 "' cosh (mL) ...(from Ilquation 3.4.8)
3
. . cosh (mL) = 20.52 =...)300 X (1.9634 X 10- ) X 40 X (15.7 X 10- 3) X (500-30)

=28.585 w ...Ans.

L..:.'.-~--
Sctmned w ith Ca mSca rmer
 ·· . nsfer (MU·Sem 5·Mech 3·11 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat cond.)
f. ,t-1etll rrti .
' turc or rod nt x • 20 cm • 0.2 m from Woll, T 3.6.1 Concept of Corrected Fin Length .
! -..
'fl'"'',cl'l' . .
(llJ ~~ 1.. -in• For rectangular fin of Infinite length;
' "' e
0- - JOJ25><0.l Prom Equation (3.6.2)
:: 0
...[ilPIA.o,,
h PL · 00
...An.'i.

'19xt=~
... (3.6.5)
=

Refer Fig. 3.4.l(a). Por rectangular fin.

P =2 (w + t), A= w · t
On substituting in Equation (3.6.4)

ri = \[H·t
k . w. t ... (3.6.6)
= x-1
h x 2 (w+ t) L
2
For a thin fin i.e. t < < < w. vaiue oft can be neglected in
(w + t) i.e. 2 (w + t) =2w. Therefore,

- -~l_-!8 . l
J{eat transfer rate. Q from the fin shall be maximum when the TJ - \J2hw 'L -\j'ih L
· 'al has infinite thermal conductivity (k) so that th 112
(J.11 01aien e On multiplying and dividing by L we get,
aiure of fin all along the length can be assumed to be same
rem per _fE! ...([ - ~ 1

as that at
the base of the fin. ri = \J-
2 h x [jir =\/"""Th x 1771
[Note: Qoc ( T0 - T.. ) from base]
But, t. L = Profile area of the fin, Arn
Actual heat transfer rate from fin, Q

#. x~
... (3.6.J)
. . Tl = Maximum possible heat transfer rate ' Qma ... (i)
=
Q Q.
.. . (3.6.2)
Tl= h · Ac · 00 =h · P · L·00 On comparing Equation (3 .6.4) with Equation (i),

where Ai is the total fin surface area i.e. A1 =p . L mL

- CK. ·L312
= -\J-k·-~ . ... (ii)

Actual heat transfer, Q =../h · P · k · A · 00 tanh mL For a real rectangular fin which is long enough. the actual
efficiency can be calculated by using Equation (3.6.3) by replacing
For.long fin wiJlz irisulated tip.
L by corrected length Le such that :
0o · {ti . p . k . A tanh mL _ (k : A)·112 tanh mL . t
Tl = h · PL·00 - h·P L Le =· L+2 . .. (3.6.7)

tanh mL
Tl = -ror- .. .(3.6.3) This corrected length compensates for the convective heat
loss from the tip of real fin. Thus Equation (3.6.3) using
For infinitely long fin :
Equation (3.6.7) can be rewritten as :
I
m x (L+~)]
TJ = mL ... (3.6.4)
= tanh[
11 ... (3.6.8)
m(L+~)

SCann@d with CamScanner

 State
========~====~~~~==;;;:;;;;;;;~~=-~~·rieat~· ·--
¥. Heat Transfer MU·Sem S·Mech)
Syllabus Topic : Thermo Well
_ 3•12 Ext. surface, Unst. (T~ans L.
Heat Trans.

Temperature at IJle end or"fln i.e. at x =L beco .-

_- . ··::'

-·...~'-
mes: "{
3.7 eL r "f
Concept of Thermo Well and Error In Oo = e-0sh rnL
···{37 . 1.. -
-l
·.. ,. Temperature Measurement by . ·lj ~ . '
- . - '
Thermometer where, m=~ -'J:•-
~

TI1e tempernture of fluid flowing in a duct is often measured o,_= temperature difference at the c d ' !-·
n ::: l' '
..~'l'l f .
by ll1ermo111eters or lliermocouples by placing Uiem int~ the well,
llS shown In Fig. 3, 7.1. and 00 =
temperature difference at the bas
e::l'.. ~1 -
~f

T_-TL " ·l
\
.,,
- •·.(3,7 .. i
Tube
(T _ T \ represents the error lo te-
- - v ·~~~~
measurement. Consider a thermowell like a pin fin of dilllnc•~, _
"'' d'
Liquid of low and thickness 't' Then,_
specl11c heat
and A= 7t4. t
.
I
P=1td
Fig. 3.7.1 : Error in m~asurement of temperature
p 1
i.e. = (when d >> t)
The arrangement consists of a hollow tube clo~ed at one end A t

and it is welded into the tube wall of con•~=

~-\[R
· h •.__ •.__
'-<Uner or pipe sue u1at u1e
m = A - k x t . .,(3.7.3)
cavity is fonned. Such a cavity is known as thermo well.

The thermometer is placed into the well containing liquid of From Equations (3.7.2) and (3.7.3) we have,
low specific heat.
. - 1
T- - TL oc cosh mL
Siace the thickness of the tube is-very small, it can be treated
as fin.
As L increases, cosh mL decreases.
er Principle I I _fLll
mL oc rE__ oc \J h . L ... (3.7.4)
From temperature distribution of fin, we know that Lx-v ki
temperature along the length of fin approaches the surrounding
temperature and at the end of fin it shall be aearest to the fluid Therefore, in order to minimise error in temperature

temperature. measurement i.e. (T_ - TJ to be minimum we should:

However, the temperature at the end of fin will become equal l. Increase the length of thermowell as long as possible. If
to that of surrounding fluid only in case of fin of infinite length. spacing is less, it can be formed in an inclined position.

Since fin of infinite length is not possible practically, the 2. Thickness of thermowell should be as low as possible.
recorded temperature by thermometer is always less than the fluid
3. Thermal conductivity of well should be as small as possible.z
temperature. This is known as error in temperature
measurement.

Considering the well as Jong fin, the temperature distribution

is given by the Equation (3.4.10) as.
cosh m(L-x)
= cosh mL

VJt1Unw1"ti
. , . fiu~lltllilO

&hiilR 1-GHU

Scan ned w it h C;:imSc:""nc r

 . , .
...' _·.-~ ~,. ; , . .. : . .·.· .
. :- .. , ·
. ; ~· .

- . f. ~ o. .
~· - . ,\t

- (d0) -
_i;·A -dx ,;s•)
,

--· "' - ~ (To-~_ J·

....Jk . ·"" - u • (3.5-.

~ilh """"'"d end B.C. are , ·~->

- ...

0-'-'- - . . . . . . - . ..
c;.< fl , Ad-"lf r.ong fin
,,:'.,;_- ,, o.. r '-r, ;.e. e 'e, ' . · ....
ae
i.e. dX= q
/.

i ,.,,.-....
. ,.
, '
-. -~-"- --~ r 0 .- - r
·cosh m (L- x) ... (3A: 1cr
coshmL
'f::F
~ Ted1Kaomlet
p u ?lo l I' .A 1 1 Cl
 ••
~V"~~H~e;a~t~T~r~an~s~f~e;r~(M~U~-~S~e~m~S~-M~e~c~h~)::;~~~~~~~3~-~1f4~~E~~~·~S~u~rl~a~c~e~;~U=n~st:.:S~ta:t::eH:e~a~tT~~ra:n~s~.(~T~ra~n~s·H _ ,
fi (Ii) Temperature or rod at 4cm _from the ~alt, . e;;t ~ ;:,
. I
i.e. Tat x = 0.04 m
T-T_ cash m <L-it) ,;•.
T0 -T_
~
-I
i
T-15
300-15
T-15
285
I
T = 283.06•c \
I
···A\ I
Example 3.7.1
- (Ill) Temperature at the end of rod i.e. T.at x == L
"'0.1 Ill
An aluminium ·rod 2.0 cm diameter and 10 cm long protrudes T-T- cash m (L- x~
from the wall maintained at 30o•c. The rod Is exposed to ~ cashmL
surroundings at 15°C. Heat transfer coefficient between rod cash [ 4 · 472 x (0.1 - 0.1) l
T-15
surface and environment is 20 W/m2K. The thermal 300-: ·15 cash [4 · 472 x O.J] -
conductivity of the materlal Is 200 W/mK. Find :
(i) Total heat dissipatep by rod T = 273.7°C '
't
( ii) T, emperature of rod at 4 cm from the waif.
"·.\111. l
(iii) Temperature at the end of rod. (fv) Fin efficiency, 11
I
. (iv) Fin efficiency. I
tanh mL tanh (4.472 x 0.1)
Assume that the rod end is insulated. 11 liiL" 4.472 x O.i
SoluUon:
0.9383 or 93.83 %
~=2cm=0.02m, L= IOcm=O.I m, T0 =300°C,
T_ =15°C, h = 20 W/m 2
K, k = 200 W/m K.

.. eo = To -T_ = 300- 15 = 285° C

, I
p = ic d = 1t x 0.02 = 0.06283 m
A = ~d
2
= * 2
x (0.02) = 0.0003142 in
2

m =
VH A

20x0.06283
= 200 x 0.0003142 = 4.472
Solution:
Given data:
This problem is based on adequately Jong fin with insulated k = 32W/m°C
end i.e. (Case II)
d = 12 mm= 0.012 m,

(l) Total heat dissipated by rod, Q L = 60mm=0.06 m

Q= Vh Pk A • fJ 0 • tanb mL (From Equation (3.4.11))

T.. = 60°C
L
h = 55 W/m2 °C
Q = "./20 x 0.06283 x 200 x0.0003142 x 285 x tanh (4.472 x 0.1) To = 95°C Fig. P. 3.7.2 \

Q=33.6W ... Ans. I

-- ---- - - - - - - ---- -
 . (T s Heat cond.)
3-15 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. ran •
40 x 15.7 >< 10-~::: J0.325
. ftl_ 300 x t.9634 x 10
m = \Jk-A-
mL = 10.325 x 0.5::: S.163
• • J 1 since mL" 3.
fin
4XSS Therefore, fin can be assumed to be infinity ong

~~
23 94
32xo.012 = ·
(i) Total heat tr~nsrer Crom On, Q

~
fnL
Q = ..jk. A. h. p <To -T..} (from Equation (3.4.7))
30
~3
M)(0()6)
~ =0.6217 or 62.17 % ... Ans. = V300 x (l.9634 x 10- 5) x 40 x (JS.7 x 10-') x csoo- >
23.94 x0.06
.. •.Ans.
rature at the end or nn. = 28.SSSW
'file telllpe
(ll)
~TT.. ==
1
cosh (mL);
(ll) Temperature or rod at x • 20 cm "" 0.2 m rr~m wall, T
'fo- .. T-T..
1'
_(/J 1 ~
=e -mx

~ == -;=sh (23.9356 x 0.06)

95-60 (T- 30)

:. Ti. ,,, 7S.76°C ...Ans. (500-30)

•••.Ans·
T = 89.6°C
disdpstioJl
(iiil geat
tnL = !3.94 x 0.06 =1.436-i Example 3.7.4
Following are the specifications of an Insulated end, clrpular
h 55
;r = !3.94 x 32 = 0.0718 cross sectioned fin.
Length = 25 cmi Diameter= 2.5 cm
t3Jlh (mL) + (h/mk) ]
Q = l.:Am e0 x Base surface temperature 100° C. =
[ 1 + (!) tanh (mL) Heat transfer coefficient between fin surface and surrounding
2
air= 20 W/m K
Q = ~:? x (j) x (0.012)1 x 23.94 x (95 - 60) Temperature of surrounding air = 30° c. Calculate the tip
temperature of the fin If it Is made up of,
x[ l3l1 h (J .436-i) + 0.0718
1+0.0718 x unh (1.43~)
J (i) copper with k = 380 W/m K
(ii) brass with k"' 110 W/m K
Solution:
:. Q = 2.7493 w
Given: L =25 cm =0.25 m, d = 2.5 cm =0.025 m,
~3.7.3 T0 =100°C, h = 20 W/m 2
K, T .. = 30°C
J..~r rod 0.5 cm diameter and 50 cm long protrudes from
a ~d l'f",a:nta.:ned el a temperature of The soo•c. Circular fin ; P = 7t • d and A = ~.d
2

!!.t"'_dd;ng terrper~re is 3o~c. Convective heat transfer

~ci.:d is 40 W/m K and thermal conductivity of material h·n · d _ ITE
is 3a0 Wfm K. 06termine : (i) Total heat transfer rate from \J k.d ... (i)
2
k • (7t/4) d =
ro:I (i) Te;.~rature cf the rod at 20 cm from wall.
(I) Temperature at the end of rod, T I.e. at x =L =0.2 If
SoMJon:
d =0.5 ctn= 0.005 m. =
L 50 cm =0.5 m, T0 =500°C, ka380 W/m K
0L T1 -T.. Coshm(L-x)
=
T. 3ifC. h =40 W/m2 K. k = 300 W/m K. =
00 T0 - T.. = Cosh mL

TL-T_
At x = L, T T = ""'c_ __ ... (ii)
o- .. osh m L
A = !!4 • (dJ2 = 41t x (0.005)l = J.9634 x 10-' m1

~n nccl with CamScanll<'f

 ·Y Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 3-16 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. <Trans .
. ' lie •
.:-. :'-
,I

4X20 b=18mm=0.018m, T_=30°C ill

l---~ .. 2.90
m = 380x0.025 k=205W/mK,
TL-30 1 _ _L=0.7846 L=380mm, h=?
I . . 100-30 = Cosh (2.9 x 0.25) I.27453
i.· "' ,'
The Jong ladle can be treated as an ·
·' .
·. •..Ans. · . Infinite)
temperature distribution along the ladle fro . 'Y long •1
m •ts basC IS
. 111.
.
·
. ll
(il) Temperature at the end of rod, TL -T_ -mx . Riven '\
T -T = e Ii
TL atx• Lifk • 110 W/m 0 -

4o- 30 - mxo.3so
From Equation (i) : 300-30 = e ,

m
- ID_
= ·yJ::cl-
4 x 20
5·394 -0.380m - ln (0.0370)
110 x 0.025
.. m = 8.673

~
From Equation (ii) :
But m = A
TL-30
100- 30 = Cosh (5.394 x 0.25) . 0.4 865 Now p = 2(b + t) = 2 (O.Ot8 + o.oos) =o.
5 2
046
.•• Ans. A=bXt = · 9 x 10- m rn

h X0.046
.. 8.673 = 205 x9 x 10- 5

Squaring both side

hx0.046
75.22 = 205 x 9 x 10- 5
Solution:
Fin efficiency is given by
tanbmL
TJ = mL

I
bur m Hence m ocd

:. As diameter increases, m decreases, hence TJ increases.

Similarly, effectiveness of fin also increases as it is given as :

Effectweness. = ·VH··P
-- =~-n·d
--- =~k
h ·A
-
h·4d
1t 2 h ·d
Solution:
Hence effectfreness will decrease with increase in diameter. . 1t 2 1t 2 -4
A=4 d =4(0.025) =4.90x 10 ,
j~- t- ,_ . Y.,,,,.. ......(.of:-::•• ;;.,. """ •?. '°9,-'71,1..f.J9...-:
~
t~~mp.a3.7.6 t1~11p.~rs1·•r••r•1MiiU·;: ·'.,'.:',,'iL::.i~~kh;~~:f'.
t,~·;_ ·.:i\ :·. :···.:;~ ~. - _- .-':,. ':"'·~--.: \/=·,:,· ): 'ft;z:~~l'~i;i '11 p =1t d =1t x 0.025 =0.0785
flt ;!s--required.: to-heat:the. oiJ·to 300 ·CJor:: ftYiryg .pUfP,Q .tf\;
/fQog )adi~ ,is uSecl .;n.-,,y;n9 pan. ifie~
7

'} )t]Jh~*ilcfli;'Jt~ se9tion T0 =250° C, T.. =15°C

rs01;;.-:~1am;f,.;;The'siirroundin" ~~t;st~t~3o~et)tfi~illfer#fil1
...,,-,:::-::·..::-:--·:. -.~---:-·~--r·---· -(.". :~- ·.-: . ~ _-·~·-=f'" "':'°":...r·.--3-:·..-'! tt~c~--::.t}~i<:trL·~~f~"'i~ _. - ru_
l~~~~,_ty -~.t.'!!~"~~!~~:~~:~~~~,1::t!t!!~W;!!1~}P1J2!'$,fl1~!Y~~·
ot aau riim·ti
m - ·vw
.t"'_,,.,.'°~;.~
~i:a;ii;stBriCe .. , • ·· "'· ':. . . ~ ~ )(~~'Iii
-& .-.. • '"·
lbe:.6Ii~shbJ:ircf1iofi
' "·tc...,,.._,.,..~,}"¥.'~
t ~y, ;(,~·~·¥•"~tce·'' > ,·r: · ~
{.7.,f/ ;,.-..

kl~J!3im@Jt.¢.ph~e.Jiefil.ti:~f§({,~ffl9..l~h1 ~ 15 x 0.0785 . 3.46 =

= 200 x 4.90 x 10- 4
Solution:

T0 = 300°C, ·t =5 mm =0.005 m,
• 1.alatlii
. . Pvlllll lllll
 3-17 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat Cond.)

~oW• Heat transfer from 14 fins Q, =14 x l~.49::: 18~.8 w_

-3.46><0.I

~-
e u .
zso- 15 nfinned area of cylinder= nDL- 14 x 0.5 x 0.001

;. T == 181.26° . 2
=
= n x 0.05 x o.s - 0.007 0.0715 rn
re at the end of fin is =181.260 ••• Ans• Heat transfer from uni/inned area of cylinder
. fe
fllperatu
•. Q ;;:: {h · P · k • A 00 tanh mL = ~T = 25 x 0.0715 x (200-20)::: 321.75 W
Heat flow rate from finned cylinder
0785 x 200 x 4.90 x Io- x 235 x tanh
~ JS>< 0· (3.46xO.IO) = 188.8 + 321.75 = 510.55 W
Q ;;:: 26.56 w = · 510.55 x 3600 = 18,37,980 Jfbour ••. Ans·
..
26.56
Tl == h n01 x ab

26.56
= 15 x 3.14 x 0.025 x O. J x (250 _ 15)

:::

Differential equation for temperature distribution along the

length of fin is given as
Gh·en:
D ::: 5 cm =0.05 ~· L =50 cm =0.5 m . d20·
-2-
2
m0 = O; whose standard solution is
= I mm= 0.001 m, L = 2.5 inm = 0.0025 m dx
0 = C 1 e1111 +c;e-
1111

Tb = 200°c. h = 25 Wlm1K., k =80 W/mK

Where x is along the length of fin from surface and e is
- fiI2 2 x 25
m = \Jkt= 80x0.00J =25 temperature difference at x between fin surface temperature and
environment temperature to which fin is eX'posed.
ml = 25 x 0.0025 =0.0625;
Boundary conditions
Hence it is a case of short fin.
O; e = eb ... (1)
Heat flow rate from short fin.
At x =
e .. . (2)
..l!... + tanh ml .
At . x = l= oo; = 0
mk
Q a mAk0b h From ~oundary condition (2),
1 + ffik . tanh ml
. 0 = C1 e
.. +c;e- ~ c 1 =O
.1L 25
mk = ·25 x 80 =0.0125 .. a = c; e-DIJI
Q =25 x 0.5 x 0.001 x 80 x (200- 20) O.Ol25 + tanh (0.0625)
1 + 0.0125 tanh (0.0625) eb = . c; e-0 .. c; = eb
(Assuming ambient temperature as 20°C)
.. 9 = ab e""!M
Q = 180 x 0.0749 = 13.49 W/fin
VT11HHwllllti
'Y' r1i1• .l l t l l l DnS
 lt~ Ext surface, Unst. State Heat Trans
.,
CT
. .1
18
·~'\"'~H~e~a~tT~r~a~n~sf~e~r-~(M~U~-~S~e~m~5~-~M~e~c~h)~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;i:;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;:&;:~3~-+~~:=·~==~::::=:=:::::~:::~:--·~~~ns.~e111
i;;; Tb= 15ooc ; Fin is insulated tip type!. ~
'
r'
,. j
Given: kb = 85 W/m°C, kc= 375 W/m°C
(i)
Heat transfer rate from fin (insulated tip)
Q=k · A·m. 0b mnh ·ml
. rD. =- ~ =-- f"4h'
=
!
: '!

'
.xb

.x0
105 mm= 0.105 m,

? , Tc = J20°C
Tb= 120°C
m =
\J k·A · v
_k -~ · Dl \It})
4x20
= 380 x 0.005 =6·49
For brass rod; 1t 2
Q = 380 x 4 x 0.005 x 6.49 x (150 - 20)
Tb = 120=T.. +(Tb-T..)_e-"'h'b
tan h (6.49 x 0.6)
For copper rod, Tc = 120 =T_ + (T - T..) e- IDc"c
0
= 6.286 W (J/s)
Since
Tc = Tb= 120°; equating above'equations, = 6.28~~600 - 22.63 kJ/h

(ii) Efficiency of fin ;

IDi. xb Q

m" x 0.105
6.286
D\
:: 20 x 1t x 0.005 x 0.6 x (150 - 20)

I1\ = ~and Jl\=~ = 25.67%

as both rods of same diameter exposed to same environment

~~
5
= =2. I

•• .Xe = 2.1 X 0. 105 =0.22 m

GJven:
= 220 mm •••Ans.
l = 15 cm= 0.15 m

D :: =
0.6 cm 0.006 m

Tb = 300° C; T.= 20° C; h= 28W/m2 K;

k = 370W/mK

(i) Heat Joss by fin with Insulated end

Q = kAm eb tanh ml
Solution:
nD x h
Given : k =380 W/m°C; I= 600 mm= 0.6 m
k x z;,D2
D =5 mm = 0.00 5 m; 4

T_ = 20°C; h =20 Wlm °C

2
 j/_ Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. H~at Cond.) .
,p.¢
:i
. (]£
\J k.i) =·
:J 4X28
370 X0.006 =7.1 .
.
3-19

. T rT' -m · I
.... +,.b-T..)e e =T.. +(Tb-T..)e
-n;,xO.IOS
·
.1t 2 . . .
Q = 37ox4x0.006 x7.tx(300-20)tanh(7.lx0.15)
= 0.105 x JJ\,
!!1
t6.37·W
= ••.Ans.

(li)
.Fin efftclenc:y,

fl = h.P.L.0b
Q
mb = ~ A
and JJ\, =
~ ----

16.37
.. !!!h
me = ~~
= 85=2.1 b

= 28x1t x 0.006 x 0.15 x (300- 20)

= 0.105 x 2.1
= 0.7388 or 73.88 %
... Ans. •..Ans.
= 0.22m or 220mm

Example 3.7.13
Two rods of Identical size and shape are both supported on a
· heat source at 100°C and are surrounded by air at 25°C.
One rod is known to have a thermal conductivity of
43 W /m-K and its midpoint temperature is measured to be
49°C. If the midpoint temperature of the other rod is
measured to be 75°C, what Is its thermal conductivity ?

·solutlon: Refer Fig. P. 3.7.13.

sorutfon:
k 1 :43 W/mK
a..,......,,..,..........,.....,,.;,..,.,.,,,.,.,.."""".,,,,,171
Base .
0

w,.....,.......,,..,.,.,.,..+7';.,.,.,,,.,.,.~,,,.,"-' Tco = 25 C

Fig. P. 3.7.12

GiYeD!

~=85W/m°C; k,,=375W/m°C Fig. P. 3.7.13 : Two identlc:al rod from a base

,\sswlling long fins. The temperature distribution in the fin is given by the

-mx Equation (3.4.6) as :

e
T-T..
T0 -T.. = e-mx
For Brass rod.
T = T.. + (T0 -T..) · e-mx

T-T.. = (fb-T..) e-111ii x o.1~

(-m 1 ·~)
For rod 1: 49 = 25+(100-25)e .. . (i)

120 = T.. +rrb-T.Je-o.1~n;, (-m2 : ~)

For rod 2 : 75 = 25·+ (100-25) e . .. (ii)
For copper rod
From Equation (I)

120 = T.. + (fb-T..) e

-m •I (-m1 ·~)
c e = 0.32
 ·,:1
.i

.. Ext Surface. Unst. State Heat Tr.tns. <Trans. ~&at ..

V• ·Heat Transfer (MU·Sem S.Mech)
,.-
. ....· 3-20
~)
_.

,I I" Using Equation (3.4.7), we can write,

•.. (iii)
-
.....
• " I
; .. m1 L = 22789
::fo·P,·k·A, (To-T.. )
~ =
:
-Jh· P2 ·k·A: x<To-T,J
From .Equation (u)
.
f. '
.21 =
e = 0.67 ~

f112 L = 0.8109 ..• (iv) Qi = 2"'2 01

On dividing Equation (iii) to (iv),
:. % change 10
· he3t removal rate = ~Q-1Q1 x. 1oo ~ <0

5. = ~ =28102
ID: 0.8109 . = <2 Vi •QI -QI)
Q1 -x IOQ
Since rods are of identical size, therefore

=P2• A =Az h 1 =hz = 182.8"%

""
P1 1 and

!!!L jk~ (ii) Percentage ~ange in heat remo\•al rate if the. 5'
mz = ~ =2.8102 steel rod is replaced by aluminium rod.

For stainless steel fin. k =k1 = l 6~ 17 W/mK

= 7.8974. but k1 =43 W/mK .. QI = -Jh P k 1 A ~o-T..)
= ..,/16.17'1h PA (T0 -T..)
k:i = 339.56 W/m.K ...Ans.
Q, = 4.0212 '1h PA (T0 -T..)
Example 3.7.14
For Aluminum fin, kA 1 = kz .= 204.7 W/mK
The end of a very long cylindrical stainless steel rod is
attached to a heated wall and its surface is in contact with a ~ = ...jh P k2 A (T0 - T..)
cold fluid. Determine by what percentage the heat removal
rate would change: = "'204.7 '1h PA (T0 -T..)
If the rod diameter were doubled..
(i) Q2 = 14.3D7'1h PA (T0 -T..)
(ii) If the rod is made up of aluminium.
Use k for Al= 204. 7 WlmK. k for S.S. =16.17 W/.mK. Percentage change in heat removal rate= ( T°J
02-Qll
x 100 %

Solution : For fin of infinire length. heat transferred Q, (14.307 - 4.0212)

= 4.0212 x 100 =255.198% ...AJit I'
Q = Vk ·A· h • P (T0 -T..) ... (From Equation 3.4.7) I

Example 3.7.15
(i) Percent.age change in heat .remo\·al rate if rod diameter is
doubled, Le. A vertical cylinder (k = 55.7 W/mK) is fitted With 20
longitudinal fins. (50 mm long and 3 mm thick). Height of the
cylinder is 120 cm and its outer diameter is 6 cm.

Cross sectional area. A 1 =4 1t 2

d1 ;
Temperature at the outer sur1ace of the cylinder is aocc.
Surrounding temperature and heat transfer coefficient 818
2
18°C and 9 W/m ·K respectively. Assuming insulated tipfins,
calculate heat transfer rate from the cylinder along with the
Perimerer, P1 = nd i ; fins.

Solution:

L = 50 mm =0.05 m, t =3 mm =0.003 m, I
• Ted......
"POllU llUI I
 ,.
3·21
No. of fins = 20, Jc= 55. 7 W/mK, Ext..Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat Cond.)
Height of cylinder,/= 120 cm= 1.2 m, Example 3.7.16
D ""6 cm = 0.06 m A cyllndr/ca/ rod of 3 cm diameter, 40 cm long a~ as a fin
from a we/I Insulated steam vessel having surface
r.. = 18°C. h=9 W/m2 K. temperature as 150"C.° The surrounding temperature is
Refer Fig. P. 3.1.15 30°C. The free end of fin Is Insulated. Calculate the heat
transfer rate In the following cases :
20 eucti (i) Rod Is made of copper of conductivity 400 WlmK
fins .
(ii) Rod is made of steel of conductivity 50 W/mK
(Iii) Rod Is made of glass of conductivity 1 WlmK.
Assume, convecUve heat transfer coefficient Is 1OWlm 2 K.
Solution:

1t z=4(0.03)
d=3cm=0.03m; A=4d n 2
=7.068xl o-• m,z
Ffg. P. 3.7.IS
L=40cm =0.4 m P::1t ·d =nx0.03 = 9.425 x IO-2 m.;
.
~t area of20 fins= No. of tins x Ix t
.
•• 1
fOIJJI T0 = I50°C, T.. = 30°C

= 20 x 1.2 x 0.003 =0.072 m 2

00 = T0 -T.. = 150- 30 = 120°C

=
Bate Brea of cyfinder Surface area of cylinder_ Root area of fins
.· -_.., ... , ..
= n di - Root area fins ". of .' ,• • • 1 ··-
, ·: ·-:- The-end ofrodis insulated, therefore, ·

= 1t x 0.06 x 1.2- 0.072 = 0.1542 m2 Q = Vh ·P · k ·A • 00 tanh (mL) . .. (i)

(j) Heat transfer Q1 when rod fs of copper,

Heat transfer from bare area. Q1 = h ·A • (T0 - T..) _
k=400W/mK
= 0.1542x9x(80-18) =86 Watts -2

9 x 2 {I.2 + 0.003J .
m = -y-
fD_
r:.-x- = IO x 9.425 x IO _ = 1.826
400 x 7.068 x IO
4
for fins, m
55.7 x l.2 x 0.003 =l0.4
From Equation (i)
mL = 10.4 x 0.05 = 0.52
..= Q1 = ~l0 x 9.425 x ro- 2 x 400 x 7.068 x l0- 4
tan1t mL 0.4777
x 120 tan~ (I .826 x 0.4)
Heat transfer from fins,
= 45.22W •..Ans.
= ../h Pk A 00 tanh mL x No. of fins
(ii). Heat transfer Q2 when rod is of steel, k =50 W/mK
(Where, 00 =To - T..) -2
- ID_ IO x 9.425 x IO = .1
m = ·y-~-= 5 64
50 x 7.068 x 10- 4
= .../9 x 2 (l.2 + 0.003) x 55. 7 x 1.2 x 0.003
Using Equation (i)
x (80-18) x 0.4777 x 20 =1234:3 Watts.
Q2 = Vr-l_O_x_9_.4_2_5_x_I_O-::_2:-x-5_0_x_7-.06-8_x_l_0::;_4
Tot.al heat transfer= Q2 + QI
x 120 tanh (5.164 x 0.4)
= 1234.3 + 86 =1320.3 Watts •••Ans.
= 21.21 w ... Ans.

v T1d1Ku•lttlfi
fl .. e u c • l ia n s

Scanned With C<ll'rlSctlnoer

 1t)' Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
(ill) Hcat transfer Q., when rod Js of glass, k • 1 W/mK

-2
m .. -~
-yk-A
__ _ 10 x 9.425 x 1~4 • 36.52
I x7.068X 10

Using .Equation (i)

~ = Y!Ox 9.425 x 10- 2 x I x7.068 x J0-

4

x I 20 tanh (36.52 x 0.4)

• 3.097W ...Ans.

Example 3.7.17
One end of a rod Is Inserted Inside the furnace while the
other end projects into surrounding air at 30°C. The diameter
ot the rod is 1.5 cm. Under steady state heat flow, the steady
state temperatures at two points 12 cm apart on the rod were Example3.7.18 ~
found to be 120°C and 900-c respectively. Three 10 mm diameter rods A, B and C
Protrud6
· lreni
Assuming, h = 2
15 W/m K, find the thennal conductivity of fumace at 100°C. The length of all of them
. ::: 25 I
the rod material. protrude out In ambient air at 20°C. The tem cm. 'th
Peratu 8'I
other ends are 26.7°C for 'A', 32°C for ,8 , res 111~
Solution:
for 'C'. Considering rods to be very Ion '/nd 36.93.C
. . g ins e•·
d = J.5 cm= 0.015 m; T_ = 30°C their thermal cond ucttv1lies ff heat Iran
1 ' •llluille
Distance between two points on rod, 5x =12 cm =0.12 nt, = 23 W/m2 K. s er coett1c1eo1

Solution: ReferP. 3.7.18.

2
h = 15W/m K,
Given: TA= 26.7°C, T8 =32°C,
Tc= 36.93°C L = 25 cm':: 0.25 m:::L _
A-1..a=:Lc
Refer Fig. P. 3.7.17. Considering infinitely rhe long rod as
d:::: JO mm= 0.01 m;
fin. Then. rhe temperature distribution along the rod is given as :
00 = T0 - T_ = 100 - 20 = 80°C
Tc0= 30"C . '
eL=TL-T_; h=23W/m2 K

Where, TA, T 8 , Tc are temperature at tip of the fitns.

x _.,.___ ~x_ _..,
00 is temperature difference between base
and atnbicrt
Fig. P. 3.7.17 temperature= T0 -T_
~ T-T_ __
0L is temperature difference between tip and
... (a) (Equation 3.4.6) ambient
Bo = To-T- =e temperature. = TL - T_ .

a = eo. e--
%
... (i) ~i~--2_5....;o;.;.;m..;._,_.i•I .

Considering point J as base at temperature 120°C and point 2

-- 1
at distance .:it, substituting in Equation (i) To= 1oo'c ~~:;;"" -¥10 mni
F-:.;;...:.:;.;._.....;.;.:~~ TB

0 112
90 - 30 = (120- 30) e-nu ·

90 mx0.12.
Fig. P. 3.7.18
or 60 = e •

wrlllr..w;
Y r~11111 11111
' .
· t Transfer (MU-Sem S·Mech)
f. t-tea _ . 3•23 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat Cond.)
· . A = cross sectional area of each rod.
23 x0.0314
1tl7t 2 . = -S
= 4 d =4 x (0.0l) =7.85 x 10·5 m2 kcX 7.85X10

.•• Ans.
p :: · Perimeter of each rod kc = 238.43 W/mK

= 1td = 1t x O.ot = 0.0314 m Example 3.7.19

a,. = T,.. -T. = 26.7 - 20 =6.7°C Both ends of a 6 mm diameter 'U' shaped copper rod are
rigidly fixed to vertical wall. The wall is maintained at 100°C·
0s = T8 -T. =32-20 == t2°C; The developed ·length of the rod Is 50 cm and conductivity is
Be = Tc - T. =36.93 - 20 = 16.93oC 300 W/mK. It Is exposed to air at 30°c. The combined
convective and radiative heat transfer coefficient is
considering bar ~ a infinitely long fin. 2 .
30 W/m K. Calculate.
(i) for rod A (a) Temperature at the centre of the rod.
0,.. -mx (b) Heat transferred by the rod.
-- = e ;
0o Solution:
' 6.7 = . e.m x 0.l5 [as x = L]
8o Refer Fig. P. 3.7.19.

m = .. /B. · Given:~== 6 mm== 0.006 m, k = 300 W/m K, T0 =100°c,

m = 9.92;
\JN
.------
23 x0.0314 .. · ·· . "' ' . ~
2
T.. == 30°C, h = 30 W/m K, L= SO cm= 0.5 m
9.92 = kA X 7.85 X 10" 3 The heat transfer across the central section must be zero.
Hence will consider the rod as fin of length 25 cm each which are
"A = 93.49 W/m.K ... Ans.
insulated at their ends.

(2) for rod B (i) Temperature at the centre of rod

-09
0o
:: e
-mx

m = '1H.
30x:(0.006\[(P=1td); A =~dz]
12 e·1!1 X0.l5
So = [·: x = L]
=
300 x 4 (0.006)
m • 7.59

m = ~A = 8.165
. 50
L = 5{)ym, L1 = 2 = 25 cm =0.25 m
23 x 0.0314
7.59 = k8 x 7.85 x 10· 5 Base metal t 0 100°C
T00 =30°C
"' =
159.70 W/m.K ...Ans.

(3) For rod C

0c
0o = e --
16.93 -m x 0.l5
Fig. P. 3.7.19 : U shape copper bar
80 = e

~
For fin with insulated tip we have
.. m = 6.21= ~
0L I
00 = cosh (mL 1)

Scanned w ith comsconncr

 ... Heat Transfer MU·Sem 5·Mech
'ru -T.. . · I
3 •2 4 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans Ii ·
• e11t
.
.
-, ......,~ r~
·
The temperature distribution, treating the shaft Co~a. ·:.:
" Ti1 -T.. • cosh (rnL1)
insulated llt the tJp is given _by, aa ' ~~ . ;
where ·ru Is tl10.lomp nt end of rod (cun be o f u s 110pe) .ft. TL -T_ cosh Cm (L- x)J

1'1.1 - 30 I 00 "' To'."' T_ = cosh (mL) .. ·Equau . ·•

011 (3.•.9)
JOO- 30 • cosh (8. I6 >< 0.25)
At x .. L, T =TL the above Equation reduces to

Tr.1 . • 47.87°C TL-T_ I

••• Ans. :r;:T: = cosh (mL)
(ff) Ht>11t transfer front rod
60-25 I
500-25 = cosh (mL) :, cash (rnq
0o • T0 -T,. • 100-30 .. 70oc . "' 13.s,
Q • 2' .../iiPkA. Oo fanh (rnL)
.. mL = 3.3

~
·..(i)
hX7td
-=
= 2. '130 >< 7t x (0.00(i) x 300 x [ ~ x (0.006)2]
But m =
k x1Ed2
4

x 70 x tnnh (8.165 x 0.25)

= 9.37 Wacts But m.L = 3.3 8.472L=3.3

Example 3.7.20
L 0.3895 rn =389.5 mm =
A centrifugal pump which circulates hot liquid metal at soo 0 c
is driven by a electricity motor, the motor Is coupled to the Example 3.7.21
pump impeller by a horizontal steel shaft 25 mm In diameter. Heat Is being transferred from oll at 90°C to air t
The temperature of the motor Is limited to a maximum value a 3o•c
across a plane wall of area 0.5 m x 0.5 m.· Heat tra
of 60"C, with ambient air at 25 °C, what length of shaft . d . 'd nsfer
coefficient on off side an air s1 e are 1.50 W1rn2 K
2
should be specified between motor and the pump ? It may be 15 W/m K respectively. It Is desired to increase th and
e totai
presumed that the thermal conductivity of shaft materfal is heat transfer rate by 250% by putting fins on air. .d
. 8I e 1
35 W/mK and convective film coefficient between steel shaft Calculate length of fins based on folfowlng data. ·
2
and air is 157 W/m K. Treat steel shaft as fin with Insulated Thickness of fins =2 mm, Thermal conductivity = 75 W/rn1<
end. Number of fins "' 30 tins have Insulated tip
Solution: Refer P. 3.7.20. Neglect waif thickness and assume 5°C ·drop in Wall
temperature after putting fins.
Gh'en: d = 25 mm= 0.025 m,
Solution:
T.. :25°C, k =35 W/m°K
Tau"' 90oc, Tair =30°C =T_
h= l57W/mlK 2.
h011 =150 W/m K, thickness, t =2 mm =0.002 m
One end of the sh.aft is connected to motor, therefore 2
ha1r = 15 W/m K, kfin =75W/mK
Number of fins on the surface ace 30

S°C drop in wall temperature after putting fins,

. '
hence .1T =5°C
T.:o=25"C
T2 =60"C
Area of wall surface, A =0.5 x 0.5 =0.25 m2
Pump ciraJlating Heat transfer from the plane waif where no fins fitted
liquid metal k=35 WlmK
st T0 =soo·c
Q 1 = hA .1.T = 15 x 0.5 x 0.5 (90 - 30) = 225W
Fig. P. 3.7.20
(heat transfer rate shall be decided by lower h side)
• Ticli~
"tf,.1 11 111) 111

$c1uvll:'d w1 lh Ctt111S<:11 rn1~

:.•.
3--25 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat Cond.)
L =20 cm= 0.2 m, k = 120 W/m K. Twait= ·T 0 = 200°C

T_= 20°c, h = 20 W/m2 K

,' (I) Heat transfer rate before putting the fins

-::: 225 + 2.5 x 225 =787. 5 w
Q = hA(T.,aJJ-Ta)

ied bY 30 fins =30 x 0.002 x 0.5 = O.Q3 m2

µeaoecuP . . =
= _20 (1 x I) x [200 - 20) 3600 W · •••ADS·

VoQCC\lpied wall area = 05 x 0.5 - O.Q3 =o.22 m2 (II) Heat transfer rate after putting the fins

ttaJ15fer rate by unoccupied area of wall =

Perimeter : P 2 (b + t) = 2 (1 + 0.002) = 2.004 m
aeat
::: hair x ~(Toil -A T-Tair) 2
Area: A = bxt= I x0.002=0.002m

:: 15 x 0.22 (90-5 - 30) =: 181.5 w

m = ~= 20 x 2.004 = 12.92
120x0.002 ·
eat transfer desired by 30 fins
aeoc:e b Q = \{PhkA ( T0 -T.. ) tanh (mL)
= 787.5-181.5 =606 w .. Q = '\/2.004 x 20 x 120 x 0.002
- 606
:. _aeat uansfer ~ per fin = =20.2 w x (200 - 20) tanh (I 2.92 x 0.2)
30
:. Q = 55I .94 W/Pin
2 x I5
75 x 0.002 = 14.142 Since there are 10 fins, therefore the total heat transfer,
Q!ins = 10 x 551.94 =5519.4 W ••-.Ans.
~:: KAMQ,tanhml
Heat transfer from unfinned ones i.e. area without ffos
ZD.2"' 75 x0.5 x o.002 x I4.142 (90-5- 30) tan b (14.I42 n = hA.,0 6T
= 20 x (1 x 1 - 10 x 0.002) x (200 - 20) =3528 w
tanh (14.142 [) = 0.3463
Total heat transfer after fitting fins= 5519.4 + 3528
14.1421 = 0.3612
= 9.047.4 w ••• Ans.

= 0.0255 m =2.55 cm •..Ans. (Ill) :. Percentage Increase In heat transfer after

putting fins
Example 3.7.22
rectangular fins of brass (k = 120 W/mK) are welded 9047.4 - 3600 100
10
hOrizontally to a plane vertical surface of a tank, 1 m wide
= 3600 x

and 1 mhigh. The fins are 2 mm thick and 20 cm long. They = 151.3 % rise in beat transfer rate. . .. Ans.
are uniformly spaced on the vertical surface of tank, which is
maintained at 200°C. If the unit is exposed to ambient air at Example 3.7.23
2
2o•c with convective heat transfer coefficient of 20 W/m K, Fins are provided to increase the heat transfer rate from a
find, hot surface. Which of the following arrangement will have
(i) Heat transfer rate before putting the fins. maximum heat transfer rate :
(ii) Heat transfer rate after putting the fins. (i) 6 Fins with 10 cm length or
Prove that the fins are effective. Assume insulated end (ii) 10 Fins with 6 cm length
condition for the fins. Take conductivity -of the fin material as 300 W/mK,
Solutlon:
2
h = 20 W/m K, cross sectional area of the fin = 2cm2,
2 perimeter of fin cross Section = 4 cm, te_
m perature of the hot
Given: Area of plate, A= Im x Im= Im ;
surface ::; 230°C, ambient temperature ::; 30°C. Assume fins
Numberoffins =10, t = 2 mm= 0.002 m; b =Im of insulated ends.

--
... '¥ Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) · 3~26 ' ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans
~ ·. ;~
.. '
!, . . (ir..,, . ,.
. Soiutlon ·: . '"•S, ~ ., ·:
Cylinder diameter, d =50 mm,,. o.os · ~t~
. ll'l.W~l . ~
k of fin material ::: 300 W/mK, h = 20 W/m2 K,
2
1'.. = 40°C, To= 150°C, h 23 Wtmi l( , "' Ill. ~
=
4 2
· A=2cm =2x io- m ,P=4cm=0.04m.
d=SOmm
. Temperature of hot surface, T = 230°C,
0

Ambient temperature, T.. = 30°C,

Fins are insul~ted at the ends

m = .. /ll = 20 x 0.04 _
\J kA 300 x (2 x 10- 4 ) - 3.65 '

80 = To-T.. =230-30=200°C
{I) Heat tranafer rate 0 1 from 6 fin• of 1o cm length
=
I.e. L1 0.1 m · Fig. p; 3.7.24

mLI = 3.65 X 0. l =0.365 Refer Fig. P. 3.7.24.

QI = No. of fins XVh •P • k ·A x 8 x tanh (!TI L1) In order to find heat transfer rate and
0
apply
= 6 x v20 x 'o.04 x 300 x (2 x 10-') x 200 x tanh (0.365) Equation, we need to find whether fins are ~.
. shon 0
· -~
= 91.86W adequately long fins. r long ~

{II) Heat transfer rate 0 2 from 10 fins of 6 cm length Perimeter, P = 2w =2 x I = 2 m

I.e. ~ 0.06 m . =
mL.i
Q2
= 3.65 x 0.06 = 0.219

= No. of fins x Vh · P • k ·A x 80 x tanh (m ~) m =

-vH
A = w x t= t x(0.75 x 10~ 3)==0?

A
· 5•10·>·

=IO xv x 20 0.04 x 300 x 2 x IQ-' x 200 x trum (0.219) 23x2

=
= 94.88\V 75 x (0.75 x 10- 3) ,,. 28.284

· • Q1 > Q 1, Therefore 10 fins of 6 cm long will give better

beat transfer rate. •.• Ans.
m. L = 28.284 x 0.025 =0.707
Example 3.7.24 since m Lis Jess than 3, it is the case a short fin.

Fins, 12 in number, having k = 75 W/m K and 0.75 mm (a) Total beat transfer rate, Q 1
thickness protrude 25 mm from a cyllndrlcal surface of
50 mm diameter and 1 m length placed in an atmosphere of
40°C. If the cylindrical surface is maintained at 150°C and
the heat transfer coefficient is 23 W/m2 k, calculate :
Q1 = k·A·m·80 x
[LmhmL+(~J
ffik ·
I+
h mk
tanh mL ...(1)

(a) the rate of heat transfer

0o = To-r.. = 150-40= 110°c
(b) the percentage increase in heat transfer due to fins
(c) the temperature at the centre of fins and · h 23
mk = 28.284 x 75 - 0·010843
(d) the fin efficiency and the fin effectiveness.
The fins are rectangular in shape and cross-section and they
On substituting the values in equation (1),
are attached along the length of the cylinder. ·
Solutlon Q1 = 75 X (0.75 X 10- 3) X 28.284 X 110

Given: tanh (0.707) + 0.01083

x I + 0.01083 x tanh (0.707)
Number of fins= 12, k = 75 W/m.K,

t =0.75 mm= 0.75 x 10- 3m; L =25 mm= 0.025 m, = 107.73 W/fin

81.a......
V POl lullm

SC;:inncd v.ith QlmSconncr

:·
a.21 Ext. Surface, Unst State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat eoncf.)

(e) Elrecdmms,

.. m::r . . .C.195 . •••A.DI-

... Ans, Q, 1667.5
E • Ci'
ot surfnee area of cylinder,
potO
1 Example 3.7.25
A. ,. n d w a n x 0.05 x l a 0.1571 m
A 6 mm diameter copper rod of thennal conductiVttY
L ::s 12 x A= 12 x 0.15 x l<r 3 a 0.009 ml 400 W/m Kand 100 mm long is ·used wnose one end is
td ~a. /'>tlA
attached to a soldering gun base and the other is connected
fi"" A.,,.r.a s: =
A, - Ar.. 0.15 71 - 0.009 = 0.J 481 m1
to job piece. The temperature at the baSe of the gun is
unli" JI'("°[11111sfer from unfin area.
225°C. Determine the temperarure at the tip of rod.
t{e't
OJ s: h • A..ano • Cf0 -T..)
=
Assuming. T _ = 30"C and h 20 W/m K. AlsO find the rate of
heat transfer from base.
:::: 23 x 0.1481 x (150-40) =374.7 w
SoluUon: Refer Fig. f; 3.7.25.
total heat uansfer rate. d =6 mm=6X IO-l m
Q, = Qt +Q2 Base temperanire. T0 =225"C.
:::: 1292.8 + 374.7 =1667.5 w ... Ans. k=400W/mK.
2
percentage increase in heat transfer due to fins L= 100mm=0.1 m. h:::WW/m K.
(b)
treat rransfer rate without fins on surface, h=20W/mK

Os = hA,(T0 -T..)

TIP
= 23 x 0.1571x110 =397.5 w
- - - - L = 100 mm ---401--1 x =L
percentage increase = (~) x 100%
~-<4\

Fig. P. 3.7.25
1667.5 -397.5)
"' 397.5 x 100 = 319.5% •.. Ans.
~=
(
m=
(c) reinperature at the centre of fins, Tx

Le. at x ::: zL =--i-

0.025 O .,
= .OUS m = ~=.Y400x\~~010_1 5.774

cosh m (L - x) + ( !) sinh m(L- x) (I) Temperature at the tip TL

J!. =
80 cosh mL + (!) ·sinh mL Considering adequately long fin with insulated e_nd since tip
is connected to job, hence, no beat convection. The

-:::
T, -T-
T -T_
0
cosh (28.826 x 0.0125) + 0.010843 sinh (28.826 x o.0125) ·
cosh (0.707) + 0.010843 x sinh (0.707)
temperature distribution along the rod is,

eL TL -T_ cosh m (L-x)

T1 - 40
fso-40 = t.06954
1.26883 0.8429; T1 =132.7°C ... Ans. 00 = T0 -T_ = coshmL

01 Atx=L
(d) Fin efficiency, Tinn= hAreo =(Ar= P. L)
Ti. -T_
107.73 To-T. = cosh mL
Tllio = 23 x (2 x 0.025) x 110
TL -30 1
225 - 30 =cosh (5.774 x 0.1)
= 0.8516 or 85.16% •••Ans.

.w
:
Ttdllae•1..ti
P\l lHl<Allt lll l
 . 'f
.~.;:::~·~H~e:a~t~T~ra:n~s:te:r~(~M:U~-~S~e~m~s~-M~ec~h~)~. ....;...........,=-~3~-2~8~~E~x~t.~S~u•rl··a~c•e•,U._ns.t•. •smta.ra=·=H•e•a•t•T•ra•n•s•.•(Ta~-n~e:;,,:·He-t .
Ti. -30 = 166.47 · ; TL• 196.47°C .•• Ans. e-mL .. 0.07692 ; ~:
(II> Heat transfer rate from baae, o
-mL In (0.07692) "' - 2 ..56.5
Q .. Vh · P • k ·A • 90 x bnh (mL) mL 2.565

y 20 x <n x o.005) x 400 x ~ co.005)2 Bui, m =

'1H --.. ~ 260x5x i?"'B.3i
"·GJ

2.565 2.565
x (225 - 30) x tanh (5. 774 x 0.1) .. L = --m =832
= s.o.uw
••• Ans. = 0.3083 DI or 30.83 cm
Example 3.7.26

A frying pan with a long handle of rectangular cross section

is used to heat the oil for frying purpose upto so•c. section
1
of handle is 5 mm x 1o mm. Find the length of handle from
the base of frying pan such that its temperature should not
exceed 30"C. Assume, k = 260 Wlm K, Surrounding
temperature 20"C and oonvectivity, h 30 W/m2 K. =
Solution: Refer Fig. P. 3.7.26.

To = 150"C, b = IO mm= 0.01 m

= 5 mm= 0.005 m, T_ = 2o•c,

L: = 260 \Wm K
h = 30W/m K,
2

L = 1

P = 2 (b + t) =2 (0.01 + 0.005) = 0.03 m

Solutlon:
Fin can be taken as fin with insulated end.
Q = mAk 0b tan hml
h
(i) Tb = 190°c

T. = 25°C
x x
L p = 1+1=2m
2

I
A = 0.01x1=0.01 m

22 x2
m = 200 x 0.01= 4·71 ;

ml = 4.71x0.08 = 0.377
Fi2- P. 3.7.26
Q = 4.71 x 0.01 x 200 x (190- 25) tan h (0.377)
The long handle can be treated as an infinitely long fin. The = 559.1 w
tcmperarure distribution along the handle from its base is given as :
(ii) (I) A = 5 mm=0.005 m
= e-=
30-20 -mL
150-20 =e = 0.08 m, two fins system.

v• ,1.a.-..
.. Jlu lltu
 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat cond.)
3-29

TL -25 1
'9:5-25 = cosh (34.52 x 0.18)
z)( JcA111 et> tan hml .
TL-25
.·.-95-25 = 249.75 - 1

Z >< 00 x 0.005 x 6.63 x (190 - 25) tan h (0.53)

2
!!! TL-25 = 0.28
,·

·~ . ;t=160mm=0.16m
... TL = 25.28
6 63
•••ADS·
(2) 111 ;, To-TL = 95 - 2s.28 = 69.7Z°C
}.061
j11l ~

Q ~
t.Affi
,.,.
0b tan hml
fWA]~o.2an
~ 200 x o.oos x 6.63 x (190- 25) tan h (1.061)
~ ·
~ g59,89W crosa sectJon of
1p0on handle
don with length of rm as 80 mm is Bolnng water
al95"C
_,.e i fill op ...Ans.
ifell"· . Fig. P. 3.7.28
llll11e11ded·
~ Example 3.7.29
. ple3.1.2s
~,,,, a stainless spoon . (k = 15.1 W/m°C), partially Heat Is being transferred from oil at 90°C to air at 30°C .,
Considerd In th0 bolling water at 95oc In a kitchen
. at 25 oc across a plane. wall of area o.5 m x-o.5 m. Heat2 transfer
e~e
111111'1 die of the spoon has a cross section 0.2 cm x 1 cm
. coefficie'nt on oil side and air side are 150 W/m K and
i
~ehan
,,.d ii eictends 18 cm .in the arr
' from the free surface of the 15 W/m2 K respectively. It Is desired to increase the total
. an the tieat transfer coefficient on the exposed surfaces heat transfer rate by 250% by putting fins on air side. I
!

--
1 2
water. 1
the sp<>On is 15 W/m K, CaIculated the temperature Calculate length of fins based on following data.
o1 across the exposed surface of the spoon handle Thickness of fins =2 mm,
9
1 nalysis, assume fin insulated tip condition. . Thermal conductivity =75 W/mK
fortnea Number of fins = 30 fins have Insulated tip
solutfoO: Neglect wall thickness and assume 5°C drop In wall ·1
k::: 15.1 W/rnoc; T.. = 25oc ;
temperature after putting fins.

. 2 -4 2 Solution: '
Are11.A::0.2cm x lcm=0.2cm =0.2 x 10 m

=
perilJlefef P 2 (w + t) = 2(0.2 + 1) = 2.4 cm= 0.024 m
T011 =90°C,
2
Tait= 30°C = T.. I
I
hou =150 W/m K.
L = 18 cm= 0.18 m ; thickness, t = 2 mm= 0.002 m

remperalllre distribution for fin with insulated tip is given by, h.;, =15 W/m K,
2 krLO =75 W/m K

~ TL -T.. Number of fins on the surface are 30

Bo ::: . To-T..
5°C drop in wall temperature after putting fins, hence AT~ S°C
cosh m(L- x) 2
== cosh mL Area of wall surface, A= 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25 m
Heat transfer Jrom the plane wall where no fins fitted
15 x 0.024
m
- fiiP. --
= \JkA 15.1 x 0.2 x 10-4
Qt = hA AT= 15 X 0.5 x 0.S (90-30) =225W
::: 34.52 at x =L (heat transfer rate shall be decided by lower h side )

TL-T.
T0 -T. = coshmL . '

W Teil!KnmlM..
y P·til b.11 11:·1 1 \ I ft '

Seonned wi1h CamScanntK

 . . . . . ~ . . ~

." t(tT Heat T~ansfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech) 3.30 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. '1 · , :~·
..."·,._ ~
. .. _ . . e111~
·.-;/!ji .. ~ .
-.-,...... ... n now desired to increase this heat transfer rate by 250% by Solution: ·
_'

: .~:~ 'i Jitting fins on rur side.

(a)
. : ..~.._ Desired Q = Q1 + 250 % Q1 T.= 800oC, . To= 35ooc, . ',•
:I . ·.

= 225 +2.5 X225 =787. 5 W . Q::SOW, e0 =T.-T0 =800-350==4500c

.Are8 occupied by 30 fins =30 x 0.002 x 0.5 == O.OJ m2 m = '1Ff

Unoccupied wall area= 0.5 x 0.5 - 0.03 = 0.22 m2 . 120 x 0.0~ =43.82
= 25X(2X IO "j'
Heat transfer rate by unoccupied area of wall

•,
Q = ..J"h •p • k ·Ac x 00 X tanh (mL)
I•
4
80 = -Jl20 x 0.08 x 25 x 2 x 10- x 450 x fanb (43
15 x 0.22 (90- 5 - 30) =181.S w _.s2lJ

Hence heat tlansfer desired by 30 fins

tanh (43.82 L) = 0.8114

=787.5 - 181.5 =606 w 43.82L = J.131

.·• heat transfer rate per fin = ~~ == 20.2 w L = 0.0258

= ~-= 2x 15 m = 2.58cm
...Allt.
m 75 x 0.002 =14.142
(b) wehave

I "
, e=0
450°c, in= 43.82 ;
" :!
· ; ..
. I ;,
, 20.2 = 75 x 0.5 x 0.002 x 14.142 (90-5 - 30) i.m h (14.142 l)
h 120
nik' = . 43.82 x 25 =0·1095
,.,, .
; ' tanh (14.1421) = 0.3463 GJven : Finite Jong fin i.e. short fin and Q =Q., using
''
'. 14.1421 = 0.3612 Equation (3.4.17),
! ,.
~)J
,.,· '
I = 0.0255 M =2.55 cm •••Ans.
tanh(mL)+ (
Q = ..jh·P•k"A ·Bo [ ( h)
Example 3.7.30 I+ mk tanh mL

I (a) Blades of an aerofoil section are designed for a gas

I tanh (mL) + 0 l()<)5J
x450 [ 1 +o. 1095 ~;[
1' 4
1, turbine to transfer 80 W of heat by each blade having 80=..J120x0.08x25x2x10-
" the following dimensions :
Ac =2 x
-4 2
10 m , Perimeter, P = 0.08 m, 0.8J14 (1+0.1095 tanh mL) = tanh (mL) + 0.1095
k=25WlmK,
tanh (mL) = 0.7704
Temperature of gas over the blades= 800°C
Allowable temperature at ~e roots of the blade mL = 1.0213
=350°C
Convective heat transfer coefficient h = 120 W/m K
2 43.82 x L = 1.0213

Assuming blades as a fin with insulated ends, find the L = 0.02331 m or 2.331 cm ...Ans.
height of blade required.
(b) The blades are considered as finite long (Short) fin
with convection heat transfer from its tips, find the
length of blades required when all other data is
remaining the same.
vr1m._!e'tiJI
~"""·~:
 ......
. '·1I
. I
.. lI
·. · · · nsfer MU-Sem 5~Mech
3·31 · Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat COnd.) :
f. Hest rra . . (1) Temperature recorded by thermometer, TL
i
d~'"'p
,,,.1.31teafll at 200°C
. flows through a pipe of 1o cm .1

At length L, we have :
~ 11ated
8
si.1Perti A brass pocket Is created radially Into the pipe so
TL -T.. 1
,111eter. the temperature of steam. The closed end of T0 -T.. • cosh (mL)
d1 es91.1re
10 111 uches the centre-line of the pipe. Pipe surface
S9 kSttO . TL-200 1
h poC · 140°C. Diameter of pocket .. 12 mm
l,.19 wra - . 140- 200 s:: cosh (2.98)
111111'6111
1 klckne
99 of pocket "' 1 mm kb,..., = 112 W/mK
. ••• Ans.
wsll ' 11 a ' 194°C
Ao0 W/rtl K
h- tertlPerature.recorded by the thermometer. Also find
(2) Percentage error In temperature meaeurement
fllld th;entage error In temperature measurement. How can
P8 T.. -TL 200-194 . •••ADS·
11111
thl9 eff'O
r be reduced ? T. x 100 = 200 x 100=3%
, Refer Pig. P. 3.7.31
soll.lt1on. (3) Methods of reducing the error

(i) If 'h' is very large.

(ii) If thermal conductivity, k is small.

steam temperature = T.. =200°C (iii) Increasing the length of wall and reducing its thickness.
••• A.US·
Diameter of pipe = D;::.10cm =0.1 m

Length of brass pocket = L ·= ~ = 0.05 m ;

Example 3.7,32
Temperature of air in reservoir is measured with the help of
kbnw = 112W/mK; h=400W/Mk mercury-in-glass thermometer placed in a protective well
3 filled with oll. Thermometer shows a temperature of 86°C at
Wall thickness of pocket = 5 = 1 mm = 1 x 10- m
the end of the well. Find out error in measurement, if
Diameter of pocket = d = 12 mm =0.012 m temperature at the base of the well Is 40°C. The well is
Perimeter of wall, P = 7t (d + 25) =7t d. 12 cm long, 1.5 mm thick having thermal conductivity of
2
56 W/mK, h may be taken as 20 W/m K.
And cross-sectional area. Ac = 7t d 5
~ Solution:·

-~
--+I lI l

To= 140°C
Let T.. be the temperature of air in reservoir.
r, .. 200°c '
L= 12 cm= 0.12 m, =1.5 mm= 0.0015 m;
-···---' ~ ·-· -·-···-·-· i.-d---t 1:.~-·~·-1
-+ t
D
- '
·k=56W/mK, h=20W/m K

=
Error in temperature measurement T _ - TL
2

Fig. P. 3.7.31 m = ~ = \ }56 x ~~0015 =15.43

7t d 1
.. .L = -7t d 5 --
- 8
-
- 1 x 10- 3 =
103 T.. -TL 1
Aa. T.. -T0 = cosh mL

~~ko
T.;,-86 1
m = ~= T.. -40 = cosh (15.43 x 0.12) =0 .307
·'
= \ }112 ~~.001 59.76 T.. -86 = 0.307 ( T.. - 40)

T.. = 106°C
.. mL = 59.76 x 0.05 =2.98
 :V .Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Me~h)
·~
. ::-:1
3-32
Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans, <Trans H · :.;
.. , - - -·- . . ellt C ..
. ..
<t .
ErrorT. -TL = 106.- 86.:: ::zooc . f I • .. :: : .. • • • ••• AllS. . · ' · h·n ·d .. []l · ~."'
' .. l i
= k • (7t d) • T:: \JM I

Percentage error = .!=.:.!!:

T_ x 100 ·

106- 86 x 100 =18.s%

= '130 c1.i~1~-3)= 91.29 .
= 106 .•• Ans. 200-TL
.. 200-100 = cosh [ (91.29) (0.05)]
Example 3.7.33
1
A thermometric well is placed In a pipe having diameter of = 48.012
5 5 mm. Pipe wall temperature is 100°C and heat transfer
coefficient inside the pipe is 300 W/m2 K. Thickness of 9602.5 -(48.012) TL= 100
thermowell is 1.2 mm and its length is 50 mm. Thermal
conductivity of thermowell material is 30 W/mK. If the TL = 197.92°C

temperature of the gas flowing through the pipe Is recorded Error in measurement= T... - TL= 200 - 197.92 .2.0s•c =
by thermometer as 200°C, determi.ne the true temperature of Reduction in error by'80%
gas. If the error in gas temperature is to be reduced by 80%

by increasing the length of JhermoweU, determine the new Allowable error = 20% of P"""' error= 0.2 x 2.08 • o. '(,
length of thermowell. Draw a sketch of this thermowell. Take
416
perimeter to area ratio for thermowell as 1/T (T:: thickness).
T.-Tu = 0.416oc
Solution: Refer Fig. P. 3.7.33
T_-TLI
Given: d=55 mm, T.. - T0 =
cosh (mL,)
Surface temperature,
0.416
200-100 = cosh (mL,)
T 0 = 100°C, h = 300W/m2 K

Temperature of gas, T .. = 200°C, cosh (mL,)= 240.385

Thickness, T =1.2 mm
mLI. = 6.1754
L=50mm =0.05, k=30W/mK,

To reduce error by 80% by increasing length

91.29 x L1 = 6.1754
. · ·P I 1 :: o.06765 m = 67.65 mm
LI
L1 =? One can take, A =thickness =T ...Ans.

Flow Flow
In Syllabus Topic : Application of Unsteady
out State Heat Transfer .
Teo -+
-+
3.8 Concept and Application of
Unsteady State Heat Transfer

Fig. P. 3.7.33: Tbermowell So far we have discussed the cases .of heat conduction under

0L T.-TL 1 steady state in which the temperature of the body does not 'Vary
00 = T. -T0 =cosh (ml) Wl'th .
time. HOWever' there are many engineering problems
. in which

m = '1H the temperature may also vary with time. In such

. cases, the
. a body is the function of space co-ordinates
temperature m . and
.
time 1..e. T = f(x • y• .."'• t)· But' the 'solution- of two or three

.. '"'.......
·if_
,di~11s10
tfeat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
. )'
. nal problem 1s very comp 1cated, thus we sh-'I 'd
.._ cons1 er
3.33 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat Cond.)
--;;!

Under transient condirions. charnclcristic equution for hcut

only where the temperature variation is the " .
thOS" ca5es • . auncuon of now can hi! written us :
. . n :uid ume 1.e. T = f(x. t).
its pas1110 The net rate of heat transfer with body = The rn1e of chmige
,.,.. the heat is transferred from the bod .
~~0 y ~ w of internal energy of the body. Consider the case when heat nows
d·n~ there will be a variation of temperature 0 f bod
,1Jf1t>un 1 .. • • . Ywith out of the body, its surface temperature changes. Tiiu.s u
· .1 the bOdY attruns nn equilibrium temn.a t
·Ille unU r-ro ure or a steady temperature gradient is estnblished from the centre of the body 10
11
~e period during which the body temperature . .
~tllre. ''' vanes with its surface. lt1 order to detem1ine the tempe~ature distrib11tio11
· . said to tie under unsteady state or transient stat
til!lC 1S . C, within a body during transielll period, we shall co11sicler that
'Jbe conduction of heat in unsteady state is referred as temperature of body is the function of rime only and It is unifonn
• t beat conduction. tlirougho11t at a11y instant.
tfllllS1CD
'fhcre ~ Jarge number of practical examples of transient heat CJI- Analysls of unsteady state problems

c0nduction which are of great interest to us. Some of the exampIes

Tiiere are two types of problems :
are: I. Analysis of cases in which temperature is uniforn1 throughout
Annealing of steel billets.
J. the body at any instant and it varies only with time. Such
Bating of a chicken in oven. system are analysed by lumped-heat capacity method. Such
2.
cooling of automobile engines. cases are considered to have negligible internal resistance.
3.
2. Analysis of the case in which the temp_erature varies with
cooling of broke drum of an automobile
4. position and time.
cooling and freezing of food
5,
Syllabus Topic : Criteria and Analysis of Lumped
Heat treatment of metals by quenching
6. System, Characteristic, Length, Blot Number, Thermal
Response time of a thermometer Time Constant
7.
Heating or cooling of water in solar water heater etc.
s. 3.9 System with Negligible Internal
In all these above cases, when- the heat energy flows in or Resistance-Lumped Heat Capacity
flows out of the body, its inttmlal energy either increases or Method
d~rt3Ses which is indicated by the respective increase or fall in

teJDperatute of the body.

since the rate of heat_transfer depends upon the temperature
gradient and the temperature changes with time, therefore, the heat
flow rare will also change continuously with time.

Tuere are several cases of unsteady state in which the

iemperatUTC and heat flow vary periodically or non-periodically. In
periodic temperature \•ariation, the temperature of body varies

00
a regular basis e.g. periodic heat flow in a body between day
and night, hear flow in a regenerator of a Sterling engine cycle,
~mperature variation of l.C. engine cylinder etc. in non-periodic
temperature variation cases, the temperature at any point in the
body varies non-linearly with time e.g. annealing of steel billet,
heating of an ingot in a furnace.

Ttbt l11hMH111ledge
"-9" f'!Ublll t1 l l 1HH1
 ._, <·
•4
.!'!ltJr~·~H~o~n~l~T~r!a~n•~/:e~r~M~U~-S~o~m~~~·~M~o~c~hi........................~~...;:,~~::;:;,,;~~~~~"""'........_.......,;,,:;:;~~
3.34 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Tr1an11. rafl8. ~ .:

1,·· mwly~o crun~lenl heur conduc1lor1 problems (h) !!.:h .

.,,:, Ir I ~ c1111ve11
I
cu
1 11
'
Jn rhoso <'ll~ON wI1Ic It I1JIV<l 11cgllglbfo J111crr1al rc~lsllmce of rhc flow I.e.
e, ,. 6;-.'A) • k ···U.gl'
• •l

of .hcinl nuu_, I1'" t~m,..,r11111rc'

~ ,.. wlrhln the ~yrlem 111 uny ins111n1 i#
I.
I .
., .... I . . 1
1111 /01111 .e. wllh ucallfllblo
• /11tcrnnl femperolurcJ gradient (ITO).·
where h c Average convective heat transfer
11 IN juNllflcd when 1/11,., c1>nvectlvc te#lsl11ncc ;;:p; 111 rhe system coefficient at tho surface
,.
J

houuc/nry IH very Jilgh w/11:11 comp11rcd lo lrllcmn/ re~/~111ncc due ro L• ""

Characteris tic dimensions of the body
co11d11c1lon (r.'A) <JI is equal to volume of body, v d . .
. . '~ldcd
v I>)
It lmpllcs thnl lhe sol/cl body behaves IJN if having /nfinirc surface area. A) =A
1hennul com/ucriv/ly so 111111 !here is no vuriution of temperature ···C3,9.)j
Jc . = Average thermal conductivity of ITlaleri<I)
/n~ldc the solid 11nd lhc lcmpcr111ure i~ 1/1e function of lime only.
.Le lnkrnal resistance ls less thaq
Sit1L'C lcmpcrnlurc is assumed function of only one variable i.e. If B1 < 0·1 • 1O~
nal resisUince then the Internal res1stallc: Cf
rime, ii becomes very cnsy to analyse lhe problem with reaRonable surface I exbter egJeckd. It will have ITG < 53, u..:.r.r~
11ccuri1cy. body can e n ble ·-r ""
condlllon, resulls obUllned are reasona • ...,.

Pructicnlly no mnt<lrial in nature has infinite thermal Jn general, Bi § o.J .then ITG § 5%.
conductivity, l1owevcr bodies wirh large surface area as co~pared
9 1 • The characterlstlcs length oharlous oba......
to volume (e.g. billets, thin wires and plates etc.) with high thermal Table 3 • • • V) ""'-11
{L•A
conductivity can be considered with negligible temperature
gradient.

The process in which internal resistance is negligible

compared to its surface or convective resistance is called 4 3
1. Sphere V ytR R .
Newtonian cooling or heating process.
Le = A= 41tR2 =3: whereR=RadiUs or
Generally, two types of problems are encountered as sphere
follows: 1tR2L
2. Cylinder R
Le= Zill= 2 ; where R = Radius of
1. When body has negligible internal temperature gradient
cylinder
(ITG)<5%
p l
2. When body has ITG more than 5%.
3. Cube Le =
6
f = 6; where l = Side of cube
A · Ax Ax
To decide whether ITG Is < 5% so that · Internal 4. Plate Le =2A =T ; where Ax =thickness
resistance can be neglected.
of plate

The measure of ITG is based on the dimensionless number

known as Blot number (B1) . 3.9.1 Analysis of Quenching of Biiiet by
Lumped Heat Capacity Method
er Definition _o f 8 1
OEFINIDON ~(MU - Dec. 09, May 10, May 11, May 12,

{[[JJ May 14, May17)

Internal conductive resistance ( ~)

Blot number, B1 = · (: 1 )
.; Surface or convective thermal resistance h·A
 •• .. • - · ·- - - - - - . .- - · ·- - .. • • • • I

·'..~
:
·, ·.,,.'. :tllet
··~dfQ· -~. .....
·~~~~~~-
. "'9' ... ~· .,... Ct
.. .
:tdioM»t .
. ...!!!_ h ·A
· · 1 - 1_ .. - ~ · C.

·' .. f l )

lnirW conJ1ticm; :in: : Al I •O. T•T,

c_\!llS IJl'r I\ hilkl nl trmpt•nuurc T of \•olurnc v ·-·• ..ur(!'CC
wMJ

\ \\'hlch Is ,uJdenly rl:acrd In new 1urrounding' iu

jlltl\ I )"j ., 9
.... T 11.Hhown In · 8· ·' · . I.
1cn1rtr.1tt"" .. •••( IJ)
Surface 11rea, A.

,,"
,,,,.--..... I ', 0
On 1uhstituWi, lhc \·JJ~ of C1 from cquition (1i) in Equ:uion (iJ.

I
nCT-!.J = h·A
-~ t+lnff,-T_>
I
I
I
I CT-T) h·A
I In CT,-{j D --t .• .c3.9.6 )
\ P·c·V
\
\ ' ........... _____ ...,,., -h · t I
- -x-
..
..
-{hAJ p.;V)l DC p · c ~ (':~a \'/A)
Ftg. 3.9.1 : Quenching of bllM In a nuld
... (3.9.7)
As$uining T > T,.. billet will be cooled.
...(3.9.7 (A))

l,(I, v = Volume m~
Equ:it.ion (3.9.7) gives the \'ari:it.ion of 1cmp4!n11ure of a solid
c = Specific heut of billet, J/kgK
when ii is cooled or heated upto the surroundin~ 1emrcr.i1urcs. T_.
3
p = Density, kg/m Above equation can be used to determine the tirne required to rcnch
lo n temperature T from Ti. Higher the vnlue of (h · A I P c V).
k = TI1ennnl conductivity of billet material, W/mK lower will be the time required to rench its surroundings
temperature, T.. .
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
(pVc/h ·A) is c:illcd the dimensionless time :
= Initinl temperature of body, Kor °C
In the nbo\'e equation, we use following dimensionless numbers :
= Tempernture of surroundings, Kor °C
h ·L
1. Blot number, B1 = k .
Lump .Mnss. m = P · V• Cl . t
2. Fourier's Number, F0 = L. ... (3.9.S)
Lump heat capacity, m · c =p · V · c c

By energy bnlnnce ut nny instnnt of time t, In Equation (3.9.7)

Rnte of convective heut transfer, Q =Decrease in intemul energy of h·A h. t h. t
•t -
the body per unit time p·c·V - p. c ·(VIA) =p. c LC
Q = h ·A (T-T..)
 ,
·: 3-36 ·Ext. Surface, Unst, State Heat Trans. (T~ans H.
. . ee1t Co ..
4. Instantaneous rate of heat transfer, Q from
. ·l ~u

. soud
Jt can be calculated by using convective he t ·
a lransi
the surface of a body as follows: er fr01ll
·"
Q = h •A[T- T..]'

dT
= -m·cdt'
.. . (3.9.9) "·(3.9·12)

where, thermal diffusivity, ex= ...t_ on substituting the value of (T-T..) from Equati
. . . P·c . on (3.9.7)
Q = .h ·A [(Ti -T..) e-<hAlpcV)-t) '
Thus Equation (3.9.7) can be rewn"tt ... (3.9.13)
en as:
T-T S. Total transfer of heat in time, t
~-T: = e-Bi. Fo
.. . (3.9.10)
The total amount of heat transferred in time 't' is
c:;r Significance of Fourier's Number F . equal lo the
chang·e in internal energy of the body 6U. it can be Oblaj .
' 0 . ~b
Ct. t
integrating the above Equation (3.9.13) as follow: Y
Fo =?.where thennaI diffusivity, ex= .l.(rn2/s) d L .
c pc an c 1s l t .
the characteristic length in m. 6U = J Q · dt = f h · A (T1- T..) e-<hAli:icV)t
0 0 'dt
Thennal diffusivity represent th . .
s e ratio of mtemnJ resistance
to heat flow to the heat capacity of maten·a1· F. al b . 6U = h·A(T1 - T..) (- h · A)e
e·c·Y\ hA·t)
(-.~
P·c·V
• 0 can so e wntten
as:
(-M.:.t.)
P ·c·Y
= p . c .y ..<T1 -T..) ·e .. .(3.9.14)

3.9.2 Difference between Blot Num.ber and

Nusselt Number
k·A
Wh~re,
L., is proponionaJ to the rate of heat conduction and
p · V·c . .
t is proporuonaJ to rate of.thermal energy storage in a given

volume. Therefore, the Fourier number signifies the degree of

1. B1 is dimensionless Nu represent dimensionless
penetration of heating or cooling effect through the solid. It Is
number and is a measure convective heat transfer
defined as the ratio of rate of heat conduction to the rate of thermal
ofITG. coefficient 'h'.
energy stor:ige in the solid.
2. B 1 is used in unsteady Nu number is used in
3. Instantaneous rate of cooling (:f) , state conduction of heat. convective heat transfer.
from Equation (3.9.7)
3. Bi
hL
= T, Where
L .
1s Nu =~ . where L is length
T-T_ = e-(hA!pcV)t
T;-T_ characteristic length of along flow and k is the
object as volume divided conductivity of fluid flowing
Instantaneous rate of cooling can be obtained by
by its surface area and k over solid.
differentiating the above equation,
is conductivity of solid
~: = ff;-T->[-:~~ · e~pcV)1J ... (3.9.11) material.

• Ttdll...,..

Sc.)nnccl w ith C;:imSc•mncr

 ~ ,,star (MU·Som 5·Mech 3.37
f He"' ,ro
, f oplc : Tlmo Con1tant end Re1pon1e of
5yt1•b" . Thormocouplo
a
0i"rne constant and Response of
3.10 fhermocouple ,

~---.;-:~-:--;-;-~~~~~<_M_u~-D~e~c.~16~)

. ortant application of lumped heat capacity analys· .

An 11nP 1s 1s
measurement of such fluctu.lting temperawre.
tJtC Ill
e115uremeot of temperatures of a fluid by thermocouples.
I . . . .
wnen the theflTlOCOUp e JUnCl.JOn IS In C-Ontact With the hot Syllabus Topic : Heisler Charts
--
. . octioo should ~n the fluid temperctture as quickly
1~~~ as
0° : (It is the case of unsteady state heating of thennocou le 3.11 Use of Heisler Charts In Transl ent
p0ss1ble. P
Heat Conduction Problems
·unction).
~(MU. Dec. 16)
J We defioe a tenn response time of a thermocouple as the
Mi, by the thennocouple to reach its thermal equilibrium
tifllC llU'e11
~~~ . a::,· ·Wrlre short note·on: H~ler chSrt.
Solution of unsteady state problems is worked out by Lum~
[.esser the time ta.keo by thermocouple to reach the fluid
-•ure. we say that response of thermocouple is fast The . . of the ~ol id
1empC1 "" Heat Capacity method, if internal conducu ve res1sunce ·
_,,,re variation of thermocouple can be given by the ·r
can be neglected. We have already le.amt that 1 1 8 < o 1 internal
• •
iempe1. -
Equation (3.9. 7 (A)) as: resistance can be ignored and solution of the problem will be

-000 = ..!::.!=. - (-hA!ilpcV) available with reasonably high accuracy.

T--T - e ... (3.10.1)
Solution of unsteady s~ problems is worked out by Lumped
I -

for a rapid response of thermocouple, the term (hAt/pcV) Heat Capacity method, if internal conductive resistance of the solid
should be as large as possible so !hat T = r ... ll can be achieved by can be neglec~ We have already !emit that if B1 < 0. 1, intemal
decreasing the diameter of wire, density or specific heat or by resis_tance can be ignored and solution of the problem will ~
increasing convective heat coefficient. The quantity (pcV/hA) available with reasooably high accuracy. In case. Bi > 0 . 1, then

having the dimensions of time is defined as the time constant of solution of u~steady state problems has to be worked out by some

the thennocouple. other method.

p ·c·V Heisler worked out analytical solutions of such problems in
Time constant, t"' = h . A ... (3.10.2)
rhe fonn of charts for some standard shaped solids like slabs,
Oo substituting the value oft* in Equation (3.10.1) we get : cylinders and spheres. Solution worked out after long analysis
0 T-T -tit•
80 = T:"':T = e ... (3.10.3) shows that temperarure at any plane in the solids is a function of Bi
I 00

When t= t•, Equation (3.10.3) becomes,

number ( ht )·, Fourier number ( V) and · dimensionless
!. T -T.. parameter ( [ ) • which indicates the location of plane, where
=
00 Ti- T..
temperature is required to be determined. All rhe terms (h. L. k, a.
-t I
= e = 2.718 = 0.368
t, x) have standard meaning explained earlier in the chapter.
Hence, e= 0.368 00 . Heisler charts for slab, cylinder and sphere are shown in Fig. 3.11.1
to Fig. 3.11.6.
u Te<lla1wlngi
~ Fw!t l l" .. t t • fl ~

Sconned with camsconner

~
~,'
~,

~ .
. ..
. .
. .
'
. .

~ :.
' '
V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-MeCh) .
3-38

, .. , ..'
, . - ....
.
... ·- · - )"'

,
' .

·'

Fig. 3.11.1 : Heisler chart for temp~rature history at the centre of a plate of thickness 2L or (X/L) "' 0

,"\
' '' ~ ' ' \
"\J
1 t
~ I I \.

"'-'
I ' '(> !:ii

I 1
I \I
}
j\
•' I'\ "'"\ \
I\ I
I\
\ '' ' \' , ~u

'\"'\
I \ \ \
'\
I I1 I\' '
I
'
·~ \ ' \ \
11,, \ \ \~ ~ \
\

\
8
\\ J\ ' \
\
\
I\\
'
\ \ ' \ \ \ '
1o 12 14 1618 20 22 24 26 20 30 40 so 50 70 so go 1oo 120 140
' ' 200 300~
1 2 3 4 6
F. = at = a t
o 52 L2

Fig. 3.11.2 : Heisler chart for temperature history in a cylinder

' • 1'1\11111
. ;,1111ul
 · · (T Heat cond.)
3·39 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. rans. . .
..
'

\. \

F ,:£!._cd
o 52 - R2

Fig. 3.11.3: Heisler chart,.LOr temperature history ln sphere

1.0 2 3 5 10 20

1 k
81 "'hi:
Fig. 3.11.5 : Heisler position • correction factor chart
Fig. 3.11.J : Heisler position· correction factor chart for temperature history in cylinder
ror temperature history ln plate

seamed with CamScan~

 E><l· surface. unst.
..
V Heat Transror MU-Som 5-Moch
3-40

- ;_.i.__

.. - ·-· ····· .. .. ..
,_.-1- U - - '-- ·
I
I

o.1 LLg -L_ _ '--_I ~ 1. 1 11

20
'.

50 100
i ll.H1 II 111 1.0 • 2 3 5 10
00.01 0.02 o.o5 0.1 0.2 o.s
1 k
6/'tiR

F;g. 3.11.6' Hclslo< po<ldOD. correedon ractorchart for wnperature bl.tory In spbe,..

Table 3 .11.1 : List of Fomtulae

I\. · ~et ·!rilb'Jfi-hiAit;lJo"·''!!''~-""~''"'""" "'".'""~

+ ';-.'0·"' C· A,~,,,." .,6;}~.~.tl\•• p.,I:foCripphcati•l"of1

~::~!rr~'i~4f~:1~-rr:;,~~;)·0'J~t~~~~~l~:g:
.·.:.» '~"

l~i~\t{}Z~;~"~;Il ~tt~[tft~ jf:~~

'·'' ··' Fouucr No--·F ;;... -.....- •: ( ' i ·.:·' ···· · k· " "' • ,, '

f;;. ·.:.C,h,1!aC!CUStiO Jerigih L' toNWi' •.•.• b· ••.;~-,,, ,,_'f

~~~ji ·i}~;~~~tL>·· ;:~;.R'-:-: ,;·· ~-::~~-
· •·'" ) • •""' · Sphere ..i:,c ··
~: ~:;~\s.' ·1•,;.,·,:>
M; '
:~ : ; ....
c;...., ., _.,• .

·•"'l'1.m ....
r;1i1u u111

- - - - -·
- -- --
 ~
. · ·
I •

. ~ H~·0~·it!..tT~rn:n•&•fo._r•M•U•·•So•m-5·•M•o•oh-.___.... _ ...~3~-4~1~.!;E~xt~.~Su~r~fa~ce~,~U~n~st~.S~t~at~e~H!:e:at~T:r:;r:an~s~.:~(T~ra:n•s•.H.-eliiamfmlCllon.d_.
. pie '·11·1 . ' . Check for validity of Jumped heat, capa.ci.ty theory for
1
·. eic"n lnlllnl alloy plAtG 0.6 m X 0.5 m and 5 cm thick la
.,lllll'I d nppllcutlon :
An d nt 300°0. 1t 1s su donly put In surrounding at
ll\lttlr\0 ,
n1ll "llll'IO p • 7000 kg/m·, Speclflo heat, c • 300 J/kgK
so~~ '
· 1 conductivity, k • 200 W/mK and convocllon heat
'
thorrn:r ooefflclont, h • so W/mlK, Dotermlno the time taken h·Lc h·R 2oxo.os OOJ39
tnin9f AIElb to reach a temperature of 120°c, Bi • -r W = 360X2 12 :O.
ror tile~
Since B1 < 0.1. Lumped hent cnpacity theory can be applied to
5olL1tlOl1 : l .
Asa 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25 m , tho problem.
111icknoss. Ax • 5 om • 0.05 111, T-T.
T1-T_
T.. =30°C, T= 120°C
cnucnl li:lngth ~ s n '
.f I b L
c -
- .Y.
A =2
L\x 0.05
=2 =0.025 m = exp(- : 0 xixt) (:. ~==~)
h 60 -110-25 ( 20 2 )
B1 = k·Le= 200 x 0.025 = 0.0075 < 0.1 -196-25 = exp. - 8800 x 380 xo:osx t

Since a1 < 0.1, Lumped hent cnpncity theory is npplicnble to 0.6109 .= exp. (-0.0002392 t)

1110 systen1. -0.49282 = - 0.0002392 t

~ = . exp. (--h-·_t XLI ) .•• Ans·
T1-T.. P ·c c t • 2060.3s
t 2060.3 • . ..Ans·
120 - 30
3oQ-3o =
I ( • 600 x t
exp. - 7000 x 300 x 0.025
I ) or, = 60 = 34.338 mm

Example 3.11.3
. 0.3333 = exp. (- 0.001143 x t)
. A solid sphere of 1 cm radius made up of steel is initially at
-0.001143 t = In (0.3333) =- 1.09871 300°C temperature. Properties of steel : k = 60 WmK,
3
Density= 7800 kg/m , Sp. Heat= 434 J/kg K
t = 961.4 sec. ...Ans. Calculat~ the time required for cooling it up to ' 50°.c in the
following two cases,
2
Example 3.11.2 i) cooling medium is air at 25°C with h = 20 W/m K.
A copper cylinder 10 cm diameter, 20 cm long Is removed ii) cooling medium is water at 25°C with
from liquid nitrogen at - 196°C and exposed to air at 25°c
with convection coefficient of 20 W/m K. Find the time
2 h =100 W/m 2 K.
Solution:
required by the cylinder to attain the temperature of - 110°c .
Take thermo physical properties as : c = 380 J/kg K, Given: Sphere of radius R.= tern =O.Olm, T i = 300°C
3
I .
=
p 8800 kg/m , k = 360 W/mK.
k =60 W/m K, p =7800 kg I m3 ,
Solution:
Specific heat, c =434 J/kg K, T = 50°C
Ginn:
1. Time required, t If sphere ls kept In air at 25°C
Cylinder diameter, d =I0 cm = 0.1 m. i.e. R =~ = 0.05 m, 2
Given : T_ =25°C and h=20W/m K
L =20 cm = 0.2 m ,
T1 =-196°C, T_ = 25°C, h=20W/m K,
2 Biot number, B; = ~ x Le(Le =~)
T=- ll0°C, c =380 J/kgK, . 20 0.01 - 0 001
= 60 x 3 - · I

p =8800 kg/m3, k = 360 W/mK

B1 <0.1, henc.e using lumped heat capacity analysis

Scaooed with CamScanner

 .. . ~T,.,...,(UIJ_~&~.I 3-0 E.l.i ~ U-*-~ "-' ,,_ (1~- - ~-:.....ft

., _.,, - (_l!..:..l,..'.LJ' a, 1'• tJa4 ~ .......... .... .... . . -.. •• • • ..._,, ... ..::::;::
1
- • cap
,- - P·r --.: ...., ~1· -°""
( ,,., ')
.. cap. - P · ~ "~
O~JO!' ~ c(~ •
~ 10-'
~ .~ .. iu- •a
.' O - "~ ( W "' r J ) : 2
"") - 1J • cap. - 7.00 x 04 "' (j7Jf

• c~p. ( -0.0017 7 I ) B, •

- 0.00tn I • e O.O'Ai9I • - 2.3979 Simtt~<U.Dif~twal~~ ..

appticable ~
r • USJ~
••• Am.
(ii / T1- reqwdnd. I IO n:adl dw -pn111a1T
1. Timr~ulred, tll•phtt-~bU,.Cla i.-.urat 25•c
orr-~
2
Glvrn: T. • 2j°C, ha 100 W/m K T-T_ h •I A )
T,-T_ • u.p. ( - "'P-7 "v
• h ·-
exp . ( - - I x _
p·c. 1-c
I)
~-2.5 (- IOOxr 3~
JcXj':25 • up. - 7800 x 434 x D.Of) .W-2.5 100>< 1 I )
4-00-2.5 ... up. ( - 8SOO x -'CO x IQ-!
• exp. (- 0.008862 r)
0 .04 exp. (- 0.0~ I x I}
t • 270.58 6«ond ••• Am.
In (0.04} = - 0 .<Y'
..54 1 t
Eumple 3.11.4
/n (0.(}.S I - 3 :! I SSS
A copper plate 2 mm thick Is heated up to 440°C and then l = - 0.02~ I :s - 0.02~ I • l IJ.3 ltt. ···-'111.
quenched In water at 25°C. Find the Blot number and verify /f
Lumped heat capacity heat ccnduction analysis Is applicable. Example 3.11.5
Also find (I) The time ccnstant and (II) The time required tor A stainless steel rod of outer diameter 3 cm origl~ty at
1
the plate to reach the temperature of 40°C. The following temperature of 500' C is suddenly Immersed In a liquid at
data are given for the problem :
h. 100 W/m K: 2
Plate dimension= 25 m x 25 m 100
.
1OO"C for which the convective heat transfer coetticient .
W/m'K. For stainless steel : k = 40 WfrnK.
~

1
Specific hlilBt of copper= 0.4 kJlkg·K ; p :: 7800 kg/m , c = 460 Jll<gK, Determine the time required
Thermal ccnductivlty of copper =385 Wlm·K ; for the rod to reach a temperature of 150"C.
1
Density of copper= 8800 kglm • Solution:
Solution:
Glvtn : Ginn:

=2 mm =2 x Jo- l m,
Thickne.~s of plate, L1x d = 3cm=0.03 m, Ti 500°C,
Initial temperature of plate T, =400°C
T_ = l00°C, h = 100W/m1K,
Water temperature (f..J =25°C,

Fin:il temperature ofplate, T = 40°C, L: = 40W/mK, p = 7800 kg!m1,

1
h =100 WI m K , Area of plate, A= 25 x 25 = 625 ml, c = 4601/kgK, T = l50"C
=
c = 0.4 kllkgK 400 Jlkg K , · · al/
Cntlc ength, Le .. 4d (for cylinder) co 4
0 03
. 0.0075 m
k = 385 W!mK, p = 8800 kg/ml
~ IOO x 0.0075
k = -40 =0.01875<0.I,

oRM~
.,.. t,U I U l i tu

Sctt1 • 1~ wlthC111 1i.Scu1 •1t.'I

 HeatCOnd-)
9
3.43 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat lrans. (Tt81l • .

Solution:

Diamettr a 25 mm = 0.025 m

:. R = 0·~5 =0.0125 m
V nR2L R
IOO><t I ) LC = A =2,iR[ =2
"' exp. ( - 7800 >< 460 x Q.0075
h ·Le _ 80 x o.ot~ =0.0125
Bi = K - 40x2
e"P· (- 0.003716 t)
o.Izs : : ,. . ..
Since B < OJ lumped heat capacity theor:Y can
be applied to

ln o. t 25 =- 2.07944 1
003716t"" problem.
. . o.
•' 559,6 sec. •••Ans.
-hX2
T.-T -t
e pCR
(l)
T.. -T1 =
-80X2 Xt
750-600 7850 x 480 x 0.0125
e
750-30 =

-J.397X 10-3t
0.2083 = e

e- 3·397 x 10- 3 l = 4.8

3.397 x 10- 3 t = 1.569

. . length of plate
Chllf'lcteflSUC . -3 ... ADS·
fl x 3 x IO I _3 = 461.8 sec.
Lc=T= 2 = .5 x 10 m

~ _28X l.5x 10-

3
-•
(ii) = 280°C
B; = k - 385 =1.09 x 10 -80x2x280
T,.-T 7850 x 480 x0.0125
.... I the lumped heat capacity method is applicable. T.. -T1 = e
Since B1 ... 0. ,
. .....,uired to reach temperature of 50° C 750-T -0.951
rune ...... 750-30 = e

!.::!= = exp [- Ph.·~ x i-1 = =278.2 .

Ti-"" cJ 750 - T 720 x 0.38635

~
so-2s 28 x t
= exp [ -8800 x 380 x 1.5 x 10- 3
··1 J · T = 471.8°C
4()()-25
6 Short fall in temperature = 600 - 471.8 = 128.2°C ... Ans.
o.066 = exp [ - 8.37 x 10- t x 666.60)
 Y.' Hear Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) - 3-44
SoluUon:
T -T = e
d = 10 mm; R. .. -5 mm= 0 .005 m T:-T1

I= I m ; 'Ij = 4 oo•c; T_ = 100°C; h = 250 W/m2K. -100 X 3x240

. . 1200 x 2000 x o.Qi t
(i)
To verify for use f 1 be JOO-T e
· used;
0
amped heat capacity method can 100-25 : .
100-T 75 x e-•.~ == 16.73
B, hL hxR s3.21°c
1(=Kx2 T
5°C
== 250 x o.oos -3
7ox 2 =8.929x 10 -hx3
pC~ t
Since B
'
= 8·929 x
10- J d · be
< 0.1, hence Jump melho can .
T_:__ T
r:=r;
= e

applied to solve the problem.

-100x3
T =2_0 0°c; t = ? J00-83.27 = e
12oo x 2000 xo.Q2t
100-5

0.176

Substituting values· 200 - I 00 250x2 t 5.68

'400-IOO e - 8000 x 460 x 0.005
1.737
100 -0.0272t
300" = e
0.0272 t
I , .' e
== 3

i: '•
0.0273 t J.0986

i i

Solution: D 45mm == 45 x 10- 3 m

. - 3
D = 40 mm = 0.04 m :. R = ~ 45 x210 = 22.5 x 10- 3 m

T1 = 2s0 c; T_= I00°C

t = 4 min= 240 second; T=?

= .45 min =4.5 x 60 = 270 sec
As per lump system analysis
T~ = l00°C
-hA
pCVt
e .... (Boiling temperature of water at atmospheric press11RJ

• Ttcl....
" POll!Uil~

Scanned with CamScanner

JJ>·
~ t rransfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) , 3·45 Ext: Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat CondJ_
~- Hea ·
D
:, R =2= 0.02 m
eck for lumped heat capacity theory
1och
critical length. for sphere
R 22.5 x 10- 3 Time, t = 4 min = 4 x 60 sec
L, = 3= 3
= 240sec
3
= 7.5x10- m
Assume, Boiling water temperature= 100°C
~ - 100 x 7 .5 x 10- 3
B1 = k - 10 .= oms at ~tmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar
:. T_ = 100°c
AS· :Si<: O. I, lumped heat capacity theory is applicable

To estimate temperature, T of egg.

2.
v ~ht
-ht x A -x- 1~ Characteristic length of egg,
T- T- = e PC
. ...:--:::;- = e CP L
:. T1 -T- i1tR1 .
- 100 x 270 1 :\ V 3 R
= e( 1200 x 2000 x 7.5 x 10-3) L, = A= 41tR2 =3
~
. . 18-100 0.02 . 3
= -3- = 6.666 x 10-
:. T = 81.7033°C
~
3
100 x 6.666 x 10-
To find time t1 to boll the egg for the same case Bi = k - 10
3.
= 0.0666 < 0.1
.. B; < 0.1, the lumped heat capacity theory can be used.
T-T_ . =Ml
Taking lo&c on both sides; .. T 1-T.. =
epcPV

T- T
-
:. Jog. ( T; - T
_0 =-pCPht x -L,I
1
-ht ' 1
- x-
T-100
.. 20-100 = epcP L,
St.7033 - 100) - 100 x t, 1
:. log. ( 4- 100 1200 x 2000 x 7.5 x 10- 3 lOO x 240 1
.. L:..!QQ ~e1200 x2000 x 6.666 x 10-3
-80 =
: . t1 = 298.372 sec ...Ans.
T-100
.. -80 = 0.223

.. T = 82.1522° C

Time required when T 1 = S°C to produce the same rate, ti

-ht1 1
- x-
= e pep L,

-100 x t 1 1
Solutlon : .82.1522-100 = el200 x 2000 x 6.666 x 10-3
5-100
Egg (sphere)

D = 4 cm = 0.04 m

• T.a....1....
• P.,u • It l I l l1 ft 1
~ !.
~~
~
.. ...
.. .'. ,
)

~, " .••
.
j ·
I

.! .'·. .
".i f 0

~
•
,.H=emai i t; ;T,; ra; ;n=:;s;,; fe; .;r,. i(,;,;:M.;,;:U:;.;-~S;,e;,;.-m5; .-.; M=:e:;c;,; h)
•...,.
•· . . ," " '3-4~6=-= Ext=·:.;s. .,u=rf=a, .c.; e;., S~t..,a~te~H~e~a=t~T~ra~n~s~~~~~
. ...,.......,.....= ...... U,;o;n""s""t'
.-
• rans.1-1
'·. \
.· ,:\
Jo~(0.18787) .:.'ll~~..-
I 1 ' ..
,. ! ·, ··-t '·. .•• -6.25x J0-311 T-30 e 10 ,.3 ellll'_
·' ,, .., . -8000><420 ,.0.004"20 .
~ • • t 62.2-30
••• t1 = 261.494 sec. •.• Ans.
I ,.
..
.. . .
C I I ·
T- 30 = 32.2 e- 0 -0446 = 30.8

.···

Given:
Sphere diameter D=8 mm =0.008 m; R =0.004 m
Solution:
cP =420 J/kg°C; P =8000 kg/m3 ; k = 40 W/m°C
Given : d 15
h = 40 W/m2oC;T1 = 40°C; T.. :: 300°C d=l5mm, r=2=2=7.5nun-
- 7.5 x 10-3
Ill
pCr V
(i) Tune constant 't = .hA k = 42W/m°C
',

-r = p Cr R
h x3 For sphere
A = 41tr2=4n(7.5 x 10-J)2=7.06Bx10-•
m.
T.. = 20°c
8000 x 420 x 0.004
= 40x3 2
h = 120W/m °C

= 11.2 seconds •••Ans. T, = 550°C

(ti) t1 = 10 seccnds. T. =30°C, h. =10 W/m 2
°C. ti= 20 sec.
T2 = 90°C
Tem~rarure attaine.d by thermoc:Ouple in JO seconds
hA v = ~ 1tr3 -jx1t x (7.5 x 10- 3)3
- -r-v
ri
= C P-p

----'0;;.;x.-3"--- xJO
.. v = 1.767 x10- 6
m
T - 300 Y.1.Xl x ~ x 0 .004
40- 300 = e p = 7850 kg/m3
T-300
-260 = e
-Olli~
c = 475 J/kg °C

·T- 300 = - 260 x 0.9146 =..:. 237.8 a =

T = 62.2"C (I) Time required to cool the sphere from 550° ~ to 90° c

-h ·A·t)
Now temperanire of thermocouple after 20 seconds keeping it
= e( pVC
in still air at 30°C
bA
---1
= e PCp v

uTtdilMwW!i
V r.111ut 110

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~-
·-~ ·
if.. HeS1rronsfer MU·Sem 5·Mech 3-47 · Ext. Surface, Untt. State Heat Tront, (Trane. Heat Cond.
-7850x7.Sx10· 3 x47~ { 90 _
20
• 120x3 /n S50-20) thu• lhc Lumped heat ~ily analyai• iJ applicable

.. 157.254 sec. ~=~: • up. (- ;:~x~ )sexp. (- :.text)

JosfJlntaneous htat transfer rate ontr 2 minutes • 120 aec. T-200
100x300
exp. ( - 7800x460 x O.OJ~ •
0.5123 -1-)
(II) c-hA )
h · A(T -T..)e pev·I
500-200 •
Q a 1
T a 3.S3.7°C

2nd case

= 120 x 7.068 x 10-\sso _ 20) T1 =353.7°C. T..

1
=.so,,c.
-120 >< '.l x 120 ) Final temperature, T 1 = IOCY'C
e ( 7850x47'x7..5x 10.-1
To determine the time required, t 1
= 9.61 w
( h I)
.. Q
t
exp. -~x-
p·c Le
~p183.11.14
fXlln•
A solid cylinder of steel of 5 cm diameter and 20 cm length, 100 - 50 ( 10 x t 1 I )
353.7 - SO "" exp. 7800 x 460 x o:offi
'tlallY at a uniform temperature of 500°C Is suddenly placed
1n1 .
In a fluld at 200
oc wi'th. h 1OO Wlm2K. After a period of.
=. 0.1646 = exp. (- 0.000223 t 1)
minutes, the steel cylinder 1s taken out from this fluid and
5
irnmedlately immerse d in· another fluld at sooc with = ln (0.1646) _ - I .80424 =8092 sec.
ti - 0.000223 - - 0.000223
2
h"' 10 W/m K. Stee1 properties are : cP o.46 kJ/kgK ; =
3
P"' 1800 kg/m and k. = 35 W/mK. Calculate the temperature TotaJ time required to reach lOO°C t + t 1 =
of the cylinder when 1t was taken out from the first fluid and
the total time required for it to achieve the temperature of = 300 + 8092 =8392 sec. =2.4811 hrs ··.Ans.

100•0. Example 3.11.15

solution: A cylindrical rod of 1 cm diameter and 1m long is initially
Given : Diameter of cylinder, D = 5 cm = 0.05 m, maintained at 300°C. it is suddenly dropped in oil at 50°C
3
having convective heat transfer coefficient as 240 W/m K.
L = 20 cm = 0.2 m,
Find the time required to cool the rod upto 120°C. Assume
Initial temperature = T; = 500°C,
· for rod material,
Surrounding temperature, T_ =200°C p = 8000 kg/m
3
, c = 400 J/kgK, k =60 W/mK.
2
V=nR2 L=1t (0.05)
2 20 3.927x 10- 4 m2
x JOO= Solutlon:

2 Given: D = 1cm=0.01 m, L = lm. T 1 = 300°C,

h= JOOW/m K, timet=5x60=300 sec,
2
3 T.. = 50°C, h = 240 W/m K, T = 120°C
p = 7800 kg/m
c = 0.46 kJ/kg K, k = 460 J/kgK k = 35 W/mK To find the time required to cool the rod upto 120°C.

Critical length, Le=~=~· d2r. / 1tci1=- = ~ = O.~l =0.0025 m

2 2
A = nDL = 1t x 0.05 x 0.2 = 3.141 x 10- m

v 3.927 x 10-
4
h · Le 240 x 0.0025
Le = A= .1 x - t = 0.0125 m
3 41 10 Biot No., B1 = ~ = 60 =0.01
Temperature or cylinder when It was taken out after S min, T
Since Bi< 0.1, the lumped heat capacity, analysis is applicable.
h 100
B; = k · Le= 35 x 0.0125 = 0.0357 < 0.1,
T-T..
Ti-T..

• Tedibe•lftti
• P11 a ht1llt11

Sr.an n"'1wlthr.:imS.-.nnn#\f
 . .,
. ~-~ ..

.• ..Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech) · . Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. <Trans Ii · ::"..;~ ·
. ~· ~ · ~~ ;
120-50 . ·240xt ) Example 3.11.17, . · · . ,\:'...
1
300-50. exp ( 8000 x 400 x 0.0025 human body modelled as a .
An average 0
30 Cl't) •
I g cylinder has 72 Yo water by rna \111111\
= exp. (~0.03 t) 160 cm on
may be taken as those of Wat 80 tti~ r
ss, e1'
1
0 .28
'
properties . density= 1000 kg/mJ, specific heater lilt t~
In 0 .28 = - 0.03 t temperature. "'41 "'II
af conductivity = 6 W/m K. A Pers
Kandth e rm
Sa J
In 0.28 - 1.27296 OI) I II..
1
= - o.03 = _o.03 = 42.43 sec.
...Ans.
dead at 5 am
In a room the temperature of llVh·
ture of the body Is measured to b
s 1 ,,"Q
1c1i i 0 "il(i
s <a.
Example 3. 11. 16 The tempera . e <s•c ~
d the heat transfer coefficient is esr Yt~ ·
found, 2an t •l"l)ated iii\
A sphere of mass 6 kg Is being maintained at a temperature K Assuming the body emperature of a . • to ~-
8 W/m · h f 11v1rig ..,
of 400°C In a furnace.. Suddenly It Is Immersed in a fluid at 37oc es m ti ate the time of deat o the above "
,.,er lllc\n a
1
' 't Biot number and state Whether the b 8011. AJ...
40°C. Estimate the time required to cool the sphere µpto the estimate 1 s Ody ""
analysed bas ed on /umped heat capacity methOd.· c~ .., ~-
temperature 160°C. Assume, h = 60 W/m 2K, p =3000 kg/m3•·
' '· =
c 600 JlkgK and k 200 WlmK. = Solution: .
;, Solution: The human body is modelled as cylfncier.
.·

m = 6 kg, '1j = 400°C, ~T_ = 40°C, T = J 60°C D ·ameter d = 30 cm = 0.3 m, L = 160 en.
JI has I ' . ••• :::: 1.6 IJ\,
3
Dens1'ty, p-
- JOOOkg/m,
Volume of sphere, v = mass . m
density, p Specific heat, c == 4180 J/kgK, k = 6 W/mK,
6
= 3000 -3 3
=2x IO m T1=:3 7.oc• h =8 W/m K, 2

•·I
. · '.' T =2soc, T.. = 2ooc.

l .' BJot number, B,

2 x 10- 3 4 J
= 3xnxR
(1E)
4 ·d
2
Y --
Critical length, Le == A • L I 1t • dL
I
R = · O. J24m 3
= s!4 -- .0.4 _=O.075 m
v
-Le =A · .R _.QJ11=0.04133 m
3 - 3

h . !.-c · 60x0.04133 =00124

k - 200 . . e • B;
· Sme < o•J• the body can be .analysed based on Jurn!le-0
heat capacity method.
(°• • B; < 0.1, lumped heat capacity method is applicable.)
z. To esdmate the time of death
T-T_
1j-T.. = exp. ·( - ph·t 1)
. c x Le T-T.. . ( h·t A)
-- exp· - - -x -V
p·c
T1 -T..
160-40
60t 1 )
400-40 = exp.( 3000x 600 x 0.0124 = exp. ( - Ju...x-1)
p .c Le

= ~xp. (-:- 0.002688 t) 25-20 . 8xt 1 )

37-20 = exp. ( - 1000 x 4180 x 0.09375
In (0.3333) = - 0.002688 t
.t = - 1.09861 _ sec ••• AllS•
0.2941 = exp. (- 2.0414 x 10-5 t)
- 0.002688 - 408•7
5
_ 2.04l4 x 10- x t =In 0.2941 = - 1.223835

= 59950.8.sec. = 999.18 min ·

. •Tea....;

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 . (T. ns Heat cond.)
Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. ra •
3-49

••• Ans.
t • 1122.3 sec
Ir time ts reduced to 10' min= 600 sec, to flDd ht
2.
was found after 16.653 Hrs of his death. Th~s the
oeBd13odY
. (5 _ 16.653) =- 11.653 Hrs. before midnight or t
1
= t - 600 =1122.3 - 600 == 522·3 sec.
. deli!ll IS .
· ·~of .
p 653)::; 12
~7 ffrs. P. M. of Previous day T-T..
T.-=T'
= exp. ( - h~·.;xt)
o' .. 11· I oo

3 11.18
~,111P1e • . mm in diameter are annealed by heating to
112
400-325
=. exp. ( - h, x 600 - 1
7800 x 600 x 2 X 10-
::"!)
eel b811S 0 then slowly cooling
.
to 400 K m. .
an environment 1150-325
51150 j( and rature Is 325 K and heat transfer coefficient is
1 0.0909 = exp. (- 0.0641 h 1)
w~ere t~rTl~aiculate the time required by the balls to reach
za Wlrl'l:I<~ temperature. If this time is to be reduced to - 0.0641 h 1 = In (0.0909) = - 2.398
~e desire w much 1mprovemen
. t.m h eat transfer coefficient
110 rfl·ns hO
1 ' d
.
Justify the formula used. Use following h1 = 37.41 w1m2K
•••AnS·
1
ne~~: ~teal.
3
iS of Density . = 7800 kg/m , specific
Thus, improvement in heat transfer cqefficient needed.
proP8 J/l<g·K, Thermal conductivity =40 W/m·K.
~eat"' 600
= h1-b=37.41-20
soiutl011 : 3 ... Ans.
d = 12nun= 12x 10- m . T1 =1150 K. =' 17.41 W/m2K.
Gi1eJI:
T = 400K. T.. = 325 K. Example 3.11.19
A copper tube is 0.2 m long. It's oute~ radius is 6 cm and
inner radius is 5 cm. Initially it is at 400°C and it is quenched
.In water at :10°c. The final temperature of tube attar
c = 600 J/kgK. k = 40W/mK.
quenching is 30°C. The mean convective heat transfer

rune required to cool the ball upto 400 K coefficient is 1000 W/m2 K. The properties of material of the
1. tube are: p = 8800 kg/m3, c = 2000 J/kgK, k =380 W/mK.
Critical Jength. Calculate the time taken for quenching.
R d
L, :: 3 = 6 (sphere) Solution:

3 Given: L = 0.2 m, R0 =6 cm= 0.06 m.

= 12 x610- -- 2 x 10-3 m
R; =5 cm =0.05 m, =
Ti 400°C,

T.. =10°C, T =30°C, h =1000 W/m2K.

Critical thickness of tube,
Volume
Surface area
Hence, lumped theory is applicable.
1t (R2-R2)
o I
L

~=~: = exp. c-:.tc·¢)

= 21t R0 L + 2 n R; L + 2 x 1t CR! - R;)
2 2
. 1t (0.06 - 0.05) x 0.2
= exp. (-..1!.Lx1-)
p·c Le
Lc=-:::=~~".""."'::'.":"'"".~--:~~~_.:.:.:....~--~~--
21t x 0.06 x 0.2 + 21t x 0:05 x 0.2 + 2 x 1t (0.06 - 0.05 )

400-325
1150-325
=exp( 20 x t 1
. - 7800 x 600 x 2 x 10- 3
) = 0.004762 m
1000 x 0.004762
0.0909 = exp. (-0.002137 t)
380 =0.01247 < 0.1.
-0.002137 x t = In (0.0909) =_2.398 Hence, lumped heat capacity theory can be applied.

V TtdlKatwlelllgi
"?' P\I bl l\•1 l lo n s

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 ti)T Heal Transfer MU-Sem S-Mech 3-50
,
Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat T1ans. CTra
. -, . ·... ·
na. liea1 . . ·. . '
'.~
Tlmu taken, 1 for qucnc/;lng. To nod dme t 1 to bofl the egg T = T 1 "' 84.42oc
.
.
for a:.~
~.. «_·
T-T
when T 1 .. 3°C --..ie " .
' T,-T:
.. .
.. cxp.(-..ll.:J..x-L)
P · c Le
J!..!i._ I )
30- 10 exp. ( - p • c x Le .
400- JO = .e xp. (- IOOOxt 1 )
8800 x 2000 x 0.004762 84.42-100 lOOx t, .
exp. ( - 1200x2000x~) .
3-100 . 5.833 )( llrl
"" c::xp. (- 0.011932 t)
0.16062 exp. (0,007143 t 1)
0.05128 = exp. (- 0 .011932 t)

= -0.00714311 = _ln(0.16062)=-1.82872
•' . or In (0.05128)
.
: f ••' ~

,. •• t =
t, • 256 sec.
···>.11a,
•••Ans.
Example 3.11.21 - - - - - - •..._
,. . f d ' t 1 ........__
Steel ball bearings o rame er cm at 40ooc
.' ,. . a
in refrigerated liquid maintained in a chambare quel'lcl)
2~
9
The convective heat transfer coefficient is 90 r at -
. d . W1rri1., .
properties of .beanngs are ensrty = aooo kgtrn3 " <lll<J
=
heat = 400 J/kgK, k 50 W/mK. Estimate the ti ' SPecific
1~
9
for bearings to remain in the cold chamber if reqlJirll<!
9 0
' production of bearings requires that 75% of int0 ma1 th
Ptilllur..
.,,
'
.
,I
I energy content of the balls above - 20°C is removed. e~
·'·
Solution:
Solution: Given: T, = 400°C, T_ = -2ooc.
Given : D =35 mm i.e.
· R =2x
. 35 10-3 m =17.5 x rn-3m, D = 1cm=10- m,
2
R = 5 x 10- 3
IJJ,
h = 90Wlm
2
K, p = 8000 kg/IJJ3,
Ti =25oc. t = 220 ~ec.

Let the temperature. of" b01.1mg

.
c = 400J/kgK, k = 50W/IJJK.
.water be T. = 100°c· at
atmospheric
· pressure and. T be temperature of egg after boiling for . to be removec1
It foJiows that : Since 75% of internal energy is
220 -seconds. · 0 T-T- '
- =-T-T = 1-0.75=0.25 ('··Internal energy- .
0o 1 .. · - me · d'I')
To check for lumped heat capacity theory

Lc = 3R (fiorsph ere)=3x10-
17.5 j =5.833x10- 3 m Critical Jength.
3
Le = . B .(for spherical balls) = 5 x. 310- =1.667 x 10-3
100 x 5.833 ~ w- 3 3 Ill
10 = 0.05833
~ 90 . -3 .
B1 = k =20 x 1.667 x 10 =1_. s x 10-3 < 0.1
Since, B; < 0.1, lumped heat capacity theory is applicable.
T-T_
Ti-T_ = exp. (-...lil..x...L)
p·c Le
·
= .exp. (-1!.:.!.
p x Ll ) •C C

T-100 100X220 J ) 0.25 = ex (-

p.
90 x t 1
8000 x 400 x 7.5 x 10-"J
)
25-100 = exp. ( - 1200x2000x 5.833xJ0- 3

= exp. (- 0.00375 t)
= exp. (- "1..?7152)
· 0.2S
T-100 e = -0.00375 t
25 - 100 = 0.20773 T=84.42°C
-1.3863
= -0.00375 =369.7 sec ...Ans.

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 if._ He~a~;T~r~a~ns;;;f;;er;;;(;;;M:;;;:U::::·=-S•em=S=·=M::::e;;;ch;;;)====;;;:;::~:;::;;,·~3:;;.5~1~~Ex~t.~S~u~rf~a~ce~,~U~n~s~t.~S~ta~t~e~H~e::a~tT~r~a~n::s.i:l(T~ra~n~s~.H~eaiit;;Co~ni;:d:;l:;.)
~ le3.11.22 . T-T..
is~•lf'IP t'cal !:)alls made up of pure iron and copper having
1den'
~= exp. ( -~
hA t ) -

-rwo eter of 6 cm and Initial temperature of 500 °c are being

dl8f1'1 . oil having temperature of 1oo•c .and heat transfer
1ecl in . 2 I . . = exp. ( - h~ d x ic)
c;00 t of 1o W/m K. It s desired that both balls should
fficlen o
c;0e temperature _of 150 C at same time. Which ball tso·- 100 10 x t1 1 )
8 exp. ( 8954 x 383 xo:or ;
500-100
reach 0 Inserted Into oil first ? After how much time second
t'IOIJld b d . t 'I ?
s II shOIJId be lnserte in o 01 .
Justify the answer and 0.125 = exp. (- 0.000292 t 1 )
b8 ed use following properties. .
..... uta us ·
f0 11 "
3
Density= 7897 kg/m , k = 73 W/mK -2.0794 = - 0.000292 x tl ;
iron- '
pure 452 kJ/kQK Pure Copper - Density = 8954 kg/mJ, t1 = 7131.1 sec. or 118.85 min
-0.
Cp-:- ·wimt< c = o.383 kJ/kgK.
K"'386 Ip
In order to cool both the balls at the same time to reach a
501ut1on: .. .
. 1·1 and
temperature of 150°C, the iron ball should be put first in °
properties and conditions given are : then after (7422.3 - 7131.1 =291.2 seconds) the copper ~all should
~-"' be put. ••. Ans.

Example 3.11.23
The junction of a thermocouple can be considered a sphere.

eopper
soooe 1oo•c 1o 1so•c 8954 386 383
0.061D_:m~-j,,;_---'-----'----1.-......1.._;_--1...:..:..:._i.::;;__-1 The thermal conductivity of the junction is 30 W/mK and
material properties are: p =8000 kg/m3, c =400 J/kgK.
Critical length for spherical b~l is :
This thermocouple is used to measure the temperature of a
V (4/3) 1t R3 1
gas having convective heat coefficient as 300 W/m K. The
Le =A (41tR2 )
stream temperat~re is 400°C and thermocouple Is required
~ _ (d/2) _&_ 0.06 - 0 01 m to reach the temperature 390°C within 3 seconds. Initial
= 3 - 3 -6-:- 6 - .
temperature of junctions is 30°C.
Find the required ·diameter of thermocouple junction using
}roD ball
1. lumped heat capacity theory and verify that its application is
Check for application of lumped h~t capacity theory. in order.
Biot number, Solution:

3
Given: k = 30W/mK, . p = 8000kg/m •

Therefore, the lumped heat capacity theory is applicable. 1

c = 400 J/kgK, h = 300W/m K.
~
T;-T.. = exp. (- ~~c~ )=exp. (- ~-tc x ic) T.. = 400°C, T = 390°C,
150-100 ( lO x t I )
500 - I 00 = exp. - 7897 x 452 x O.Dl T; = 30°C, t = 3 sec,

0.125 = exp. (- 0.()()028 x t)

For sphere, the critical length, Le = ~3 m.
- 2.0794 = ~ 0.00028 X t
1
t = 7422.3 sec.= 123.7 min = exp. (-.h.:..!.. x - -) ·
. p · c Le

2. Copper l>all . 390 -400

300 x 3 3)
30-400 = exp. ( - 8000 x 400 x R
h · Lc
B1 = k - 0.000844)
0.02703 = exp. ( . R
10 x O.oI
= 386 =0.00026 < 0.1 - 0.000844
R = Zn (0.02703) =-3.6108
hence, lumped heat capacity theory is applicable.

W TediKatw\tdge
Y r u bflt1 l lon s

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 ,.
':"
' ·. ·V Heat Transfer. MU·Sem 5·Mech)

R .. .0.000233 m - 0 .233 mm
3·52

(II)
E><t. Su"aoo. Unot. State Haat
.
Time required, t
T,_,:~ ~ -
II, ·:

!-Ienco diameter • 0.466 mm. · h•Lc R I

••• Ans. B1"' ~=hx3 x k
Check for using !he lumped hent cnpnc/ty theory.
400 x 0.353 x 10- 3 .

B, = !!.:.h:....
k
= 20 x 3 '" 2.353 X lQ'l
"'0.1 .
Since Bi < O. I, Lumped hent cnpncity llllnlysis i . · '·
. s llpl>I'1
nod the Internal 1emperoture gradient can be neglected. t ablt
= 300 x 0.000233 T-T. - 111•
30x3 T1 -T. = e

= 0.000777 199-200
25-200
e
-1/ I

1:.
, .. ,
Since, B 1 < 0.1, lumped heat capacity tJieory 115 appllcuble Is In _,
order. · 0.005714 e
••• Ans.
Example 3.11.24 5.165 seconds
. ···l\11a.
A thermocouple Junction Which may be approximated as a Example3.11.25 ~
sphere, Is to. be used for temperature measurement of a gas.
A thermocouple Is used to measure the temper t
The convection coefficient between the junction surface and
fluid having the property of spherical junction 8 .ure of a
gas Is k~own to be 400 Wlm 2K and the junction 88
thermophys1cal pr~pertles are k 20 WlmK, cP 400 JlkgK = = heat =400 J/kg K, density =
7800 kg/ml and' specif~
conductivity = 50 W/mK, diameter of junction = 3 mm thern,~
:.: =
and P 8500 kg!m . Determine the junction diameter needed 1
The convective heat transfer coefficient Is 40 W; '
for the thermocouple to have time constant of 1 sec. If the 1
junction is at 25°C and is placed in a gas stream that Is at junction Is initially kept ~t 30°C and it Is immerse:·K. l'he
fluid temperature maintained at 360°C. Find : Into the
200°C, how long will it take for the junction to reach 199°C ?
Solution: (i) The time constant of thermocouple. ·
I

.
I
!
Given: h =400 Wlm 2K, k =20 WlmK,
(ii) If the ·thermocouple Is taken out from hot fluid
a seconds and Is kept in surrounding air at 30•c h after
convecting heat transfer coefficient of 9 W1m2K aving
p =8500 kglin ,
3
c:;; 400 J/kgK, ·
temperature ' 11nd the
· attaIned b y th ermocouple Junction
1j =25°C, 16 seconds. after
T= 199°C,
Solution:
T_ =200 °C. Time constant. t* = 1 s.

(l) Diameter ofjunction, D

Given: c = 400 J/kgK, P = 7800 kg/m3 ,

p·c·V p·c k = 50W/mK, =

Time constant. t* = h·A -h-xLc
d 3 mm=2R

i.e. R = 1.5 x 10-3 m, h = 40W/mK,

where, <:ritical Jength of sphere,

V 4 nR R
3 T1 = 30°C, T.. = 360°C
Le = A =j' (4nR 2 ) ='j"
(f) Time constant of thermocouple, t"'
R P·C
.. t* = -h-x3 Le = 3R (for sphere)=
1.5 x 10-3
3 =0.5 x 10· 3
8500x400 R -3 .
.!!..:..b:_ _ 40 x (0.5 x 10 )
1 = 400 x3 Bi = k - 50

R = 0.353 x 1o- m
3
=0.353 mm = 0.4 x 10- < 0.1 ,
3

D = 2R =2 x 0.353 = 0.106 mm ... Ans. hence lumped heat capacity analysis is applicable to
thermocou le.
J'P
...,._
.· ..

. .T Heat cond.)
3-53 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. ( rans. -
3
cp = 420 J/kg°C p . = 8000 kg/m

k = 40W/m°C T1 = 40°C ·

== 39.2 sec. T.. = 300°C h = 40W/m2 oc

... Ans.

fel1lperatW'C• T attained by thermocouple junction after (I) Ttme constant

• _ pCV _ pCR _ 8000 x 420 x 0.004 = l12 seconds ... Ans.
t - hA -hx3- 40x3

r-360 40x8 1 )
~ = exp. ( - 780Clx'400 x 0.5 x 10-3 (11) . t =10 sec
= 0.81454

T = 91.2°C
40x3 x lO
T-300 - .8000 x420 x0.004
(ii) fr.ai~ntutt attained by thermocouple, T 1
40-300 .. e
aflt-t 11 = 16 sec. when kept In surrounding of 300-T
or 300-40 = e- 0-~893 = 0.915
b1=9W/m:K

Ti i = T = 9l~tc once the themlocouplc is bken ·out of tho' .· ·. : • ·'T 1 =· -62.1° C

. s ow ~phin~ the equation using lumped heat capacity

fltud. • • Now T1 = 62.1° c
~'Sis ~ f.:-Uows : T.. 1 =30"C. .

1.t't t 1 t-e tht tc-mperature attained by the junction.

T_ = 30°C

2
b~ ~ ~ x ~) =
h 10 W/m °C
= exp. ( -
= 20
9 x 16 1 )
= cx.p. ( - 7S00x 400 x 0.5 x 10· 1 = 0.9118 40 x3
T-30 - 8000 x420 x0.004 x 20
= e-o.11s6
62.1-30 = e
_. T1 • ~.8°C ... Ans.

~3.11.26u1:a.rn1111.uMs ., T = 56.85° c . .• Ans.

~ ~'e 11.mction is· in tt)e. form of 8 mm dlameteri

~- ~es O ! ~r.als are Cii =:: _4~~ J/kg° C.;
rp : ~ w..1
C'UU"'~
m! .
'
k; -
4 0 WimQC and h; 40 W/m2 '"'C. This; .,,
~is~..a~/ .a1 40"' C a.?d inserte? ~n.a str~~m of~~~. ~5
~ 300i c. F'.'nd (;)·Tune constant of the th.ermocoupfe (ii) The\
~·is tal<.en cut from the hot ai.r ~fter ·1O ~~~n·d.s~
a kept in ~I air at 30"' c. Assumlng· th~ .heat' tr.~s!er~
~ntin a!t 10 Vltm~C, ~.nd the temperature attained ~Y~
~~20-~~af1eLo:mov.Jn9 from l:lot alr._ '. · ··~
Solution:
Solution :

Ginn: D = 10 cm= O.l m;

D = 8 mrn R = 4 mm =0.004 m

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 'tJr Heat Transfer MIJ·Som 5·Mech) 3.54 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans (T
~. rans Ii
·"
.. .
,..
· ,,-i . flow giving out temperature distribution ac . ~t~
J. ,. . k. d f ' aJ .
heat now rate. Th1s m o an ytJcaJ' soluti
ross lite ~ - .
ons ar
simple geometries such as plal.eS walls, cylindc c 'Uit.~. •1
rs oran1.. ~
t • .5 x 60 .. 300 sec preferable. However, for irregular geometrics, rn.:~:rct ~ t..,
variable conductivities. variable heat transfer ~a ~- 'it
k "' 386 WlmK Cocffic· ·o;;~-
solution becomes highly complicated. In SUch lCQ1g etc ~l
..'' . C<lscs II~
..
:~~;~
, ::
t• .
.
Temperature after 6 min, T

Critical lenglh of sphere,

methods are the preferable options.

Syllabus Topic : Finite Difference Fo

Differential Equation• nnu1auo11
.R 0.05 Of
i . 3 = 3 =0.0J67m

BJ= hL~:::;2ooxo.0161
3.13 Finite Difference Formulation~
k . 386
-+
8.6528 x 10-J < 0.1

Since Bi < 0. J • the Lumped heat

applicable. capacity method is

-hA t -hx t
T-T pCP V p. C .L
T1 -T: = e =e P c
We shall now learn formulation of finite diU · . - •
. erenee
-200 from differential equation of one dimensional heat eqllations
C0nducti
T-50 8954 x 383 x 0.0167 x 300
250-50 = e For one dimensional heat conduction u.nde
• • . C
·
.
r Stead
Ystate
on.
governing equation Ill artesian coordinates . • !lie
Without ~
T-50
generation is given as :
-.WO-
d2T.
= -0
T = 119.37°C. ·

Syllabus Topic : Significance ot Numerical Methods In

Heat t;anster
L x=L

3. 12 Significance.of Numerical Methods Fig. 3.13.1

in Heat Transfer .
We will divide the thickness of plate 'L; into N re · .
.• gions. 'Iben
the size of each region is
L
= N
tu h al ---' Hence, these will be N + 1 no_des from n =Oto n = N. (Fi'g. 3.13_2)
ne ave rC'<Wy learnt general differential equations for beat
conduction in various coordinate systems. We have also worked From the Fig. 3.13.2, x-coordinate for node 'n' will be n ·ti.'
out solutions of these equations considering one dimensional heat and temperature can be named on T 0 •
,,,.
,~< n \: ,
,"t!f. •• •

~ .·: .

-~ . 3-55
· T (T
Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat rans. r
·a ns· Heat Cond.)

.. .,-:t"
,· ·' .
. ~-~
. •.,.
.
Fig. 3.13.2

Consider locations nL and nR keeping location 'n' in the
centre. then first derivative of temperature at these two
iocations can be written in terms of finite difference as :
(~)nL
Tn-Tn-1
= ... (3.13.1)
tu
· . ·d.:..1 · t small sub
conduction is taking place, wiU be d1v1 cu m o
volumes and centres of these differential volumes shall be
called as nodes. All properties of the n.odes represent average .
properties of the entire differential volumes. TI1ese nodes are
assumed to be connected to each other by conducting material
· · ·
and temperature variation between nodes 1s .assurn
ed to be l .

(~)oR
TD+! -TD
and = ... (3. t'3.2)
Ax linear. - ,: /

conducti~n in a plate of thickness

, '
-;~
1ben second derivative of temperature at node 'n' can be We will consider heat L
whose material conductivity 'k' is constant.
.written as,
dT) (dT) - To obtain finite difference equation for internal nodes, we
d2TJ . ~- - :ciX' "~ - CR ~~- .. · --- .... -. ·,,,.,,, ;_. h~te"-~rl'~-.~~~;i/6~~ce eq~ati~n for node 'n' representing
(
( dx2 n - tu ... (3.13.3)
temperature Tn as : .

Substituting values of(~!) nL and (~~) oR in k. A. Tn-~: Tn + k. A Tn +~x-Tn =0

Equation (3'.13.3), we have This is based _on the assu~ption that heat ·is entering the
differential volume from both sides.
-'j·.
.:::,
·•• f
::

Substituting in governing equation for one dimensional

. .. .
Now we require two more equations, which can be obtained
steady state beat conduction. We obtain,
by writing energy balance at boundary nodes 0 and N.

Assuming prescribed temperatures at the boundaries, let To •

where 'n' are internal nodes 1, 2, 3 .... N - 1. and Tn be the specified temperatures at boundaries x =0 and
x =L. These will give two additional equations. Now n + 1
Since total nodes are N + 1, we require two more equations to
obtain temperarures at all nodes. These can be obtained by equations can be solved as simultaneous equations.

using two given boundary conditions.

Syllabus Topic : One-dimensional Heat Conduction

3.14 One Dimensional Steady State Heat

Conduction in Cartesian
Coordinates Fins or extended surfaces are used to . increase the heat
transfer rates by increasing the surface ar~ of solid surfaces
We will develop finite difference formulation by using so that the temperatures can be maintained within specified
energy balance to control volume. The medium in which heat limits.
··•
1811. T1tU1omltdgt..
'

V f'ublli:. 11 1lons.

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 ••m.-H•eiliaiiit•Tmriiia&nsiilitiiieiiir:;liM-U;..·S.,,,.e;,;,m;.s-.
- -111Mmemcah*"..:a---.~==~3-~5~6~.Ex~I:.;;·;Rsaiuli&rfma&ce..,•._u11nst ••
111111111s.1a.,.t111
e•H•e111a..
,
t;;;Taran_s.,.~<T-ra~n::s~·· ~I-feat · ·····:~
Types of dn.s arc rectangular, tapered, radial plate fins, ,.\ssumpdon In analysis of rectangular or
. Pltl II
~.
Mnulnr fins Md pin fins. heat conduction is under steady state in Ila 'll
. One 11. :.
Tho fins attached to plain walls are ft'led coefficient of convective and conductive heat ~t1. ..
. c.., straight fins o.nd . . th' l.raitsr. .,,,
the fms attD.ched in circumferential d' · constant. No heat generation w1 an fin, mate . . ell
•rcction to a cylinder are l1aJ IS ' ~t
18
called annular fins. · o.nd wall I base temperature is maintained constant 0\r°l>ic
Geometry of fins are selected based . . General soludoo ls :
on cost, efficiency,
,,.,
.:·· ' pcrfonnance, weight, availability of
. space and pressure drop S=Ciern•+~e-rn• (where,m=~)
an the heat transfer fluid etc.

,i

II Adequately long fin cosh m (L - x)

insulated tip
cosh mx
III Finite I short fin. Convection heat
transfer at tip J!. ·_ cosh m (L- x) + ( ~) sinh m (L- x)
9o - h ) s1'nh mL
cosh mL + ( ffik

If tanh mL ~ 0.99, it is considered an infinite .long tin. T_-TL

= cosh mL
T_-T0
Effectiveness of fin, e :
: .
Actual heat transfer from finne-0 surface, Q Where, T_ = Gas temperature
E = · Heat tmasfer without fins
To = Wall temperature

For fins with insulated tip : e =YR tanh mL

TL' = Temperature measured

Fin efficiency, TJ = _Q_Q = Q (Where, p. L =A,)

= · Error in temperature measurement
m.u h • P • L: 80 T_-TL

Overall fin effectiveness, e 0 :

Q.cnr (from finned surface)

Eo = QooflllS ( from base surface ff there are no fins)

h · (A1mfin + !] • Aa0 ) CTo -T.J

Steady state heat conduction is defined as the I.ran ,
s1er of
= h · Aoofio CTo - T.J h~at from a body in which the temperature of the body does
not vary wlth time. · ·
Area weighted fin efficiency, TJIOl.1.I :

Q,m.1from finried surface In case the body temperature varies with time during heat
1'1io<a1 = Q if total area were maintained at the base temperature T0 transfer till the thermal equilibrium . is attained; the

· Arm intervening period of heat conduction is said to be under

.'
= I - Auiw (I - fJ) unsteady state or"transient state.

-. Examples of transient heat conduction are : annealing or

Error in temperature measurement
steel billet, baking of chicken in oven, cooling of
m
- - ffi1.
- -yk. T automobiles, heat treatment of metals by quenching, response
time of a thennometer or thermoc~uple etc.
,•

· · ·reel....;
· r ·OJ!t1lllll

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 ·-~
~ . ·" .· ·""'. , -. .. ~ .
.. . ·. .
·. ~~.; ··...~."
if....f-iest rr~nsfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 3.57 Ext. Surface, Unst. State Heat Trans. (Trans. Heat Cond.) ·
._J p95lc .EneiJY Equadon under transient state ls
._'
• t ,, ' ,· resistance lo heat flow to the heat .capacity of mate~al. F"'
;J: '
·',\ · of heat transfer wilh body. ·=· Rate of. h
...,1e ·
' rJet ·~ . . c ange of signifies the degree or ~netratlon or heat or cooling effect
'! ...,aJ energy of the body.
inte•.. through the solid. F0 ls denned as the· ratio ·of rate of heat
'-)
,usUJ!lPtfoos in lumped heat capacity method lire
co'nduction to the rate of lhenn.;.i ene~gy storage in the body.
1. BodY has negligible internal heat resistance lo heat
Instantaneous rate or co0ling,
flow.

2. Temperature widun lhe body at any instant is unifonn

d~ = (T1 - T _) [-
P·C·V
hA • e- (hA I p • c . v~ t J
i.e. temperature gradient is
negligible. ...(3.9.11)

convective resistance is very Instantane0us rate.or heat transfer, Q

high compared to
conductive internal resistance
i.e. its thermal .. .(3.9.12)
conductivity is very high {:::oo)
dT
The heat
.
transfer process in which the inte.mal . tan .
res1s ce 1s Usedt from Equation (3.9.11)
negligible compared to convective resistance is called
Total heat transfer in time, t ls
.Newtonian coo~g or heating process.

If Internal temperature gradient (ITG) of a body ts less· ' (-1!.il.

pcV
) )
dU = p. c. V (fi -T..). e _ ... q.9.14
· th~ 5%, the internal resistance of the body can be neglected
to obtain quite r~onable result. Response time of a thermocouple, t is defi~ed as· the time

.It is determined by Biot number, Bi given as: taken by a thermocouple to reach its thennal equilibrium with
the fluid. Lesser the time taken to reai::h -fluid temperature we
~ h·Le
B 1 = l/h A = - k - CB 1 < 0.1 for ITG to be less than 5%) say that response ~f thermocouple is fasL

The value of Le
Volume. V
= Surface area , A for standard bodies
Time constant, t• =e h·A
·c · V is defined as time constant of a

thermocouple.
are:

Sphere : Le
R
=3;
.
_C ylinder : Le =2
R. a T-T..
.. eo="T.:'T . =
I oo
. .. (3.10.3)

t:.x
prate/slab : Le =T t• can be reduced by decreasing the diameter of wire of
Where R ~ radius, t:.x =thickness of plate. thermocoupl~, by reducing p or c or increasing h. ·
' ' '

The variation of temperature, T of body with time, t having

initial temperature, Ti in surroundings at T.. using Jumped
[Note : For answer please refer the section number indicated
heat capacity method is given by the equation :
in bracket.] ·
(. h At ) (h · t
T-T.. - \. p · c V - p-:-; x Le1 )
T1-T.. = e =e ... (3.9.7)
Q.1 Why fins are used ? State some of its applications.
h·Lc
Biot number, Bi = k represent the ratio of internal [Sections 3.2 and 3.3]

resistance to surface resistance. If Bi < 0.1, the internal Q. 2 Show that the heat transfer rate in case of infinite
resistance can be neglected. long fin is given as :

k 1 a Q =...jh · P · k ·A · 00 [Section 3.4.1]

Fourier's number, F 0 = p. c · L2 • t =~ t where
c
Q.3 Why the fins are provided (on gas side) having low
thermal diffusivity, a =_k_ represents the ratio of internal thermal convectivity. (Section 3.2]
P•C '

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 .t surf8ce, Unst. State Heet •·,.•.·. .\r;;\
T..,,,(T
JI'-H~at ~ransfer (MU-Sem ~~Me~h) 3-58 Ex ·
· · ·
··
· 1-fellt · ::
ans . ·. · ·.:

. Derive. an . expression tor heat transfer tor . an state few examples of heat ,..~ • .~·
Q.4 a. 12 .. """nducu : ~
· adequately long. fin with insulated tip. unsteady state. [Section 3.8) . . . · · . .~ . \
[Se~tlon 3.4.2] .
What· do you understand by Newt00 . ·
, ., .
: .~ I . - ·rAne. : a =_vh .
P • k. A • 90 tanh mL l . a. 13 .
cooling process as applied
1an 1..
t . ··~ to
- .· .
_.; ~,.. :
0.5 · What do you und~rstand. by short fins ? Show that ·~
conduction problem? [Sect.Ion 3.9] . tanstellt.··h.
the temperature distribution in such a long fin I~ ·"
given as : [Section a.4•31 State the assumptions made In ·
a. 14 . luni
capacity methOd for analysis · of t · Pe1:1 h.
J!.. = cosh m CL - x) + ( ~) slnh m (L - x) conduction. [Section 3.9] . .
rans1e
l'lt \
~

Bo
cosh ml + iiik) slnh m L
( h
Q. 15 What is significance of characteristic lenllth .
Q.6 object ? State the value of Le for C\JI" ~
Define effectiveness of a fin . Does the effectiveness , ll"lder \i
and for a slab. [Section 3.9] ' ,,
of a fin always Increases ?Justify ? [Section 3.5)

Q.7 How the effect1·veness of fins

. · ? Q, 16 Prove that for quenching of a billet by tu
can be increased . . tl)Pec!
[Section 3.5] capacity method 1s given as · . . ~

T-T
Q.8 Define fin efficiency. Prove that : _ _T,_... =exp. (- h · .A · t I p c V) CSectlo
T1 - .. n 3.9·1j
tanh ml .
lltin = ml .for long fin with insulated tip State the significance ·of Biot ·number
· · and F
[Section 3.6] number. [Sections 3.9; 3.9.1] OIJ~

Q.9 Q.18 Define effectiveness of a fin. Does the eft ..

Why error occurs in temperature measurement of . .
ectiven
gases by. thermometer? Explain with the help of a of a fin always increases ? Justify ? [Sectl ~
on 3.101
neat sketch. [Section 3.7] · How the effectiveness of fins can be in
Q.19 . creaseQ
Q.10 [Section 3.1 OJ ?
Show that the error in temperature measurement
(T_ - T J equals to Y6 . [$ectlon 3.7]

Q. 20 Write short note : Numerical methods .

Ill heat
Q.1.1 Differentiate between steady state and transient 9onduction. [Section 3.12)

heat conduction, [Section 3.SJ Explain finite difference formulation . [Section 3•

Q.21 131

OOQ

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~ :Ii
~. <
I
Con.vection Heat Transfer

syUsbLIS:
co11 vectlon : Determination ~f heat transfer coefficient, Dlmen~lonal Analysis, D1!11enslonless numbers in free and
convection and their significance
torce d
.:~ternal flow: Velocity Boundary layer and Thermal Boundary layer, Laminar and t~rbulent flow over a flat plate, Flow
s cylinder and sphere, Flow across bank of tubes
aeroS
internal flow : Velocity Boundary layer and Thermal Boundary layer, Laminar and Turbulent flow in tubes,
General thermal analysls : Constant heat flux and constant surface temperature.

.We shall now revise some

. basics of fl u1'd fl ow and drive

energy equation based on first law of thennodynarnics.

concept of Convection, Definitions Related to
convective Heat Transfer and Applications 4.2 Basic Definitions Related to
Convection
Introduction
4.1 ___ :..:.....------------
In earlier chapters we have dlscussed ·the heat transfer by
Convective. heat transfer takes place between a fluid and a
conduction in solids due to rando~ vibrations of molec':11es. The
heat ~onduction also takes place in s~tionary fluids. Fluid includes
solid surface. while the fluid is in motion. Direction of heat transfer

both li~uid and gases. So far the conv~cti~e heat transfer discussed
1

shall either be from fluid to soli9 surface or from solid to fluid

depending upon the direction of temperature gradient Convective
was restricted ioboundary co~ditions ~nly with constant rate of
he.'.lt transfer may be forced or free convection. Since fluid motion
heat convection from the surface. .
. involved in the convection mechanism, the knowledge
~· . .
of fluid
Few related definitions to convective heat transfer are given below.
flow principles like law of conservation of mass, law of fluid . . ! :.

momentum or Newton's second law of motion and first ·law of.
thermodynamics is . essential and prerequisite to understand and
analyse convective heat transfer mechanism.
Convective heat transfer situations may have internal flow or
external flow. Auid flows exert a drag fore~ over th_e surface in
case of ext~maJ flows while in case of internal fluid flows, there
pressure drop. So in convection, it is not only heat transfer
phenomenon which is important but pressure drop while flow is
through conduit/pipe, is also equally vital. Similarly, calculation of
drag force is important for external fluid flqws over a body, while
convective heat transfer takes place.
1. C~nvection ·: The. process
. of heat transfer between . a solid
surface and the fluid in motion is called corivecti<?n. .
2: Natural convection : In case (Jle fluid ·moves due to density
difference caused by the hea~ transfer between solid surfa~ce
and fluid it is said to be by natural conv~tion. It is also
is called as free convection.
3. Forced convection : If the fluid motion is imparted by
external means like pump, fan, compressor, slope etc. the
convection is called .fo~ced convection.
4. Fluid : A fluid may be defined as a substance that does not
support shearing stress when at rest or in a state of motion.

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 s. Types of nuld : -
The convective heat transfer is of &reat hnpo
Typea of fluid ber of industrial applications e.g. flu·d"aracc fQ ·
large num . __ 1 flo t ~
boilers, furnaces, cooling of electt-onj . w i~ 'Iii
exchangers, . . c Chip h.:
(I) Ideal fluld d to f]uid fJow 10 pipes, condensers, auto..... . • tra,.1, ~
heat ue "•Obiic •er
- vaporators etc. t~... llf
cooling towers, e ""''~~
(II) Real fluld
_ _;s~y:lla:b:u~s~T;O:;;.P;,,;fca;:.La...,.m,_fn""a""r•a•n•d•T.-;.u;.;rb;:u~le:ri~t · '
~? )_ F=10...,

Fl~
h· ! ~· .
{Ill) Newtonian fluids -
4.3 Laminar and Turbulent
{Iv) Non-Newtonian fluids
er Definition of Laminar flow
(v) Compressible fluid
om111noH
(vi) Incompressible fluids
(JJ
Fig. C4.I : Types of fluJd
-+ (f) Ideal Ouid - In- this the fluid layers slide smoothly one ov
er the
d11 t layer [Refer Fig. 4.3. J(a)] . Laminar flow is al artothci
a ~acen _ so rct
. I
A fluid which is incompressible and has no viscosity. It is
only an imaginary fluid.
as strea Dl -line Oow or viscous flow. e.g. flow Of
- a U1d
err~ n"
red out of bottle. ov~
lat viscous liquids or honey pou a
. '.,
:• -+ (li) Real Ouid
p ~ : -

--.--.-----...£.....Stream Ii::.
The fluid having viscosity is called real fluid. -Yr-----
-+ (ill) Newtonian Oulds
------- ~~n~~-1 Laminar ----
m»~W;??/}> . ~=~~-d----
A real fluid in which the shear stress is direCtly proportional

to rate of shear strain or shear stress is directly proportional

(a) Laminar flow (b) Laminar and turbut
entno
to velocity gradient is called Newtonian fluid. regions of ~igarette'sinoke \\'

-+ (iv) Non-Newtonian Oulds Fig. 4.3.1 : Laminar and Turbulent Dows

~ oetfnltion of Laminar flow

A real fluid in which shear stress is not proportional to rate ·

- of shear strain (or veiocit.Y gradient) is known as Non- ·

Newtonian fluid.
In this case· the fluid particles have ·the velocity in ~
-+ (v) Compressible ffuld
transverse direction to principal direction of flow having Variable

In . Compressible fluid density changes with change in magnitude of velocity e.g. sm~ke of cigarette [Fig. 4.3.I(b)], flow
of water from a fully opened water tap.
pressure e.g. gases.
In turbulent flows, the eddies formation talces place whichare
·~ (vi) Incompressible fluids
responsible for high energy loss.

Iri Incompressible fluids density changes are negligible with or r:o predict whether flow is laminar or turbulent .
changes in pressure e.g. liquids.
In case of flow ·of fluid in pipes, the Reynold based on
·experimentation discovered that the transistion from laminar lo
• -1tclk.W;
'ff r. o l1u11111

Sca nn ed w it h Ca mScanne r
 .:I t ·ransfer {MU)
,,,._ Hea 1 4.3 Convection Heat Transfer · .
~uJeDt
f1oW depends on mean velocity of fluid• v • its denSl·ty, p y
¢11 dia.tneter of pipe, D and viscosity µ .
~~ . A'l--...;...--...,8
P·V·D V·D ,.!
JteYl'°Id 's number, Re = µ ·
=- v ... (4.3.1) ··· ······················cif
i
dy T !........ ax+c!X
!.
. ~
0 dx
c x
H

Oy Vy
Fig. 4.4.1 : Heat transrer through races or control volume

Energy conducted into CV from face ADE!'. per unit time,

Energy conducted out from CV from face BCHG per unit

time,
It is usually taken as. (Re)cr\tk"'1 = ~300.

for fluid flow o,·er flat plate. Reynold num~.r is gi\'en ns :

p·V · L
Re = Jl
Hence, net energy conducted into CV in x-direction per unit
time
\\"h:'« L ii; kn~ of r b tc .:i.long the flow.
= - axa (- k . aT) a2T
ax dx . dy =k ~ • dx . dy
lf Re< 3 x 1o~. the flow is C3.lled l:unin:ir flow
Energy conducted into CV from face DCHE per unit time
II~> 5 x JO''. I.he Oow is ~IC'd turbulent flow
<YI'
Qy = - k . ay . dx . 1
lf : x JO! <~< 5 x IO~. the Oow is blown :tS transient flow.

ottterential Equation of Heat Convection Energy conducted out from CV from face ABOF per unit
time
4.4 Otfferentlal Equation of Heat
Convection

Hence net energy conduction rate into CV in y-direction

we. 'liiill Ptl"'' obtain differcntfa.1 equation in Cartesian

~~!U ~<.::d oo dle fm.t bw of thennodyn:unics. ultimately lo = - ay OT)

a (- k • ay dy . dx =k . a2T dx dy ayr ·
oti~ '10t:1~·o.:rive ~ O'Ul~fer rete when temperature difference
Therefore, total energy conduction rate into CV fr:om both
etiru t o.""-·::tn ~ l-lilirl -£'.:ff.3C.e ~d the fluid in motion over it
directions x and y
CoCL'ii:'r cr...iro! -.·olu~ of Eide dx, dy and unit width in z a2T
= k ( ~+ayr dx dy
a1T) .. . (i)
d:re.."tioo ._ru, un:;:awre T as i;bown in Fig. 4.4.1.
Heat convection rate into CV from face ADEF

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 ~ . . : :.·;:~
¥ Heat Transfer (Mi.J) Convection Heat.,.. ; . •. ; ,
err err •tar..;··. .
~·<ifer .
And heat convection rate ':'ut from CV from face BCHG r:::
• ax + Vy -ay
V - .
a .
= p cp ( v.T) dy +a;< p cP. v,.T) dx . dy ·....("."1. )
,...... is energy equation for st~y, two dimen . . :- · ·
i•~ . ~~~
N~t heat convection rate into CV in x-direction fluid flow, also caJJed equation for heat
. . Colt .
· ~
property convecli . .
. ~ -
Cartesian coordinates. IQ

D"fferentiaJ
1 equation in polar coordinates can be
Similarly, heat convection rate into CV from DCHE face · dcri
VC(l IQ:
similar way as :
.a[~ :r (\far()T) +a;:r
a2T] ()T ~
=vz az +_v, dr
= p'
.
V>' 'dx ' 1 • Cp • T =p Cp ( Vy • T ) dx
Newton's Law of Cooling and
And heat convection rate our from CV from ABGF face

---
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

= P cp ( v, ·T) d~ +a~ cp cp . v,. T) dx. dy Newton's Law of Cooling

4.5
·Therefore net heat convection rate into CV in y-direction
DEFINITION
a .
= . P cp · oy ( v>'T) _d x . dy lOJ
·. Hen.c e total heat convection rate into CV from both direction
x andy
The Newton•s Jaw of cooling states that the rat
· e of h
transfer is proportional ·to the surface area perpendicular to Cat
and the temperature d1uerence between th
·~ he~
fl ~ direction
. . e~
~ e temperature T and the fluid temperature T .
suuac w . • .. tn the

direction perpendi~ular to heat flow direction.

Heat dissipation into CV due to shear work ·done by
SUJ!OUnding fluid on faces of CV is called viscous dissipation. For . ( Assume T.,, >1'.,)

incompressible fluid flows, shear work is found negligibly small or

... (4.5.J)
and can be neglected.
Where 'h' is the constant of proportionality called the
Heat energy equation for CV can be expressed as
coefficient of.convective heat transfer or film conductance.
Equation (i) = Equation (ii) 2
Units ofh are W/m K.

Rewriting the Equation (4.5.1) in the form,

(Tw-T_)
Q = (-1
h·A
) ... (4.5.2)

Convective thennal resistance,

avx· av,. . . .
Since - + - - 1 s continuity equation for 2 dunenswn
. . al
ax ay ... (4.5.3)

fluid flow, it is equal to uro. 1

Where, hA represents the thermal resistance, Reon offered

by the film due to heat transfer by convection.

_____ .,,
J

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_........--. -.
~· ·· - .

if_ t.f88_!-•tjr~~~n~sf~er~(~M~U~)=i;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~4~-s~;;;;;;;;;;;;:ii;;;;;;;=i;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;:;;;;;;;;ia;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~C~o~n~ve;c~ti~o=n~H~e=at=T~r=an=s=fe;;;;r ·
Y"convectlve Heat Tran.s fer .
Where, h 'represents the average conv~uve ea .. ..
.. ._..., b t iran.sfer
·4,6 ..~lc~le_n_t_· _ _ _ _ _ _ __
coe.ff
coemclent for the endre surface. It Is given by the equadon,
~
. ~· . 4 ~6.1. Consider the flow of fluid past the flat plate
~efer • 1g .· ... (4.6.3) .
. V having the surface area A, surface temperature, T,
"eJoc•tY
at mperature, T...
. Bfld f)uid te For a simple plate of length L of unit width, the 'h' is the

rding to Newton's law of cooling, the heat flux (heat function of length only,
;.cco

lflll1sfer ra
te per unit area) is given by the equation,
. . . hence h = tJ h1,.. dx ('.' A= L x B = L x 1) ...(4.6.4)

q = h1,. · (T,-T..) ... (4.6.1) 0

. d
When a fluid flows past the flat surface and its velocity an
h represent the local heat transfer coemcient.
where• L temperature is measured at various points in the direction normal to

-- the surface, the velocity and temperature distribution thus obtained

is shown in Fig·. 4.6.2. The value of h for various conditions ai:e
given below.
2
Values of h (W/m K)

Free/Natural of Convection with air 5-15

f'ig. 4.6.l : Beat transfer by convection over a plate Forced Convection with air 10-500

Note that h is neither the property of surface nor that of fluid Forced Convection with Water 100-1500

. . dependent on type of fluid flow, thermal properties of fluid Boiling of Water 1500-25000
bUI JI JS

·ta1 diJllensioils of surface or pipe i.e. Condensing Water Vapour 5000-100000

and VI

TQO- v (y)
Since the flow conditions vary from point to point on the Fluld-
flow-
..r,.,._ therefore the rate of heat transfer and the coefficient of
~u~· .
convective heat transfer may also vary along the surface. For this

reason the term_Iocal heat transfer coefficient, bL has been used in q

Fig. 4.6.2 : The velocii)'. and temperature distribution in

the above equation.
laminar forced convection flow over a flat surface

r · The total transfer rate can be obtained by integrating the

The film conductance, h is the function of many variables
equation, such as shape, dimensions of the surface, velocity of fluid, density,
temperature, viscosity and specific heat of fluid, coefficient of
Q = f q · dA:: (f, -T..) f hL · dA thermal expansion·and coefficient of thennal conductivity i.e.
A A
h = f(p, V,UD, µ,CP,k)
= h ·A· (f, - T.. ) .. .(4.6.2)

H T1dih•l..ti
V P\lbi lt1l\ln:1

S!.:1:1m1l'l.I w oth C1:1m $c111111t"f

 y

Free - Laminar boundary layer

stream G
velocity-
.,. "

-
8 c
Thin plate

::~~:_·x__ x _ _ _ _..,• ..,/.,_Transition

c I zone
__J__
. •
Turbulant ~
zone
Laminar flow - - ...
i/

Fig. 4.7.1 : Velocity boundary layer growth due to flow over a plate

The concept of Boundary layer was first introduced by L.
Prandtl in 1904 as applied to fluid problems.
Consider the flow of a fluid past a thin stationary plate at
velocity v_ as shown in Fig. 4. 7.1 under no slip condition.
When a real (viscous) fluid flows past a stationary plate, a
layer of fluid which is in contact with the boundary surface,
The fluid layer near the surface in which there is
. a &enerai
slowing down is defined· as velocity boundary 1
ayer or
hydrodynanlic boundary Jay~r or simply boundary Jaye
r Where
viscous shear taJces place. In this layer the velocity of .
.
. flow
increas~s from zero velocity at the surface to the free stream
velocity at the edge of boundary layer.

adheres to it on account of viscosity and condition. of no slip

occurs. The velocity of .fluid at leading edge relative 'to plate 'j[jJ
becomes zero.

The adjacent layers also slow down but to a fower and lower The thickness of the boundary layer, & increases due to
extent form the boundary surface in ¥-direction and there exist a continuous ·retardation of flow. The flow is laminar initially and
velocity gradient due to viscous effect of the fluid. · there is no intermingling . of layers. The velocity variation ~
parabolic in laminar flow region.

v11m....w;
"f' P1ni1tu1111

\
·- - .{

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P:.: ii_ : .
~ Heat rronsf~r (MU) 4-7 convection H~at Transfe!,.

~ ntunl trnnsfcr is nt tho · molcculnr level mainly b

There is n development of thennnl bound.ary free s~nm
~- • y
. The viscous forces nrc.i largo compared to Inertia forces in
JiffuSIOll· . layer analogous to velocity boundary layer if the temperature of the
fluid, T_ is different from the solid surface (plate) temperature T w
as shown in Fig. 4.8.l(a) and Fig. 4.8.l(b) for cases T.. < Tw and
T _ > Tw respectively.

Consider the flow of fluid over a plate when the free stream
temperature is T_ and the surface temperature is T.., in case Tw >
T_ ns shown in Fig. 4.8.l(n). The fluid particles adjacent layer to
plnte' will get the same temperature as of plate where the fluid ·

v. x particles have zero.velocity. It shouid be ~oted that, at leading edge

In Re = -v-wehnve, the tem?erature profile is same i.e..T"" .. T ...
v = free stream velocity The fluid particles coming in contact with the surface will
exchange heat energy with the adjacent layers of fluid and so on.
x = distance from lending edge
As a result, n thermal gradient is set up in the fluid layers, thereby a
v = kinematic viscosity temperature profile is developed in the fluid flow. The heat is
conducted by conduction.

As the fluid moves along the plate surface, the temperature

profile developed has the temperature variation T 1 or Tw at the

surface to the fluid temperature T.. in Y -direction.

rr Definition of thermal boundary layer

-
48
The Thermal Boundary Layer _____
.,___:...~--------------'--..lr__

~ (MU - Dec. 09, May 10, May 11, Dec.12,

May 13, May 14, Dec. 15, Dec. 16, De·c . 17)

rr Definition of thickness of therm~I boundary layer

Mathematically,

When Tw>T..

0 (Tw-T) ·
...(4.8.l) .
e.. = T -T =0.99
w ..

;.

---------~-~-···--· .... ~ ........... _

....

Sc.:mncd witk CilmScanncr

 y Thermal boundary layer
Y· T..,

~\.
.• . I

v.,.,_
. }- ··
·!
. ";- .
Temperature Profile
··. ; ll..~~~~!"'-~~~~~--.x

(a) Flow Of nu.i d over hot plate (b) Flow of fluid over a cold plate
. (i.e. T"" < Tw) . (Le. T..,>Tw) .

Fig. 4.8.l : Thermal boundary layer

~ . Slgnlflcance of velo lty The variation of() and lit with variation in Prandu nu
.· c and thermal boundary layers 111bcr
are shown in Fig. 4.8.2. • l>i
The growth of velociry b d . .
oun ary layer, () is due to velocity 8t _1
gradient caused by viscous friction whiJ th
e e growth o
f th
enn
al and is given as ~ = l.026 P1'1
boundary layer, Ot is due to temperature d. d b h t r
. . gm 1ent cause y ea
transfer. Heat Transfer Coefficient
4.8.1
Both the boundary layers will be developed simultaneously
As discussed abov~, the heat transfer from the solid sulf:icc
whenever the temperature difference exists between the free stream
·d n...:cJes taJces place by heat conduction Only "l'L. lo
fluid _temperature and the swface teµiperature. the fl W p.uu · •QC11
heat flux, q (x) at y =o from .Fouriers law of heat conduction:
In case the viscous effects are higher·than thenn8.I effects, the be written as :
velocity boundary layer, o will be thicker than the thermal
boundary layer, Ot and vice-versa.
. " ·(4.8.2)

The relative thickness of velocity boundary thickness, c5 and where, k, is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.' (W/tnl\)
the thermal boundary thickness, cSt depends on the Prandtl number . , . _ ~t the surface, the heat tran~fer is by convection
µ •C ) · . l{,. ~ .. • . OnJy,
(
Pr=~ of the fluid. When Pr= I, then cS = ot and when · ,1 According to Newton's Jaw of cooling,
Pr << 1, Ot >> o. Thus the relative thickne5s of boundary fayers ·
depends on the type of fluids. e.g. ···(4.8.3) '

(4'.~:~? -~~ (~.~'.3? ~~get,

(a) In case of liquid and gases ot » o since thermal effects are Combining
.
the Equations
. ·.· .. ·. - . . . . .
· more pronounced than vj-scous effects. ..h....~--"''i-~,(9.T@.Y2r...0Z<?,)1Jm~,., :-,._..,_';?~ _
. ~ -,:.. , <Tw .:.!_) -,,,. ·~ .... 7.':{4.8.4)
(b) In case of oHs and greases : 8t < o since viscous effects are . · ._ - ~.i7-;~ --~~.1li.~· ~J -~ r

more pronounced than thermal effects. In the above equation, <Tw - T.. ) is constant whi~ thc-
thermal boundary ]ayer thickness, ot increases with increase in 'x'.
ot It implies that the temperature gradient must decrease With
increasing value of x from leading edge.

---- - 0= ot (Velocity Since the conductive heat transfer coefficient kr is Small for
boundary
layer) Jiquids (except liquid metals), the rate of heat transfer will mainly
dej.>end upon o.n the rate of mixing of fluid particles.

The rate of mixing offluid particles depends on the Reynolds

Fig. 4.8.2 : Variation of 8 and 8t with variation in Pr number. Thus, higher the Reynolds number, higher will be mixing

_ _J.

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 t1. ·Heat rranster (MU) 4·9
Convection Heat Transfe!..

~articles resulting inio higher value ofrate ofheat transfer. Whereas the heat transfer from surface to fluid layer .is by
()/JI ,Jts '". 10 increased heat transfer coefficierit,• h "'"'
--,, dee
rease 1n
JI res /JOwuJary /ayer th{ckness, a. . . c~nduction while . deep Into boundary layer thickness the heat
/)ltfTll"I . . .
AS discussed above, the velocity boundary layer thickness•. 5 transfer is by convection.
· . d'"nl'!nds on the viscosity of fluid whereas th th ·
iJnlY "Y- ' e ennal In order to carry out the convective heat transfer analysis and
Jl1 ·"" tJiickness, St depends on viscosity (µ) veloci't f fl
!)OllJld<>'I ' ~ 0 OW to calculate the mean heat transfer coefficient, the mean
cifiC heat (Cp) and thermal conductivity of fluid f1')
('1). spe . '"'f •

) 'fherefore the variation of velocity boundary layer (B), local

beBt uansfer coefficient (h) .and local friction coeffieient (Cr) for
· temperature of the surface and that of fluid is taken into account
ThJs average temperature (T• ~ T.) is called the m~n film
·""e of fluid flow from laminar to turbulent ove; a plate is temperature or reference temperature, TII'.'" Hence,
~~ . . .
in Fig. 4.8.3.
shown T,+T.
~ean film temperature, Tmr= 2
6,h,Cr
• · i... .....

er Relations

_) :;,\:

x=O~~~-t-~~--1~~~~~­
~ Laminar -+->---..---.l-Turbulent Cr - - ~-
VRe -2Crx
Transitio11
. ·"'' i
.p·A·V
Drag force, Po= Cr· 2
. fig. 4.8.3 : Variation or B.L. thickness, 6, heat transfer
coefficient h and friction coef6cieot, C, over a nat plate
Thickne~s of boundary layer from leading edge, at distance x,
rr following observations can be made
S _ 4.64xx
I.
'h' is large at leading edge i.e. at x =0 since t\T =Tw ~ T·- is· ,• .:• ' .~ ~: :I .~ • ; '. ' '~ ·.:·- 1'1 ·.VRe •
J113Xiinum. . The valu~. _of . ~ ~-dec~s , -~.u~IY,~ -~~;..the ·
··:·
: gro~ i;>f boundary layer thickness because of the increased
· resistance to heat flow.
.,•..
2.. _· puring .transition ~ri~,: .the·value of 'h' gradwlny in~reases
-· ..._, ..... -. - -.
.
. , -,_ ~us;~(~~ fute~~:orri~ci ~arti~Jes~ · · ··- '· 2. Turbul~~t flow over now plate (Re> s x 5
10 )

3. Jn the turbulent region; the value of h again decreases since 0.455 C1

: • :.~ the boundfily layer thickness grows too much and this
Drag coefficient, Cr = ln ( Re~SB ) - Rei_
increases the additional resistance to heat flow.
where, cl = 1050 for change from laminar
4. Similar is the case for friction coefficient Cr
to transistion flow
4.8.2 Mean Fiim Temperature or Reference
Temperature (Tmr)
0.39x
In the boundary layer thickness, the temperature of fluid
Thickness of boundary layer at x Bx = R?"
varies fonn surface upto the thennal boundary layer thickness.

V Te~KH11ltdp
""f" r Ub.i I t I l l Cl n I
 :. . . . . . ...: ··-;. .-· .... - . ·, .

1'r.He~t ,T~ansfer MU ... .4-10

-. .•

syl/abu• Topic : l~ternar Flow : V~loclty Boundary Layer and .Thermal Bound.~ Layer
·j~ ~t- ·. 1
----~~--~~~~~::,~:;:;;..------....._...._. .
· · Development In Plpea Tubes ~ Case of Laminar of Turbulent Flow•
.
":

· 'j
.-.'.- ••';-- ~.
.I:i' -:..-']'
'
4.9 Veloclt Bounda er Develo . ment In circular Pipes IN Forced Conve~ "j
Referring to Fig. 4.9. I, the fluid enters t .,. . . · ·rculnr pipe. It has uniform velocity distributio · .
. . : a a um1onn_velocny V mto a c1 . n for a.ii . .
· at ·r=.Otor=R. · · · ~iii. .

v=O
Velocity profile .
(Parabolic)

v=O
,, · L
Fully developed
'~~~~~~~E~n~tra~nc~e~r~e~g~lo~n~,=e~~~~~--1-TE;Qfc>rl~-'-~•
,.. reg on

Fig. 4.9.1: Veloclty profile in a circular pipe

4.9.1 ·Relations for Fully Deve,oped Larni.,-

As rhe fluid moves along rhe pipe, the fluid Ja;er in contact
Flow In.Pipes · ~r ·
with surface tends to become stationary due to friction between the
surface of the pipe and the fluid. In case of fUUy developed laminar Dow (Re
· <:
· 2006) In a .
circular pipe Langhar m 1942 has suggested a th
, eoretiCaJ
Due to viscous forces, the station~ iayer retards rhe velocity ~ expression for,e_ntrance length as f~llow_s : : .

·of the second layer towai:w . the ce~tre:"'Second Jayer of. fluids · f;· i' Entrance Jengtli~._..,..........,.,~.._..,_,i,'.-'..- '. '·-. -·.- :··
•, , , ii r . . •
1o: i.
4- .._ , ~ ·J • •• -. ~- '.J!"I{ •. . 1 • ri .-,. . 1 • 1::: J ":
1 . · · .., _ .- ~:· ! .-, ~ l J ~ _: :' · ? ·) ·.t ~ :.c~.' :: ·;01 ·~ i.; . .
~us .,.,_,;~ ., Ai··: .. . , ,,(~
retards 1

the thirrl layer and so on. the development of ' Le"" o.0575 (Rex D)
- , ,1 , . •,.. .9.I)
boundary layer takes place and the velocity of fluid at surface from
~ - -· · --- - -.......-- ~~~------- ' I -' I ., ,'' 1'• ' I / •·, f

·· ·· ::where, o .:1s .the~ter. ..of:-- c1rcular.:..p1pe.:and~R~~is

o I •: • ' • j" r• • • .'1' :",\ ~ ( ' t • •

V = 0 (at r = R) keeps on increasing to the maximum value ai the . ' : .:·.·-· ... •' : · .,.'.'.' ; . _. . ' . the
Reynolds number defined as : ·
centre, V : Vmu at r : 0 after covering a certain distance. The
p·Vm · D·
; '· ... _._,: ... . ·.. ;
~
· . ..
velocity profil~ becomes parabolic and fully developed flow and it · Re =
µ .. ..•.(4.9.2)
does not change there after till the time fluid remains laminar.
where, Vm is the mean or average velocity over the
·The axial distance covered by the fluid from entrance upto ~ross-section of circular pipe. It is given as,
the point of fully developed velocity profile is ca11ed the entry vmax
length denoted by Le or le. This region of flow is kriown as
= 2 ... (4.9.J)

entrance zone. 2. Local velocity, Vat any radius r

v
, .. (4.9.4)
vmox

Scan ned with ComSconne-r

 ·I

Convection Heat Transfe_!_

~ . at rransfer (MU) 4-11
1"~ He
· fi I · flat in the core region
,- .
R is the outer
rad!
us ofthe pipe
. fro . .
m centre and r is the is relatively very small and velocity pro 1 e is
where .
~ny Point of pipe as shown in Fig. 4.9.2: ·
fll'liUS at .... Laminar sublayer
. frtcdOd factort f
3. 16 Ap
f = Re ...(4.9.5)

. ressure drop.
wtiereP
32µ · V ·L Fig. 4.9.2: Velocity profile In turbulent flow in
AP = Dt ... (4.9.6)
case of circular pipe

rurbulent Flow through Pipe The friction factor,

4,9.2
(Re> 4000)
f = 0.046 (Re r 02
In case of turbulent flow, the velocity profile quickly Ap ... (4.9.7)

s
tabilize5 due to large eddies fonnation. Hence the entrance length
.
( ~)
=4_ (P .2v1)
.
41
o..:rh.ermal Boundary.Layer In . Circular-P.lpes.... .-....... ... ..,_ .
.·. ·. ..::;..--- .· . . . .. . - .
·;:

consider
.
that a fluid at unifonn
.
temperature, T_enters a circular
.
pipe having
.
wall temperature as T or Tw. .
Fluid
T<X>
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T:w:~=T<X>~.:._
[
x=O
...____._.,
,.
x

"'"1·--- i:ierrnel entry region, (Le) 1---·...,,.,_·-Thermally developed region

(a) When fluid is bot tba~ wall Le. T <X)> T w

'---"..:::;.-+~~....;::::....L-~~~....;..~~~-+~~~_::::...L...,x

~--Thermal entry region, (Le) .

1
.I • Fully developed region

. _(b) When fluid~ colder than wall i.e. T 00 < Tw

Fig. 4.10.1 : Thermal boundary layer ~n circular pipes

..
The fluid particles in layer in contact with the wall/surface of the pipe will assume the wall temperature, Tw or T 5 • This iayer will
initiate the heat transfer by convection and cause the development of thermal boundary layer as shown in Fig. 4.10.1 (a) and (b).

The thickness of the boundary layer increases as the flow progresses in X-directfon until the boundary layer reaches the tube centre
and fills the entire tube.

. W TtcUH•ltilgi
V° P·u b.I II: • l 11 n s

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"( ."·.
·i . .

. . Heat Transfer MU 4·12

' ,, ..
Tho roglon of flow over which lho lhermal boundary layer
dove lops and reaches uplo <ho circular pipe ccntro is called . the
) .
.,. U.ermal entry ttafon. And. tho length of pipe covered from
leading cdgo of pipe is called tho dlermaJ entry. length~ (Le ) 1•

The roglon beyond tho lhcm1aJ enlry region in which the

t.cmperoturo profilo remains unchanged, is called the fully
developed thuinal reefoo.
er Length of thermal entry region
The process of evaluating ·the coefti .
J. For laminar Oow : . 1c1ent of co
transfer mvolves the large number of Variabl ..t C<:tivc h•.
· cs as disc -~
(Le ) 1 = 0.0575 Re0 • Pr0 It involves the conduct of large numbe Usse<1 ~"-
.. . (4.10.l) r of expc.; ""'llVe
time consuming and costly. · Rlents ""hiC!t .'
11
2. For tur.,uleot flow :
In order to reduce the time and .
cost, these .
(Le), = JO<(~)nuti. ~ ~ . ..(4.10.2)
grouped into few dimensionless quantltie th
of variables themselves. Then the experim .
var;ablca
s an the actu ~c
al nuni1.
. . . ents are I>erfo '-"r
varying these d1mens1onless quantities to pred' t ~ b·
where, hydrody'namic boundary layer, Le =o.os1s o . Rev . the VaJ
IC
UC of!\
I

Thus we can say that the dimensional anal . . ·

. .' Ys1s IS Of n0
Determfnation of Heat Transfer Coefficient it is co-related by experimental results. · use liU

4.11 Method of Finding Convective Heat · · l[jj

Transfer Coefficient
The fundamental quantities considered are
lllass ~
length (L) and time (t), temperature (T) since these h ),
The convective heat transfer c0efficient .depends on large ave no re\atj
between themselves. on
number of variables like density {p), velocity (V), dimensions of
pipe (D/L), viscosity (µ), specific heat (CiJ and thennal
conductivity (k).
; . ·2
There are five methods which are availabie to ·eval~ate the e.g. surface area, A is (length, L) thus the dimensions of A is L2.

heat transfer coefficient. as follows : Dimensions of · some physical quantities involved

iQ .
dimensional analysis .~e given in_TabI: _4.12.1.
I. Dimensional analysis combined with experiments.
~able 4.12.1: Dimensions.of physical quaottties
2. Exact mathematical solution of the.boundary layer equations.

3. Approximate method by using integral method for analysis of

2 L2
Area A (m )
boundary layer equations.
3 L3
Volume v (m )
4. Analogy betw~n heat and momentum transfer. .
Density p (kg/m3) MIL3 orML- 3
5. Numeri~ analysis.
Velocity Vore (mis) Utor LC 1
Here we shall discuss the dimensional analysis method only

for evaluation of crefficient of convective heat transfer.

Poree F (kg m!s2) or MLC 2
(Newton N)

• · 1.a.~
. . Po l'.11111111
 '!

eonvectiOn Heat rransfer

4·13
. I __, r - G be die
I
~
~· 0
I•
0
l'
G a .... variablC$ LDVO Vcu.
J ••• • ~
........ l
..r-A..nt variables on .'
dependent variable.5 and Gz. G>•...G, are ~--- I
.which 0 1 depends. Then.
. ,

.•.(i)

It may be expressed as :
l
v (m Is) ...(ii)
1t1 = g, (~. ~· n,.... 1tis-~)

P(Nmls) In this each of rt term is dimcnSionless and independent of the

~,\\'({ system.
m ('kg/s) MC 1
-tio\\' r,llt · . ·'-~• chere should
~'~ The use of Buckingham's n-theorem sbo\1.'S u .....
:~~.st
# ...-
C(Nm/kgK)
( MLf x~xf)
2
be atleast four non-dimensional r.-terms which can be related based
=Llfl
on the Equation (Li) as follo~'S :
k(\VlmK)

4.12.2 Application of Dimensional Analysis

~~
. ·r.· .
·:-" ~ _. - . as.Applied.to Forced Convection
• ~ J' - • .. , • .. •

di!~,,. :._:
2
b (\V/m K) -+ {MU - oec. 1o, e>ee. 13, oec. 14•
()lll'~..,a,-e Ht:lt Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 17)
tr:lll-<l'a
"--.eificient
~(perK) r1
o:<fficltnt of
~
'-~OD

. . Buckingham's 1t - Theorem
412 1
~ (MU- Dec.12, May 14, Dec.14, Dec.15)

Dimensional analysis is based on Buckingham's theorem. It

Based on different experiments, it has been found the forced
st3tts that "if there are 'n' variables in a physical phenomenon and
convection he:it transfer is influenced by the factors give in
if lhese variables conuin 'm' fundamental dimensions (M, L, t
Table 4.12.2.
md n !hen the variables are grouped into (n - m) dimensionless

ind..~ndent terms". Each term is called 1t-term.

Scanned w ith Ca mScanner

~ ;
,,,..... ... .
r·.. -'~

.........
-'' ~- ' L: O • a - 3b - c + d + l
' .
t: 0 = -c-3d- l
i .' T : o· -d
Diameter of rube m L
On solving above simullaneous cquatio
r (cliaia.cteristic ns we &ct:
•
lenslh) d =0,c=-1 , b=l,a=::t

Fluid velocity v 1 It results into

mis LT'"
3 D·P·V
Fluid density · p k8'm ML- 3 µ

Dynamic viscosity µ Kg/ms M L-1 y-1.

= Rez, (Reynolds DUJnber)
" ·(4.(2_
S. Auid thermal kr W/mK MLT" 3, C 1 (ii) .
Expressing the variables ui therr I)
Primary d'
conductivity r e h C trnensio
1ti =D · p · µ , kr , P
e
ns far
6. Heat transfer h 2
W/m K MT"3Ct
coefficient

7. Sp~cifi.c heat of fluid . cp . 1/kgK L2 r 2

.c 1
Agrun separating the variables for homogeneity,
There are seven variables (n) which ace expressed in terms of
four in~ependent variables (m) as M, L, T, t M: 0 = f+g+h
Therefore the number of variables that are grouped together L: 0 = e-3f-g+h+ 2
into dimensionless independent tenns,
t: 0 = -g-3h-2 :r-
7t term = 7 - 4 = 3 i.e. n 1, ~. '"3 terms.
T: 0 = -h-1
Choosing D, p, µ and ~ to form a core group. The groups
formed are as follows after selecting V, CP, h as variables. i.e. h =.--1

b c d On solving above equations :

3
= D · p · µ , kr , V -.
'"- =
"'Z
r .. g, kh(' C p
De •p•µ h = -~. g=l, f=O. e=O
l _J le /
~ = D · p · µ , kr, h It resull in.to :

Since all groups 7t1, ni. ~are dimensionless, so the variables µ·C . .
1ti = ~ =(Prandtl number, Pr) ••.(4.12.2)
are raised to certain exponents. a, b, c, .. . . which are to be
determined. (iii) Expressing the variables in their primary dimensions for

(i) Expressing the variables in their primary dimensions for

~ =
i j k I
D · p · µ , kr, h .. .

1t1 =D a · p b · µ c, k 1d , V ~ = .M°LotoT'

=Li. (M L-3)j . (M c l Cl)k (ML f3 T-1)1(mf3rt)

Separating the exponents for dimensional homogeneity,

· M: 0 = j+k+l+l
eparating the exponents for dimensional homogeneity.
L: 0 = i - 3j - k + 1
M: 0 = b+c+d
· • r.a.....
• PO LIUlllll
 4·15 Convection Heat Transfer
I

1': 0 .. - l-1
Bxpreuing the quantities in equation (i) in tennS of
fundamenlal dimension1 M.L,T, t we can write.
= -1
1.e.
· 011 solvi11g :
...(ii)
l "' -1, k=O,
j = o. i= I

-b-d-3e-U -e-f
ffellct the di~ensionless grouped fonned is : XT Xt ... (iii)

h·D
1t) = T, For dimensional homogeneity we have,

• Nu 0 (Nussclt number) ForM: = c+d+e ...(iv)

...(4.12.3)

or forced convection, ForL: 0 = a+ b-3c-d + e + 2f . .. (v)

tfellCe f
Nuo = f (Rer,. Pr) ... (4. 12.4) ForT: -3 = -b-d-3e-2f ...(vi)

In above expressions, we have chosen th~ core variables quite Fort: -1 = -e-f ... (vii)
arbitrarily. If we would have chosen a different core group in the
We have four equations (iv) to (vii) and six unknowns. Let us
dimensional analysis as D, p, µ, CP the 1t groups wo.uld have been
determine the exponents in.terms of c and f .
. R~ Pr and a non-dimensional form of heat transfer coefficient . From·eq (vii): e = 1-f ... (viii)
t1r.signated as i
From eq (iv) : d = 1-c-e= 1-c-(l -f)
Stanton number, St : It is expressed as ·
<Nu) h
= -c+f ... (ix)

St = Re · Pr =
p ·V·C
. p
... (4.12.5) From eq (vi): b = 3-d-3e-2f
m n = 3-(-c + f)- 3(1-f)- 2f
4;12.2.1 · To Show that Nu= C Re Pr In
Forced Convectfon
i.e. b =c . .. (x)

From eq (v): a = - b + 3c + d - e - 2f
.+ (MU· May 17)
a = -c + 3c + (-c + f)- (1 - f)- 2f
,I
a = c ... (xi)

.on .substituting the values in equation (i) we get,_

Consider the flow of fluid in a pipe and heat is transferred by

h = C[Dc-lxucxpcxµ-c•rxk 1-'xc'1
p

Multiplying by~ on both sides we get

forced convection between the fluid and its wall.

Consider that the convection heat transfer coefficient (h) is

D
the function of pipe diameter (0), fluid velocity (u), Visc:Osity (µ), hx-
k
=
density of fluid (p), thermal conductivity (k) and . specific
heat c9 :i.e.
h = r [ o, u, p, µ, k, cp J
Nu = CxRe
t
xPr
f

• b c '
d c t
h = CD • u • p · µ · k • CP ...(i)
If c and fare replaced by m and n, then
where C is a constant.
Nu = CRm Prn
• • rtUlll•lt1a1
Ttdlra..Wti
·

~
WJ••-m1www111111111-.........,,,,,..-----~
 ...

· :'f/lt Heat Transfer (MU · 4-16

·'
. 4. 12.3 · . Advantages and Disadvantage of 1. Nusselt Number, Nu
. ·01menslonal Analysls
;.
.' . ..
!/ .
,
' ..

Nu = .!!..:..!:
k,
er Advantages

It helps to reduce the time and cost, dimensional analysis is a On rearranging the terms :

tool to find or .check relations among physical quantities by using Nu.=

their dimensions. Dimensional analysis is routinely· used to check
the plausibility of derived equation and computations.
Rate of heat transfer by convectio
c:r Disadvantage = Rate of heat transfer by COodu~

It requires more calculations. For dimensional arialysis we · Thus the Nusselt number signifies the rati
0 Of fate
should know the relation among the different quantities. transfer by convection to the rate of heat transfer b . Of~
. . y COnductio
.:1 T =Temperature difference (T, -T_) or (T n.
4.13 Physical Slgnlflca~ce of . ""-1'..) h...
wall surface and fluid . · ""'II'~
. ·Dimensionless·Numbers

+ (MU • Dec. 1 O, Dec. 12, May 16, Dec. 16, Dec. 17) .~cur:;::~:::~;:·:~.':~:::::!:;h.~~~;~~
· purely
is by conductzon· m · t he· b oundary layer. Larg · at trllh.,.
-~Jtr
er the .v~
Nu, larger will be the rate ofheat transfer by convection. '!

Reynolds :N"umber, Re

(MU •. Dec. 13 r\..._

' ....ic.1~

L is the characteristic length which is equal to·o for pipes.

p · VL . p · V · L V
Re = µ µ
x-
v
I
1. 1'lusselt1'lumber,1'lu On rearranging the terms :
2·
p·V Inertia force
2. Reynolds 1'lumber, Re Re = = Viscous force
(µ~V)
3. Prandtl Number (Pc)

4. · Stanton Number (St)

Thus the Reynold number signifies the ratio of Inertia
5. Peclet Number, ·pe force to viscous force in the velocity boundary layer.
p·V · L V·L · V·L
Also, Re = µ =(µ/p)=7

scanned with CamSca noet""

 . :;/ ' . . · rrsnsfer(MU) · 4·17 . Convection Heat Transfer
'·· -l 1'46Bt .
" , nuntbCr also characterises the type of flow whether
nold s 4. Stanton Number (St)
.· .ite Y turbulent flow. Since Re is proportional to velocity
1... jflinBI' or h h x (bx1) xl!:
· 11 iS Js Udensity of the fluid, thus for higher values of p and v, St "' P • v . cp P • v cp = k L µ
s11d OS we · the Reynold number. It signifies that the inertia
will be h·Uk
( p .~ L) x ( µ ~e )
1118'1er 1iigher than viscous forces and tho flow is. turbulent.
=
foree5 sJO higher the viscous force, hence flow is laminar.
rthO ~e. .
!Pwe -• Reynold Number, (Re)u represent the number Nu . .. (4.13.1)
CrftJCIP :. St = Rex Pr
~~-J nd"'..,, layer
-
changes from laminar to turbulent flow •
h h ·AT
wfle'° s Also St = p._ V . Ce =p . V . Ce AT
·te plate: Re< 3 x JO (laminar) •
for tia
. s C~nvective heat flux to fluid
Re > 5 x l 0 (turbulent) . . . . (4.13.2)
= Heat transfer capacity of fluid
citCular pipes : Re < 2000 (laminar)
yor .
S. .Peclet Number, Pe
Re > 4000 (turbulent)

ues of Re in between laminar and turbulent shows the

P vL. µ ce P • v . cp
'}"be Val
Pe • Re· Pr• µ · k • (k IL)
.. where the laminar boundary changes to turbulent Mas~ heat flow rate per unit temperature ~ifference
[tllllSI0 00
Pe = Rate of heat flux per unit temperatUre difference
bOundatY·
prandtl Nu01ber (Pr) Experimentally. it is observed when Pr is_ very small
3.
{MU · ·Dec. 15, Dec. 17) (e.g. Pr< 0.01 for liquid metals), the governing equation :

Nu = , A ·Re• · Prb is used as

Nti = A ·Pe"
Forced Convection In Internal Flow : Correlations
as Applied to Flow Through Pipes I Tubes
kinematic· viscosity , v
Thermal diffusivity, a
4.14 · Forced Convection Correlations :
y_ Momentum diffusivity through the fluid
or Pr = a - Thermal diffusivity through the fluid . Flow through Circular Pipe

Thus the Prandtl number signifies the ratio of momentum When law of conservation of mass . is applied to control
'
diffusivity to the thennal diffusivity. It provides a me~ure of volume of flowing fluid, we get continuity equation as :
1~.:ve effectiveness of momentum and energy transport by a· . a . a
re-· , ax (p . vx) + ox (p . vy) + ax (p . v = 0 %)

{Jiffuswn in velocity and thennal boundary layers respectively.

; .
Application of the law.of consenation of momentum (i.e.
Higher Pr means higher Nu and it shows higher heat transfer.
using Newton's second law of motion) gives as :
rr Prsn~tl number for various materials are as follows ··· av ·. av · · 'ilv
Vx · ax +Vy · ay = V · ay2 .(Navier Stokes equatl9n)
Liquid metals Pr< 0.01
The application of first law of themu~dy~m;cs ,to th~ flow
For air and gases Pr= results into following two dimensional heat now· equation in
Cartesian and cylindrical co-ordinates as : ·
For water Pr= 10

For heary oils and greases Pr >I lac

k(~+$) = p·Ce[ Vx · ~~+Vy · ~~J ...(4.14.1)

•·• ·1~'•ea'•.nKani••t1
< • 1 1 • .• .,
 1ljlr' Hear Transfer (MU) · 4-18

Ia cylindrical co-ordinates.

r1.iJxiJ ( iJ T)
r . ij;" + "'i?
o'T ..,. ... (4.14.2)
I
j

The sofuti~o of above Equation (4.14. l) gives the following

· co-relations for forced com'taioo in cin;uJar pipes.

J. For lamlaar Flow (Re< 2000)

Fig. 4.14.1 : Flow through rec:ta
h&Ular~..
Nu = 4.36 ..011.
(for constant heat flux)

Nu • 3.66 (for constant Wall tempernturc)

.Z. For turbulent Oow (Re > 4000)

Nu = 0.023 Re°'' Pro.'

(141u-nfluid i.~ h('aU·d i.e. T. < T..J
Nu = 0.023 Rea.a Pt-n..' 0

Fig. 4.14.2 : now through annular space be

Ab(m.~ ~On!' ~ known "'-~ Dlttus-~Jttt ro-rclatJons. two circular pipes '"tt11

3. ~ ~ or drcutar plpc. 01:" hydraulic

4. Bulk Menn temperature, Tm

dJ:anx.ctt. n. Propcrtic.~ of fluids arc laken at bulk rnean

~iven ns: ternPei...
·"'lilt
p..~t-Je l·o j'lmdia 1hc tlow whether ir is J.:unin:ir or
le is
~it 'll'~ ~\Ii', p , v«~· µ-And c.h.tnt.::tcristic dimension L¢.
l?:.U: ~:-o~~ u for fkiw CV« the pl~e is the diswi.x 'x' from •.. (4.14~)
L·:a~:~~ ~~ cl p1MC for flO\li' insidt" cubes af vsrious $11~$, its 4.14.1 Co-relatlon for Flow of Liquid Meta
d:L.~sti: lti:p i s th~ hJdna.Jk d.iamf'w Jrfin~ 4S In Pipes 1•
D. _ -4 x Cmi:!>-~~"'tio:u.J :tn"..t Clf Oo~·. Ac (-4 J '.l)
~ - w~ perimet.t"r, P ··· · · 4 ·· When rnte of heat transfer nre required to be very hi .
: .
mcuJs like powsium, sodium, mercury arc used cg .
&h.~~
· · lDN~
rc:lel.ors.
0 11 = 4 .>e -D
n =x -I= D
.; r. D Liquid metals have very low PrandtJ number (Pr<: 0.0J~ lie
co-relations are given as :

(For c.onstnnt wall tcm~

08
•idlh. "' ~'".r Fi&. 4 J 4 . l)
Nu = 5 + 0.025 (Re · Pr) '

J:A 4 (L X W) 1 a..x Wl Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185 (Pe)o.m

(For cons1an1 heat fttl)
Oil = p =·2(L+W)= (L+W)
Liquid metals have very small thickness of velocity~
layer compared w thennal boundary layer sin~ Pr is small.
1
(c) F'or bo[krv pipe hadnz ottftt' dlameter, D and lntemaJ

4.14.2 Co-relation for Flow of Heavy Olis~

(Rd:: F..r,. .:. r4..2)
Pipes
~ .'1' ' ..,:, • J
D:i = ... x. 4 {D -"' :x (r.:D.+:td)
According 10 Sieder und Tale rclarions :
ID~d) ID-d)
(D•d) Nu i:: 0.027 · Reo.ll • Pr°-33 (µIµ.,)°'"

,
."

$conned with Ca mScanner

~
,·
,Ji
·
1
,ansfer (MU)
t1e&I ,
4·19 · convection Heat Transfer
1"... . is the dynamic viscosity of oil at wll!t temperature.
~re.~ . (c) Co-relatJon for Jlquld metals as
\ t the heavy oils have very high value of Prandtl
ie tha 0
?lO ff· ,4bove relation is applicable both for constant wail Nu = 1.13 (Re • Pr) .$
~r11f1e'' __ ,,constant heat flow conditions.
11,re OI'.. · .
~ (for constant waJI temperature) ...(4.15.5)
1efflf''"' ernal flow: Local and Average Heat
~fer coefficient for Flow Over Flat Plate Z. Case II : For turbulent now when (Re > 5 x to'> and
~ . (0.6 <Pr < 60)
Local and Average Heat Transfer
Nu_. • 0.029 · Re~.a · Pr
113 . •.(4.15.6)
,,15 coefficient for Flow over Flat
plate_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ ... (4.15.7)

~• ia1Jlfnar now (Re < 3 x 10 )

5
Mean film 'temperature, .. .(4.15.8)
j.
c•se . I

J,ocal Nusselt's number (at a distan.ce, x from leading Syllabus Topic : External Flow : Co-Relation for Flow
(a)
edge) is given as, Across Cyllnder,.Spherea and Flow Across Bank of
)112 113 Tubes In Case of Constant Heat Flux and Constant Wall
Nu_. = 0.332 (Rex ·(Pr) ... (4.15.1)
Temperature
(b) Average beat transfer coefficient b1 v and average
NusseJt number (Nu)av 4.16 Co-relation for Flow Across a
h •X . Horizontal Cylinder
= -l--k =0.332 (Rex).112 . (Pr)t/3 .. .(1p5.2)
Nu..
(a) For constant heat Dux

...(4.16.1)

{b) . For constant wall temperature

Leading
edge .x =o x=L Hilpert's co-relation is :
----x D I /3
Nu0 = C x Re0 · Pr ... (4.16.2)
Fig. 4.15.1

L VaJue of 'C' and 'n' are given in Table 4.16.1.

hav. = lL fhx .dx Table 4.16.1 : Values of constants for Bilpert's correlations
0
. I

0.4-4 0.989 0.330

4-40 0.911 . 0.385
40-4000 0.615 . 0.466
4000-40000 0.174 0.618
40000 - ·400000 0.0237 0.805

4.16.1 Co-Relations for Flow Across the

;, Nuav = hnxk· L =0.664 . Re11 2 . Pr1 13 ... (4.15.4)
Sphere

1. Mc Adams recommended the following Co-relation for

estimating the average heat transfer coefficient for·Reynolds
~·
~- ,.
·· · .. . .'
' .. ' : I
" ~ : ~ .
! :: ... . ''·.

·'. , .
"1r:Heat Transfer MU . 4-20
: ( '• - ~ ! ~ : • • :
...-~ . , o J 0000
..._r.. ........
num..... . .• when "·•pho"' l• healed_or cooled
_. by
-;-
!~
· ' ·· . ..
\,
rho sas as follows : ..
,.

h•D M
··.- Nuo • -k- • 0.37 Ro 0 ... (4.)6.3)

·_2. Whe~ . as, Whffake.m: has recommended the foJJowing

.c;reJatJon· : . .

=
5 0 Dlagonal plteh

.. . (4.16.4)
Fig. 4.16.1.(b): Stagered arrangement Ofb
. Ulldfe Of il!,.
'. · ·

er Co-relation• for Average Nuaaelt nurn""-

Above equation is valid for : ~rfor
constant wall temperature tubee are:

0.71 <Pr< 380, 3.5 < RCr, < 80000 and 1< ( ~ < 3.2 h D
Nu0 = T = C • Re
n
0 max • Pr0.36
(
\-~Y'4
·

· .. (4.16~i
3. . For free fall of liquid droplets over the sphere, the Marshall Above equation la ·valid when
and ~ suggested the following co-relation.
. Number of tubes~ 2(),
-.. 0.7;<. Pr. s.500 .,
Nu0 = .2 + 0.6 Re 0
112
. Pr ·
113
... (4.16.5) 6
- .. . '· ···
1000< Rer,max <2X 10

4.16.2 Co-relations for Flow Across Banks of p . umax . D

where, Re0 mail= µ
Tubes
.The value of constant C and n can be taken fro111 .
There are Jarge number of applications of heat transfer for
following Table 4.16.2 · the
flow of fluid across the banks of tubes in heat exchangers used in
Table 4.16.2
economisers, superheaters, evaporators •.con.densers, ~ preheaters.

The tube bundles may be arranged in - line or stagered

.. ' · ~ge!_1lent as shown in:Fig. 4.16.1 (a) and (b) respectively

f--SL---j

DI-on
offlow · /
11--1--y
J. J. r
Stagered

(a)~ <2
1000to2 x11>5 0.35 (~r~
~ . 0.6
(~)
S0 -o x2
u

-+/:J--{;j;-}- ---<:i7"Lon~dlnal ; !L
o-J:P Transverse
. (b) ·sL>2 1000 to 2 x 1c5 0.4 0.6 Where

- 0.022 0.84
row
SL= Longitudinal row
Sr= Transverse row r:r Exit temperature of flul.d flowlng over the bank of
D =Diameter of tube ., tubes can be calculated as follows,

- · :,~ ·-Flg.-4.16.1(a) : -In - Line arrangement of bundle of tubes ... (4.16.~

Where, N = Total numbers of tubes

NL = No. of tube rows ;.

- - - .. ... - ·~· .... ... . . .

..
.
,~

ro l'l t1tt111

scanned w ith cmisconn er

 ' II
!
l
'
I

'

Heat transfer rate,

Q = hA·6T1m
= h x (nDLxN)x6 T1m .•. (4.16.9)

... (4.16.8)

Table 4.16.3 • List f F .

· • O ormulae to be used for forced convection

1. Laminar Dow (Re < 2000)

P·V · D V ·D
(i) (i) Re= m =-m-(circularpipe)
µ v
Vm·Dh
Re= -V- (Non-circular pipes)

4Ac
Hydraulic diameter Db= p
."cal length I entrance length
(il)
Cn.. (ii) Entrance length,
5 v
Le:: (3 ><IO ) · y Le= 0.0575 Re · D

(iii) }1Verage drag or friction coefficient , v

1}2.§.-2C (iii) Average velocity, Vm = ;-x
Cr :: ';:pfe - rx

(iv) ])rag force, 2 (iv) . Friction factor.,

.e....:.A·V C 16 6p
Fo = 2 >< c
f =Re - 4 ( t) ( p .2y2)
32µVL
where, t.p Di =Pressure drop

(v) Velocity boundary layer thickness at distance 'x' from

. 4.64x
teading edge, ox = .../Re ·
2. Turbulent Dow (Re> S ~ lOl 2. Turbulent Dow (Re > 4000)
o.4ss c1 (i) Friction factor,
(i) c, =l~ ( Re~s ) - Rei_

where, C1 =1050 for change from laminar to turbulent ~ow f=0.046(Re)

-0.2
- yi) t.p
(
. 4(t) T
. '
~ ...,,. . .Ctav =0.072 (ReJ-02.
.... ... • o.'39 x
(ii) 3= (Refi. (ii) Length of thermal entry region,

(Le)l =10 < (1I;) : ; 60

where hydrodynamic layer, .L e= 0.0575 Rei, · D

(iii) Ratio of thennal boundary layer thickness, ot to velocity

boundary layer thickness, o:
3t

-·~

• TIGbnl.qi
"P\IU1 t• fl t ''°'

·-~-------------- ·----····-·--- - -···- ·- -------

Scanned w ith CamScanner
 .• • I

·,.

Dbuensle>nleu·Numbers
. . . . .12..:..Y.k Reynold's No. : ReL = e . v DR
·Reynold's No.: ReL.. µ . µ
·' ",
. µ·Cp µ·Cp
Pi-andtl No.: Pr•~ Prandtl No. : Pr=~

Nusselt No. : Nu a
h•L
T Nusselt No. : Nu =T
h·D

. ....ili!:!L h -lli!!l. h
Stanton No. : St =Re . Pr =p y CP Stanton No,; St=R
e. P r =-v
e cp
Peclet No. : Pe =Re · Pr Peclet No. : Pe =Re · Pr
4; . Heat transfer co-relation 4. Heat transfer co-relation
(A) Laminar Oow : (A) Laminar Oow :
(i) Local Nusselt Number at distance x from leading edge. For constant heat flux : Nu =4.36
Nux = 0.332 (Re,/ 12 • (Pr) l / 3 For constant wall temperature :
Nu =3.66
(ii) Average heat transfer coefficient,
h ·x ·
Nux =T= 0 .332 (Rex)112 . (Pr)t/3

hav . = 2 XhL

{iii) For liquid metal :

Nu = 1.13 (Re_Pr)o..,-

, (B) Turbulent Oow (B) Turbulent Oow

.
(i) LocaJ Nusselt Number Nu =0.023 Re08· · Pr0.4 (When fluid is heated)
Nux =0.029 Re~.s · Pr 113
Nu= 0.023
08
Re ' •
03
Pr ' (When fluid is cooled)
Nuav=0.0366Re~· · Pr
8 113

T,+T.
(ii) Mean film temperature, Tm = 2

. (C) Flow across a cylinder (C) Bulle mean temperature,

For const. Heat flux : NuD =0.62 Re~sos Ti~let + Toutlec ( Tl +To)
. I 13
)tf" = · 2 or, 2
For constant waJI temperature : Nu0 =C x (Rep)" · (Pr)
For vaJues of 'n' and 'C',.
Table 4.16.1 can be referred.
(D) For flow ofliquid metaJs (Pr< 0.01)
Nu ~ 5 + 0.025 (Re Pr )0·8 (for Tw is constant)

/. _Nu= 4.82 + 0.0185 (Pe )0·827 (for constant heat flu.\)

I. (E) For flow of heav·y oils
I
Nu= 0.027 · Re~'
8 0 33 0 14
j . . , • Pr · (µI µw) ·

_____·- ---·- -·- __. ----~~·------ --·-~------ __J___Where~ .=.dynamic viscosity at wall temperature.
.,:.·

Sc<imll:!d wilh Can&;amM

~. · : · ····

·~
,..-,· 1". Ll""t
r>........,. !f!:ra:ns:.fe:r:(M:U:)::::=:-----~·4~·~3~·---=-------..;.;~=~~~~~~
Convection Heat Transfer

· ~ut
9yl1'
Topic : Reynold Analogy for laminar
· Flow Over Flat Plate . . · ·Now, separating variables and integrating by using above
boundary conditions, we get ; .

' ~ynold'sAnalogy for Laminar Q V_ T_

: , 4.11 fluld flow Over Flat Plate . CP . A . 't, Jdv . = - JdT

~·. ~
0 T,
+(MU-Dec 09
. • •May 12, May 16) or 0 v
CP ·A . 't,. - = (T,-T_)
~iim
or Q
A(T,-T_) = 't,. v_ s
d's analogy is the relationship between coeffi . f
h = t,. sv_ . ..(v)
ReynOl c1ent o
dfS&'skin friction (Cr) and heat transfer by convection for laminar Skin friction is defined in drag force as :
flal plate I surface.
oo\11 over
;.ccording to Newton's Law of viscosity, shear stress in
· ·oar floW in the nonnal direction to the plate is given as, .. .(vi)
181111
y -+ Teo, Vco
-+ Substituting 't1 from equation _(vi) in Equation (v),

TsµV=O
tv
h
1 2
= Cr·2·pV_ v_ s
-+x or Coefficient of drag,
Fig. 4.17.1
h
)
dv = p C ·V =St (Stanton number)
't, = µdy " .(i) p -

St-..B!L_hL x-L x .....L. _ __h_1

Heat flow along y-direction is given by Fourier's Law as; [ -Re·Pr- k pvL µCP-pCPvj

dT c,
Q = -kA dy ... (ii) ·· T = St Reynold's Analogy

We also know that Prandtl Number This Reynold's analogy assumes Pr= 1.

µCp As Pr values changes away from 1, inaccuracy in the result

Pr = k
crops in. Hence, Reynold's Analogy was modified by Chilton and
Colburn.
Assuming Pr = 1; k =µ CP ... (iii)
er Chilton and Colburn Analogy
Substituting dy from Equation (i) and k from Equations (iii)
in Equation (ii), we have; We know that

dT
l l
2 3
Q = - µ CP . A • µ dv . -r, Nu = 0.664 Re Pr for laminar flow over flat plate. (Refer
Equation (4.15.4))
dT
= -Cp ·A·-dV ·'tI ... (iv) l
Dividing both sides by Re · Pr3 ; we have
17' Boundary conditions
Nu 0.664 1 1.328 Cr
1 = - 1 =2· _,-;:;: =-2
(I) T = T, for v =0 at surface of plate - - ~Re
Re ·Pr 3 Re2 · ·
=
(2) T T_ for v = V.. at the ouler edge of boundary layer
.... TedlKH111\edge
WJ"" r U b \ l L il fl , l't ii

Sc.im"-'\J w11h CamSca rn-.'I

 .·....~
. '. ·J. ·;
. . Heat Transier (MlJ 4-24
· Convect1ori Heat,. .'
r~
(Refer 1>cctlon 4.8.2 Reladon I) Example 4.17.2 . \
1
3
C, Nu X _Pr_ Water at 25°C Is flowing through a _pipe at 3.s "''
.. . 2 -· - · l . 2 "WltiJ .
diameter 3 cm. Determine the pressure drop Per ;.,. 11 ~
R~ • Pr 3 Pr3' .. , ler\c,,.·
lrt case the velocity of water is 20 ·mlmin, find th •vi.
·' 2
" - c, J pressure drop I m len9th in the pipe.
6
.l'le-,,
or T • St·Pr
Given: For water at 2s c. p =997.1 kg/m
0 3,

.· TIJ.ls ~s ~hllton and Colburn A,nalogy and holds good for Pr kinematic viscosity, v"" 0.8933 x 16-e rr.2,
. --~aJuo from 6.5 10.50. · Solution : 8,

_B y putting l'r ·.., 1; above gets converted to Reynold's Given: D = 3 cm= 0.03 m, v = 0.8933 x 10- 6 rri.218 L
Analogy. • ., l 111
1. · ~essure drop/m length when V a 3.5 mfmln, A p
Example 4.11.1·
Steps .to be followed
What is meant by "hydraulic diameter" of a duct ? Explain its (a) T~ c~~k whether flow is laminar or turbulent. find Re
significance in convection heat transfer. Calculate the
. (b) Find friction factor, f, hence find Ap.
hydraulic diameter for the following ducts : (i) rectangular
cross-sectioned, with sides = 1o cm and 5 cm(ii) square
Re =
pVD VD
µ = v
3.5
=60 x 0.8933 x 10·0
0.03
== 1567.2
cross-sectioned, with side .. 2 cm (Iii) circular
·cross-sectioned with·radius = 2cm. ·. · Re is less than 2000, flow is laminar.

Solution: 16 16
( = Re ='1"567.2 =0.01021

Theory : Refer Section 4. J4(3) Ap

~) ( p ~yi) ;
But.
Numerical f = 4(

~) ( p~ )
2
(i) Hydraulic diameter, Db for rectangular duct when
·a =10 cm, b =S cm Ap = 4f (
·...(i) .

4 x Area of cross - section A

2 - x 60
Ap = 4x0.01021 x 0 .103 x997.1
Dh - ( 3.5 )'
"" Wetted perimeter P . . . (i)

4 (ax b)
Dh = ,;. 2.3094 N/m2 per m length
2 (a+ b) "·Ans. :
4 (10x 5) 2. Pressure drop/m length when V = 20 m/mln
= 2 (lO+ 5 ) =6.667 cm ... Ans.
V· D 20 O.o3
(ii) D11 tor square duct when a =b =2 cm Re = v =60 x 0.8933 x 10- 6 =ll l94.S
4 (ax b) _ 4 x 2 x 2 _ ••• Re > 4000, it shows that flow is turbulent
D11 = 2 (a+ b) - 2 (2 + 2) - 2 cm ... Ans.

For turbulent flow : f = 0.046 (Ref o.i

(iii) Dh for circular duct of radius R =2 cm
From Equation (i),
f = 0.046 (11194.5f
0
"

Dh = p4A 2 1
=4xnR X2;R=2R
= 7.128 x 10- 3

_ 2x2 =4 cm (For circular duct, Db = D) .•. Ans.

. ' Ttilll...wii
. Pd l lUll lll

Scanned with CamScanner

 fl. Heat rransfer (_MU) Convection Heat rransf~
4-25 ,.
Ji
-~JJI Equation (i) = 23968.4 W/m K
2 ...Ans·
••' \
:1
llP .= 4t( DL) (~)
\ 2 (U) Heat transferred Q
.,.,
. \.
Q = ~ Cp (T0 - T1) =(p ·Ac x V) CP (T T,)
4x(7.l28xl0- )x(·-L)(2211) (20)
3 2 0 -
AP=
"" . 0.03 2 x 60
2
= SZ.635 Nim Im_length
Q = 995.7 x ~x 2
(0.06) x 12 x 4.174 x (45 - 15)

••. AnS·
= 4230.3kW
Length of the tube :
Q = h A, ('r, - T..) =h x n D L x (T, - T.,,)
4230.3 x 103 = 23968.4 x n x (0.06) x L x (70 - 30) i
·I

~i

SofUtf~n:

D = 60 mm= 0.06 m ; v = 12 mis;

= 10°c Solution:
~;
T, T, = 15° ~ ;
•'
T +T I "'
,/,..ro = 45° C; Tm = ~=30°C I
I
I
l
Nu = 0.023 Reo.s Pr0 .333 I
I
I
I
T2 1
(i) Iieat transfer coefficient, I
I
I
I
Reynold'~ number, I

Fig. P . 4.17.4
Re = pVD
µ -
- VD
v
b · = 0.15 m
12 x (0.06)
0.805 x 10~ -
894410
= k = 1.3 W/mK
/

Nu = 0.023 Re0·8 Pr 0·333

T_ = 30°C =30 + 273 = 303 K
T1 = ?, Q=?
Nu = 0.023 (894410) ' (5.42)°'
08 333
=2330.12
. hD T2 = 100°C =100 + 273 = 373 K
But Re = k E - 0.8
Rek 2
h = h = 20W /m K
D
2
2330.12x(61.718x10- ~
2 A = Im
b = 0.06
• TechKao111led11••
'Qc:'
V r-ublll.tl\on •
 ~ " "/."~. I ; •

~
j '·•""

. i

. · ···.• .
' ·-
4·26 ' : .~
.· . Gonvectiori He~t T -: "j
· · k · ra11,, ·. f
t . hL = -t x 0.664 (Re1.f5 {Pr)0.334 er :. t

28.76 x 10- 3
.i > . ...... ·,
_-. _ : i;c1, ··. ·.
/ = 2 x 0.664 x (3.343 x I0')0.5 (0 6 .
. 9g)0.134
,.
4.896W/m2 K 1
', · ,
Q hAdT+oeA (T24 -T4)·
. .. "•l\lla. ·1
.. .. I h1 , = 2 hL =9.79 Wtm2K
' " Q = hA (T2 -T..) + oAe (T: +:T~) l
1;_.. I

.. Q Heat transfer rate from both sides of the plate l

= 20x I X(373-303)+5 .·
(37,34 - 3034)
-8 .
.6 x 10 X 0.8 x I r Q ... 2hMT=2x9.79X2Xlx(90-2())
Q = 1460 + 49s. 693 J = 2741.2 w

Q = 1895.693 w ; Example 4. 17.6

.•• Ans.
(ii) Inner surface temperature T
I , I
Air at 2 atm and 200° C is heated as it flows at a Veloci
12 mis through a tube with a diameter of 3 cm A ty of
Q = k A()", - T 2 ) . . consta
lb heat flux condition Is maintained at the wall and ,.. · nt
W
I _ -
temperature is 20°C above the air temperature all alo an
u1e

J 895.693 · = 1.3 x ;1 x (T, - 373) .

length of the tube.
. ng the
-
I 0.J5

T1 = 591.73 K =318.73° c Calculate

(a) the heat transfer per unit length of the tube.
(b) the Increase In bulk temperature of air over a rn
length of the tube. 4

Properties of air at 200°C are Pr= 0.681,

=2.57 x 1o- 6 kg/ms,

µ

k = 0.03S6 W/mK and CP = ·1.02s kJ/kg · K._

Use : Nud =0.023 ( Red)o.e (P_r )o.4·

Solution:

Given : Temperature of air, T. = 200°C;

6
20 15.06 x 10- 25.93 x 10- 3 0.703
velocity of air, V =12m/s
6 3
55 17.95 x 10- 28.76 x 10- 0.698
Tub~ diameter, D =3 cm =0.03 m; p =2 atm = 2 X 101.325 kPa
6 3
. 90 22.1x10- 31.28x10- 0.690 Wall temperature, T 1 =20°C + T.., =20 + 200 = 220°C
Solutlon: Find:

V = 3 mis, TN= 20°c, T 5 = 90°C (a) Den~ity of air using gas equation since it is not given

(e) Q/L
Tmean = 90; 20 =Ssoc
(b) Re (c) Nu (d) h

(f) Bulle temperature rise using the concept;

VL = 3 x 2 - 6 = 3.343 x 10s·
~ 17.95 x 10
t)
Rate of change in internal energy = Rate of heat transfer.

p 101.325 x 2 3
Density of air, p = RT= 0.287 x 473 = 1.493 kg/m
Local heat tran~fer coefficient at the ~nd of 2 on long plate

·-- --
Scanned w ith CamScanner
 .. -· ·- -- - ---·.-· ' ........ --:-:

• 20914 > 4000

. flow is turbulent
flell CO• .

Nu = 0.023 (Re0)0·8 (Pr)0.4

0
= 0.023 (20914) ·• (0.681)0.4"' 56.404
h·D
Nu=!(: Given: T.. = 30°C; V = 2.8 mis

~. 56.4Q4 x 0.0386 Plate = 1000 mm x 600 mm x 25 mm

h ,., D -p.03
T, = 90°C;
k = 25 Wlm°C

}leat aansfer rate per unit length, (QI L) Air properties at 60°C :
(a) .., ..:.. t •' .
Q = h · (nDL) ( T 1
- T.. ) p = 1.06 kg/m3;

·~ = htt D x (T. -T.. ),;, 72.57 xnx 0.03 (20) = 1.005 kJ/kg K. =o.02894 wim. c 0
cp· k.

x 10- 6 m2/s; Pr= 0.696

-v ....=,·, 18.97
... ·.. -: . ·..
)

Assuming air flows along the length,

Increase In bulk temperature over a 4m length tube
(b) \Tl. 2.8 x 1
. v 1t 2
Rei_ = -;-- 18.97 x 10- 6
m = p·A· =P4D ·V
5
= 147601..5 = 1.476 X 10S < 3 X 10
= l.493 x ~ x (0.03)2 x 12 =0.012664 kg/s Hence flow is laminar, therefore using relation,

R~te of change in internal energy = Rate of heat transfer

Nu = 0.664 (ReJl/2 (Pr)
113

hL
/unit length( E) x L = 0.664 (147601.5)in (0.696)
113

h = 0.028941 x 0.664 x 384.19 x 0.886

3
= 6.54 W/m. °C
2

o.012664 x (1.025 x 10) LiTb - 136.79 x4

. . Heat loss rate by plate,
.6.Tb = 42.15°C ...Ans. Q = hAL\T =6.54 x l x 0.6 x (90 - 30)

= 235.44 w . .. Ans.

To find bottom temperature of the plate, under steady state.

25 x l x 0 .6 x (90 - Tb)-
235.44 = 0.025

. . Tb = 90.39°C ... Ans.

~~{~~,:l>"<"': ' .
...............
:~~~{;~ ' .
~,
·~~-~..~!,
~):
~-f
.I '., '
. ~
Convection Heat Transfer ,.
..
.: .. '
h = f
0 .0744 x 0 .6251°"
1
' ~

~
. i
': [0.036 x (0.802 x10 6 0
) ·• - 836]
i. = 68.02 W/m2°C

: . Q = h · 2A-(T.. -Ts)

= 68.02 x 2 x 1 x 0.5 x (1000 - 300)

• -:;,;olutlon: Given :
= 47,614 w
'' ~/,,
"' ·
'-
T_

Ts = 300°C
1000°c; Examp le 4.1 7.9

Air .at 20°C having average velocity of 4m/sec is

-
···Ans.

fl~wing
v = 75 mis along a heated plate at 140°C. The plate is 2 m long and
~-5 m·wide,
L = IOO cm =Im,
Determine:
w = 50cm=0.5 m
(a) Thickness of hydrodynamic boundary layer at 40 crn
Propertfos of gases from leading edge.

(b)
p = 0.496 kg/m3 : Thickness of thermal BL at 40 cm from leading edge.
' {c)
I
Local skin friction coefficient at 40 cm from leading
;:
. 1'
k = 0.0744 W/m°C, edge.
I
1:
- Tao= 1ooo•c {d) Local heat transfer coefficient and average value of
heat transfer coefficient.

{e)· Heat transfer from entire plate.

Assume properties of air at mean temperature of 80°C as

1ooan
follows:
Fig. P. 4.17.8
. 1 k g/m,
P= 3
µ=21.09 x 10- 6 2/
ms,
v = 93.5 x 10~ m 2/s Pr = 0.692,

k =0 .0305 W/mK, cP =1.009 kJ/kg K,

Pr = 0.625;
Solution:
Nu = Pr 0 33
· [0.036 Re
08
' - 836]
Given: Air temperature, T. =20°C,
Heat transfer from hot gases to plate from both sides ;
Surface temperature of plate, T, =140°C,

L= 2m, W =1.5 m, V = 4m/s, x =40 cm =0.4 m

To find out 'h' we will use, Check : Mean film temperature,

T, +T.. . 140+ 20
Nu = 0 33
Pr · (0.036 Re
08
· - 836) Tm "' 2 = 2 =gooc.

Re = pVL _ VL _ 75 x I =0 _802 x 6
10 Hence the properties of ·air at, Tm· = 80°C can be used for
µ . v 93.5 x 10~
solution of problem.
Nu = ~= 0 33
Pr · (0.036
08
Re ' - 836)

VTedlKHwlNet
...,. r ·v ul[ l lll l\ '
~-· ·
~' .

y - , - U)
j _· - 'f~fer(M
lt ~~l - ---- -. -
4-29 Convection Heat Transfer

iY
L. ..d -
- ''•
k · Nu
--~ ~:·.:~.
· ·~ ·~ -- ~-
,_fY - whether the flow is laminar or turbutenL
i to~k
i {t.l Fe~ynainic or velocity B.L. thickness, 8 and thermal B.L.
l "') fl> 6t at lt • 0.4 m.
~ = 2X}\=2x6.168
I l' -031e5S·
tbJ skin friction coefficient. <;..

(d ~ c1ent by finding Nu,. , and

tiea1 (I3l1Sfer coeffi"
= U.336 W/m1 K •••Ans.

!(Jl ~~ (e) Heat transfer rate, Q

! b:::: lt
A = LxW
II i') J{
eat uansrer. Q.
Y..,:.; 4 x 0.4 -6
Q = h..v x Ax(I',-T..)
}le,, -=. v - 21.09 x 10 = l2.336x(2x l.5)x(l40-20)

::: 7587X 10
4
= 4441\V •••Ans.
. Heat flow from both sides _= 2 x Q = 2 x 4441 = 8882 W ..• Ans.
}le,
<. 3 ; 10s, flow is laminar.
·:
~ckll~of
hydrodynamic boundary layer at x =0.4m, 8 .
1

tu 4 .64 . x 4.64 · x 0.4

§. ~ - ~ . ...j(7.587x10) .. -. .. :. ·. --- \- ; ·.,· -'.: ; '-'.:'.:-

.,, o.00674 m •••Ans..

_ of thermal boundary layer at x =0.4m, Bt.

'JbickJlCSS
@> a .._
Ot = 1.026 x Pr 03
Solution :
0.00674
1.026 x (0.692)
w Glven: v
::: = 50 mis, L=l5m
3
p = 0.88 kg/m ; ......
.,, 0.00743 m ••• Ans. .....
µ = 2.286 x 10- 6 k g/ms
I~ ux:aI friction coefficient, cf.-
I lllll cp = 1.001 kJ/kg K;
! ! _l x 1.328
~ = 2 Cr-2 ffex k = 0.035 W/m-K~

0 664 h = llOWtm" K
· 4 =0.0024 ••. Ans.
= °'17.587 x 10
(i) Reynol~'s Number

(a} Local h~t transfer coefficient, h:r and Average

Re = pVL _ 0.88 x 50 x _1;·= _ x s ..• Ans.
2 887 10
value, hlY µ 2 .286 x 10

112 113
Nu. = 0.332 Re1 • Pr (ti) Prandtl Number

= 0.332 x (7.587 x 10 )
4 112
x (0.692)
l/3 µCP _ 2.286 x 10- x 1001
6
=0.0654 ••. Ans.
Pr = k - 0.035

= 80.886 (ill) Stanton Number

Bnt, Nu. =~
k
St =
Nu
Re.Pr
h.L.u.k
= k.p.V.L.µ.CP

~..,. .. _____ Scom.00 with Co rnScDn ner

. ···.·

4·30

Con~~ ~eat l~'t

I
I

. -·· ·- · - hL ;
T • 0.664 Re111
L Pr
Ill · II
IS.625 x 1.5
... Ans.
0.028 • 0.664 Re L (0.7)
.,, . QJ)
Ij
RcL • 2x 10 > 5 x_i o'ticlleeflow ·s~~
1
6

Hence using Nu correlation for turbulent flow.

Nu hL ( 0.036Rco.a
= T= )
L -836 Pr
II)

15.625x1.5
0.028 = (0.036 Rco~ -836) (0.7)°-ll

941.57 = 0.036 ReO.&L - 836

O.&
ReL = 49376.88

Solution:
Rer. = 7.36 x 10' Turbulent flow
VL pVL
Gi\'en: Ts = 90°C = -;-= µ

T_ = 10oc v =~
pL
Plate size= 1 m X 1.5 m
v "' 7.36 x 10s x2.03 x 1o-s
L = 1.5 m 1.09 x J.5

Q = 3.75kW v = 9.14m/s
··..\tu_
p = 1.09 kg/m3
k = 0.028 W/m°C

c p, "' 1.007 kJ/kgo C

µ = 2.03 x 10-s kg/ms

Pr = 0.7

. nd out only from Reynolds number.

. Velocity of air can be fou . 'ded type of flow is
.Re can _b e found out from Nu relation prov1 • .
known;. w.h'1ch can again be found out from Re. .
Solutlon:
Hence we can assume type of flow and check.
T. · = 20°c
Q = hA~T
T, = 1000~

3750 = h x 1.5 x I x 2 x (90 - IO) v = 2m/s

assummg
. heat fl ow is from both sides of the plate. l)= 1s :97 x I 0-6 m2, s

k = 0.025 W/m°C
. h ·= 15.625 W/m2 cc
Pr = 0.7
Using Nu correlation for laminar flow.

Nu = 0.664 Re112L p r 113

sca nned w 1tti camScanner

 .·
Convection Heat rran~fer
,. 4·31
r
i Ten= 2o•c Solution:
l Given : T.. =0°C = 273 K ; l = 1.2 m

b = 2m ; T• =sooc =So+272 =353 K

50an
V = 2.5 mis

_. Fig. P. 4.17.12 Properties of nitrogen at film temperature arc :

\4'S ·p~rallel to SO cm
p = 1.142 kg/m
3

~lrf]o 3
Q) ': VL 2x0.5 , CP = 1.04 x 10 J/kg K
Re :::: o= is.19x10- 0 =5·21 x 10 v Cl

05 33
0.664 Re · Pr°'
Nu = k =· 0.0262 W /mK
--
hL
k
0.025 x 0.664
4
= 0.664 (5.27 X 10 )0.S(0.7)0.3
3
h = ?•
Nu = 0.664 · Re
Q=?
I /2
Pr
113

0.5 (5.27 x to')0.5(0.7)0.33

h =
1. Convecdve heat transfer coemclent, h :
2
= 6.775 W/m °C
Reynold's Number, Re
Q = hA6T
Re =· pVL
raking heat transfer from one side as airflows over the plate µ
past the plate).
(and no1
Q:::: 6.7
75 x 0.5 x 0.2 (100 - 20) =54.2 W .••Ans. = .Y1
v
('.' L =~ =1.2 m)
2.5 x 1.2
""en air nows afong 20 cm side
(Ii) \'Tu . 15.63 x 10-6 =191.938 .x 103
VL 2 x 0.2
Re = o
=18.97 x 10- 6 - 21086 Prandtl Number, Pr

Nu = ~ =0.664 (21085)0.S (0.7)0·33 µCP

Pr = k

= ~;~
0 033
h x o.664 c2108sf' (0.7) ·
= v~CP [ ·: V=~]
2
::; 10.7W/m K 3
15.63 x 10- 6 x 1.142 x 1.04 x 10
Q = hA6T = 0.0262

= 10.7 x 0.5 x 0.2 x (100- 20) :. Pr = 0.7085

112 113
= 85.7\V ...Ans. Nu = 0.664 · Re Pr

:. h~ = 0.664 · Re
11 2
Pr
113

:. h = f x 0.664 x ·Re112 Pr113

0
= ·~~262 x 0.664 x · Re112 p/' 3 (': L = L =1.2 m)
0.0262 3 In 113
= t:2 ~ 0.664 x( 191.938 x l0) (0.7085)

= S.6622 W/m2 K . .. Ans.

· ..r.1"u
,.,,.. r
...1..tin
U b 11 t.·I l 1 t I

li\mmir-- - - - f t· - -- - - - -- -
 ; ' -

eat.Transfer (MU) . .4·32

Convection Heat Transfer
•at transfer, Q .. . . Z;;; . . . i

•. Q ·• hAaT= h (lxb) x (T,-T..) = 1228.8 W '"All.\

;1
= S.6622 (1.2 x 2)(80 - 0) {ll) Heat transfer rate for full plate Le. for L = 0.8 tn.
Q 1.087 x 10 3
w V.L
=v -18.97 x 10"
c 2x0.8
···All.S. :. Re 6

= 5
0.843437 x 10 (flow is laminar, _
~,

Nu = 0.332 Reo.5 Po.3rll

<
. '

= 0.332 (0.843437 x
05
105) ' 0
(0.696) 'm =8S.46
'·,
ht = N~.k = 85.46 ;.~.0283 ~ 3.0l W/m2 C
\
~\
2
h&Yg : 2x ht= 2x3.02= 6.04 W/m C

l{eat transfer rate from full length of the plate

:\on:

V=2m/s,
=· 6.04 x (0.8 x 0.4) x (1000-200)
L • 800 mm= 0.8 m, W =400 mm= 0.4 m,
= 1546.24 w .;.Ans• .. .
k =0.0283 W/mK. ~assumed)
(iii) Heat transfer rate from next half of the plate :
Heal transfer from First half of the plate
Heat transfer rate from next half of the plate,
For first half of the plate, L = Qf =0.4
Q = Q1-Q1=1546.24-1228.8
V.L 2x0.4 5
Re = ~ = 18 .97 x 10.:-i; = 0.42171x10 = 317.44 w
Re <: 3 x 105 flow is laminar
o.s 0.333
Nu = 0.332 Re Pr

s o.s (0.696)0.333 = 60.43

= 0332(0.42171x10)
h1 . L
Nu = k

Nuk
ht. T
60.43 x 0.0283 =4 8 W/m2 oc
hL = 0.4 °

Solution:
Average heat transfer coefficient
.
h &VII. =2·hL =2 X 4.8=9.6W/m
loc Given : T_ = 10oc. W = 1m • L =2, V =100 mis
Find: (a) ReL to check whether flow is laminar or turbulent
:. Heat transfer from first half of plate is,
(b) ~_~
u- (Rer · for turbulent flow hence find o
Qi = h ovg A(T ' -T.J = 9.6 (0.4 x 0.4) (1000 - 200)

ScarniW with Cci11&.:a1uM;N

 4·33 Convection Heat Transfer

Mass flow rate of water,

..
' m • pAV

1t
flow is turbulent
= l
1000 x 4 x 0.032 x 1.2 =0.965 kgls
T.• 1eo·c
5l~cO · of boundary laye r,,8 at x • L • ,2 m.
'fblcl'11Cs5
(Jl
bulentnow.
I
I
for tur
0.39x
c5 =Ii?
0.39x7.
== (14.134 xutfZ Fig. P. 4.17.16

Heat transfer rate,

· = 0.02898m ••• Ans. '\
Q mCp(Te-T1)
(ue of bea·t transfer •~oeffiicient, b
r.feJID Vil = 0.965 x 4200 (95 - 25) = 283710 w
' (b)
Nu = 0.037 Re~.s
1
Pr r.l To find out I\ on inner surface,
l = 0.023 Reo.s Pr°"'
I 6 08
= 0.037x(14.134x10 ) · x (0.72)1/l
Nu

VD l.2 x 0.032
Re =v - 0.4762 x 10-6 =80638 .4
= 174124
h.L Pr -- µCR - P\lCR
k. - k
gut,
Nu = T '
1000x0.476ix 10- 6 x4200
~1 = = 3.063
17412.4 = O/J25
0.653
~

Nu = khD =0.023 (80638.4)0.ll (3.063)0·'

b = 1.17.65 W/m2K .•• Ans.
0.653 x0.023
0.032 x 8418.5 x 1.565

= 6182.8 W/m2 K
Heat transfer rate

180 (95 + 25)

2
Q =
I
--+--+--
Gr~
ln .:i
r 1.
ho Ao 2nkL l\Ai

283710 =---------!1.=:20~_ _ _ __;__ __

. In (0.0176)
1 - 0.016 - 1
11000x1t x 0.0352 x L + 21t x 59 x L + 6182.8x1t x 0.032 x L

Solution: 120XL
4
= 8.225 x lO:::a + 2.57 x 10- 4 + 0.004 x 10-
V = 1.2 mis 120xL
= =
10.799 x 10- 4 111121.4 x L
r1 = 1.6 cm= 0.016 m

r2 = l.76cm=O:o116m
L = 2.55m ••• Ans.

Sctl1 w1~w itt 1 Ct111 &.:ti r w1tt

 ..
'
1 ..... t
.·. ....::.

-""~•mpl•
-~
. MU
4-34 Convectx ion Heat lrA~
~~~~~::.~~~----~----..;.....................;~;a,.~;:::::-:::::~::::~::~:::-::7:::~~-=·eret
·

~ ....;,.,
H••t .Tr•n•I•' _ .Ith R 2 10 Whe
...
"""
to~
4. 17. 17
·
d convect/on · from flat a plate, _taoca ussert
·
h

For b•r I• given b ~ the fol/owing oorrelatlons.

r.I I N '= OCcurs.
. !<flow u"""" l•mfou w 5

m
nu · o.a 0,33
Laminar.• Nu" • o .331 Re,. Pr .. 0.331 ·Re,0..5 Pi0.33
·Turbulent
. " · A o.e p r 0.33
: Nu,. a 0.02BB e.
'= 0.33) (2 X l(i)O.S (0.7)0.ll =: 131.59
- .!!_i•L.
Tf}e tins on an air cooled motor cycle engine may be - k •
considered as Individual flat plates of length L =0.2 m owing .!!i xo.2.
..·.· to disturbances In the free stream, transition occurs at
9
131.59
0.026 •
.,
: Re1rane =2 x 10 • Ca/cu/ate for a road speed of 140 kmph; the
]t' .• ' h 1 = 17.1 W/m1 K
average heat transfer coefficient from the fin surtace allowing
for separate lamlnar and turbulent section and compare this .
Average heat transfer coefficient= h+!!.i_
2
=121+.!ZJ.
result obtained assuming purely turbulent flow. 2

Assume : p = 1.1 kg I m 3 , 69W/m2 K

·1 µ = 1.7 x 10- 5 kg/ms,
k = 0.026 WlmK, Example 4.17.1~
:! Pr::: 0.7.
.' ': Solution: A ir at 27oc blows along one side of a horizontal brick slab
along its 15 m long length. The slab is at 55°C initially. The
Given : · L =0.2 cm, Relnln• =2 x 10s• velocity of air is 4.~ mis.'
. 1000 =o:a4 kJ/kg K,
Velocity of air, V = 140 kmph =140x
3600
=38.8 m/sec Specific heat of slab
. 3
Density of slab z: 1600 kg/m ,
(It is assumed that fin is stationary and air moving)
volume of ~lab= 1.5 m 3 .
Find
Properties of air :
(a) .Re to check for laminar I turbulent flow.
P=1 ~ 128kg/m3, µ=19.1 x 10- 6 kgfms,
, (b) Nu
k = 0.0276 Wlm·K, Pr= 0.699
.(c) h using Nu
Nu = 0.664 Reo.e Pr0.33 for Re < 5 x 1Os
V·L·p
Reynold's number, Re= µ Nu =0.037 Re0.5 Pr033 . Re > 5 x 105
. for

For unit width of the slab, calculate,

= 38.8 x 0.2 x-5I.I = 5.02117 x 105
1.7x JO (i) The rate of convective heat loss from the slab,

Since Re > 5 x 1Os, flow ls turbulent (ii) Rate of radiative heat loss from slab

(iii) Initial rate 'Of ~ooling of the slab per hour.

Nu . = 0.0288 (Re)°·s x (Pr)0.33
•
Take emissivity of slab as 0.9.
= 0.0288 (5.021I7 x 1Os)°.s (0. 7)°-33 ~ 930.9
Solution:
h ·L.
Nu = k • Giv~~ : T_ =27°C, T 1 =55°C,

hx0.2
930.9 = 01)26
V =4.5 m/sec, L = 15 m, W =1 m.
Find:

.. h = 121 W/m2K (For turbulent flow) ... Ans. (a) . to ch eck wh e~r flow is laminar or turbulent.
Re

( (b) Nu from co-rel~on

/

/
VJtdolH•I....
v · r .11b.il'C1l 11 u

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 . convection Heat Transfer
. 4-35

Assume properti~s of air at 1O° C :

2
(t) k = 0.025 W/mK. v = 14.15 x 10-e m /s, Pr= 0.72
JtadiaDOO fl
(el ..e.~ 0.8 113
Jle "' µ =1.128x4.Sx15
19. 1 x 10-s = 3.9863 x 10
6 Take, Nu= 0.037 ReL Pr for turbulent ow.
Solution:

.. Rt >
sx 1Os. flow is turbulent Hence. Given: T.. lQ°C, W= =lm, L =2, V = 100 mis
0 8 033
- 0.037 Re · Pr Find:
~II -
::: 0.037(3.9863x106)0..g (0.699)l\3) = 6271.08 (n) Rel. to check whether flow is lnminnr or turbulent
hb.
~II ::: };. • (b) S = ~!~o\ for turbulent flow hence find S
~u •l.: 6271.0S x 0.0276 ..
b ::: -'-'L = 15 = 11.538 W/m· K (c)
h·L
Use Nu 11 T to find h.
The rate of convective heat_loaa from the alab, Qc VL
RcL a -
v
Q = hA(T,-T_)
::. 11.5~S ~ (l5 x l) ~t55-:?7) a
14
100x2
.lS X _g
10
=14.134 X 10"
:. Q" • .&..~!' w ... Ans.
Since now is turbulent
Rate of ractatlve heat lo••· a,
Thickness of boundary layer, Sat x a La 2 m.
~ .. C.i\{. tT! - T~) (a)

:. Q, c ~.ti'.? ~ 10- • ~{lh: J) x 0.9 For turbultnt now.

l\~5 ~ '1"/'3 ). - (:7 ... "113)~ l s• 0.39 x

RP
..• Q • U.,C9.4 w. ••• Ans.
= (1 4.0.39x 2
~

••• Ans.
134 X 106fZ = 0.02898m
lllil ~...tJ ,.._t.'t of c:oollng
tb) Mean vnlut or heal transfer coefficient, b

0.037 Re~ Pr"3

8
· Nu c

Q • - rn "di ; di" 1~ rA'lt'. of coohng

rdT dT . .
= 0.037 x (14.134 x 10"·)°"' x (0.72)113
Cl ... ?\' c: I t>C•3 ~ L'5 (Cr .. S40)
- _fL - i~ .4 )t 3600 = 17412.4
il -· oC.r - 1600 x l.S x S40
al h.L
But, Nu = k
:. u ..:"C'br ••• Ans.
hx2
17412.4 = O.Q25
~l.17.ti

A.a a: tG"'C eb•~ C61M a p \aifi tm wide e.nd 2 m long at a b .. 217.65 W/m K
1
••• Ans.
lt loi."J' ~ t~G ml~. A 1E:n is f.Jlaood .before the plate so that
!I:'•~ a:-r as ~Ji~~ u.~&iee.m over t'lf; plate. Find ; Example 4.17.20

Air at 20°C flows over a plate 0.5 m wide x 1 m long at a

.;:1 1.•'!-a:.n \·aJi~
SlJt. ~'°' c1 p."la te.
velocity of 3.2 mis. Tho temperature of the plate Is
molntalnod ot 120°C. And
o! he.at tr:ar:tfo r cootficlcnt for tho entiro
(I) Heat loss per min. from the plate if the air flows
parallel to 1.0 m side.

Scc:inned with CamSc~

 --
--- -
---__-.. :. :I
.. -. ·. . '

-\~~%,
V Heat Tra~sfer (MU) 4-36
- - - - -.Convectlol'l'
- = Heat'l'r--· - 1 1

3 x 10 , flow is Iam1n~. -~l

5
(II) - What shall be the he-at loss per min. from the plate If pr <
. .. ~

_the-_ air flows parallel to 0.5 m side with all quantities ~ . ,-

Pr k =0.7013 remains the &?me. -
remaining the same.
Nu = 0.332 (Re)llZ (Pr)113 ·
Use correlation Nu= 0.33~ ReH2 PrH3

·Take properties of air at m~an temperature

= 0.332 x (0.7921 x 10 )
5 112
(0..7013)113 - -
-

-83.02 -,
T _ 20+ 120 ·
m- 2 .70°C as : = But, Nu
= .&...:..h
.k !
v =20.02 x 1o- e m2 mis, CP =1.009 kJ/kg K, i
t.11x0.5 .I
k =0.02964 W/mK 83.02 = 0.02964 h1 = 4.921I W/m2 -K
P = 1.029 kg/m 3
•

Solutlon:
= h1 x2(LxW)x(T,-Tw)
Given: - T.. = 2ooc. W =0.5 ~. L = 1 m,
4.~21 x2x(1 x0.5)x (120-20)
1
=
V =3.2 mis, · T, =20oc.
-j. ' = 492.1 w
(1) Heat loss from plate if air flows parallel to Im side, Q1 -------------:',i~l
Example 4.17.21 1
i
Find

(a) Re to check whether flow is laminar or turbulent.

Air at atmospheric pressure and 2fl0°C flows over a P~
with a velocity of 5 m/s. The plate : is 15 mm wide and .
(b) Pr (c) Nu (d) h - (e) Q. I - ~

maintained at a temperature ;>fi 120°C. Calculate the

R Y.:!:: _ 3.2 x l 5 thickness of hydrodynamic and the~·.mal boundary layer~ :
e = -v -20.02x10-~ =t.59sx10
the heat transfer coefficient at a dist ~nee of 0.5 m from the '
5
Pr < 3 x 10 , flow is laminar. leading edge, Assume that flow is on one side of the plate.
P =0.815 kg/m3 ; µ = 24.5x10- 6 Ns/m2 , Pr= 0.7,
k = 0.0364 W/mK.
6 Solution:
(20.02 x 10- x 1.029) (l.009 x 103)
= 0.02964 =0.7013 Given : V =5 mis; x = 0.5 m;_"
12 113
Nu = 0.332 (Re)1' (Pr) p =0.815 kglrri3;
= 0.332 (1.598 x 10 )
5 112
x (0.7013)
113
=117.9 µ =24.5 x 10- 6
Ns/m
2
,

h ·L Pr= 0.7, k =0.0364 W/mK.

Nu = k

hxl
Find: (a) Re to check whether flow is laminar or turbulent
117.4 = 0.02964 b =3.495 W/m3 K (b) 0 (c) St
Q = h x (2A) x (T1 -T.. ) (d) h using relation Null.

= h x (2x Lx W) x (T, -T.. ) v ·x 5 x·o.s 5 xo.5 .83163

Rell = v =--µ/P" = (24.5 x 10- 6 I 0.815 ) =
= 3.495 x 2 x 1 x 0.5 x (l 20 - 20)
5
Since Rex < 3 x 10 , hence flow is laminar.
= 349.45W ...Ans.

2) Heat Joss from plate if air flows parallel to O.Sm side, Q2

1. Boundary layer thickness at x =0.5 m, o
o= ~= Sx.0.5 =8.669x10- 3 m
L1 = O.Sm VRe'x ..j83163 . ~

.Y..:.1 - 3·2 x o.s_ =o.7921 x 105

··Re = 6 = 8.669mm
v - 20.02 x l 0

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 if. Heat Transfer (MU) 4·37 Conveotfon Heat Transfe~

. ,_- -.•ckness of thermal boundary layer, at x c

i. 'JJU •
o.s m , Bt Rate of chMge in inlernal energy = Rate of heat transfer.
,.... .We JcnOW that p 101.325 x 2
ot 1 1
Density of air, p c =
RT 0.287 x 473
o = 1.026PitJ
r
•pm
r
= 1.493 kg/m3
0 8.669
ot = (Pd/J =(0.7)113 =
pVD
µ
= 9.763mm ... Ans. 1.493 x 12 x 0.03
= 2.57 x I0-
5
J,oCal beat transfer coemclent, bx

112 1n hx . x = 20914 > 4000

Nux = 0.332 Re · Pr =~
Hence, flow is turbulent
k
:. hx = 0.332 Xx (Rex lf2 113
) . (Pr )

0.0364
= 0.332x ~ X(83163) 112 x(0.7) 113
= 0.023 (20914)0,8 (0.68 l)°-4 = 56.404
h·D
= 6.189 W/m2K ... Ans. But, Nu .= -k-;

example 4.11.22 Nu · k 56.404 x 0.0386

h = o-= 0.03
Ar at 2 atm and 200° C is heated as It flows at a velQClty of
1~ mis through a tube with a. diameter of 3 cm. A constant
heat flux condition is maintained at the wall. and the wall
temperature is 20°C above the air temperature all along the
(a) Heat transfer rate per unJt length, (QI L)
length of the tube. Calculate

(a) the heat transfer per unit length of the tube. Q = h · (nDL)( T, - T_)

(b) the increase in bulk temperature of air over a 4m

length of the tube.
f = hnDx(T,-T.. )

Properties of air at 200°c are Pr= 0.681, = 72.57 x 7t x 0.03 (20)

5
µ = 2.57 x 1o- kg/ms, = 136.79 W/m ... Ans.
k .. 0.0386 W/mK and CP .. 1.025 kJ/kg . K.
0 (b) Increase In bulk temperature over a 4m length tube
use : Nud = 0.023 (Red)o.s (Pr) .4

• 1t 2
Solutlon: m = p·A·V=p4D ·V
Given: Temperature of air, T_ 200°C;

=12 mis
velocity of air, V
=
= 1.493 x * 2
x (0.03) x 1Z = 0.012664 kg/s

Tube diameter, D =3cm =0.03 m; . Rate of change in intemaJ energy = Rate of heat transfer

p =2 atm =2 x 101.325 .kPa unit length ( f) x L

WaJI temperature, T, = 20°C + T_ =·20 + 200 = 220°C

Find: (a) Density of air using gas equation since it is not

given 3
.0.012664 x (1.025 x 10 ) aTb = 136.79 x 4
(b) Re (c) Nu (d) h (e) Q/L ~Tb = 42.15°C ...Ans.
·(f) Bulk temperature rise using the concept;

.• • Tedih••l"ti
ru&1tl1lltn1
 •1i : . ..• • . ' , .. -->- '·. ,·

4-38 . . . .I ~·.. , ...:· ...C\,

Convection Heat ,:·:. : . ·;·( «
Example 4.17.23 ·
. In a certain _glass making· process, a square plate of glass
Q =.2 h A
.
.-
x . (T - T )
..
.
.
:
ratae1 S~.:-.' l
llt..:·. '

are~ and 3 mm thick heated unltonnly to 100°C ls

2
1 m .
2 x 6.802 x I x Cloo- 20 y · .._ i
cooled by a.ir at 2o•c flowing over both sides parallel to the
plate at 3 rrits. Ca/cu/ate the Initial rate Of cooling the plate. .. 1088.32 w
• t
Neglect temperature gradient In the glass plate and consider Instantaneous rate of heat Joss by the " ·'I\Ila. : '
only.forced convection. . 1
Pate, Q_b. · .,
change of internal energy. . · ~ •"'tc or ~
. 3 .
. " Take tor glass : Pg • 2500 kglm and Cpg • 0.67 kJ/kg K
... . 1 : ' . ·" . dT
~I '
Q = m CP~ dt =(pg x Ax thickness) C .!!!· .
Take the tollowlng propertfee ot air : Pa ,,,; 1.076 kglm 3 ; Pa dt
·" , i
. Cpa = 1008 J/kg K, 1088.32 ( 2500 x 1 x I~) x (0. 6; x 103 ) )(..!!!
.. ,: .
dt
''
."j
k =0.0286 W/m°C andµ= 19.8 x 1o- 8 N/m 2•
./
{·
Solution:
Example 4.17.24

V =3 mis, L =W (square plate), Compare the relative merits of water under Pre
ssure
A= 1m • 2 liquid sodium as coolant; when flowing through a . and
stainteSS
steel tube of O. 75 cm ID with a velocity of 5 mis T'-
.. LxW= 1 i.e. L=W= 1 m. • •1e tub
I ;
wall temperature is 300°C and temperature at the int t 8
t ··
'1 I
t
Find pipe is 200°c. . e lo the
.
(a) Re to check whether the flow is laminar and turbulent. Use the correlation: Nu0 _= 0.023 Re0.8
0
• Pr
0.33
.

(b) Pr Properties of water : v = 0.16 x 10-e .m2Is

(c) Nu using co-relations. Pr = 0.938, k ;,. 0.665 W/mK,

(d) 'h' Properties of liquid sodium: v =4.95 x 10- 7
m2/s,
(e) Q ~r =0.0075, k = 80 ~/mK.
Solution:
(f) Equate Q =m CP8 A T •
8
· Given: V =5m/s, D =0.75 cm= 0.75 x 10- 2m
Initial rate of cooling (dT/dt)
Aim is to find the value of h both for water and liquid Sodium
The average heat transfer co-efficient for the air flow parallel so as get their relative merits.
to the plate is given by (at x = L·= Im)
Rei, =
VD
v =
[ 5 ( 0.75 x 10-
0.16 x 10-6
2
) J= 234375
Rei_ = e..µV. L =1.076 x 3 ~v =163030
19.8x10
For water: Nu = 0.023 Re0'8 • Pr0'33 = h ~D
µ · cpa (19.8 x 10- 6>1008 _
Pr = k = 0.0286 - 0 .698
Nu = 0.023 x (234375)0·8 x (0.938)0·33 =445.1
Nu = 0.664 (Rez,)
112
(Pr) 113 h
=
Nu · k
D
445.1 x 0.665 =
- 0.75 x 10- 2 39468·
W/ 2K
m
112 113
= 0.664 (163030) (0.698) = 237.8
For JJquJd sodium :
h =[ k
x Nu =--y-- x 237.8 = 0.0286
6.802 W/m
2/K
Re V · D _ 5 (0.75 x 10 ) = .
. -2

= v - (4.95 x 10- 1) 75757 6

Heat flow from both sides of the plate. 0.8 0.33
Nu = 0.023 Re · Pr
 ...
j

But,

Nu, • k · 2237.8 x 0.027 86 32wim2K

h • L • 0.7 "' '
Nu·k
h= [ ) Total surface area,
36.77 x 80 A • 2 (L x W) + 2 (L )( H) + 2 (W >< H)
h = . (0.75 x 10- 2)
.. 2 (0.7 x 0.23) + 2 (0.7 x 0.1) +'2 (0.23 )( 0.1)
= 3,92,213.3 W/m2K. ••• Ans.

'f)le tieat transfer coemclent for liquid sodium ls more as

= 0.508m
2

J11Pared to water, thus the use of liquid sodium is beneficial Q = h · A(T,-T..)

'°..here JUg.h rates of heat transfer are needed. = x
86.32 0.508 x (60 - 20) =1754 w ••• Ans.
.:.---.-::-: .
ie 4,11.25
~~alfl P Example 4.17.26
. ·ne of an automobile can be considered as a ·box of
Iha en9 1 A flat plate is 2m long, o.am wide and 3 mm thick. Density
th of o.7 rn. width 0.23 m and height 0.1 m. Its surface
of plate = 3,000 kgtm3 • . Specific heat. of plate
9
ien ature Is maintained at 60°C. When the automobile
ternper material = ~00 J/kg K. Its Initial temperature is 80°C. A
at a velocity of 30 mis, the air at 20°c passes over
rn~~ . . . stream of air at 20°C Is blown over both surfaces of the plate
nkcase .at relative speed. Assuming the flow to be
ttie era o.e 113 . . along its width, at a velocity 2 mis. Calculate,
w~e
In
t with NuL = 0.036
. ReL Pr , find .the rate of heat
r frorn all sides of the crankcase. {i) rate of heat dissipation from the plate,
transfe . .
3 -6
{ii) initial rate of cooling of the plate,
rake.. P-- 1·09 kg/m , v ·= 20.1 x 1O , k = 0.027 W/mK,

Pr= o.7 Properties of air :

solution: p =1.09 kg/m ,

3
k = 0.028 W/mK, Cp =1.007 kJ/kgK
=0.23 m, H=O.l m
µ ~ 2.03 x 10- 5 kg/ms, Pr= 0.698, Nu = 0.664, Reo.s Pr
0 3333
GiYen: L = 0.7m, W · •

T
•
=60°C, V =30 mis, . T.. = 20°c,
Solution:
Find: (a) Rei, (b) NuL (c) h (d) Q . 80 20
Mean temperature of air, Tm= ; =50°c
p·V·L
Rct. = v
Given:
1.09 x 30 x 0.7 6
= 20 .1x10 6 =1.1388 x 10 L=2m, W= 0.8 m, t=3mm=3 x 10- m.
3

3
Density of plate, P1·= 3000 kg/m , CP1 =700 J/kg K,

· T,= 80°C, T .. =20°C,

Find:

(a) Re, check type of flow . (b) . Nu

Fig. P. 4.17.25 (c) h (d) Q

(e) Rate of cooling

(i) Rate of heat dissipation from the plate

= 0.036 (1.1388 x 10 )
6 08
' x (0.7/3 =2237.8

S.:-:nnnf!dwithC.nrn..<;r.nnn,:i,r
 . .. .';.· ~;~
--, - , /

4-40 Convection Heanr

. . '·:.-':·'
V Heat Transfer (MU)

Reynold's number, Re= p VL

Assume the following properties for the liquid rnetai .~ : . :•

µ
µ =·1.35 x 1o-3 kg/ms,
.
Cp =150 J/kg K, Pr = o. 011
'
= 1.09 x 2 x 0.8
2.03 x 10-3 = 8.59 x 10
4
k ~ 16 W/mK.
Correlation tor constant heat flux is :
(L= 0.8 rri to be taken along the flow)
0 83
s . Nu= 4.82 + 0.0185 (Re· Pr) ' •
Re < 3 x 10 the flow is laminar•.

Nu = ·0.664 (Re)o.s (J.>r)o.3 Solution:

D = 6 cm= O.o6 m,
Given : m=5 kg/s.
= 0.664 X (8.59 X 104)0.S (0.698)0.3
T; =400oc,To =43ooc
T, - T- =22°C,
= 174.7 Find: (a) Nu
h·L . h·D
Nu= k (b) h using Nu =k
3
· h =· Nu-·x k ..;. 174.7x28.26x10- · (c) V from <;ontinuity Equation
.L · · 0.8
(d) Q.,
(e) use Q., _=change in internal energy to find L.

(I) Rate of heat dissipation, a

m = p·A·V;
. 1t 2
m = px4 D xV
= 6.11x2 x 0.8 x (80-20) = 586.56 w
:. 5 = p x ~ x (0.06) x
2
v ;.
As Air is blowing on both side of a plate

QI = 2X586.56=1173 W
, ... Ans~ v = -----
1768.4
p
...(i)

p • VD _ 1768.4 1
(II) Initial rate of cooling
Re= µ -PX p x0.06 x l.35x10-3=78595

0 83
The heat lost by the plate instantaneously is given by, Nu = 4.82 + 0.01_85 (Re. Pr) ·
. . . .(i) 0 83
= 4.82 + 0.0185 (78595 x 0.011) ' =9.886
Mass of plate, m = (A x thickness) x p1
But, Nu = !!..:.Q
k
= 2 x 0.8 x 0.003 x 3000
h x 0.06
= 14.4 kg
9.886 = 16

2
From Equation (i) 1173 = 144X700X(~T) h = 2636.27 W/m K

·' l!J. T = 0.0116°C/s ..•Ans. Heat transfer rate by convection, .

(Jc = h·A·(T, -T..) =h·nDL(T,-T.. )

Example 4.17.27
Liquid metal at the rate of 5 kg/s flows in a tube of 6 cm = 2636.27 1t x 0.06 L x 22
diameter. It enters at 400°C .Into the tube and leaves at
430°c . A constant heat flux Is maintained along the· tube. = 10932.35 L (Watts)
The tube surface temperature is .22°C higher than the . . in
This heat transfer by convection must be equal to change
temperature of liquid metal. Calculate the · length of tub·e
internal energy.
required.

Scnnned w ith CumSconrn.'f

 :(~ · · · ·
~.... · ..:.·.

4-41 .
Convection Heat Transfer

Conductivity of duct material =35 W/mK.

Use t.he following correlations :

1o932.35 ~ = 5 x 150 x (430- 400)
08 04
L = 2m Nu= 0.023 Re • Pr · for turbulent flow

...Ans, Nu =4.36 for laminar flow.

m = 65 kg/min = ~~ kg/s = 1.083 kg/s,

a = 3 cm, b =2cm ;
A . = axb=3x2=6cm2 =6x 10-4 m2
Find:

(a) Dh
(b) Vusingm=p·A v (c) Ren
orutlon: (d) Pr
(e) Nu (f) h

iven: Nu = 0.027 Rea.sos Pr113 (g) L by using concept of rate of heat transfer = rate of change
of internal energy.
pVD .
~w. Re = µ • The hydraulic diameter,

1000 4A 4 ab 2x 3 x2
Y = 20 x 3600 =5.55 mis Dh =P =2ca+b) - (3+2) =2.4cm

= 1.1614 x 5.5 x 0.4 5 m = PAV

184.6 x 10· 7 = 1.38 x IO

5
.. 1.083 = 995 x (6 x 10" 4) x .v
.. Nu = 0.027 (l.38 x l0 )o.r.os (0.707)1/3 = 329.5
hD
V = 1.8141 mis
=T =329.s
R~
-u
= -Q • Vµ • D:--
. -
995 x 1.8141x2.4 x 10·
7 .65 x 10· 4
2

..
h = 329.5 x 0.0263 - 2 66
0.4 - I.
wIm2.....I\.
= 5.6 x 104

•w, Q = hA~T=2i.66[nDL+~o2]c'n. -111 · · Rez, > 4000, flow is turbulent.

...
."';'

~cp _7.65 x 10·

......
= 21.66 [ 1t x 0.40 x 1.72 + ~ x (0.40)2 J [20]
Pr = k -
4
x 4.174 x 103
0.623 = 5.125

:. Q = 990 W (assuming no heat loss from feet) ••• Ans.

:ample 4.17.29 = 278.07

Nu =
h·D
~
kg/min of water is heated from 30°C to 60°C by passing k
OUgh .duct of 3 cm x 2 cm. The duct is heated by
278.07 = hx !2.4x10~
ndensing the steam on its outer surface. Find out the 0.623
1
9th Of the duct required.
h = 7218.3 W/m2 K ·
~ 995 kg/m µ =7 .65 x 1o-
:>parties of water : p 3
, 4 kg/ms,
Heat transfer
:: · 4 kJ/kg K, k =0.623 W/~K,
4 17

.
Q mCpAT = l.083X4174X(60-30)

..r.
·v J•dlK..•t•dgi
- "·\I b 11 I 1 \ D n s .
t

Scanned wrth Ca m$canner

 ~-
~
V~H~e~a~t~T~r~a~ns~f~e~rg(M~U~)=============;;;i4~-~4~2===========:-~:::::~C~o~n~v7,e~ct;;;io;;;n~H~e~a~t~l'r~llrts19
..
2 1
...
V. D 1.2732 x (I x 10- } (
Heat transfer to water is taking place from condensing steam Re = v = 5.62><10 I =22655 ·:v,.~)
so heating t ·
emperature of duct surface is 100°C.
Hence flow is turbulent as Re >4000
Therefore Q == h A .6T
4
µ • cp 5.62 x 10- x 4174
=
3 60
7218.3 X 2 (0.03 + 0.02) x L x ( 100_- 0; )
Pr = -"k = 0.644 =3.643
4
Nu = 0.023 Reo.s Pr°- = 0.023 (22655)0·8 (3.643)°·•
Hence Q = 1.083 x 4174 x (60 - 30)

== . _721_~.3 x 2 (?.03 +:,0 .02) x ~ x ( 100 -

30 60
;, )
= 117.6
h·D
But, Nu =k
.. L = 3.42m ... Ans.
hx(lxlO-22
Example 4.17.30
J17.6 = 0.644

2
Water flows at the rate of 0.1 kg/s through a thin metallic h = 7574 W/m K

tube of 1 cm diameter and 3 m length. It enters the tube at

Heat transfer
25°C. The outer surface of the tube maintained at a constant
temperature of 100°c. Calculate the exit temperature of
water.

05 04
Nu= 0.023 Re · Pr · for turbulent flow
or Q = O.Jx4174(T0 -25)
= 3 .66 for laminar flow
T0 +25)
Properties of water : = . 7574x1t x 0.01 x 3 ( 100---r-

Cµ = 4174 J/kg K,µ = 5.62x10- 4 kg/ms, or 417.4 T0 - 10435 =62461 - 356.92 T0

k =0.644 W/mK or 774.37 T0 =72896
Solution:
T0 = 94°C ...Ans.
Given : m=0.1 kg/s,
-2 Steam condensing (100°C)
Tube diameter, D =1 cm = l x l0 m

Length of tube, L =3m,

Temperature of water ar ell try, T; =25°C, T, = 100°C,

Let exit temperature of water be To·

Find : (a) Velocity of water using m=p A v Fig. P. 4.17.30

(b) Re (c) Pr (d) Nu (e) L.

Area of tube,

A = *(D~ =* (1x10-~2 =ix w-4 m2

0.1 =
 . corivection Heat Transfer
Example 4.17.32

Air flows in ~ copper tube of 2 cm diameter at a velocity of

30 mis. The temperature of air at inlet and outlet of .tube are

solirtJon:
15°C and 270°C respectively.
. T8 = 1so·c ,.
...
The properties of air at mean temperature are :

v =3.591 x 10-s m /s, Pr= 0.681 , k =0.0394 W/mK,

2

p. 0.73 kg/m3 .
'------L----
Fig. P. 4.17.JI The tube is maintained at a constant temperature of 280°C.
Using the Reynolds analogy, calculate the length of tube and
D = 2.2 cm = 0 .022 m; V::2 mis; pumping power required.

h; = ?; L=? Take friction factor, f =0.3165(Ref 0·25 (for turbulent flow)

VD Solution:
Re = u
Given : D = 2 cm = 0.02 m, V = 30 mis,
_eVD _990x2 x o.022
T 1 =15°C = 288 K,
.- . µ - 700 x 10-6-= 62228.? T0 =270°C =543 K.
_ µCP 700 x 10- 6 x 4160 . .:~·= 280~~...~,. ,.. >:... ~' . :·. ·< .... "· . .
Pr - k - 0.63 =4.622 . Find :

Using,

(b) f
Nu = 0.023 R0c·8 P
04
r

hp (c) . Nu f'
Use Reynold's analogy i.e. St=~ =8, find Nu
k = 0.023 x 08
(62228.6) ' x (4.622)0·•
(d) m
0.63 X 0.023
I\ =
0.022 x 6842.14x1.845 (e) Q=mCp · L\T
(t)
Q = h • A x log mean temperatui:e.
hi = 8314.46 Wtm2K ••. Ans.
VD 30 x 0.02 4
Q = mCP (Tc-T;) = pAV x CP x (Tc-Ti) Re = y- _= 3 _591 x 10-s =l.6708 x 10

= 990 x ~x 0.0222 x 2 x 4160 x (60- 15) r = o.3165 (Rer

02
· ~ =o,~i.§.5 (l.6708 x 104r 0 ·25

= 0.02784
= 140827W
Reynolds analogy :
Q = hAAT
Nu f
St = Re:p; =g
= .h;X7t0L x ( 150- 15+60)
2
i.e. Nu 0.02784
4 =
(l.6708 x 10 ) x 0.681
140827 = 8314.46 x 7t x 0.022 x L x (112.5) 8

L = 2.18m ...Ans.
Nu = 39.594
But, Nu =' tkl

aY TtcllKuwltltgi
r Ub.1 1< '1hn~
tr
----- - -
Sca nned with CamScanner
 l'

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, 1

I'
I

..
iii
;;;;;;;;;;H~e~a~t~T~ra~n~s~fu~rJ(~M~U~);;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;i;;;;;;;~4~-4~4~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;r;;i;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~C~o~n~v~ec~t~fo~n~H~
39.594 _ h x 0.02 (ff) The heat flux In case the chord length 18
1ncr8
"
eattra~
.

ii - 0.0394 ·
:•
I
1oo mm length and the gas temparature aeed ~
' 8
h = 78 W/m2 K temperatures and Reynolds number ' IJrf&ct :
' are ke '
Mass flow rate; m same by varying the gas veloclty. Pl l!tt !
!

i' Solution:
!
:= 0.73 x ~ (0.02)2 x 30 = 0.00688 kg/s Consider the blade ~s a flat plate.

Rate of heat absorbed. by air, Given: x = 50 mm =0.05 m, =

q1 BOOOo W/rn2,

I'
T ..,=1200°c•
(I)
= 0.00688 x 1027 x (270- 15)
= 1801.SW Nusselt Number, Nu. = 0.332 (Re.) 112 • (Pr) 112 =V "·0}

Log mean temperature, Assuming that the gas properties over the blad
e relllal
111
Ta-Tl constant and the heat transfer is under steady state conditi
.1Tm 1 = In [ (T, - T1)
(T,-To)
J the Nu remains the same.
ons, liiu1 ,

Hence, we can assume h =hx remains constant.

270- JO
.1Tm1 =
In
[ (280 - 10~
(280 - 270)
J
and q2 = h·(T" J -T)
= 78.89°C •2

h (T.. -T, )
.. SL
qz = h (T..11 -T,21)
1801.8 = 78 x Ax 78.89 80000 0200-750)
q2 = (1200- 700)
A = 0.2928 m2 2
q2 = 88888.9 W/m ...Ans.
A = ttDL;
(II) Heat flux, q3 If chord length, x1 = 100 mm= 0.1m
0.2928 = 1t x 0.02 x L and Rex =Rex1 (given) :
L = 4,66m •.• Ans.
Nux = 0.332 (Re.) 1n · (Pr) 113 and Nu.1
Example 4.17.33

Experiments were conducted on a turbine blade of chord

2
length 50 mm. The heat flux was found to be 80000 W/m . Since the surrounding conditions remain the same, therefore
The gas surrounding the blades is maintained at 1200°C. µ · er
Pr=--r,- =Pr1•
The blade is cooled so as to maintain its surface temperature
at 750°C. .. Nux = Nu. 1
Find: &.:.! = ~
kc k,
(i) The heat flux if the surface temperature of the blade
is to be maintained at 700°C by Increasing the coolant i.e. hx • X = h xl 'X1
flow rate. x 0.05 .&
hxl = hx X i'; =hx X ""Q.1 =2
____......
------------__:.------------------:--:------:--------------------:------------------------~...
~· T~~
.,. ,~tllll

Sca nned w ith Ca n&onoer

 . .
~
t'·~ . •'
;< " . .

~~ ~: ~; ..
.~ ;

·.M : t Transfer (MU) ,.

,·'_
y_ HeB . 4-45
Conve~tion Heat Transfer . "
J~

h, x 0.05
158.75 =
0.03

~ h, = 95.25W/m2 K;
"t =~I
A1 = nDL
-~-2
-h•.12- .
01 = hI ·A.1 <Tw-T ),;,,h 1xnDL>.<(Tw-T_)
00

~ = 40,000 W/rn1 , • •

---
EXarnple 4.17.34
... Ans. QI =

=
95.25x1t x 0.05 x 1 x ( 130 -24)

1585.9W .•. Ans.

In a tube of 5 cm diameter, the air flows at 24°C and at a
(2) To find heat tranafer rate/m length In duct of
velocity of 25 mis. The surface of the tube is 130°c. Find the
heat flow rate through the tube per meter length. aquare cross-section

In case the tube is replaced by a duct of square cross. a a b = 5cm = 0.05 m, 02

section of 5cm side with all other data remaining the same, Find: (a) Dh (b) Re (c) Nu
find the heat transfer rates through the duct per meter length.
(d) h=h2 (e)
0.8 0334
Assume : Nuo = 0.027 Re o Pr · for circular tube
Hydraulic diameter, ·

= t~r-sq~are auci ; ··: ~-u ;. : , · « • · ..

0 334
Nuo 0.102 Rec)
o&e i:>r ·. ._ .• . _·:,, Db· · . , ·.4Ac
·· .. ··. • · • . . = · P · '-4(axb)
. 2 (a+ b)
Properties of air at n°c are :
4 x 0.05 x 0.05 . .
p = 1.02 kg/m3, v =20.92 x 10-6 m2/s, = 2 (0.05 + 0.05) = 0 ·05 m

Pr=0.7, k= 0.03 W/mK Re _ V ·Db _ 25 x 0.05_ =5 4

- v - 20.92 x 10 6 .9751 x 10
Compare above heat transfer rates and comment on the
Nu = o.102 <Reo)°"6s (Pr)°.334
results.

Solution:

Given: D=5cm=0.05m, T_=24°C, = 160.24

Tw=l30°C. V=25mts, L=Im, But, Nu = ~~D...11 ·
(1)
To find heat transfer rate/m length of tube, a, h2 X0.05
160.24 =
Find: 0.03
(a) Rec (b) Nu0
(c) h=h, (d) QI . h2 = 96.ISW/m2 K;
Re0 = Y.:..Q _·
v
25 x o.o5_ = 5 9751 x 10•
- 20.92 x 10 ti •
A2 = P · L =2 (a+ b) L =4b • L
Nu0 = 0.027 Re~8 Pr°-334

= 0.027 (5.9751 x 10 4 08
) ' x (0.7)03 34
Q2 = 96.15 x (4 x 0.05 x l) x (130-24)
= 158.75
= 2038.4 W/m 2
K
But, Nu0 = h ·D. 1 = • .-.Ans.
More heat ~sfer due to more surface area in case of duct.
---- k

>
Scanned with camScannef
 • Heat Transfer (MU)

Example 4.17.35
4-46

correlations :
Nu =4.364 for laminar f low.

= 0.023 Re0 ·8 Pro.4

ConvectionH
e~t't

turbulent fl
r~
~

-e o'#t
A 200 W bulb of spherical shape of 7 cm diameter
subj . Is
Th ected to flow 0 f a Ir at 30°C. The velocity of air Is 0.4 rn/s.
Take : v=15.89x10
2
m/s atT=300K . ·
I 3
·' p = 1.1614 kg/m, Pr= 0 .707.
e surface te mperature of the bulb Is 120°c. Calculate the
rate of heat transfer by convection form bulb surface. At
m
Solution:
ean temperature, Tm =75°C the properties of air are :
Glven : V = 0.5 mis,
v=2.06x10-e m 2Is,. k = 0.03 W/mK, · 0.7,
Pr=
Cross-section of duct= 10 cm x 5 cm= o.1 mxo.05 Ill
Assume, Nu= 0.365 Reo.e P ro.33 .
:. Perimeter, P = 2 .(0.1 + 0.05) = 0.3 m . =
L 5.67 Ill
Solution: '
. T,-T.. =20°C,
Given : r;> =7 cm= 0.07 m, Bulk mean temperature, Tbin = 27°C =300 K

V =0.4 mis, T, =120°c. Surface area =Perimeter, P x Length,

. ' 2
Find: (a) Re (b) Using Nu, find 'h' (c) Q L =0.3 x 5.67 = t.701 m
0.4 x0.07 · · ·4
Re=~
v
2.06 x 10-!i = 1.35.9 2 x 10 Find :
(a) Dh (b) Re to check for type of flow.
h•D
~ pc°·33
06
= Nu = 0.365 Re ·
(c) Nu (d) 'h' (e) Q.
x0.07-
h 0.03 4
= 0.365 (l.3592 x 10 )°'6 (0.7)0j ) Hydraulic diameter,
D _ 4A _ 4 x (0.1)(0.05)
h = 41.99 W/m 2
K
h - P - 0.3 =0.0667rn

Heat transfer area for sphere,

Case I:
A · ::; 41t R 2 z
=41t. (0 07)
2 2
= I.5394 x 1.0- m
2

Reynolds Number
= V • Db • p
µ
- V • Db
- v

Q = h ·A· (T, - T.. ) 0.5 x 0.0667

= 15.89 x 10- 6 =2099
2
= 4J.99X l.5394 X 10- x(J20-30)
Hence flow is laminar
· ... Ans. h·Dh
= 58.175W
.. Nu = 4.364 = k

Example 4.17.36 - 4.364 x k 4.364 x 0.0263

h = 0.0667
Air flows with a velocity of 0.5 mis through a rectangular
cross-sectioned duct with dimensions 1o cm x 5 cm and 2
== 1.72 W/m K
length = 5.67 m. The duct is heated uniformly throughout its
length. The duct wall temperature i~ 20°C higher than the air Q = h · A, (T,- T..) =1.72 x 1.701 xzo\'\
I
temperature throughout its length. If the bulk mean .••.Aft.
temperature of air is 27°C, calculate the rate of heat transfer = '. SS.SW \

between duct and air. Case II: When V =2 mis, T, - T... = 10°c
Now, air velocity is made .== 2 mis. As a result, duct wall
temperature is 10°C higher than air temperature throughout Reynolds Number= V · Oh
v
the length of the duct. Find the percentage change in rate of
heat transfer between this case and the previous case.

scanned w ith CamScannE!f

 ~. .. :.: transfer (MU) Convection Heat Transfer

:r ·
. ·. 11 ~eat
. ..
2>< 0·066
. ::: )5.89 x 10
?6 =8395.2
4-47

Rt;_ = VL
v
25 x6
16.48 x 10
-6

. .. . f)oW
: is turbulent
.
= 9.1 x 106 (Flow is turbulent)
f!ence . . .
. Nu = 0.023 x Re0·8 Pr0·4 ' . 3
v P cp 16.48 x 10- 6 x 1.147 x (1.005 x 10 > ..
Pr = - k - = · 0.0271
08
= 0.023 (8395.2) · (0.707)0·4 = 27.58
h ·Db. Nu·k = 0.7
Nu = k h=o-
h
For turbulent flow, the Nusselt Number is given as :
27.58 x 0.0263
= 0.06667 = 10.87 W/mK. . 08 1/3
Nu = 0.036 (ReJ · (Pr)

Qi = h ·A (T, -T..) =.10.87 x 1.701 x IO = 0.036 (9.1 x 10 )0.8 (0.7)113 = 11800.7

6

= 184.8 w But,
h·L
. ... Ans. Nu = k

percentage Increase In heat transfer rate : h = -L- =

Nu. k 11800.7 x 0.071
6
Q -Q
=T X l00%
2
= 139.64 W/m K
(184.8 - 58.5) .
= 58.5 x lOO = 215.9% ...Ans. (a) Rate of heat transfer, Q

Example 4.17.37 Surface area for heat transfer,

Arefrigerated truck is travelling at 90 kmph on a desert . . 2
A = 2(W+H)L=2(3.2+2.l)6=63.6m
highway where the air temperature is 60°C. The body of the
rruck may be idealised as a rectangular box, 3.2 m wide, Q = h ·A (T. -T..) = 139.64 x 63.6 (60 - 10)
2.1mhigh and 6.0 m long, at a surface temperature of 10°c.
3
Assume that the heat transfer from the front and back of the = 444.055 x 10 w
truck may be neglecte~, that the stream does not separate
from the surface and that the boundary layer is turbulent over = 444.055 kW ... Ans.
the whole surface. Calculate (a) the rate of heat transfer to {b)
Required tonnage of refrigeration, RE
lhe lour surfaces, (b) the required tonnage of the
(·: 1 TR= 3.517 kW)
refrigeration unit and (c) the power required to overcome the
resistance acting on the four surfaces. . _Q_ 444.055
RE = 3.517 = 3.517 =126.26 TR ... Ans.
Properties of air at 35°C are : p =1.147 kg/m3 ,

k=0.0271 W/mK, (c) Power required to overcome resistance acting on

.. four faces. P
v= 16.48 x 10- 6 m2/s,

and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K. Friction coefficient, Cr = 0.072 (ReJ- 0 ·2

Assume, C1 = 0.072 Re- 0 ·2 .

Solution:
= 0.00292
G. 90 x 1000
1ven: V =90 kmph = =25 mis, T, =60 C, 0

3600 Drag force, p · A·V2

Fo = Cr · 2
W 3.2 ~. H =2.1 m,
=
2
= 0.00292 x 1.147 x ;3.6 x 25
l=6m, T.. =10°c.
= 66.566N

Scanned wi1h CamScanner

 I
1:

1. Power required, . _ hx0.05

·t 1655
. - 0.03
I = f664.2 Nm/s or W
••.Ans. . 2
I
·1 . :. ·h
= 99.27 W/m K
I
I . Now,Q for square tube= h A 6. T

l
·!
= 89.72 x 4 x 0.05 x 1 x (127-27)
= 1794.4 W/m
.' ... A,
Qfor tube
= h A 6.
. T =99.27X1t X 0.05 X.1 x (127 - l?)
. = 1558.54 W /m
.. . ···"'-.
. . '' Heat transfer will be more in case of square tube.

) :

Solution:

For square tube

113
Nu = (Ret (Pr)

Re = .Y.::..Q = 25 x 0.05 =59.75 x 103

v (20.92 x 10- 6 ) .

6 3
20.92 x 10- x 0.955 x t.009 x 10 - 0 672 Solution :
= 0.03 - .
i .
= D=
6 x 1. =400 x 103
0 334 Re 15 x 10- 6 .
Nu = Q.102 (59.75 x 103}°"
675
(0.672) ·
'l)

= 0.102 x 1675 x 0.8757 =149.62 µCp =puL

·pr = k k
For cylinder circular
But a= pC
k
.. e£
k = la
Re = v. D = 25 x o.o5_6 = 59.75 x 103
V 20.92x IO 2 2
a. = 7.7 x 10- m /hr
2
7.7 x 10-
Pr
µ·CP
= -""k"" =0.672 = 3600
.=2.13 x 10~ m2/s
5

Nu = 0.027 (59.75 x 10
3 0 805
) · (0.672)
0334
=165.5 :. · Pr = a
~ = 15 x 10-6 =0.704
2 .13 x 10- 5 · ·

08
For square tube Now, Nu = 0 .023 (Re) ' x (Pr)°.4
3 08
Nu = h..:...Q.
k
Nu = 0 .023 (400 x 10 ) ' x (0.704>°'4
h . 0 .05 Nu = 605.81
149.62 = 0 .03 h·L
Now, k = 605.81
2
h = 89.72 W/m K
h. 1
0.026 = 605.8 1
.. h = 15.75 W/m2K
.• j~~
'ff p.oltll·il''

__.
Scunned with comSconner
 - 4.49
c~nvection Heat"Transfer
Mean temperature,
= 5 WIm for 1°C difference ..• Ans.
T -T 150-20
~;17.40
eia~P
war plant, feed water is flowing through a rectangular
. = ln ( i: =i~ · 1Vo0~125~ ln ( )

a pOcm x 4 cm and the wall temperature is maintained at

111 ctB = 64.52°C
dUo•C through.out. The feed Water flows at the rate of
17 glmin, enters at a temperature of 20°C and is heated to _ e vn _ ffiob
Reo - µ -A·µ
300 k compare the heat transfer coefficients using
1so•c. . ·
300 0.0533
(i) 01.ttus _ Boelter Equation. = 60 x (32 x 10- 4 ) x (265 x 10 6)

S·ieder- Tate Equation.

(ii) = 314260
Also estimate the required length of the duct. Properties of (a)
water at as•c are : Dittus-Boelter E(luatlon
6
Pr= 1.64, µ =265 x 1o- kg/ms, cP =4.226 kJ/kg K. Nu 0 = 0.023 (Reo)0' 8 (Pr)0 .4
6
k::: S83 x 10- kW/mK, J.Lw at 170°C =158 x 1o- 6 kg/ms. = 0.023 (314260)0'8 (1.64)0 '4 =700.6
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 4.17.40 Nu 0 • k 700.6 x 683 x IO-6
300 .
h = Dh = 0.0533
Given: m=300 kg/min =-60 ::: 5 kg/s,
= 8.978 kW/m2 K . .. Ans.

(b) Using Sleder Tate Equation

Ac =8 cm x 4 cm= 32 cm2 = 32 x 10-• m2

p =2 (a+ b) =2 (0.08 + 0.04) =0.24 m

Surface area of duct, A. = P · L = 0.24 L 6 0 14
Nu = 0.027 x (314260)
08 0 33
' . (l.64) ' x( 265 xx 10--6 ) ·
F111d: 158 10

(a) Hydraulic diameter, Db = 854.2

Nu0 ·k 854.2 x ~683 x 10- 6 2
(b) Log mean temperature. h = on 0.0533
(c) Red
- 10.94 kW/m2 K
(d) Nud ... Ans.
(c) Length of the duct, L
(e) h.
2
Value of h = 10.96 kW/m K is more exact since it takes into
account the viscous effects with temperature. We shall consider
this value of h for calculation of length of duct.

= 5 x 4.226 (150 - 20) =2747 kW

Hydraulic diameter of duct,

.. 2747 = 10.96 x 2 (0.04 + 0.08) L x 64.52
-4
4Ac _ 4 x32x IO
Dh = p - 0.24 =00533
. m L ·= 16.186m
... Ans.

B T~dtKatwlell..
V" rubt lt •lh ns

b
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 Mechanism of Natural Free Convection

4.18 Mechanism of Natural Convection

We have so far discussed the heat transfer between the

surface and a fluid where fue flow of fluid is maintained by a fan,
The transfer of heat from solid surface to the fluid due to
blower, pump or other pressure producing devices.
density variation in the fluid caused by the temperature -~·
There is another case of co~vecting heat transfer in which the ~""ICbl

between the surface and the fluid is called heat trallSfer hy

convection currents exist due to change in density resulting from
temperature gradient between the hot surface and the fluid. Such a
heat transfer between the fluid and surface is called by natural or
·free convection.
c:r Examples of free convection are
I. Cooling of human body largely by natural convection.
2. Flow of pot gases in a chimney of a power plant.
natural convection.
In the example explained above, the buyonancy f~rce is -
than the gravitational force (it depends on the mass of mo\ccuJcs
which is constant) due to which motion is set up.
. .
However, the body forces need not be due to gravity only e.g.
in case of rotating turbine blades, the centrifugal force exists as~
body force that drives the fluid motions in presence of densi~

3. Flow c;if hot air movement along the road in summer hot difference that are caused by temperature differences.
days. Hot plate at T5
4. Flow of hot air from the surface of plate or a cylinder or a
·cool air
wall. at TQO

5. Cooling ~f electronic devices by the cool air entering through

the slots at the bottom and hot air escaping from slots at the

top of cabinet.

6. Internal cooling of turbine blades.

7. Household steam radiators.

Fig. 4.18.1: Natural convection-cooling of hot plate
In all the above cases of natural convection, the cooling is _n ot
affected by the draft of a fan or bl~wer and yet convection currents
zechanism of natural convection is as follows.
are set up. The n

Sc<irm~ with Can&am!VI'

 Convection Heat Transfer
4-51
Hot air
Cold air
tt' Teo .
.,, '
Too

Cold air ~ ../

ffu -\\.._
'' '-.: _ ....__ .
-
W//ZWZZZZZZ7~ Ts · m ·
(a) Veqical hot (b) Vertical cold (c) HoriZontal bot
plate (T 8 >Too) plate (T 8 < Ta:,) plate (T 8 > T<X>) .
Hot air

n\Teo Hot air

'I \ \
''
- ""' --
; I \\\',
,.........._./
-..... '

@?ZZZ7!ZZZZ7!27A Ts

(d) Horizontal cold (e) Horizontal hot (t) Vertical cold

plate (Ts< Too) cylinder (T > T 00 ) cylinder (TS< Too)
8

----
Fig. 4.18.2 : Natural convection currents on various cases

The natural convection currents set in depends upon the shape

~ = - -1p x =An at p ::;;: constant
~~~
. t and the temperatures of surface, T, and fluid, T . The
- ~T

nanual convection currents set up over some surfaces are shown in i.e. ... (4.18.2)
Fig.4.18:2.
For an ideal gas, p = p RT.

4.1e.1 Coefficient of Volumetric Hence, p = fr

Expansion (~)
Therefore,
· ~ (MU - Dec.11)

On substituting the values of p and~ in Equation (4.18.l) we get,

= t (per Kelvin) .... (4.18:3)

The concept of coefficient of volumetric expansion is

important in natural convection problems since natural convection
Mathematically,
is set up' due to density variation caused by temperature gradient.
~ = l (QQ.) . .. (4.18.1) Higher is the value of~. higher will be the density gradient hence
- P \oT p ., constant
the heat transfer rates.
Negative sign since density decreases with increase in

ltmperature, thus (~) is negative.

..__ scanned with CamScarmer

 ·~
\! . ··.. '·1

...
i' Convection 1..1 • . '·
4-52 rieat l <
Heat Transfer (MU) The term g • 13 • AT represents the ~uoyant f r:S

;.
. ·: -
Dlmenslonal
· Analysis of ·Natural Free ConvectlO.!!. · vo ume.
T)lerefore (g • f3 ·AT) in Equation (i) can b
.
Oree
e comb· ,,,
I~
1 Then the convective heat transfer coeffi . · lllcdh,.
one tertn· 1c1en~ h .. .,.
4.19 Dlmenslonal Analysis of Natural written as : ~~
Convection · · h = C (g. f3. AT)', pb, L•, µa, c•p' k'
where, C, a, b, C, d, e and fare constants.

The fundamental dimensions of the various vlUlab!cs

. ait

follows: ~

convective heat
Consider a hot vertical plate of characteristic length, L
transfer coefficient, h
. having surface temperature T, ·which is kept in surrounding air at
m I m
-,-x-xK="'! Lt- 2·
temperature, T .. with negligible velocity as shown in Fig. 4.19. 1. s K s

. The air gets heated in the vicinity of s~rface. It causes the

density of air to decrease. The hot air rises up due to density Density, P

difference and the free convection current are set up. The velocity
M L
characteristic length,
of air .in free convection is small. The magnitude of the buoyancy
force is equal to the weight of air/ fluid displaced by the air. Let P.. L
be the bulk density of. air and p is the density of hot air having the Dynamic viscosity, µ
temperature difference .6.T and coefficient of volumetric expansion
Nm __ kg ;m 2 2 1
fl Then, P- == p (1 + ~ · n and, Specific heat, CP
kgK s x L f i
2
Buoyant force I unit volume= (p.. - p) g::: p · g · 13 ·AT. m m
kgK= s2 K
Hot surface at T5
W- -
- Nmx -
1 MLf 1
3 1

Thermal mK- s mK
Cold air
atT00 conductivity, k =kg
s. s
'f x.LK

Air properties, Substituting the fundamental dimensions in Equation (ii) v.i

k, Cp, p. µ, J3,g
get.

f'lg. 4.19.1 : Natural convection in bot vertical plate CL' f' T" ')' (ML f' · T" ') ]

On Equating the powers of M. L, t and T on both sides,

r:r Factors affecting heat transfer coefficient, h
...(ill)
Based on the discussion above and the concepts used in Equating powers for M :
1 = b+d+f

forced convection, we find that the beat transfer coefficient, 'h' 0 = a-3b+c-d+2e+f ...(Iv)
depends on various parameterS as follows ;n natural convection: Equating powers for L: ...(v)
... (i) Equating powers for t :
- 3 = -2a-·d-2e-3f
_;_.----:.
---------------------------------------------------------------:.,~~ v,_.,1 uall'~

------------------~------~
 convection Heat Transfer
. 4-53

.. ;(vi) Nu = C · (Gr)" -. (Pr)"

. .. (4.~9.5)
! '
f = 1-e ... (vii) = C (Gr· Pr) 0

= - 2a - d - 2e - 3(1 _ e) Equation (4.19.5) becomes the governing Equati<?n for na~ral

convection.
- - 2a - d - 2e - 3 + 3e
Syllabus Topic : Physical Significance of Dimensionless
-3 = -2a-d+e-3 Numbers

d = -2a+e ... (viii)

or. 4.20 Physical Significance of
011uation (iii), Dlmenslonless Numbers in Natural
fro111.....,
1 == b+(-2a+e)+(l..:.e)
Convection
~ (MU. Dec. 09, Oec.10, May 16)
b = 2a ...(ix)

ffOJll Equation (iv),

o = a-3(2a)+c-(-2a+e)+2e+(1-e)

O = -3a+ c

c = (3a- 1) . ..(x)
i,e.

On substituting ~e values of constants in Equation (ii) we

C [ (g, ~. 6.T)" (p)la (L)3a- l (µf 2a+e. (C/ (k)l-e]

h = 1. GrashoffNumber (Gr)

h =c
. [ 2
(g. ~. 6.T p L µ
3 -2..• 1
) xLx
(µ·CP\•
\-.k-J .k J 2. Rayleigh number (Ra)

1. Grashotf Number (Gr)

... (4.19.1)
~ (MU· Dec.12, Dec. 13) ·

Equation (4.19.1) contains three dimensionless

parameters as follows
h·L
I. Nusselt's number, Nu a ... (4.19.2)
k From Equation (4.19.3),
g·B
_ · 6.T p2 L3 Gr = g • B. aT p2 L3 g · B·AT· L
3
2. Grashotl's number, Gr = µ2 µ2 (µI p)'Z (v)2 =
3
g • ~ • t\T L .. . (4.19.3) = (P• g · B• t:i..T • L 3 • p\ v 2
= v2 \ µ2 ) x-v
= (~)
3 2
v (p • g · 13 • 6.T • L ) x (pV )
= (µV)
µ·CP
3.
Prandtl's number, Pr = ... (4.19.4) = Buoyancy force x Inertia
2
force
k (Viscous force) ... (4.20.1)

'!bus· the genera1ized fonn of Equation (4.19.1) can be written as:

B ledlllaawltilgi
v r\lbl\t.•ll•ns

b Scanned w ith CarnScanner

 V Heat Transfor (MU) 4-54

Tims rhe Grnsl1otr numlll'r rcprcsenrs the product of buoyant 2. Rayleigh number (Ra}
nnd inertia process lo rite ~qu11rc of viscous forces.
RfJyfeigh number is usoo in
naturai c
· The role of Grnshoff 11111111lcr in rwruml convecrion is similar defined ;u; the product of Gra~hoff Cmv~
number. ~.,
ro role of Reynold's nurnb~·r u~ed Jn forced convecrion. Accordingly, itlld l>rc,.>'Jil ~i
..,
Tirtl value of Or provides rhe criteria whether the flow is Ra= Gr·Pr=~
v. ((
lnminnr or turbulent. The value of Or depends on the shape and
Velocity and !henna! instabilities .
position of the body defined by characteristics length, L. Ci111i;e a tr- .
411
from laminar to turbulent. tilii).; r.f,
9 ~.
TI1e critknl Grnshoff number is I 0 for flow over a vertical
For flow over a vertical plate :
plate for change over from laminar to turbulent flow. 4 9
I 0 > Ra < I0 (Flow is laminar)
9 12
I 0 > Ra < 10 (Flow is turbulent)

Syllabus Topic : Co-Relations Applicable to Natural Convection

4.21 Correlations Applicable to Natural Convection

Formulae and correlations to be used in natural con·vection are given in Table 4.21 . l .
Table 4.21.1 : Formulae and correlation related to natural convection
-~:·~· '7f_. · · - .
...
~ ( .,~

,.
; -~ ·,
.. . "".··· · - ......

Correlations

Nu =0.59 (Gr· I'r)

0 25
J. Vertical plates · Vertical length
113 9 12
Vertical cylinder Nu= 0.13 (Gr· I'r) 10 < Gr Pr< 10
 Nu =0.54 (Gr • Pr)o:i.s
7
105 c:::GrPr<2X10
7 10
Nu= 0.15 (Gr· Pr)113 2x 10 c:::GrPr<3X 10
A
16
Jates (facing down ) Nu =0.27 (Gr • Pr)0 ·25 3 x 105 < Gr Pr < 3 x 10 . Le= P
I
··onta
J:totl~ Pr-~
_ . ~--
· . ·-_:_·--.\--------.;.._-L......:....---------+---------1
Nu =0.53 (Gr · Pr)°-'25 4 9 Diameter,D
. tal cylinder 10 <Gr Pr< 10
J:tonzon
4, 12
Nu= 0 .13 (Gr· Pr)113 9
10 <Gr Pr< 10

N =2 +0.43 (Gr· Pr) 0 25

· 1 <Gr Pr< 10
5 Diameter,.D

7
Circular plates Nu= 0.54 (Gr• Pr)0·25 5
10 <Gr Pr< 2 x 10
square·1 ·
6. 10
Nu= 0.15 (Gr• Pr)113 7
2x 10 <GrPr<2X10

16
A
I Circular plate (from lower · Nu =0.27 (Gr • Pr)0·25 5
3 x 10 < Gr Pr < 3 x 10 Lc=p
square .
7,
surfa~ce~)_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..l__ _ _ _ _ _ ___;__L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L-----------'
= 30.38 x 10-3 x 0.6 x 180 =5.47 W/m2K
0.6

<4 ;::: hA6.T = 5.47x41t x 0.32 x (140-24) = 717.26 W

Assuming bu.lb to be ~lack body; E = 1

Q, = ~a A 1 (T:-T:)

= 1366W

Total heat loss

Solution:
Given: D ~ 60 cm= 0.6 m; T5 =140°C = 413 K;
413 + 297
T.. =24°C=297K; Tm= =355K
2 = 717 .26 + 1366 2083.29 w =
~B6.ID3
Gr=~ Power loss by natural converter
v
3 . 717.26
: 9.81x1 x (140 - 24) x 0.6 - 1 50 109 = 2083.29 x 100:: 34.43 % ... Ans.
355 x (21.46 x 10- 6) 2 - . x

Pr = 0.699

Nu = 0.6 (GrPr)114
bD
T = 0.6 (GrPr)°·25

kx0.6
h ·= ---0--(1.5 9 0 25
x 10 x 0.699) ·

•• Scanned w ith Cams.c anner

 or ·

Hence total heat dissipation from both sideS of Platt.

Gh•en: H = 2.2m; W = 1.4 m

Q = hx~A(T,-T_)
Ts = 960°C =960 + 273 =1233 K = 34527.43 x 2 x 2.2 x 1.4 x (96 ~ 34oi
T.. = 340°C .. 340 + 273 .. 613 K .. 131867160.7 w
Nu = 0.13 (Gr. Pr)0·333
= 131.SMW
Properties of fluid at 650°C are :

P = 4
10 kglm
3
;

k = 13.02 W/m°C
cp - . 150.7 J/kg°C

µ = 3.12 kg/m • h =8.67 x 10- 4 kg/m.s

Heat dissipation,

Q = h·2A-(T -T..) 1

To find out h, we wiJJ use,

Nu = ~ =0.13 (Gr. Pr) 0·333 (given correlation) Solution:

3 Given:
g 13 .1. TL3 _ p2 · g · 6 •.1. T · L
Gr=
v2 - µ2 OD = 100 mm =0.1 m;
3
(J 0 4 ) 2 x 9.81 x 1 x (960 - 340) x 2.2
2
T_ = 20°C
= (650 + 273) x (8.67 x 10.4)
Ts = iso c =453 K;
0

= 1o8 x 9.81_x 620 x.;~23 =9_334 x 1015

923 x (8.67 x 10 ) e = 0.9
3
6 ·_ 8.67 x 10...,.. x 150.7 = O.ot p = 0.946 kg/m ; .
Pr = k - 13.02 . 6 2
v = 23.02 x 10- m /s
Now, Nu = ~ =0.13 (Gr. Pr)0'333
k = 0.03127 W/m°C.
I
I
cp = 1011.3 J/kg°C.
I
I
T.,,I Pr = 0.704;
I
I 114
I
I Nu = 0.48 Ra
I
I
I Heat loss by.radiation.
I
I 4 4
I
I
Or = eoA(T5 -T..)
I
I . 1 (<4S3)•- (293)1
I
I
= 0.9 X 5.67 ·X 10- 8 X 7t X 0.1 X . .
I
I
I = 556.67 W/m ·
FJg. P. 4.21.2 .

- ~
---------------~---
 .. ...

co~vection HeatTransf~r'
~

. · .·' ".

tY.: \.\ ". ~-'·.

.,,. :. ··1ra
;", . · : ".. -~-,,~f~er~
-(MU)
~~-,··=a:-=;;;;;;;i.....;o;;;;;;;;;;;;o;;;;;;;;;;;;;=-=-=-4!·~5~7=-~===;;i;;;;;;;;:i;;;====--;;;..~~~~~~~===
·
,_. ii"', ,
~: ,n~ection. v~l.um~tric
. " · i.-yco -
I 1 , K
. '.':;
ff..1/N ,· · . ·•. · · i
joss_ ;.. _t_. . · . Coefficient of e_xpans. .i.o n;· fJ ::; T = 338 .per
. ~:"
·, .. - ·~ -_ -l 00 + 213. - 373 01

;,_9.SI x I XOS0-20} x o:.r_

.-
3
.. · .KllllTD
AT = T -T ' = 100- 30 = 7ooc ",,
:·-
·or == v2 373 x (23.02 x
10
-6)2
"'
'- ·
Area of vertical plates of the furnace,
6
:= 7.94x10
·; · . • 2

' 6 ' A1 = 2 (B x H + L x H) = 2 (2 x 1 + 3 x 1) = 10 m
.Ra =. Gr. Pr= 7:94 x 10 x 0.704::: 5590390.9
Area of horizontal plate with face up,
= ~ =0.48 Ra ·~ 0
· Nu K ... . . ... . . 2
A 2 = B. x L = 2 x 3 =6 m
h = 0.03 i ~: r 0.48 x (5S90390.9)°'2S :::: 7.3 w/m2 K : (1) For vertical sides

Q. = h.A.AT=7.3xnx0.I x I X(l80-2o) Gr • Pr = ~·
~
13. A2 TLC3- .
x Pr
.

v (where, L 0 = H = Im)
"' 366.67W/m

. Total beat transfer rate.

Q = 556.67 + 366.67 =92.3 W/m = 4.3455 x 10 9

correlati~n for Nusselt Number is,

9

----
12
10 <Gr Pr< 10 , the
[Xample 4.21.4
Nu = 0.13 (GrPr) 113
fu
A rnace 2 m wide. x 1 m high and -3 m long having its
outside temperature of 100°C while the surrounding air is at = o.i3x(4.3455xl09/ 13
=212.14
30'C. Neglecting heat loss due to radiati?n and convection But, h ·L
Nu=~ .
trom base, find the rate of heat transfer from fumance - k
su~aces. Properties of air are :

3
p=1.02kg/m, . V=18x10-6 m/s,
2

.
Cp: 1005 J/kg K, µ =20 x 10-6 Ns/m, Heat transfer rates from vertical sides, ·
k=0.029 W/mK, Pr= 0.693.
Solution:
.. .
6.152 x IO x 70 =4306.4 W .
Glren: B =2 m, H =I m, L =3 m,
c:

T,= 100°c. (2) Consider horizontal plate facing up.

... .
T.. 30°C.= .
Ch . · ··1 h LA ><3 · .
(b) aractenst1c engt , c =p :::: ~2( + ) = 0.6
2 2 3

.(c) Area of vertical surfaces and horizontal surface. Gr" Pr

(d) Gr· Pr and check for type of flow.

. (e) Using Nu relation, find h.
(t) Q. ·.

Mean film temperature,

1'111 :: L. + !:. - 100 + 30

2 - 2 =65°C =338 K.
. Fig. P. 4.21.4 . . .·

ti
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 · · ·~~ ~
~
.
.... .
Heat Transfer (MU) 4-58
.
Convection ~ · . ·: .· :-~
rieetl' ..
~'.
Or ' Pr • 9 81 x ..L ?O x <0·6 2 0 693
. 338 x (18 x 10- ) x ·
t Find
(a) T,,, (b) f3 (c) L. (d) Gr

"' 9.3863 x 10• (e) Gr. Pr to check for application of Nu Equation.

(g) Q.
Hence using Nu = 0.15 (Gr. Pr)Jll (0 h
Mean film temperaWre,
= 0.15 (9.3863 x 10 1 113
) T,+T..._ _ 120+20
Trn = 2 - 2 = 70°C == 343 JC.
= l47W/m2 K
Coeffi~ient of volumetric expansion, f3
Nu=~
k

h = ~
AT = (T,-T.. )
2 Le =147 x0.029
0.6 =7.105W/m
2
K
= (120- 20) =100°c
·Heat transfer rates from top ~urface, A (%)02
Characteristic length, L = Le = p = --;n-

= 7.105x6x70=2984.1 W
= ~ = 015 = 0.0625 m

1t
(3) Total ·heat transfer rate from all aides of the A = 4 _D
2
=41t (0.25)2
furnace
= 0.04909m 2

Q = QI+ Q2 = 4306.4 +2984.J W 3

Gr = g·B·1TL =9.81 x-1- xlOOx 0.0625 1
v 343 (2.076 x 10·
= 7290.S W .;.Ans.
8
= 1.6202 x 10
Example 4.21.5

A circular disc insulated from other side of diameter 25 cm is

Gr· Pr = 1.6202 x 10 x 0.697
8
=1.1293 x 10 8

exposed to air at 20°c. If the disc (Open surface) is (1) · Heat transfer rate_when disc Is facing up
maintained at 120°C, estimate heat transfer rate from it,
when;
Nu = 0.15 (Gr Pr)0.334 = 73.4
(a) Disc is kept horizontal with (open) hot surface facing Nu =
tkl
upwards.
Nu·k
(b) Disc is kept horizontal with (open) hot surface facing h = L
downwards.
(c) Disc is kept vertical.

For air at 70°C, k =0.03 W/mK, Q = h • A • AT =35.23 x 0.04909 x 100

-6
Pr= 0.697, v = 2.076 x 10 .
= 172.9 w ...Am.
Use the following correlation~ :
0 334 -·
, (2) Heat transfer rate when disc Is facing down
Nu= 0.14 (Gr. Pr) ' for upward I top surface
25
Nu= 0.27 (Gr. Pr) 0· for downward I bottom surface Since Le remains the same,
Nu =o.59 (Gr . Pr) 025f . rlace.
· or ve rt'rca , su 0 25
Nu = 0.27 (Gr· Pr) ·

Solutlon : 8 0 25
=
T.. 20°c, T1 =120°c. = 0.27 x (1.1293 x 10 ) ' =27.833
Given : D = 25 cm =0.25 m,

Scanned with cnmSconner

 4-59
Convection Heat Transfer

Find
J.
'
Q ,,. h. A• AT= 13.36 x 0.04909 x 100 (a) Gr
''
j
§_ ., 65.58W (b) Ra= Or Pr for checking whether flow is laminar or turbulent
.•.Ans.
(c) Nu
tf"l transfer rate when disc Is kept vertical
'I ~J (d) h using Nu (e) Q.
Characteristic Jength L • Le• D;.. 0.25 m (for vertical plate)
I 3
I
g•P•.\T><L =9.81 x-L xl..OOx(0.2~ Case I : When plate is held vertical
,;, Gr = v 343 (2.07 x 10- )
. g·6 · AT·L3 l (f,-T_)xL3
= 104.3 x 10 8 Gr =
V
z =g x-Tm x vz
' - 025 3
Nu = 0.59 (Gr• Pr) . = 0.59 (104.3 x 108 x o.
697
)0.2s Gr 1 (74 - 30) x <0.6~
= 9.81 x325x(18.405x10-6)
= 172.28
172.28 x 0.03
Nu· k .
= 8.469x108
h = -L- ;: 0.25 = 20.673 W/m2 K Ra = Gr · Pr= (8.469 x 108 ) x 0.7035
Q =·h ·A· AT= 20.673 x 0.04909 x 100 = 5.958 x 108
4 9
·: 10 <Ra< 10 , Using Nu= 0.59 Ra0·25

Consider a thin square plate o.s. m x 0.6 m In dimensions,

Nu I h•L .
kepi in a room at 30°C. One surface of the plate is
k
maintained at 74°C while the other is ·insulated. Determine.
h Nu· k 92.177 x (28.15 x 10-: ~ 3
lhe rate of heat transfer from the plate if the plate is held = r::-- = 0.6 --
.

vertical. What is the change in rate of heat transfer if the = 4.325 W/m~ K
plate is kept horizontal with hot surface. facing up, Heat transfer rate .
Properties of air at mean film temperature :. .

µ= 196.4 x 10- 7 Ns/m2 , k =28.15 x~ 10- 3 W/mK,

\ • I I \ 1 • • : • 1.

Pr=0.7035, v =.18.405 ~ 10-6 m2/s.

Solution: = 4.325 x 0.36 x (74 - 30)

Given: Area of plate, A =0.6 x 0.6

' .
='0.36 m2; T. _ =30°C, = 6s.sw ·... Ans.
r, = 74°C,
Case 11 : Whe~ plate is kept hori~ntal with hot surface on
L=0.6 m (vertical plate). upper side
'. '

·: One side of plate is insulated, the heat will transfer only L Le · A 0.6x0.6 .
from one side of the plate. Since :plate·is' kept in 'iooin i~ ·still ~r. = =p= 2 (0.6 + 0.6) =O.l 5 m
thC problem is considered of natural convectio.n. Gr Pr 9.81x1 x (74-30) x (0.15)3
·: ... · .
= 325 x (18.405 x 10- 6)2 x o.1o35
Mean film temperature, 74+30

. l '.
2 = 9.31x106
52°C =325.K. = Nusselt number is given by· the relation
Cocmcient
· · of volumetric
· expansion,
· · . -13-=·. T1 =·3E
1 · :·
· Nu = 0.54 (Gr· Pr)0 ·2s
__,.;...;..;.....,.;;__;_,_~----"--------------_..;,.~_;;_--.:_.....;.__ __
m
·,,"·' ". I;-:,::-
,; -. _________.;...._,;;.__

··• .
b ·~~~~.~'
Scanned with CamScar'lnef'
 '~,orj~!'.~er(MU)
-------~~~~
.. ·, . ··· ......

.. +61 . .

:'.~~)sat:~ , .- six (2;114 xI?- ) ~ (380-20) (0,03)3 >< 0.68

3
. Convection Heat .Tran sfer
,. 'ai.;pr. ....... 2:.- . .·, . (34.85 )( 10-6>2 '. .
! '·.I'... - ..
.j Example 4.21.8 . ·
1. . .. . . . Os
! . ' ~ C·1.t286 )( 1 '
A horizontal cylindrical rod of 4 .cm diamete~ and 60 cm
i · or·rr' ..
. .. .1toiiZoR
... ·• ta1.plate facing up. (top surface of cylinder can length is . Initially at a temperature of 124°C. .Calculate the
. be
fOt
. redasa o h rizontal plate facing up) the .correlation is, rate· ()f heat lost tr~m it, it it.is ex~osed to still:water at 30°C.
=~ R~
1 114
c0JIS de . . Nu = 0.54 x (Gr· Pr)114 Nu = 0.53 for 10" < Ra < 109
Gf!'to: . k 113
a 0.13 Ra for109 <Ra< 10·12·.
· · iis6 x ~ . ).2s
·oSo
·
= · hzx0.3
0.0393 Properties of water :
,54>C0·
0 . ' ..
h2 = 12.966 W/m2 K
CP =4191 J/kg K, k =0.668 W/mK, µ =3.72 x 10- . . 4
kg/ms .
.

3
P = 937.7 kg/m , .13=6.286x10- 4/K -
= ~ D =~ X(0.12)2:0.01131 m2
2
sudace area. A2 Solutlon:

Given : D =4 cm = 0.04 m, L =60 cm= 0.6 m,

for hoiizontal bottom Surface. the Value of Gr x Pr
Qll) will be same as previous case T, =124°C,
Gr. Pr = 1.1286 x 10s Find

~- -,.·· . ··..,· .
And We (a) Gr Pr and product Gr Pr

Given:
"a". use_th..e_. co.rrelatio.n.·,
_,
Nu -::= 0.27(Gr•Pr)°-
25
.. :..· . ,. _· .: ·.·. ·:. ·..·-.
,;¥ . . . ~N~ _·,. . . . . ,
· · lati'
.CT!) , , ...P'\".",Ci<-l'>c·.Wi!l\ Ra choo•ffig co-re on
(~)·
c
~o< Nu.
0.27 [ (1.1286) x 10
s J0.25 = ~ x 0.Q3
0.0393 (d) h (e) Q

h3 = 6.483 W/m2 K
AT: 124- 30 =94°C
. . Grashofff number = L3 • p2. (32.t g • 4 T
Surface area, A3 = Az =0.01131 m2 µ
3 2
,{_0.6) x (973.7) (6.286 x 10- 4 ) x 9.81x94
= (3.72 x 10-y

= 0.113+0.0ll31+0.0ll31 = 8.578 x 1011

= 0.13562m2 µCP _{3.72xl0- 4 )~4l91

Pr = k - 0.668 . =2.334
Total heat loss,
Ra= Gr x Pr= (8.5763 x 10
11
) x 2.334 =2.0017 x 1012
Q = Heat losses by convection from all surfaces
113
+ Heat loss by radiation Nu = 0.13xRa = 0.13 (2.0017xl012) 113
= 1638.4

Nu= kh·L

1638.4 h X0.6
= (7.97 x 0.113 + 12.966 x 0.01131 + 6.483 = Q668
x 0.01131) (380- 20)'+ 0.8 x (5.67 x 10- 8) h = 1824.1 W/m2- K .

x 0.13562 (6534 - 29_34) Convective heat loss Oc:

== 1476.6W
•.• Ans.

. ·• ..
·~~~
Scanned with CamScarmer
 -~.·. H · · Con · · ·'. .': \:~
;;;;;~_;.;.;;e~a.~t::_T~ra~n~s~fe~r~~~~;.;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;-.-.;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~~4~-6~0~.-----~~~~~~~~;;ve~c~ti~on~H~·e~t·'t
· · ,.:,:,,;,·
.'..,i
Characteristic length for top and bottom. ho " . .t~~~
== 0.54 (9.31 x 106 ) 0·25 =29.83 (c) , . l'IZ<Jntai. ....~ .

· • hi. = Nu· k 29.83 x 0.02815 vertical. · · ''~

L - 0. 15 (d) Gr Pr for each surface· '· ·

h (g) Q., + Q,.

= 5.6W/m2 K (e) . Nu (f)

Heat transfer rate , Mean film temperature, .. . ..

.. . ! \

T,+T, 380+20 .
Tm = " .2 . = . 2 -==2oooc

- Thus properties of air given are in order .

;:;; 5.6 x 0.36 x (74 - ·30)
Thennal coefficient of expansion,
= 88.7W ... Ans.
1 1
Percentage change in rate of heat transfer
~ = Tmean - 200 + 273::: 2.114 )( 10'\. ;

At 2000 c the given properties are,

= Q,QQ x 100
. 3
p: 0.746 kg/m I CP =1026 J/kg K
{88.7 - 68.5) 1
= 68.5 - x 00 k::: 0.0393 Vf/m K, v =34.85 x 10· 6 m2ts

= 29.S % ... Ans. . (1) For vertical surface

Example 4.21.7
Characteristic length is, L =0.3 m
3
A solid cylinder of steel of 12 cm diameter and 30 cm in g·!3·~T·L
Gr. Pr = 1
v
x Pr
length maintained at 380°C is suspended vertically in a large
-" 3 . -
room at temperature 20°c. If the emissivity of the cylinder 9.81x(2.114x10- ) x (380-20)(0J)3 xo.
.Gr·Pr 68
= '
(34.85 x 10- 6) 2 -
surface is a.a; find total heat loss rate by ·the cylinder. Take
properties of air at 200°c as follows : = 11.286 x 10
7

CP = 1026 J/kg K,p =0.746 kg/m3 , k =0 .0393 W/mK, .: For vertical cylinder, the given, correlations is,

v = 34.85 x 10- 6 m2 /s. Nu ;::; 0.59 (Gr· Pr)

0 2~
· = h k·L
Use the following correlations : .
0 25
1ri.;3~; = 0.59 X (11.286 X i07}°"25
Nu = 0 .56 (Gr. Pr). · for vertical surface

Nu= 0.27 Ra
0 25
· for bottom horizontal surface
h1 = 7.97 W/in.2 K
0 25 Surface area, A1 . ;::; 1t D L
Nu =· 0.54 Ra · for top horizontal surface.

Solution : This is the case of natural convection. = 1tX0.12x0.3=0.ll3m2

Given : D = 12 cm =0.12 m. · L =30 cm =0.3 m,
.•' .

(II) For horizontal surface

Ts = 380°C = 653 K.
Characteristic length,
T_ = 20°C =293 K, E = 0.8.
1t 2

Find: A 4D D
L = p = 1tD =4 =3 cm= 0.03 m
Tm and check that properties of air given are in order.
gB<~T)L
(a) 3

Now, Gr· Pr = ;z x Pr
v . . !,
(b) /3

scanned w ith camSc.:mner

 . _:: -- ·' · ·. I
·~ . :. .
. . ·.

·'$'·,H~at Transfer (MU) 4-62 -

. Qc = 1824.l x(~x0.04x0.6)x94 · -, ,

.;.Ans. ,. ' . ~~ . ~

QC = 12928.1 W
Qv _ = hAAT
., :'.
. -
.. 7.52X1tX0.15X2X(25Q_jO) . ,,

= 1558.44 w
For horizontal pipe. heat flow by Convection / ,

Characteristic length = D =0.15 m

gB AT 0 3
Gr =. vi

9.81 x l x (250 - 30) x 0.153

z:: 413 x (27'.8 x 10-<i )r--
. . ~·

Solution: 8 9
= 0.228 x 10 < 10 •

Outer diameter (OD) = 0.15 m

-hence flow is laminar.
L = 2 m (Vertical) 114
Using Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)
L = 8 m (horizontal) h~ = 0.53 (0.228 8
x 10 x 0.684 )0.2S -
T.. = . 30°C ;
0.035 x 0.53 8
hh = 0.15 -. (0.228 x lO x 0.684)0.Js
Ts = 250°C ; e=0.6

Air properties = 7.73 W/m2 K ,• .

6 2
v = 27.8 x 10- m /s ;

k = 0.035 W/mK; Pr =0.684 x (250 ~ 30) = 6407.86 w

Total Heat transfer will be from 2 m vertical pipe and 8 m Heat transfer by radiation from entire pipe length
horizontal pipe. Qr = a EA (T,4-T ""4) ; where,A=nDl

For vertical pipe: Heat flow.by convection 8

= (5.67 x 10-• •
) x 0.6 x (1t x 0.15x 10)
• 1 ••
- 250 + 30
'
= 140 C =413 K
0
Mean temperature, Tm= 2 4 4
x [(250 + 273) - (30 + 273) ]
3
Gr = gl3LiTL3 _ 9.81x1(250-30) x 2
2
v'Z - 413 x (27.8 x 10- 6) = 10637.82 w
. 10 9
= 5.41 x IO > 10 hence flow is turbulent Total heat loss from pipe

113
Therefore using, Nu = 0.13(Gr Pr)

hv·L
and Nu = k - 1558.44 + 6407.86+ 10637.82

hL ...A~
10 0.333
= 18604 w
....Y.-
k = 0.13 (5.41x IO x 0.684)
 • 1, ' ... .. ...
··:...
. I • ~ t· •' · . .
;», · '
I' -:

- -.convection Heat Traii'sfer -

-h -0.028 ·x 267.2
=. 1;5 •. ·-
=4.988 w/m2K\-
. .

- .Heat transfer rate, Q-- -

Q = h ·A· AT= 4.988 x 1.5 x 1(70- 30)

= 299.26W ··•••-Ans.

-Example 4.21.11

$Olutlon : , _ A hot rectangular plate 5 cm x 3 cm_maintained at 200°c is

_exposed to still air at 30°c. Calculate percentage increase in _
A = HeightXWidth=1 5 mx-l - -
· m= 1.5 m2 convective heat transfer rate if smaller side of the plate is
Ts = 70°C - held vertical than - the bigger_, side. Neglect ITG of the
thickness.
T~ = 30°C
Use Correlation Nu =0.59 (Gr. Pr) 0 ·25
70+30
Tm = --i-- = 50°C ::: 3~~ K
'
Air properties at 115°C: density=_9.9,1 kg/m3 ,

p = - 1.093 kglm3 ,
CP =1.009 kJ/kg K,
6
µ = 22.65 x 10- kg/ms, k =0.0331- W/mK.
y = 17.95 x10- m /s,
6 2
Pr= 0.698, Solution:
c_p · = 1.005 kl/kg K Given: T,=200°C, T.. = 30°C.
Find: (a) Tm (b)
Nu = 0.13 (Ra) 113 13
(c) L (d) Gr
Gr = g(3L\tL3 =9.8lx1 X(70-30)Xl.53
v 323 x (17.95 x 10--6{:- (e) Gr Pr (t) Nu
(g) h (i) · Q.
= 1.2725 x 1010
T. + T.. 200 + 30 ,
Ra = Gr Pr= 1.2725 x 10'0 x 0.698 Tm = 2 = 2 = 115°C=388 K

I 1 _
= 8.88x109 f3 = Tm =3"88
·: Nu = 0.13 Ra113
Case I _: Bigger side CL =S cm) is held vertical

= igB~TL
3 -
= 0.13(8.88 x 109) 0-333 = 267.2 Gr - --µ.: -

µCP pv CP 2
Pr =T=~ = o.91 x 9.81x1 x c2o0 30)(0.05·{
388 (22.65 x 10-6)2 -
k = P ·r. ca
Pr = 8.67 x 10s
6
.'. k = l.093x(l7.95xI0- )xl.005xl03 Pr = µCP 22.6s x 10- 6 x 1009
0.698 k - 0.0331 = 0.69 -

= 0.028W/mK Nu = · 0.59 (Gr· Pr)0 ·25

.. t i'
· k =Nu h= --r-
k·Nu
= 9.59 (8.67 x 10
5
x 0.69)°'25 =16.41
h ·L
Nu = Y =16.41

scanned w ith CamScannw

 .... .: ~:.. 'i. . ·~ . .• .. -··~ .·· ·· . :·
., .

1(4
Nu =0.59 Ra
Q = hA AT= 10.86 x (0.05 x 0.03 x 2)(200 - 30) Vertical

= 5.S4W _,,.Ans.
=0.1 Ra113
1(4

.
Case II : Whe
·
·
=
n smaller side (L 3 cm) is held vertical
· Horizontal Nu =0.54 R
113
Since charact · · · =0.14Ra · -2x101 _ .
. .· enstic length has changed, Grashoff number . 2 ){ 1010
W1U change h
. , ence.
[Note : For a rectangular horizontal surface, Char · :..:.
2
-Gr = P g 13 AT L
µ2
3
~!itN.
dimension ::: Average of lengths of 2 sides of the reC!ari ~

2
Solution: Refer Fig. P. 4.21.12 · 9le1 ·
= 0.91 x 9.81 x l x (200 30)(0.03)3
388 (22.65 x 10- 6) 2 Given: T, =39oc, T_= 1soc.

= 1.87 x io5 .Find

(a) Tm
Nu = 0.59 (Gr· Pr)0·25
(b) Gr, Pr and prod~ct of Gr • Pr for vertical faces atld
= 0.59 (l.87 x 10 x =11.18
5
0.69)0·25 surfaces. . lep
h = &.:..!£ 11.18 x 0.0331 . (c) using Nu based on Ra, find h.
L = 0.03
(d) Q.

Mean film temperature,

= 12.33 x (0.05 x 0.03) x 2 (200 - 30)

= 6.288W ...Ans.
I
40cm

· Increase in Heat Transfer Rate.· _l

6.288 - 5.54 .
Q = 5.54 x 100=13.5% ••.Ans.

Example 4.21.12

The CPU of a personal computer has dimensions of Fig. P. 4.21.12

10 cm x 50 cm x 40 cm height. Its surface temperature is 3
.!lTL
39°C. It is kept in still air. at 15°C. Neglecting heat transfer Grashoff number, Gr = g (3 v'l
from its bottom surface, find ttie rate of heat transfer from.
where, .!lT = T 6 -T.. = (39 - 15°C) = 24°C
(i) all 4 vertical surface

(ii) its top surface (I) For vertical faces, L =0.4 m

· Prope.rties at mean film temperature of 300 K are : (9.81) (too) x (24) (0.4) 3

p = 1.1614 kg/m3, Cp =1007 J/kg K, Gr = (15.89 x 10- 6/

V = 15.89 >< 10-6 m21S, = 1.98925 x 10 8

.

k =0.0263 W/mK, Pr= 0.707

Ra = Gr·Pr

Scanned w itll camscanner

 •.· ..

,4'-65 . convection Heat ·Transfer·

In coollng of the plate from 120°C to 80°C. Use. the. foflowi~?
= t.4064 )( 10 8
. thermo physlcal properties of tne air. ·

k =0.032 W/mK•. v =23.13 x 1o-& m2/s, Pr= 0.688

. .
0 33
Nu• 0.14 Ra · ff turbulent Ra> 106

= 64.25 Nu= 0.59 Ra

0 25
· 1f laminar Ra< 105 •

Nu •
h·L. ·
k . Solution : Refer Fig. P. 4.21.13.

h )( 0.4 Given : For plate : CP =400 1/kg K,

64.25 = 0.0263 m = 20 kg, T,= 180°C,
2
h = 4.225 W/;,_ K T_=20°c T=80°C.
· area of vertical fa~es, Find
aisurface .
fol A-::2 [O•4 x 0.1 + 0.4 >< 0.5) = 0.48 m2
(a) Gr and Ra= Gr Pr to check for type of flow·
Q,..iical = h ·A· .i.T.
(b) Use appropriate co-relation for Nu and find h.
.. 4.225 x 0.48 x 24 (c) Q .
= 48.67 w. (d) Rate of cooling
...Ans.
For horizontal top surface ch~racterlstlc length . (e) Time for cooling from T to T .
1
Oil
0.5 + 0.1 - 0 3 T,+T_ 180+20
L. = 2 - · T,v = 2 - 2

= Gr·Pr= g · ~ ·v2
3
.iT · L
Ra XPr = 100°C =373 K
24x0.33 AT = T.-T_= 180-20= 160°C
= 9.81 x ( 300
1)
x 05.89 x 10~·? x 0.707
.

6
= 59.33 x 10
Plate

"
Nu = 0.14 x Ra1f3 (given)

= 0.14 x (59.33 x 106) 1'3;; 54.6

Nu·k
h = r:-= 54.6 x0.30.0263 Ta:>= 2o·c

= 4.787W/m2 K

Fig. P. 4.21.13
~!al = h ·A· .1T = 4.787 x (0.1x0.5) x 24
Gr = L3 g ~ .1T
= S.74W v
... Ans.

II
Example 4.21.13

Ahot plate 1 m x 0.5 m at 1so 0 c is kept in still air at 20°c

'Mth 0.5 mside vertical'. The plate has a mass of 20 kg and
speclffc heat of 0.4 kJ/kg K. If convl;lctlon takes place from Gr = 982.191 x 10~ .
bolh the sides of the plate, determine heat transfer
COefficient, initial rate of cooling the plate and time required Ra ::::· Gr,Pr = 982.191 x 106 x0.688

= 675.747 x 106 > 105

Wt.aK..•ttitei
Y PV:bltti11lltn1

Scanned with CornSconner

 .t = 511.74 &e(,

(1) Heat transfer ct>efflclent, h (b) Similarly time required for cooling to sooc..

Nu = 0.14 Ra0·33 ~ 114.8 t1

_
-
-20X400
2x7.3474x0.~
'[SQ
ln ~]
0 33
Nu = 0.14 x [675.747 x 106J ·
tl = 1067.94 sec.
n·L
Nu= k Time required to cool from 120°C to sooc
hxOJ
114.8 "' 0.032 = 1067.94- 511.74 = 556.2
b = 7.3474 W/rn 1
K
... Ans. ---------------- ~. ... ~

Example 4.21.14
0

(2) Initial rate of coollng of plate C/mln A soild cylinder . of steel (density = 8000 lr~q
cP -- o•42 kJ/l<g) of 12 cm diameter and 30 cm lef\gth '"illl,
Heat Jost from both sides.
3aooc Is suspended vertically In a large room at temperatu ~
Q = 2[hA(T,-T..)] 2ooc .. If the emissivity of cylinder surface Is 0 8 find Iota!re
' I

.
heat loss rate by the cylinder and Initial rate of cooi·1ng.
= 2X(7.3474X(lX0.5)X(l8Q-20))
Take properties of air at 200°C as follows :
= 1175.58~ w . . 3 . •
cp = 1026 J/l<g K,p =0.746 kg/m , k =0.0393 W/mK
. I

But R.lte heat lost = R3te of cooling

v =34.85 x 1o-6 m2/s
i.e. Q = m·Cp(~)
Use the following correlations :
dT
1175.584 : 2.Qx400Xd( 0 25
Nu. 0.56 (Gr· Pr) · tor vertical surface
1175.584
(Ra) 0· 2 ~ for lower horizontal s.urface
R.lte of cooling.~ = 20x400 Nu= o.27

= 0.1469 °Cis or 8.816°Cim1n

... Ans. Nu =o.54 (Ra)0 ·25 for upper horizontal surface
Solution:
(3) nme required In cooling the plate from 120°c to
Given: D = 12 cm, L = 30 cm= 0.3 m, T.. =20°c,
80°C. r.e. T, =120°C, T:: 80°C.
e = 0.8, Tm= 200°C =473 K.

Tm= T,~T.. 'Tm=3so;20 =200oC,

Instantaneous he.at lost by the plate

2h A (f,-T..)
I l .
t
P=T" =m. AT= (3S0-20)°C.
T
-mC" f :: f dt
dT
m

2iiA T T-T- 0 Refer Fig. P. 4.21.14 .

•
Line of Approach
(a) Time required to cool upto J2.0"C
-mCP [T-T J We have to find out heat flow rate Q =? '
t = ZhA In T,-T: Heat flow will take place by convec~on and radiation.
- 20 x-400
= 2 x 7.3474 x0.5 In
[120-20]
180-20
Radiant heat flow Q,=£ 1 a A1 ('t.-T~)
Heat flow by convection i =h A AT
_zox400 · (100]
= 2 x 7.3474 x 0.5 ln 160
19' ....
.,,,. ,, ~ \
----------------------------------------------------------------------------fl 111,,111

~
 ~·· '~- . . • - : r . ... : .. , . :· ' ..._.•.

' ' .4·67 ' Convection Heat.Transfer .

Gr = J.66x·10'
. · µCP . .
Pr =T remains the same
~.
I I
I i.e.
I
0 I I Pr = 0.679
IU
~I I~
11 I hv hyl II Nu = 0.54 (Grpr) O.lS

t-81 I.Ji
I
I
I
I
I = o.;4 CJ .66 x rn' x o.679)0.2' =9.89
I I
I
Nu • Jc 9 .89 x 0.0393
~ = -L- = 0.03
Ft1:. P. 4.21.14
= 12.96W/m2 K
We can now find out Qc for different surfaces. Add u.p all
(3) For Bottom Horizontal Surface
o,and Q, 10 get total heat flow rate Q. '
A nD2 D
For Vertical Surface Characteristic length L = p =41tD =4
(1)
3
g f3 .:1TL _ 9.81x(380 - 20) x 0.33
Gr = v ·
2
~ 473 x (34.85 x 10 6 F 4 -- 3 cm =0 .03 m
-_ ll

g f3.:1TL3 9 .81 x 380-20 x0.033

= 1.66 x 10
8
Gr = v2
= 473 x (34.85 x 10-
µCP . pvcP
Pr= T=~ = 1.66 x 10'
µC
= 0.746 x 34.85 x 10- 6 x 1026
0.0393
Pr = T =0.679 (same as above)
= 0.679 Nu = 0.27 (Gr Pr)0·25

· Nu = 0.56 (Gr Pr)°'25 · · Nu = 0.27 (1.66 x 10s x 0.679)0:25 =4.95

Nu • k 4.95 x 0.0393
= 0.56 (l.66 x 108. x 0.679)o.2S hb = -r- = 0.03

= 57.69 hb = 6.48 W/m2 K

hy=ktu = 0.0395.; 57.69

3
=7 .56 W/m2K Hence total heat flow by convection

(2) For Top Horizontal ~urface Oc . = h.,nDL(T, -T..) +~·4

1t 2
D ·(T, -T..)

'
Characteristic length,

- 7.56 x 1t x 0.12 x 0.3 (380- 20)

12 ' 1t 2
= 4 =3cm=0.03m +12.96x4·0.12 (380-20)

g@Li1L3 1t 2
Gr = vi + 6.48 x 4 . 0.12 (380 - 20) =386.76 w

9.81 x (380 - 20) x 0.033 Heat loss by Radiation

= ' 473 x (34.85 x 10- 6) 2
Q1 = t 1 crA 1 = t1 ·cr(1tDL+2x~n2 )(T:-T:)

.. Scanned with camscanner

 ••
. Heat Transfer (MU)
•••
. 4-68

Q :::: .0.8 x 5.67 x io- 8

Thennal coefficient of expansion,
I ·. t t
x( 1t x 0.12 x 0.3 + 2 xix o.p2 ) (~53• -2934) f3 = Tm =52 + 273 "'fil ''

:::: 1073.96 w ·..

Characteristic length,
Hence total heat flow by convection and Radiation,
Surface area 1tR2 R ·
L = ~~------ 2
Q :::: QC+ Q, = 386.76 + J073,96 = 1460.72 w Perimeter - 21tR - 2 = 2 ::: I Ill

To obtain initial Rate of Cooling Q

.
=- mCp .!!!
dt Gr•Pr [
gx{3t.TxL
vz
3
J. Pr

m = PV=8000xn{~.12)
2
x0.3 =27.13kg = [9.81x{3.077x10-
(18.23 x.10- .
2
3
)g7 -27l.fJ 'I0.7frli
ill: 1460.72 8
.. dt = 420 x 27.13 = 31.903 x 10

Gr Pr > 2 x 10 , thus using the relation f~r Nu as'.

8
= 0.128°C I sec= 7.69°C/ min ... Ans.

Example 4.21.15 - Nu = 0.16 (Gr Pr)113

A horizontal flat circular -metallic plate is kept on its =· 0.16 (31.903 x 10~ 113
flat surface on a terrace ground In sunlight. Radius of
plate = 2 m. It attains a steady state temperature of 77°C. · = 235.54
The ambient temperature is 27°C. Calculate the rate at which
But, Nu= Th·L ;
solar heat energy is received . by the plate ·by means of
convection only. Also calculate the rate of heat transfer per Nu · k 235.54 x 0.0282
h = I:e""" = l
· unit area of the plate. Take characteristic length of
Asurface 2
plate Perimeter h = 6.642 W/m K

Rate of heat energy received by convection, (A =nR)

For horlzontal plate with hot surface up.

Nu = 0.13 (Gr Pr)

1/3
for Gr Pr< 2 x 10 .
8 Q = h·A·(T, -T..)

= 0.16 (Gr Pr) 1/3 for _Gr Pr> 2 x 1O8• = 6.642 x (1t x 2 ) x (77 - 27)
2

Use the following properties of air : = 4173.29 w .~.Am.

-e 2
k = 0.0282 W/mK, v = 18.23 x 10 m 1s, Pr= 0.7025 Rate of heat transfer ·p er unit area ...
Sofutlon: .Q _· 4173.25 _ · W/ z ,_
=A - rt x (2/ - 3321
' m '""""
Given : R =2 m, T, =77°C, T.. =27°C,'
T, + T.. _ 77 +·27 _ 520C Example 4.21.16
Mean film temperature, Tm = 2 - 2 - .
· A thin hot plate 0.5 m high and 2 m long is kept at 200'C
Find having the surrounding air.at 20°C. The mass of the plate b
(a) Thennal coefficient of expansion, j3 40 kg. The heat Is convected naturally from bOth sides.
Flf'ii'·

(b) Characteristic length L~. (a) Initial rate of cooling of plate.

(c) Check for Gr Pr hence find Nu. . . (b)

· Ct
Time required to cool the plate from 150° o 5
ooc·
(e) Q
h (f) . QIA . - - - -· ·
((~d)~~--~~_:_.__:.:.:......~-----------=-----~--------------------------ii:
~
~~ ...
19' r11•ll"

~--------~--~----111 St;amlt!KJ w ilh C<Jm.Scwmer

 . •., . ·· .

' 4-69 Convection Heat Transfer ...

properties of air at
1 · .~8 mean . (II) Time required to cool the plate fr~m T1 = 15000 to .
·. A . rswre as :
J iell1P8 < - ••
T2 =50°C
• . o32WtrnK, . Pr:0.7 h ·A , h·A .
~,o. .- .
- vc·t - me ·t
of plate, · C =360 J/kg K. .. p . --e
·~heat . . =e
5011it1on:
=
L, ~ H 0.5 m, L =2 m, T, =2oooc.
. · - m:c .
t = -]i"":'"A ln
(Tz-T-)
T1 -T..
01,ei1:
T.. = 20°C, m =40 kg. 400 x 380 ( 50 - 20 ) .
t =- 6.207 x 2 Zn 150 - 20
_ T, + T.. _ 200 + 20
tibn temperature, Tm - 2 - 2
~feBll . . .
= 17954.2 seconds
=l l0°C =383 K
. . I . . . A I 1
= 17 ~~4· 2 .= 299.236 min · ••• Ans.
cientofvo umetnc expansion,..., =-T = -
;.eoeffi m 383

· 6T ::: . T, -T.. =200-20=180°C.

Since heat is convected from both sides,

surface area. A = 2 x (H x L) =2 x (0.5 x 2) =2 m2•

. 3

Or·Pr = g • f3 ·AT·
v
L
xPr

= 9 81 x-L 18_0 x 0.53

. 383 x (23.5 x 10- x 0.7

= 7.3 x 103
4
10 <Gr Pr< 7.3 x 108, flow is laminar. Solution:

D = 75 mm= 75 x 10- 3 m
Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr)o.is =96.98 =h ·Le:
k

h Nu· k 96.98 x0.032 = 6.207 W/m K .. D 75 x 10- 3

R = · 2=
= 37.5 x 10- 3 m
2
= r:- = c o.
5
2

Ta = ll0°C = 110 + 273 = 383 K

OJ Initial rate of cooling ( ~i) ,from law of T.. = 20°c = 293 K

conservation of energy, E "" 0.7

Rate of decrease of internal energy =Rate of heat convection · Mean film temperature, Tm :
froll! Plate.
T,+T..
Tm = 2
m·c£!
· dt = h·A·(T,-T..) 110+20
2 = 65°C
400x380x~
dt = 6.207 x 2 x (200 - 20) = 65 + 273 K =338 K
dT
di = 0.0147°C I second ...Ans. . . Coefficient of volumetric expansion, ~:
1
~ = Tm ·ns1 =2.9sss1x10- 3r 1.

~
--------~~~~~~--~------------------
.J.~11...
v
~ P.·\lb.flt·.J

--~----
 . 4.70
Heat·Transfer (MU)

v • J:!. 2.03 x 10·' .

p • 1.044 .
2
"' t.9444 x 10·' m /s
TI e pfOCCSS of heat transfer betw~n a solid Surface aii<S . ·
= g~p} gtl~'fD
3

~·
Or a (': L • D) 1
ln motion is called convection.
. ..
:. Or = 9.81 x 2.95857 x 10·lx (110-20)
3 2
x (75 x 10·J: Natural or free convection is the heat transfer betw
ct.9444 x 10- )
so11.d surface and fluid
. when it causes . the move"'• eeii
.....ntef~ ~
.. Gr = 2.9147 x J0
6
by density difference. In case the flmd motion is im!la:1ed ll
Ra = OrPr external means Jike pump, fan, blower etc, the ~
6 convection is called forced convection.
= 2.9147 x 10 x 0.7188
6 Examples of Applications of convective heat ~
= 2.0951x10 . ft~~
114 fluid flow in heat exchanges, boilers, furnaces, COoling C4
Nu = 0.589 (Ra)
electronic components, condensers, radiators, eva11r-·-uc:_
,,,.,,,_
hL
.. k = 0.589 (2.0951 x 6 114
10 )
According to Newton's Jaw of viscosity shear Slrt1s ~
proportional to rate of deformation (dv/dy).
= 0.589 (2.0951x10~
. hD 114
.. k
dv
k 6 114
"t :: _µ · dy '
:. h = D x 0.589 x (2.0951 x 10 )
2
•µ'is calJed dynamic or absolute viscosity. (Nslm or kg/ms)
h 0.02845 . 6 114
.. = 0.075 ~ 0.589 x (2.0951 x 10 )
. viscos1'ty, v =!±
Kinematic P (m2\
s-)
:. h = 8.5 W/m2 K A laminar now is defined as the type of flow in which the
Heat transfer rate, Q fluid particles .move along a well defined stream lines ~
paths whereas in turbulent flow the fluid particles move in
Heat transfer rate by convection,
zig-zag way (e.g. cigarette
. smoke). Re = Q.:.Y.:.Q
µ

. (pipes)= p ~ L (plates)
- 8.5 x 4nr2x (T1 -T..)
For smooth pipe Re < 2000 (laminar) • Re > 40CO
2
= 8.5 x 41t x 0.0375 >< (110- 20) (turbulent)
For flat plates : Re < 3 x 10
5
(lamin~). Re > 5 x I~
~ = J3.518W .
(turbulent).
·Heat transfer rate by radiation, Period of change of flow from laminar.to turbulent is~
transient now.
Or = eaA(<-T:)
4 4
Heat flux, q = hL · (Ts - T..) where hL is called local btJI
O. 7 x 5.67 x I 0-8 x 41t (0.0375/ x [383 - 293 )
= transfer coefficient. Since flow conditions vary from point to
point along the surface, hL is variable. The average bttl
= 9.922 w
1 J hL • dA.
.
transfer coefficient, h = A
:. Q = Qc +Qr= 13.518 + 9.922 A
The fluid lay~r near the surface in which there is a ge~r31 '
...Ans.
.'.· Q =. 23.44W slowing down is defined as velocity boundary layer or
h drodynnmic boundn bounda· ' la ;tr.
....Vr-••11••,
,"'~

Scanned witl1 camscanner

,,,,--- ·
/ · . · transfer (MU) ·
·1' ~9at .
4-71
Convection Heat Transfer
. .•
.· :I
.1

1"; · ess of boundary layer, 5 is defined as a distance

. . tJJJcltP . · 3. Prandtl Number, IT= T.
µ•C . f
It signifies the ratio o •. .·
f!ie ..t e at local velocity is 0.99 times the free stream I ~
';
' '

frOJll sui•ac . . . momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity.

e1ocitY· h ~It
· Y floW region ov·er the surface having the temperature 4. Stanton
.
Number, St = p. v. c p = Re· Pr ·

,, 1lJe . .0 the direction perpendicular to surface is called the signifies the ratio of con~ective heat flux to fluid to the
·auon i .
yaJ1 · b undary layer denoted by St. . heat transfer capacity of fluid.
dJtrDlal 0
p·V·CP
"'th of velocity boundary layer is due to viscous
,.
'file gro
.
.
hile the growth of th~rmal boundary layer is due
5. Peclct Number, Pe= Re· Pr= ( f)
. It signifies

fricuon w . .
rature gradient. .
to iernpe the ratio of mass heat flow rate I unit temperature
traJlSfer coefficient, h depends on rate of mixing of difference to the rate of heat flux per unit temperature
aeat
' . articles which in tum depends on Reynold's number difference.
fluid P •
. . d cu·on ·in circular pipes
Jle. Correlauons as applied t.o force conve
. -••es with increase in Re, decreases with growth B L and flat plate :
h 1nc•..,_ . · ·
thickness. (Refer Table 4.16.2)

MeaD filJJl temperature, T mr or Tm represents the average Characteristic length or hydraulic diameter. D11 is defined as :

temperature of surface and the free stream.velocity. 4 x Cross. sectional area of flow. A
D11 = · Wetted Perimeter, P
'fhe axial distance covered by the fluid from the entrance
upto the fully developed velocity profile is called entry Dh is useful to predic~ the type of flow of fluid in various

shapes of conduits e.g. rectangular, square, circular, hollow

length.Le·
pipes, spheres etc.
Le = 0.0575 Re· D (Laminar flow)

The fluid particles in contact with ·surface initiates the heat

tranSfer by convection in layers and causes the development The transfer of heat from solid surface to the ·fluid or yice
or thermal boundary layer in pipes. The region beyond the versa due to density variation in the fluid caused by the
tbennal entry region in which temperature profile remains temperature gradient between the surface and fluid is called
unchanged is called the fully developed thermal region. heat transfer by natural convection.

The procedure of getting the dimensionless quantities is Coefficient of volumetric expansion, f\ is defined as the
called the dimensional analysis which is · based on density of flui~ vru:iation per degree change in temperature at

l .Buckingham's n theorem. constant pressure i .e.

l - Physicai significance of dimensionless numbers as applied to

.
~ = ~ lp (~)
aT p ,. C?"•l. ; For ideai gas : ~ =
1
-T

forced convection are :

. "fi1es the ratio
h. L. I t s1gru . of Olmenslonless parameters as applied to natural
I. Nusselt Number, Nu~ k
convection
rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate of heat
g· B·~T· p2 ·L3
Grasboff Number, Gr -
transfer by conduction. 1. µ2
2. Reynold's Number, Re ~ P •µVL . It signifies the ratio It represents the product of buoyant force and inertia forces to

of inertia force to viscous force. It also characterises the square of viscous forces . In the above expression, L

the type of flow whether laminar or turbulent.

b:
Scanned with CamScanner
 ~
'II Heat Transfer (MU) 4-72 C?nvection He ::;;~·~
. .. at:rr~ ,<. ;·
1
Q.8 Why mean film temperature is &r' .\
represents the . characteristic · length, Le. Gr is similar to . . consid : .
convective heat transfers ? [Section 4 er0d . :
.8·2] . ~ .
· Reynold's number m
. forced convection.
.
Q.9 Discuss ·velocity boundary . layer devei ··· . ,
2.
Rayleigh Number, Ra : Ra= Gr .Pr. circular pIpes. Hence, define.
0Ptlle ·
e 0 try • ·nt ;.;
'I

Ra is the indicator whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. [Sections 4.9 and 4.9.1] · leneui, :
. .

Q, 10 Discuss development of thermal bound · .. '

. . ary1a ·.
circular pipe and bring out the concepts Yer~
Of Ifie
entry region, fully developed thermal hriai
· region
length of thermal region. [~ectlon 4.10] ~

Q.11 What is dimensional analysis and Wh .

f Note : For answers please ref.er the sectlof'! number practical utility ? [Section 4.12] · at Is ~
indicate in bracket.] ·
Q.12 Derive the dimensional less numbers as a . ·
· . · PP1ed
1 ·
the analysis of forced convection by dim . lo ·
. ens10ila!
analysis. [Section 4.12.2]
Q.1 What do you understand by convection ? State the
Q. 13 · Discuss the significance of Prandtl, Nusselt 8l1d .
types of heat convection and differentiate between Stanton numbers in heat transfer by convectJo .
them. [Section 4.2] n. I
[Section 4.1 3] i
Q, 2 State some applications of heat transfer by
convection. [Section 4.2.1]

Q. 3 Differentiate between laminar and turbulent flows. a. 14 Define natural convection and state few of the
[Section 4.3] practical examples. [Section 4.18]

Q. 4 Define local heat transfer coefficient and average Q. 15 Explain the mechanism by which the heat is i
1
· heat transfer coefficients and state the relationship transferred by natural convection. [Section 4.18)
between them. [Section 4.6]
Q. 16 Define coefficient . of volumetric expansion.
Q. 5 Discuss the concept of hydrodynamic boundary Determine its value for an ideal gas. State its
layer. Hence define thickness of velocity boundary . importance as applied to free convection.
layer in case of flow of fluid over the plate. [Section 4.18.1]
[Section 4. 7J
a~ 17 State and explain the significance of GrashoWs
a. 6 Discuss the concept of thermal boundary layer in number and Rayleigh number.
case of flow· over the plates.
.
How
.
does it differ from [Sections 4.20(1) and 4.20(2)]
velocity boundary layer ? [Section 4.8]
a. 18 State the relationship between Nusselt, Grashoflf [
a. 7 Discuss the factors which affect the convective heat and Prandtl numbers in case of . heat transfer by ·
tran~fer coefficient. [Section 4.8.1 J natural convection from a vertical plate.
[Section 4.21]
aoo ·

• • •1

~ . :

~----------------------------~~~___; __..- ....11 r ,

0-{;
~-
 Radiation Heat Transfer

syUabUS: . . .
· 1aws of radiation, Black body·radiation Planck's law Kirchhoff's law Wein displacement law, Lambert cosine
easlC . . . . . . . .• I • b Radiation heat
Radiation intensity, Radiation heat exchange between black bodies, Shape factor alga ra, . .
1aw.hange between non bl ack b0 d"1es, Electrical network approach for radiation · heat axeh a nge ·· Rad1os1ty
. and
eXC . • h' Id
. t"ion Radiation s 1e .
irradia ,

,,_-I bUI Topic : Thermal Radiation and Theories 5.2 Theories of Radiation
syla .
of Radiation
There are two accepted theory of radiation, namely :

1 Thermal Radiation
1. Wave theory or Maxwell theory
~ -3'.
"'7 (MU - Dec. 14, Dec. 15) 2. Quantum theory or Planck's theory

Both the theories are used in thermal radiation.

5.2.1 Wave or Maxwell Theory

. So far we have discussed the heat transfer by conduction and According to this theory, the electromagnetic emissions
coavection which require material media for the process of energy propagate in the form of waves. Since the waves propagate through
tranSfer to occur. some medium, this theory assumes that universe is filled with
The heat conduction in solids is due to lattice vibrations and hypothetical medium known as ether.
movement o~ free electrons. ~ereas . _the heat transfer. in There are many types of electromagnetic waves. All types of
coavection is due to conduction and fluid movement waves carry energy and travel at different wave lengths, A. and
However the thennal radiation does not require any medium freq~ency, v in a medium at velocity of light, C. It follows the
for transport of energy because every surface emits relationship as :
electromagnetic waves continuously in all directions due to its
A. = £
. v ... (5.2.1)
temperature.

These electromagnetic waves while propagating carry energy The velocity of light in vacuum is
and transfer thennal energy when they impinge on a surface or = =2.998 x 108 mis. ( =3x108 mis).
C0 C
body. This kind of energy transfer is known as radiation.
Wave length is specified in µm (micrometer)
-6
where 1µ=10

or in Armstrong where A (Armstrong)= l0-·10 m

The spectrum of electromagnetic waves is shown in

__
Fig. 5.2. 1.

_......_
Scanned with CamScantlef
 HeatT · · 5-2
ransfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)

Wave lengths i. in µm

10:-4 10·=1 102 104

es -J.- Television/Radio
waves
-- 1
1 -I- - - -

Electrical
power
waves

.·. 10 ·~

. J·lyl· ·
Ultraviolet
t
Visible radiation
..J Thermal (Infrared) radiation
(0.8-BOOµm)
rays (0.02-0.4µm) (0.4-0.Sµm)

Fig. 5.2.1 : Spectrum of electromagnetic waves

c
The th_e nnalradiation is considered in the wavelength of 0.1 E = h·I
··.(S.2.J)
µm to 100 µm and the amount of thermal radiation depends the
characteristics oJ·•t'rze surface and zts
. temperature. It is evident from Equation (5.2.3) that the the
. . . nnaJ energy
is inversely proportional to wavelength, ).. since· h '£
The thermal radiation. increases with increase in te~perature · ~de

of a surface. constants in a medium. For this reason the short wave radY,.:.~
. ~~
have much higher p h oton energy as compared t l ,
o ong wav1
The visible portion of spectrum shown in Fig. 5.2. l is the
radiations.
portion of electromagnetic waves· which triggers the sensation of
vision in human eye. Syllabus Topic : Total Emlsslve Power of 8 Surt
ace,
Short wave radiations like y-rays and X-rays are associated Basic Concepts and Definitions, Properties of Radiation
with high energies with high powers of penetration. and Types of Surfaces

5.2.2 Quantum Theory or Planck's Theory 5.3 Total Emisslve Power of a

Surfac'e (E)
This theory was developed by. Max Planck. This theory is
based on the concept that the radiation emissions are in the fonn of
series of entities known as quanta or photon.

Each quanta possesses certain amount of energy which is

proportional to its frequency of emission. These quanta move with
the speed of light and feleases its energy on being impinged by
some object in its route. Consider a surface element of area, dA which emits an
Thus, the Planck's theory states that the thermal radiation energy, dQ per unit time, the emissive power, E of the system is
I
I
given as:
propagates in the form ofdiscrete quanta, each quantum having an
. Jim dQ
... (5.3.l)
II
energy of. Total emissive power, E= dA °"
0 dA I
I
I
E = h·v ... (5.2.2)
3
where, b represerits Planck's constant= 6.625 x 1o- Js

v represents frequency of photons in per second.

Using v = Cf)., from Equation (5.2.1), the Equation (5.2.2)

reduces to Fig. 5.3.1 : Surface emitdng radiations In all direction

-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-:-~~~~~-:-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-;;;.-----·
~Teel~ ' .,.- pv• ll' .
I

Scanned w ith CamScanner

-----~
 ~-,.. -.. ····
~~~~) \ ;_. · . ·.
~11 ~}?~ . ..
:~;,;;,_' · ·•·. · • fer (MU-Sem5-Mech)
;'·)~j.t':-rrans . . . ·
_ ·

l. ..
, H .· . .. et total emissions.
· ...·r0er tog
· · fro m thc finite
·
surface
.
. area, A
53
. Radiation Heat Transfer
. ·;fl!..o ·· ·we .can integrate the above equation.
:·:, 1. Reflectlvlty ( p )
. :.-ii tinit• A
etil"' .
· . Thus, Q = f E · dA
·O

. .
- .,,,t to
tal emissive
.
power of a surface depends upon the
d. .
..~
Energy reflected, Q,
ture• T
jl' of the surface an Its matenaI, surface finish etc. Reflectivity, p = Total incident radiations, Q : .. (5.4.2)
:tJlper'
.. · saslc Concepts and Definitions 2. Absorptivity ( a. )
!!-----
out
. of
U
the total irradiations, G or thermal radiations, Q
_..ace• a part of energy is .reflected
·yedbyasu.. · • another P"........., of
lI~"
:ct' is absorbed and the remainder energy .is transmitted across
nr.tf/ · nd
,theseco ~edium as shown in .Fig. 5.4.1. Energy absorbed, Qa
Absorptivity, a = Total incident radiations, Q ... (5.4.3)
,et : Q ::: Thermal radiations received by the surface

Q, = Energy reflected from surface 3. Transmisslvlty ( 't )

Q. = Energy absorbed by the surface DEFINmo"

=. Energy transmitted across the second medium. .- . '

·(OJ
Q, . ' ,

Transmissivity, 't
Energy transmitted, Q't
= Total incident radiations, Q ... (5.4.4)

From law of conservation of energy,

Q, Qa Q't
P+a+-r.= Q+Q+Q

Qr+Qa+Q't Q .
= Q =Q"= 1
_(\ Transm;tted, Q, i.e. p + a + -r =1
... (5.4.5)
Fig. 5.4.l : Reflection, absorption and transmission The reflectivity, absorptivity and transmissivity of a body are
of thermal radiations
dependent on the temperatures of the source radiation and the
ay energy balance, nature and preparation of surface.
Q = Q,+Q.+Q't ... (5.4.1)
5.4.1 ln, case of solids and liquids, the transmissivity is negligible
Properties of Radiation (t' ::. 0), hence (p + a) =
1. Whereas, in case of gases the
reflectivity is very small (p:_O), h~nce a+ t"= 1.
~ {MU - Dec. 14, Dec.15)

Types of Surfaces/Bodies
~

Therefore, we defi.ne the following radiation properties :

I.
Reflectivity ( p )
2.
AbsorptiVity ( a)
3.
Transrnissi vity ( 't )

t ~ Tet11.~a•11l•d9
V f'l\lb.l 'lc..al1an

Scanned wrth Camscanner

 , '' rmn i-m""'m·=

;;·;;·~;;;H~e~at~T~r~a~n~s~fe~r~(M~U~-s~e~m~s~-M~e~ch~}~------=--=•~5-4~--===----.~--:::-=-:=-._R;;;ad;;;l;;;at~io~n~H~e~atl'r&~···~'. r
. ti

.
Following typ f . . . Alternatively, the body havmg
. the same Value of e . . . ' .
es o surfaces are considered in thermal radiation · al th ll\issiv·
11 wave lengths, which is equ to e_average elllissiv· . ·~ ~
Types of Surtaces/Bodl~a a . . lty IS
as Grey body e.g. all metals. . . c~

1. Black body _. s. Transparent body

DEfIHITJON
2. Opaque body
[JJ
3. White body
In such a case: a.= p =0-and 't = I.
4 . Grey body

5.4.3 surface Emission Properties

5. Transparent body
~ (MU.o....
;: Fig. CS.1 : Types of Surfaces/Bodies ~---. 1~
: ; I

... . 1.

Properties of a surface considering it as an enu·tte

r Of
radiation are as follo ws :
·It implies that p =y = O and a= I
1. Emissive power (e) ·
A black body is also a perfect emitter or radiator ofheat.
2. Emissivity (e)
No perfect black surface has been found in nature. However,
3. Monochromatic emissive power ( ~ )
surface coated With lamp black, milk, ice, water, white paper are
considered black body. 4. Monochromatic emissivity ( eJ..)

5. Radiosity (J)
_. 2. Opaqu~ f?ody

1. Emisslve power (e)

By opaque surfaces the radiant energy received is either

w
DEFillITION

absorbed or reflected i.e. p + a = l and 't' =0

It's units are J/s m2 and W/m2 or kW/m2.
-+ 3. W.Wte body

The emissive power of a black body will be denoted by Cii·

For such bodies a =T = 0 and P = 1
2. Emissivity (e)
-+ 4. Grey body It represents the ratio of emissive power of a surface to the

DEFINlTlON emissive power of a black body at · the same temperature.

rr t]
lW Therefore,
Emissive power of a body/surface, e ... (S.4.6)
Emissivity, e = Emissive power of a black body-,·~

The value oj emissivity ranges between 0 to 1.

·1
 ·Radiation Heat Transfer
5-5

Emissivity from sui-faces of certain important materials in ·

given in Table 5.4. l.

Table 5.4.1 : Emissivity from surfaces of important materials

A. Polished metal surfaces

.
;.IJOve definition applies that the monochromatic
. enussive
. 0.0366
l. Copper polished
. .d. JS. wavelength (/..) dependent emissive
·
power• F'lg. 5.4.2 0.03
2. Polished silver
~~ variation of monochromatic emissive 0.049
. WS tile . power with 3. ·Aluminium polished •
. sJ!O at a temperature T. 0.046
"8~eletlgtb . 4. Nickel polished
-Aiant energy emitted by the body per unit ti. 0.07
'{be r"" . me per unit 5. Chromium
· · the wave length changes from /... to (A.+ dA)-'
~when is, B. Metal surfaces
0.725
.de = ~· dA. l. Copper oxidized
Iron (rusted)
0 .85
2.
· ·: ErJ!issive power of the .body,
3. Hot cast iron 0.8
A.= oo 0 .6
4. H()t rolled C.l.
e = J ~·dA. . .. (5.4.7) 0.658
5. Iron

Mii~~~~atic emi_ssive power of a black body is d~~ot~;~y·~::> .. -·~.:..;;· r. .~;....:

. ~-~"·-:-·-N_o_n..:·m=e:..:ta=ls::.:....··.!....:..;....::.:......._:_----4------1
·._. ; ' .

1. Brick plaster Q.93

2. Glass 0.875

3. Wood 0.91
4. Porcelein 0.92
5. Clay 0.86
6. Backelite 0.9
7 . . Paper 0.97
8.
A. A.+dA. 00

Wave length, A.

Flg.S.4.l: Variation of monochromatic power of a body with I..

ata given temperature, T .

4. Monochromatic emissivity { ~)
J. •

:' Accordingly,

lonochromati [Monochromatic emissive]

emissivi c , e). = . power of a surface, ~
· ty Monochromatic emissive · · .(5.4.8)
. power of black body, f1iA T = const

Iii~--~------~------~ Scanned w ith CamScani1er

 Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)

. l?adio.tity difler.s ,rom

11 • •
em1ss1ve pow(!r since the fom1er also
mctudtw the add1·r
• • wnaf energy reflected from the su!face out of
/f/c1den1. r<lll Wtron
" . on it. ·

6. Irradiation

2
Ci 1.4387xl0- (mK)

A = Wavelength (m)

T ;;: Absolute temperature (K)

Fig. 5.5. 1 shows the plot of emissive po.w ·

. C( Of a hlac
varying with wavelength, A. and absolute temperature, T. k boil}

i
It is e vider:it from til e above definition that the irradiation
does not depend directly ? n its own temperature except when the .a 106
-<
10 5
Cl)
'i ' radiations are received par~ly by the surface from its own reflected ...:
. I
1 ~ 104
radiations. 8.
Cl)
'E 10 3
I . -~ :;
Though Irradiation is not a surface property but it helps in the ·e
Vl
"'
E
102

analysis of energy transf~r b~ radiation. Cl)

0
::::>
~
10
<IJ
E
e I
Syllabus Topfc : '. Basic Laws of Radiation, Bfack Body -5
0

Radiation, Planck's Law, Kirchoff's Law, Wein

c:
0
:!: ·i
:
Dlspfacement Law, Radiosfty and frfadiatlon ·
8 9 10
Wave length, A. (µm)
5.5 Laws of Ra:dlatlon
Fig. 5.5.1 :.Energy distribution of a black body varying
Various laws g<;>veming the thennal radiation are :
with).aod T

I. Planck's law Following observations can be made :

2. Wien ' s law 1. ·Monochromatic emissi ve power of the black body at a given

3. Stefan Boltzmann's law temperature first increases with increase in wavelen~

attains a certain maximum value and then decreases.
4. Kirchoff's law.
2. For specific wavelength, the value of ei,~.- of black surface 1

These laws are being discussed below: increases with increase in temperature.
. I
3. Most of the thennal radiations lie in between the range of0.3
5.5.1 Planck's Law.· '
I to 10 µm. \
Planck't; law is based or;i quantum theory and ·it gives the 4. The wavelength A.m at which the maximum
\
t1,). is obtawcd
relationship for monochromatic .emissive power of the black body,
decreases with increase in temperature.
P-
-vA
as ·a function of absolute temperature, T of the surface and
· "\ .
\
wavelength)., as given below: \
2nC1 "\
eM = ·(Cj'A· T) (Wlml ... (55.l) L.
).5 [e
•r---~-l
-1]

~~~--------------------..;. ............................................ "' 1 1'1~

 . ··. · ··.·-.: ·,. ...,. :·

5 (ex -1)-x·e· x =0

la w gives the relation~hip between the ma ·

· .i1•11's1
\~ ~ h' h th
at w 1c
·
e maximum. monochromatic e . .
x1mum . . . (v)
....
,,,.veieng
is obtain. ed and the absolute temperature, T of a blackm1ss1ve
th ' "'"' bodY.
pall''~ng to this law, . Above equation can only the solved by trial and error method
;.cdl . ~"'. T ::;: 0.0029 (m K) ( by assuming various values of x.
"' .. . 5.5.2)
On solving the above equation we. get,
f of Wlen's law
er proO .
;\c~ording to Planck's law (Refer Equation (5.5. I)) x = 4.965 ... (vi)
2nC 1
. . . (vii)
... (i)
And, ~ = 1.4387 x 10- 2 (m) [ReferEqu~tion (5.5.1)]
= x
.. . (ii) -2
_S,_ _ l.4387 x 10 (Let, A. =A. )
~ = 4.965 - 4.965 m max.

/.. = x·T
.. . (iii) A.m · T ,,; 0.002898 m K =0.0029 m K ... (5.5.3)
On substituting the value of A from Equation (iii) in Equation
(I), As discussed above, the Equation (5.5.3) is known as Wien's
law. In this, A.m = A.max. is the wavelength . at which the
eb1 = mon0chromatic . power of black body, ebA. is maximum at a
Particular temperature.

Maximum ei,>.. : It is evident from a\Jove equation that the

Above equation expresses the emissive power of a black body
' interms of 'x' · maximum . value of ~ will shift to a ·higher wavelength with
. In order to get the wavelength ()..m) at a specified temperature decrease in temperature ·( ·. · A.m ~ +)..
(T) at which the maximum emissive power, t\ occurs, we can
differentiate the Equation (iv) with respect 'x' and equate to zero
d(Ci,i)
On substituting the values of c;. C2 an<1 Am • T in
1'e-=O
.. dx .
Equation (5.5.1) we can get the maximum value t\>.. as follows :

2n x C0.596 x 1o~ 16>

-dx
d [ 21t Cl • XS. T5 x1] -
=0
2n c1
A.~ [e<Ci'"-m •T) _ l] (0.~29)
- 3
. c2s x (e - I) . [e4.96S _ l]

21t c . T5 d
-.__,.1_
s 'dxx5(e-
x -c
1)-'J =0 ....(5.5.4)
C2
Thus, the maximum emissive power of black body is
or, d~ [x 5
(ex - If 1] :: 0 proportional to the fifth power of the absolute temperature of the
1 surface.
1 4
(e -If 5
·5x +x (-l)-(ex-lf 2 ·ex =O
5.5.3
x.4 [ 5
(ex - 1)
X· ex
(ex - 1)
J=0 Stefan Boltzmann's Law

Stefan Boltzmann law states that the total emissive power OJ

x
X·e a black body is directly proportional to fourth power of its absolut1
5--
ex -1
=0 temperature. Mathematically,

s
Scanned with CamScanner
 = a· T4 ...(5.5.5)
t;, On substituting the values of C 1 and Ci.

where, a = 5.67 x 10- 8 wim" K4 is called the Stefan = l 21t x (0.596 x 10-
16
1· 1t4
Boltzmann constant. . eb (l.4387 x 10- 2) 4 x90>q,.

qr Determination of Stefan Boltzmann's constant, a

on comparing Equations (5.5.5) and (v) we have,
The value of 'a' can be determined by integrating Planck's
Stefan Boltzmann constant..
law Eq~tion (5.5. l) between limits A.= 0 to')...= oo,·111erefore.
er =· 5.672
.
x 10- 8 :: 5.67 x 10-s Wt 2
m I(•
... (i)
r:ir Stefan Boltzmann Equation for other surface,
having emissivity, e
l ...(ii)
Let. x = }..
·: Emissivity e
I 2 ...(iii)
d..;: = --~ .d).
-;....-
or, <V.=-'>. • dx
Thus Equation (5..S.5) for all other surfaces can be modified as :

When, I .. =0, x =oo and when ').. =oo, x = O from Equation (ii). e = ·...(5.5.6)
2
dA 1.. I •
Therefore, -')..s = - -;..,s • d:x = - ')..3 • ~x = - x• • dx
5.5.4 Kirchhoff's.Law

Using the 3bo\·c relations, the Equation (i) reduces to : ~

x=O .
~ = 2'tc, f -x 3
[e<c;·xm-1f1 d'(
x
x=oo
=-
~
1
= _21tC1 f x
3
·(/C:i·xtr)-tf ·dx .
x=O

x=oo
Co= 2!'t c, f x3 [e-c; x.IT + e- 2 c; xrr + e- 3 <; xrr + .....] dx Kirchhoff's Jaw states that the emissivity of the sruface iJ
x =0 equal to its absorptivity when the surface or the body is in thtnnal
equilibrium with its surroundings.
x=oo
,.. C
t;, = ~1? l
f x3. e- r__, • i ; x.IT • dx Therefore,
x=O Emissivity of a body, E = Absorptivity, a. ...(s.s.n
(where, i =I, 2, 3) ...(iv) er Proof of Kirchhoff's law
QQ
Consider a hollow evacuated black space maintained at
Jxn · e-u· <ix =
...!!.L
Bu~ 21+1
a temperature, T as shown in Fig. 5.5.2.
0
21t c, x (3 x 2 x 1) Introduce a small body of area A1 at the same temperanut
31
t;, = 2itC·
I (<; i/f)3 + 1-
(S) .
y' XI
into the evacuated space. Since the body and its surroundings arei
·a11· is~
the same temperature and being under vacuum. then rad1 on
only mode of heat transfer which is absorbed the body.
t27t c ·r' (1;+ ~+ ~ +~ + ... )
t;, = C1 2
I 2 3 4

Scanned w i1h CamScanner

 t.:,", ···. . · .
, :~ · H~~1jr~rs~n~sf~e~r
· ~(M~-;;;;
u · s~e~m~~-~~ec~
s M h)•. ;;;;;;-.;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;._._;;;;;;;~·s~-~9~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;m;;;;;;;;;;i-;;;;;;;;;~~~ii;i;i;ii;;i;;;;;i;;;;;;;;a;;;;;;;;;;;
Radiation .Heat Tran~fer

. ·"'- . . . Blaci( surface, T r:r Comments on above results

Hollow evacuiated
spcae at
1. Though we have· proved the results m
· case the body· is in
temperature, T
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, however these
results have also been verified experimentally. .;
:I

2. ' i
Since absorptivity ranges between a.= o to a. - 1• it implies
. '. ' I

that emissivity also ranges between £ =0 to£= 1.

Fig~ 5.S.2 : Kirchhoff's law Syllabus Topic : Emissivity of Real Surface Radiation
Intensity and Lambert Cosine Law
be the intensity of radiation falling on black bod
r.et I · . . . Yin
·
2
d E be the total erruss1ve power of the body having its
Willi an ' , 5.6 Emissivity of Real Surfaces
· ·cy as CX1 •
. absO!J>tlVl .
Under equilibrium.
In Section 5.4.3 we have defined the emissivity of a surface, e
· _,_ of energy absoi:bed = Rate of energy emitted as the ratio of emissive
· · power
· of the surface to errussive
· · Powerofa
'fhe '"""
black bOdy at the same temperature.
I· A1 a1 = E1 • A 1
However, the emissivity of a real surfaces varies with :
E1
I= - (a) Temperature
CX1 .. . (i)
{b) Wavel;ngth
S~milarly if body 2 is introduced of area A2, emissivity Ei and
alJSorpdvity, ~·Then, (c) Di~ection of emitted radiations.

Based on above facts we define various types of emissivity as

I Ai CXi = Ei · Ai i.e. I =2:! . .. (ii)
follows:
CXi
1. Spectral emissivity ( ~ )
Since I is same for each body, from Equations (i) and (ii) we
get 2. Directional emissivity, t;

~ =Energy incident from the black surface·~

~
3. Hemispherical emissivity
Ei =
~ CXi 4. Total emissivity e (T)
But ~ =
1. Spectral emissivity ( ~ )
.. E1 Bi
cc, = -=Bi,
Cii
It represents . the emissivity of a surface at a certain
wavelength.
Thus any body of absorptivity a we can write in general,
2. Directional emissivity (e )
a ; a = E..
Bi, ... (iii)
8

Bu~ Emissivity, e It represents the emissivity in a certain direction where e is

= £.
Ei, ... (iv) the angle between the direction of radiation and the normal to the
surface.
.Therefore from Equations (iii) and (iv) we get,
3. Hemispherical emissivity
Enusgyity, . e = .Absorptivity, a
... (5.5.8)
It .represents the average emissivity of a surface ove r all
directions.

SG<trn1W with CamScarn1w

 'it _HeatTranster (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 5-10 .
4.
Total emlaalv.1~ e (T)

It represe~ts 'th . . . . t
. h

e em1ss1v1ty averaged over all waveleng s. · _UniJ of solid angle is steradian (Sr).
Tberefore, ·
Referring to Fig. 5.7.2, consider an elem .
. entat br. .
.Total emissi ve power of temperature, area dAi at 'O' with OM as normal ~o it '4Ck '
e (T) = T of a real surfaces E CT)
Total emissive power of a Nonnal, n
black body at temperature T, ~ (T) z
Where, .E (T) - = - E· O· y and ~ (T) = Cf· 'f' ... (5.6.l)

5.7 Intensity of Radiation (I) and Solid

. Angle (oo) · · o+ (MU - Dec. 09)

The radiant energy falling on a surface is from· aU directions.

Thus the effect of radiation on the surface depends on the . x y
directional distribution of energy. TI1is effect can be analysed by
considering the concept of intensity of radiation and the solid Fig. s. 7.2 : Distribution of radiation emitted f'rolll a"" ..
angle. ""-'I~

Consider any direction OP at an angle 8 from th

e norniai
5.7.1 Solid Angle (ro) direction.
-o+ (MU - Dec. 09)
The normal area dA as viewed from M will be (dA.
. . ~~~
when viewed from P. ·

Let, dro Solid angle around the line OP

=
. "-•
Nonnal area to radius, r of a sphere moL!

solid angle dw through which the emitted

radiations are passing through

dA"
Then, dro = .•. (5.?.2)

where, d An = (r sin 0 · dq>) r d0

.
Note : Solid angle subtended by the complete hemisphm :
Z1t r 2
=- 2 - =21t ...(5.7.3) .
r

r 5.7.1.1 Solid Angle between Two Elementary

Areas
The solid .angle subtended by elementary area d~ at dA1 C3I
be written as :
dA2 ·cos132
dro ;;;;
••.(5.7.4J :
2
Fig. s.7.1 : Solid angle subtended, by a finite area A2 on r

_
_ elementary area dA 1

~~~~~~~~~~-------------------------------------------------~--~'P'~~~
,.u1c1'
- .. --- '

~~~~~~~---------i &;.ir u1Wwilt1 Ca rnScm 111t11

 . ~ . .

5-11 . Radiation H~at Transfer ··

:• : -

.. . (5.7.5)

Fig, 5.7.4: Energy emitted by a sudace in dltTerent directions

j

i' cJ1'- Relatlonshlp between emlsslve power and normal

! .
Intensity
I ·

I The intensity of radiation from Equation (5.7.6) can be

Written as:
!
'. ·. . Solid angle between two elementary surfac =
~· ~ de de = i · dro .. . (i) "
/ dro
1 fig· intensity of Radiation (i)
: 5,1.Z From Lambert's pri~ciple,

i = ill. cos 13 ... (ii)

From Equations (i) and (ii), the emissive power can be

obtained by integrating the equation,

Mathematically,
.
t
de
= dc.o
deJ
hemisphere = Ji •. cos '13 '. dc.o ... (iii)
' ... (5.7.6) hemisphere
Using the definition of solid angle, it can.be shown that for a
'J1Je intensity of radiation varies ·in different directions and it unit hemisphere,
· • um· into
~Jila.um
the direction normal to the surface.
dro = 2n sin 13 dl3
5,7.2.1 Lambert Cosine Law Thus from Equation (iii),
+ (MU - Dec. 10, May 12)
13=1t/2
e = 21t i0 J cos 13 · sin 13 · dl3
13=0
rr.12
= 1t · i 0 J 2 sin 13 cos 13 · dl3
0
1t/2
Intensity of radiation in any direction is proportional to the e = 1t · i. · J sin 2j3 · dj3
isine of the angle made by that dir~tion with the normal is 0
iown as Lambert cosine law.
Refening to Fig. 5. 7.4

... (5.7.7)
lere',
~ = Intensity of radiation (maximum) in normal ... (5.7.8)
direction to the surface. where, eb is the emissive power of a black body.
~ =· Angle made from nonnal direction by the Thus, the total emissive power Qf a diffuse surface over a
direction in which i is measured.
hemisphere is equal to n times the intensity of radiation in normal
: i
direction ( in ).

...:.
 ... . .·. .

_
$_ HeatT · ·
ransfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 5-12 .
d~· cos ~2
Syllab · ·
ua Topic : Radiation Heat E~change between
dro1-2 = L
2

Black Bodies
'."0):
The rate of intensity of radiation emitted by d . · · -: :: ·
. ·, A1 ind· - . ·
of dA:i (using Equation (5.7.7)), · . -~
s.a Heat·Exchange between Two Finite
Black Surfaces by Radiation = =
in• COS f3 1 ibl COS 1} 1
"·Gi) ·
The
radiant heat energy exchange . between two surfaces But in .. ib (radiation of black bocty)
depends on :
Therefore the rate of radiative energy, dQ lea . .
1. • I Ying the
The geometric arrangement between the two surfaces.
dAi that strikes dAz can be wntten as, ~
2. The type of separating medium. ·
dQ1 = dw 1 _ 2 x ib1 x area
(Though radiation does not need any medium however,
certain mediums may interfere with propagation of radiatio_n ( dA2. cos f32)
dQ1 = L2 x (ibl x cos ~1) x dAI
by absorption, emission or scattering of radiation e.g; in case ···(iiij

radiation having medium like ammonia, C02, CO. water 1t X i0 = 1t X ibl ;

~) =
vapour etc.) 4
~1 crT1
3. The characteristics of the surfaces. ibl = n =7 using this in Equation (iii),
In order to simplify the problem ·of heat exchange, we
assume: · cos f31. cos f32) .
•• dQI = ( . 1t L.
2 • dA1. d4 • P.
'"2 -bl
1. Heat exchange is between the black surfaces since these are
perfect absorbers as well emitters.
...(S.8.t)
2. Radiation is in vacuum or air as medium which does not
interfere with radiations at low temperatures. Similarly the rate of radiative energy, dQ2 leaving~ that

strikes dA 1 can be written as :

cos f31 • cos f3z 4
2
xdA 1 ·dA2 ·cr·T2 ...(5.81)
1t L

Since surfaces considered are black, the net rate of tu

Normal, n
I
I
I
transfer,
I

dQ = (Energy radiated, dQ 1- Energy absorbed d0i)

cos f31 • cos f32 4 ~

dQ = -~-__..;;. dA 1· dA2·a (T1 -T2) ... (5.8.3)
1t Lz

Fig. 5.8.1 : Heat exchange between two finite bJack surfaces · The heat transfer rate from A 1 to A2 can be obtained by
. . .

Consider two black surface A1 and A2 with elementary areas integrating the Equation (5.8.3) over the areas A1 and Ai as

dAi and dA respectively at 'L' distance apart· as shown in follows:

2
Fig. 5.8.1. .
Let and 132 be the angles made by dA 1 and dAz by their Q =
131
. nonnals to the line joining their centers.
respect ive . .
The solid angle subtended by dA2 on dA1

(using .Equation (5. 7.4)),

Scarvied with Ca mScarmer

 . · · · -······ ·--· -· --~--

, ...

w
DEPINmON

.... (5.8.4) The . shape factor is a Iso called as view factor,

. ··,. . [. cos /11 •cos Pi ] conftguratlon factor or angle factor.
· ,m ffA1 A1f ti · L2 ·dA1 ·dA2 is called the
'{he te J . Referring to Fig. 5.8. 1, the total en~rgy emitted by surface Ai•
F which depends on the geom~tric parameters of
~
fa•'°" i1 . .

• d¢ surface.
. 1 f f cos 13. ·.cos 132 . . The energy intercepted by surface 2,
factor, Fu·= A1 7t L2 dA1 •dA2 .. . (5.8.5)
·: Sf!Spe · A1 A2 ·

'JbeEqUa .
tion (5.8.4) can be rewritten as :
4 4
Q = a·A 1 ·F12 ( T 1 -T )
2 ... (5.8.6)
5.9.1 Reciprocal Relation

Referring to Fig. S.8.1 and using Equation (5.8:5), the shape

Syllabus Topic : Radiant Shape Factor Algebra
factor of surface 1 with respect to surface 2 is,

s.9 Radiant Shape Factor Algebra F12 =

1
A
f f cos 131 •2cos l3i . dA1 • dA2 .
. .. (i)
IA A L .
I 2

The net heat transfer

It follows from above :

. .. (5.9.1)

Above relation is known as reciprocal relation or reciprocity

theorem. ·
 '1' . HeatTransfer (MU-Sem
·
5-Mech) 5-14
5.9.2 I .
mportant Points Regarding Shape
Factor 6.

7. Shnpe foctor when two surfaces nre forn

-&Cllrld .

- - - - - - - - -........ ~llatatic1
1. Reciprocal relatlonshlp and Its lmpo..~
•...nee
The shape foctor F 12 and F21 are related by

Ai. F 1 ~ =A2 • F21 the reciprocal Equntion (S.9.I).

This equntion is of grent importance and util'
uy Whcnevc
1
shnf'(l factor of one of the two surfaces is unity. tlt

Such n cnse occul'li when one of the! surfac .

. e is cnct0scd .
I.
Re:cip.I"IX'al rel:iticmiliip 30J its impomm~ another surface nnd the inner surfoce is convex. ~

2. 0.:-pe-nde.n~ cf wpc f~lor The r'CllSOll is that the radiated energy of in

ntr Surface .
3. -~lo~ tlx\.~m cC1mpletely intercepted by the outer surface 9.lld u
not \iee.
4. s~ f3'.""!'C'.f Ql :t rurfacc \\ith fC~pc'CI 10 i•~df. F1 I
s. Adi!itiv~ r..tl~fation between ~h."1,pc fac1ors Thi: shape factor of other surface equals to the rat/
0 ofar111J
of rite two l·11rfaces provided one of tlie surface L
. 'IUJ shizr,t
f acwr t'qua/ ro I.

Th~ ~-'":l!""~ \\\hlcb :iffo..'"1 the ~

f:Jl..-C...~ --e :

'The :tt';!~ bt:u't!' a:.::D01 he ca1culated

an.aly:rclty ~~ for £imple f.eDrnetI)'.

Thl!s;. di.tt !b4"ft ( J:JC!.Of ii; tJ t;Ually

~:...~I'Jtd by n:tm"...mw m~tllods.

The srupe fi!Jdf:Jr for ft Q.' ru::1r1dard fhape~

att .s.rou.n in Fig. S.9. J to Fig. 5.9.3

~'"pt"ctiv~ 1.Y.
X/L

Fig, 5.9.1 : Shape factor for ullgned parallel plates

Scanned with CamScanoer

 .. ,. ., -- : ~\

- ~~
. .... 1;

, ....... ,
T....l . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -.. . .-.. ... . . . _. . ·--.... . . ... . .
o.s .......... . .. T......--r. . r -T . . r ........ \
: .~ :',
... :.': ..
_;
VIX - 0 .02 z . '"'
--r -
v/~ v -
0 .4 1--~k...--
7 .

--
0
20
0
~;;~t;;;.J_;;_-.;;;;;;j-~X::-Li-J.-.i.l-W---t------
--- - .. ~- -- ~.••_....___ .... ·- -.... _ _.._ _ ,_ __.__ _ _ , , _......_ ......__..__, ... _ i.--

0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10

(Z/X)

Fig. 5•9.2 : Shape factor for perpendicular rectangles with common edge

1.0~;m~~
0 .9

0.8 ·L .

• 0.7
N
0.6
u:-
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 2 3 4 6 8 10
L/r1

Fig. 5.9.3 : Shape factor between tWo coaxial parallel disks

Scanned with ComScanner

 •
3.
- Heat iranster (MU-Sem 5-Mech)

Enclosure theorem
5-16

Consider an enclosure of n surfaces and each is maintained at

different temperature.

- Then each surface will exchange radiant energy with the

remaining (n - l) surfaces.

Consider any surface say (m)"' surface. The radiant energy Flat or convex surfaces 2 and 3

leaving the (m)"' surface, the fraction of this energy will be F1g. 5•9.4 : Radiant energy of a surface I intercepted
· . . (concave surfaces) by1fatir
intercepted by n surfaces considering that the energy is also
intercepted by its own surface. S. Additive rule-relation between shape factor,

Refer Fig. 5.9.5. The shape factor between two sun: .

Shape factor Fmn as the fraction of energy leaving the surface
a'nd A 2 is equal to the sum of the shape factor of two llreas~ A1
m and heading towards surface n can be written as FlllD' Then,
A, made up from Area Ai· Accordmg
. Iy, Ai ~
n=n

!: Fmn = l form = ], 2,. .. , n

n=J •.. (5.9.3)
Above relation is also called as summation relation.
It follows that :
However, F 21 -:F F31 + F41

'. .. (5.9.2)

A1

Equation (5.9.2) is called enclosure theorem.. Fig. 5.9.5 : Relation between shape factors if one of
the surface 2 Is made up of two surfaces 3 and 4
4. Shape factor of a surface with respect to Itself, F11
6. Shape factor F12 If convex surface 1 Is kept In en
(a) F11 = F22 = F33 = ..... Fno = 0 enclosure of surface 2
(For nat and convex surfaces) From reciprocity rela~on :

Ai F12 = Ai_·F21> But F12 =1 I

('.. Total radiant energy diffused from surface l reaches lo ,

surface 2)
(i) Flat surface (ii) Convex
... (S.9.4)

(b) F11 , F22 • .... Fn.a '# 0 in case of concave surfaces since
7. Shape factor when two surfaces are large and
the ene~gy leaving the surface 1 may also be intercepted
parallel
by itself as shown in Fig. 5.9.4.
·: All radiations emitted one surface reaches to the~
surface (i.e. A 1 =Az), it implies :
9
.F - F - 1 (Distance between· parallel surtaces is small) ...(S. .5l .
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J_~1:2~-~2~1--~-=-~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ·~·1ui1llrll
~........

d
 - ..
_
.. . ! ..

. ..
.Radiation Heat Transfer
Two concentric cylinders .
.+ (MU - May 16)

";·'·
I "

;
-''
~
I
1
Ii Consider two black concentric cylinders of diameters d i and
.! .d2 as shown in Fig. 5.9.7.
herlcal shape
tternIsP .
j,

ConSI'der· a black. hemispherical cavity of radius 'r' surface

1
th flat plate 2 on its top .as shown in Fig 5 9 6 B Fig. 5.9.7: Heat exchange between h~o concentric cylinders.
!laving e · • • • · Y
eocJosure theorem : By enclosure theorem:

F11 + F12 = ...(i) Fil +F12 = 1 .. . (i)

F21 +F22 = ... (ii) F2j +F22 = 1 ... (ii)
But F22 = 0 (since a flat surface).
From Equation (ii) But Fil = O.(Since cylinder sµrface is convex)
F21 +0 = ... (iii)
(Assume cylinder 1 is completely enclosed by 2)

.. F12 = 1
. .. (iii)
Using reciprocal relation :

A1 F12 = Az' F21

A1 A1 d1
F21 = -xp
Az
- - x l=r1
12- Az -i · . .. (i v)
F1g. 5.9.6: Shape factor of hemJ-spberical cavity
with flat plate over it On substituting F 21 from Equation (iv) in Equation (ii),

By reciprocal relation,

A1 F1 2 = Az · F21 [But F21 =1 from Equation (iii)]

F12 = -A1A2x 1- -A1Az- ... (iv)
... (5.9.7)

From Equation {i) an~ (iv), Therefore, a fraction of ( 1 - ~J rad~ations will fall b ac
itself on surface 2.

3. A tube with cross-sectlo·n of an equilateral

i.e. Fu =t or 0.5
... (5.9.6)
triangle

Refer Fig. 5.9.8.

· It shows that 50% of radiations emitted by surface 1 Froni summation rule,

lhemj h
s ericaJ Surface) will fall back.
F11 + F 12 + F13 = 1

•------ Scanned w ith Ca111Scan11er

 Heat Tr . R . .. .:
ans1er (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 5-18 adration Ii
· . :, ..
:11

&at l'r ,_. ""

F~l + F22 + F23 = 1. . .. (ii) (b) JrradJadon, G: .represents the total radi ~
. ant cncr
F31 + F32 + F33 = .. . (iii) per unit time per unit area from ·all . gy ~ ···.
. djl'ecti ,V!4
In each of t1 . . wavelengths. Ottg .-~
ie above equations :
Thus by above definitions,
Fil =F22 =F33 = 0 (For flat surfaces)
and J = P·G+e=p·G+E·t;,
F 1 =F . R
2 13 • 21 =R23 ;. F31 = F32 (By geometry) " ·(S lO
. :I)
Where, p = reflectivity of surface ;
••• F12=F13 ·= 05
• ;
F21 = R23 =05
· andR:ii =F:i2 =05·
e = emissive power of surface

e = emissivity of surface

~ = . emissive power of black body.

5.10.1 Net Radiation Heat Exchange from

Surface and Electrical Analogy : ~
(Radloslty-lrradlatlon Approach)
CD · Refer-Fig. 5.10.l(a).
Fig. 5.9.8 : He~t e.x change in an equilateral triangle
The net energy leaving the surface
Syllabus Topic: Radiation Heat Exchange between Q
Non-Black I.e. Grey Bodies A= J-G

. From Equation (5.10.1),

5.10 Heat Exchange Between Grey J = pG+et;,
...(ii)
Bodies
. ~ (MU· Dec. 14)
G

.,.__a (b)

(a)
So far we have onJy .·discussed the radiant heat exchange
Fig. 5.10.1: Energy transfers from a gray body
between bJack bodies in which the body absorbs the entire
radiation. Now we shall discuss the radiant heat exchange between -For opaque, diffuse and grey surface we can wri~e.
grey bodies. By definition, a grey body is the one which has its
p+a+'t = 1 ;
absorptivity, a equaJ to emissivity, £ in thennal equilibrium
i.e. a= e
But 't =0 for opaque surface and E =a for grey surface
;, p + E+0 = 1 p = 1-£ ...(iiil
er Assumptions
On substituting the value of p ·from Equation (iii) in
1. All surfaces have unifonn temperature. Equation (ii),
2. All reflections and emissions are diffuse. . J-E~
J = (1 - e) G + E Ci, ; : . G =(1-£} ...(5.10.2)
:3. All surface$ are grey and opaque.

We recall the following terms : On substituting the value of G from above equation in
Equation (i) we get,
(a) Radiosity, J : represents the totaJ amount of energy ~mitted J)
Q (] - E ei,) J - eJ - J + £ t1, _:!~ :_
from a surface per unit time and per unit area. It includes both A = J _ (1 _ E) = (l _ £) = (1- e)
reflected and emitted energy. ---
----~~::::==~=-==~-------=----------------------------:-----.!------------~-----------------------------.•~·~1-~
•11•i1t1ll'''

d
Scanned w ith Ca mSca nner
 5·19 Radiation Heat Transfer_.

... (5.10.3) 1
J1
f R- - - -
A1.F12
J2
01-2
.. V'M
~
:- Analogy -
1,ctrlCll1
1 1. (J1- J2)
· rl' e: -atiOO (5. t0.3) provides the
. basis
. for equivalent electrical
fiQU radiation shown m Fig. 5.10.2.
~forheal
(ltl!/10
(b) Electrical network wa"th space resistanceurfaces
Fig. 5.10.3 : Radiant heat exchange between grey s -

. ~ A are mam and

. tained at uniform
!J..
Let suuaces 1 • "2 lively
. . "tY as. e 1 and Ez respec
temperatures T 1 and Tl having emissivt ·

with radiosity as 11 and12. .

(a) Fraction of energy leaving the surface 1 and reaching to

... (i)
fig. 5.10• z:Surface
. resistance to radiation heat transfer surface 2, Q 1 = A 1 · P12·11

. (5.10.3) with ohm's law equation,

. g the Equation
compann . (b) Fraction of energy leaving . the surface 2 and reaching to
.Ywehave: surface 1, Q 2 =Al · F21 • Jl ... (ii)
l"R
rresponds to current flow, I. ~et
. radiation energy exchange be t ween the surfaces,
(a) Q..i co . _ .

(b) '(ei,- ~ J).eorrespo~ds v -. Q 12 - . A 1 F, 12 J I -• Ai· F21 ·· 12

. - 'to potenti3.t differenee, ., . . . .. . - •'
... (iii)
By reciprocal relation,
(c) (I _ r,)/£A corresponds to resistance, R called surface
rcs1s. tance to radiation. A1 · F12 .:;:; Ai· F11
Hence Equation (iii) reduces to ;
5.1o.2 Net Heat Exchange between Two G_rey
Bodies/Surfaces

+ (MU· Dec.14) The corresponding

electric
· al network 1·s shown in
Fig. 5.10.3(b) in which the space or shape resistance,
R12 == (UA1 • F1J_.

By combining the Equations (5.10.2) to (5.10.4), the overall

equivalent electrical network takes the shape as shown in
Fig. 5.10.4.
Consider two grey surfaces A 1 and Ai, having radiant heat R1 ·
eb1
R2
exchange as shown in Fig. 5. I 0.3(a). RJ
eb2
.~
j
2 -a21

/. R,=-
1-&1
ll1A1 R :--1_
1 -E2
2 A1F12 •. R3=--=-
&2..A2
Fig. 5.10.4 : Equivalent electrical circuit for radiant heat
exchanges between two grey surfaces

, , Ql-2 =

Fig. S.t0.3(a) : Radiant heat exchange

.. . (S.10.S)
1
~ where, R and R3 _are called surface resistance and R as

,,.
.
I .
space resistance.
----------------.;._-------------------------------:---------------------------------------
2

Scooned With C3mScn~

 . "'l~A:'f11~
I ~
- ...

. . ;::?{-~

• Heat Tran~ter (MU-Se.m 5-Mech)

Syllabus Topic : Electrlcal Network Approach for .

5-20

s.11.2
. .
Radiation Heat Exchange betw _ \
9911
Two Concentric Infinitely Long ~ 1
Radiation Heart · -:, ·:_,
~Sier i

'3te11 1
Radiation Heat Exchange eylinde~s · ' .\
!
5.11 Application of Electrlcal Analogy to Refer Fig. S.l 1.2. Rewriting Equation (5.10.5),

Thermal Radiation Heat Exchange a (T~ -T~)

Problems ···(i)

s.11.1 Two Parallel Infinite Plane Surfaces

Let. R.z and R1 ~ . ~e radii of outer .and io1 :·· _cYlindcii
~ (MU - Dec.12)
respectively having effilSStvtty as~ and £1.

·: F
11
+F12 = I (But F 11 = 0);

(": Inner cylinder I surface is co

nvex)

Refer Fig. 5.11. l. In this case, On substituting the value of F12 in Equation (i) we get

A1 = A 2 =A (say) (Infinite long surfaces) cr ( T1 -Ti

4 4)
By reciprocity rule.

. ..(5.11.2)
F21 = l (Large plane surfaces closely placed)

Fi:om Equation (5.10.5), the net heat exchange is:

where,
er (T;-T:)

er · A; (T; - T~)
= --1
I I I
+-+--1
e, I ~

cr · A(T; - T;2 .. .(5.11.1)

= J_+J_- I
£1 ~

R1 R2 R3

~ ~
A1e1 A1F12 A2e2

-4 -4
cr(T1 -T 2 )

Fig. S.11.2 : Two concentric infinitely long cylinders

Fig. 5.11.l : Radiant beat exchange between
two infinitely long plane surfaces

Sca nned with ComSc<mner

 · ~nsfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) .
f_ Hellt Ir .
Y:: ,, ~adiatlon Heat E"change
. between
5.11.,, rwo concentric Spheres ·
· . (S l 1.2) derived above is applicable since p _
i:,quaUoll • ' · 12 - 1
·ng enclosed in outer sphere) except that:
here bet
r.oJletSP z 2
t• • At :: 41t R! and Az = 41t R;

Radiative heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced .

by following two methods :

Using the materials which are highly reflective.

In this case the emissivity of the surface is sinall and the
surface resistance [ (l - e) / .eA) when i-t 0, approaches to
infinity.

Since e = (l - p) for opaque materials it indicates that by

. using highly reflective surface the vaiue of p tends to bec~me
I :......
·;.:..·....:..:...· .. s. . i...~;;;;;;;· a...d; ;i; ;~t; ;i; ;o; ;r-Si; ; ;h; ;i.,. e...ld~.'~;;;:-;;;:·=...=·'.·-=
ia.-0..0... ·T...0...·i>...
sy._1.. R=· ·,_-~;;;;.: <·>t<\:::_,'.,-~h~s: ;~ -~ed~~s
heat transfer by radiation. .

s.12 Radi arion Shi e Ids 2. By introducing a third surface in between two grey
surfaces called radiation shields.

These surfaces must be highly ~eflecting and have low

thickness. These radiation shields donot either add or remove
energy from the system. However, these shields add space
resistances !ifid reduce the radiative heat transfer.

Radiaiion shields . are widely used in high temperature

measurement ·by thermocouples to reduce error in
temperature measurement and to reduce heat losses in
thermos flask.

II" Analysis of radiation shields

A pair of
infinite
plates

-
Q/A

Radiation shield ®
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.12.1 : Analysis of radiation shields

 ·JI. Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) . 5-22

Refer Fig. 5.12.1 and assuming T1 > T , the heat flow rate
2
without shield will b~ (Refer Fig. 5.11.1) ·

Heat flux, er (T;-T~) ·.·

ql2 = l 1 ... (i)
-+--1
E1 Ez •..(\'!)

Now a radiation shield having both side emissivity E3 is

Since ~ is very small, hence denominator of aboye
placed between the surfaces 1 and 2. Under steady state conditions,
·· wi'll be very large. Therefore, there shalt br 11
the radiation shield will attain a temperature T3• Under this expression . ery lairi
· reduction ofq12 to q11"
. condition, the radi.ation received by shield from surface 1, the same
If Ei = Ez = ~ = e, Equation (vi) ~mes :
i:adiations are transferred by the shield to surface 2. It implies that :
a (T41 -T")
CJ (T41 -T34) _CJ ( T43 -T.)
2 '")
2

q, 3 = %2 = 1 1 - 1 1 .. .(u
-+--1 -+--1
E1 ~ ~ Ez

l 1
Let: -+--1 :::: x .. .(iii) .
:··(5.!2.!)
~· ~
1 1
and -+--1 = y .. .(iv)
~ Ez It means ~- 1) is used twice with one shield. Hence,~
Using above substitutions in Equation (ii), Equation (5.12.1) with 'n' shields can be written as,
4

.. T•-T•
4
CJ (T4 -T4)
TI -T
. 3 3 l
1 2
x y = - (with n-shields) ...(5.12.2)
4
qlD (n+ 1) (~-1)
Tl T" T• T•
- + -3 =
I
-x + 2
x y y- oA(T4 4)
1 -T2
.•. (5.l2.2A)
· On taking its LCM and solving. · qlD = (0 + 1) ~- 1)
4 4 4
(x + y) T3 = y · T 1 + x · T2
4 4
y·T1 + ·x · T2
... (v)
(x + y)

On s~bstituting the value ofT: from Equation (v) in Equation (ii),

qt3 =
!![ T (y. T; T;)J
x
4
t
+ x·
(x + y)
= ! (q 12) without shield ... (5.12.3)

4 4 4 4 " Concluslons
= X (X
cr+y) x [x · T I + y · T1 -y · T1 - x · T2]
· ~ ·ts reduced to
With one radiation shield, the net heat trans1er
(J•X (4
·
")
"
CJ(T-T")
I 2 half' i.~. by 50%. By using more number of shields, the spat
q13 = x (x + y) T, - Tz = (x + y)
· ~er ratttOI
- resistance increases thereby reduces the net heat trans

On.substi"t uti" ng the values of 'x' and 'y' from Equations (iii) very large extent..
. respect"vely
and (1v) t
in the above expression we get,

scanned with CamSca noet""

 5-23 Radiation Heat Transfer

f :;_fL

~i~~f~0,~~~~,i~1;.1~·~1~j
7

.,•} ·y",,..,,. ,;Y/lmz

:·
; C\:. =l.4387
. -
x io.:.: «m)A. l~(rri/ti;;~(ffii<
...,, ·,

;?\f.~ii• ,, ..~v.~)'-m" ·T =·0 .0029 (m K) wh~re A.mis the maiimu~\;,,{~el

'S;~1~:.:::c::ti~::m\
~ ·.~ J.·!~-;:}:·f;; . ~ -· - . . ....
. . •.· . , ,' ..·: ,,;~·

f·~~-~ ;,s: r>. (For

:·::,:,·.:>; :·:: : ~ ·
. . black.. bod,,) . ".·... :...:.·._c. '.".~:.'. ..1:.;.{.·;',.:~_.·.; :·

'~~-~,f~r~ri;er sulfa~~s: e =e. cr. r : . E =e. A. a. T4 ' • - . ''j~;N

·>>:::: '.. . . . .·"·· . <.:<--
9": Kifthhofts law: Emissivity, e = Absorptivity, c£(if surfaee is iih
.:/.~. ·-:. . . . . . . . . . . .: ·.· .; :-:.:.;.-:~.:
10.' ' solid angle subtended by dA2 on dA 1 =(dA 2 • cos ~2)/r .· ~/:· J•
. - ·-~ ,' - . . . . . . , ... •.'':; , .. ..~ ;:
r .-.. ,_._: , . - . . .- . "-.·..2_ . •/;;.~,J:.-:.f:.·
iL : Solid angle subtended by dA 1 on dA2 =(dA 1 x cos ~ )/r . .-: . >f·;;;
- ..r: _; ; -... . . 1
, . ,' . , ~ '.." ;"'.

'11: ~~rt cosine rule: i =i.,. ·cos 13

.~· .:... : :· - - • -
and . e ~.~·.:·~ (P~tu ·
• • I' • .t' ,.,, ~"' .,,,,,,

,k:~<r..~r F,, : ~ . j r <-OS P, ' ~0; ~. ~.iF43~

';,'''.''.;~ .•• .• . . · ~ . '. A,' ~ . ~ ~/f~~t:">J.•
>:: :~ ''/.~ R~iproc.aI relatfon. :\: ~i2--:-:. ~::.~.ztJ·i:J:'·
..... .
,- '

k?' TtmK•1
r:Ubflc.

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 Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)

Example 5.12.1
2
A body at 1400 K of area 10 m is kept in black surroundings 8 4
2 = 0.6 x (5.67 x 10- ) x 6 x 800
at BOO K of area 6 m • It has an emissivity of 0.4 at 1400 K
and emissivity of 0.6 at 800 K. Calculate the rate of heat loss = 0:836 x 105 w
by body at 1400 K.
:. Net heat loss = Q1 -Q2 ".'8.713x105 -0.836x 105
Solution: ·
5
Given: T1 = 1400 K, A 1 = 10 m2; T2 = 800 K, = 7.877x10 W ...Ans.

Ei = 0.6 Example 5.12.2

Heat radiated by body at 1400 K, Consider a black body at a temperature of 2000 K.

8 (i) Calculate its total hemispherical emissive power;

Q1 = c1 cr A1 r;=0.4 x (5.67 x 10- ) 10 x 14004
(ii) Calculate the wavelength at which maximum emissive
= power is available from this body.

Heat radiated by body at 800 Kand absorbed by body at 1400 K, State and explain the laws of radiation, which you have used
to calculate the above mentioned quantities.

ii.
Scii nned w ith CnmScanner
 5-25 Radiation Heat Transfer

Solution:
Refer Fig. P. 5.12.4

.,·: :~·: ... · fvepower T.. = 300K; E = 0.&

I -<,•" .- i,;I eJllfSS
,.. fo ..
:- (V .. siefan Bo
ttzmann law, Heat flux, q = lOOOW/m
2
= .Q
A,
I - frOlfl . -s 4
i , . . a r" : : s.67 x 10 x (2000) .
l. .. . e "' h =
) ~-. 9-07200 W/m2 •
•.• Ans.
"' Under ste:idy state condition
. gtb corresponding to max. elllissive power
1
. waveleD . Heat absorbed = Heat rejected
1
(ll) Weins displacement law :
fCOlll _3 2.898 X 10- 3 Q - ~ove<:tion + <2ramatioo
:::: 2.898 x 10 = 2000 4 4)
~·T Q _= hA(T.-T_)+crAe (T.-T- ·

. ". ::: 1.449x10-6 mK ... Ans. '.A . ..)+cre ( T,4-T..4).

Q = . h(T,-T

~3 1000 = 20 x (T.- 300) + 5.67 x 10:...

8
X 0 .8 (T: - 3 oo4_)
lament of 1oo W incandescent light bulb radiates
~Ifi . . 1000 = 20 T, - 6000 + 4.536 x 10-
8 4
T, - 367.4
: into an enclosure at 350 K. Both the bulb and
; enef9Y _ .
· . •
enclosure act as black bodies. Determine the temperature of
· . .
8
4.536 x 10- T 8 + 20 T 1
4·
=- 7367.4 =0 ·.
I mefllament of the bulb If it Is 0.12 mm In diameter and s cm
. 1o11gbyconsidering the heat dissipation by radiation only.
· 5o1ut1on : .
I
'
Given: Q = 100 W,
. ..
T1 =350 i:c,
-3 .
d=0.12mm=0.12x 10 m, L=5cm=0.05·m.

Surface area offilament, - Fig. P. 5.12.4

A ·= 7tdL
r•t approximation .
. 20 T, = 7367.4 . Ts~ 368.4 K
= 7tX(0.12x I0- 3)x(0.05)
b~ less than
4
·: 4.536 X·l0-8 T s to be added, actual
. value will
T, =368.4 K
4 4
Q = cr ·,A (T1 - T2)
Let,
340 K ; LHS = 38.76
8
100 = (5.67 x 10- ) x (I.885 x 10- 5) (T; - 3504)
Let
... · . . Ts = 338 K; LHS ; --15.38
T, · = 3110.24 K
... Ans. :. T, = 338. 5 K (Approx)
... Ans.

• t•&)Ciiewttilgi
Y l'wb .llt·At1on!
 Y.
.. Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
5-26 Radiation Hean '!

Solution:
Solution: ~:
. I

2
Given: A= 0.12 m ; T =527°C =527 + 273::: SOQ I(
}..m =0.5 µm
.}
(i) Surface temperature of sun : (a) Total emlsalon of radiation Q

>..mT = 0.0029 mK Q = .cr · A·'f' ..

. ·;
T = 0.0029 =5800 K ••.Ans.
0.5 x 10- 6 = .(5.67 x 10- 8) x o.i2 x 800' =2786.9 w
"·~
(ii) The beat ·n ux at the surface of sun : (b) Intensity of normal radiation, In

~= cr'f4=5.67X10- x (800t_
8
q = at= 5.67 x io- 8 x 58004 =64.16 MW/m2 •••Ans. I.= 1t 1t 1t

Example 5.12.6
= 7392.5 W/m1 sr
A black body emits radiation of maximum intensity at a ···~
wavelength of 0.5 µm. Calculate its surface temperature and (c) wavelength of max monqchromatlc emlaalve
emissive power. State the laws of radiation heat transfer, power, Arr,
which you have used to solve this problem.
From Wien's Displacement Law:
Solution:

Given : A,.,~ = 0.5 µm

)..m T = 0.0029 mK
0.0029 0.0029
1) The surface temperature of the body, T. >-m ·= -=r-=soo
According to Wein's displacement law,
~
,, "'m = 6
3.625 x 10- m
A...a,. • T = 2829 µmK
= 3.625µm ...Ans,
= ~ = ~;
2 9
T =5658K •.. Ans.
Example 5.12.8
2) Emlssive power ( e,, ) A black surface is maintained at 5000 K. Find :

~ = T' =5.67 x 10- 8 x 5658

(1·
4 (i) Heat flux due to thermal radiation.
(ii) Maximum ·value of monochromatic emission power
~ = 58.107 x 106 W/m 2 . . •. Ans. and the wave length at which it occurs.
The law used to calcuJate the temperature and emissive power are : (iii) Fraction of radiations emitted between A. 1 =0.5 µ mto
"2=0.7µm
(1) Wein's displacement law: It gives the relationship between
Solutlon:
the temperature of black body and the wavelength at which
the maximum value of monochromatic emissive power T = 5000K
occurs and given as Am • T =0.0029 mK ,
(I) Heat flux due to radiation, qb for black body ·
(2) Stefan-Boltzmann Jaw : The emissive power of a black body
is proportional to fourth power of it's absolute temperature <lb = 0. T4 =(5.67 x 10- 8) x 50004
- and given as q a T'. = 35437.5 X 10 W/m2 =35437.5 kW/m
3 2
••• Am. .

Example 5.12.7
(II) Maximum value of monochromatic emlsslve
Effective temperature of abody having an area of 0.12m 2
is
power, ebA and wavelength, Am
527°C. Calculate the following :
a) Rate of radiation energy emission
From Wien's law, the condition for maximum emissive poweris,
b) Intensity of normal radiation
c) Wavelength of maximum . monochromatic emissive A.m • T = 0.00298 mK
power

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 f{':( <,:. :·, . ·. '. ..·. u:
~;/,. ,.· : · !Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
,, -JI !'lea .. . .
'! ~ '!', . .· .o.00298 -6 5-27
) · ~ == 5000" =0.596 x 10 =
m 0, I.Un
596 Radiation Heat Transfer
...Ans, · Example 5.12.1 o
·. , pJ~ck's law :
·.; ·. ftolll 2n: C1 · One side of metallic plate absorbs a heat flux of 1000 W/m2•
.. Ct>\ . == A.5 [e<CIA T) - 1) It's other side is Insulated. The emissivity of surface is 0.8
and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 20 W/m2 K:
Ambient is maintained of 300 K. Dete'nnine the temperature
of plate under steady state conditions.
Solution:

Heat flux absorbed, q. = 100 W/m2, e =0.8,

. 13 /m.2
:: 4.018X 10 W . h = 0W/m2 K,
...Ans.
~ F~ctlon. of radiations emitted
.
between Let T1 be the temperature of plate.
~ =o.s µm to "'2 =0.7 µ~
Rate of Heat absorbed Ra~ttedofbheat flux u· + radiation
=transnu y convec on
;,.1 T = 0.5 x 5000 =2500 µm K and
q. == h(T.1 -TJ+e·cr(T41 -T)
4
2
t.z T = 0.7 x 5000 =3500 µm K
1000 = 20 (T1 - 300) + 0.8 x (5.67 x 10~ 8) (T;- 3004)
fo·- or fo-o.5 = 0.38294 - 0.16137 0.22157 =
1000 :: 20 Tl - 6000 + 4.536 [ (~J- G~)]
· Radiation between Ai= 0.7 µm and 0.5 µm,

I 1..,-.. ..i
I
("· 1~4 =10-8)
= 0.22157 x 35437.5 =7851.9 kW/m2
...Ans.
1535.1-4.386T1 = (~J-81
Example 5.12.9 T1 )4 .
( too) + 4.386 T -:-1616.f = O ;
1
The sun may be assumed to be a black body having its
maximum intensity of radiations at A. = 0.5 µm. Calculate the On solving by trial and error method,
surlace temperature of the sun and the heat flux at the
surlace of sun. ...Ans.
Example s.12.11
Solution:

Given: Maximum wavelength, A.m 0.5 µm = = 0.5 x 10- 6 m The. furnace of a boiler may be assumed as a black body
having a temperature of 2500 K. Find the following :
ro Temperature of sun, T (i) Wavelength at which emission is maximum and the
magnitude of emlssive power at this wave length.
Using Wien's displacement law, (Ii) Total emlssive power.
~·T = 0.002898 mK (ill) Monochromatic emlssive power at wavelength of
1 µm.
T = 0.002898 - 5796 K
o.5 x w-6 ...Ans. (iv) Consider the furnace as real body having emissivity as
0.92, find its emissive power.

VQ Heat flux at the surface of sun, qb The area of f~rnace is 2 m2•

Solution : T =2500 K, A 2 m2• =

'ho = (T. T" = (5.67 x 10- 8) (5796)4

(I) Maximum wavetength,.'-n, and maximum

= 6.3988 x 10 W/m
7 2
•••Ans. emlsslve power, (Eb)m0.

0
A.m . = · ·~:8 ·= t.1592 x 10- 6 m ....Ans.
'.
~

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 Radiation H · .·J
HeatTr
. ansf er (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
5-28 eatlr~ \
:. Total heat tran'sfer, ~i
i
'!
= Q., + Q,.d. t
Q .t
I

= 2.5137 x 1012 w ••• Ans. \

x 22 x (333~ -213~ iI
8
=10 x 22 x (60-20) + 0.9 x (5.67
. .x 10- )
(II) Total emlsslve power, Eb
'
4
:: 16368.75 w ···Alls,
i
~ = cr ·A· T4 = (5.67 x 10- 8) x 2 x (2500)
Example
. 5.12.13 ~ \i
= 4.42968 x 10
6
w .•.•Ans. · . · lI
Two small surfaces A and B are placed in an .'SO!herrn.,
enclosure maintained at constant temperature coris1.derlld..,"* 1
(Ill) Monochromatic emlsslve power at >.. =1 µm black body.2 The irradiation to the surface by the enc1osure · ~
=
1x10-6 m E .
' bA aooo W/m . The absorption 2 .
of the · surfaces A ·and Bar ~
From Planck's Jaw: 1ooo W/m2 and 6800
. W/m . Under the conditions o1Stea~.e
state find : · · . -1

(i) Absorptivity of each surface. ~

i;;i The temperature and heat flux to each su"ace. \
~.=: J.4387 x tcf
2
where, C1 = 6
0.596 x 10- W/m and 2
m
(iii) Emlssive power of each surface and their emissivity. · \
~ =2 x
1 1
21t x (0.596 x 10- 6) 6
(l x J0-6)S X [e(l.4387 X l?")/(1X10" X 2500) _ t] Solution:
2 2
Given: G =8000 W/m • GaA =1000 W/m ,

.•• Ans.
=2.3799 X 1012 W Go.I!= 6800 W/m.
2

(Iv) ·Total emlsslve power, E when e = 0.92 (I)

Absorptivity of surface A, aA and of surface e I
4
E = E· CJ·A·T4=0.92X(5.67xl0-S)x2x(25D0)
~
= 4.0753 x 10
6
w
•.. Ans. ·: Absorptivity = G
GaA 1000 ...Ans.
Example 5.12.12 .. aA = 0 == 8000 =o.12s
A radiator of rectangular cross-section having dimensions as
GcxB 6800 . •..Ans.
(3 x 2 x 1) m is kept in a room to be maintained at 20°c. The a.a = 0 =8oOo == o.ss
surface temperature of radiator is maintained at 60°C. The
(II) The temperature, T and heat flux to each
emissivity of surfaces of radiator is 0.9. The average
2 surface qA and q8
convective tieat transfer coefficient is 1OW/m K for all sides. I
Find the total heat transfer from ra~iator under steady state Since the enclosure is maintained at constant temperature and '

considered as black body it implies that,

conditions.
Solutlon :· Temperature of enclosure, T = TA :: TB·
Given : Size of radiator= 3m x 2m x lm
2
Thus,
:. Surface area. A= 2 [3 x 2 + 2 x 1+1x3) = 22 m.

T =60°C =333 K ; T... =Z0°C =293 K. Irradiation to the surface = Emission from surface
s
2
€ :0.9, h = 10 W/m K
Total beat transfer into room will take place due to heat ...Aus.·
T :: 612.9 K

-----_:......--------~-------_..;......-~.~~
emitted by radiation into room and by convection. ..,. ,..
.
.... ~~11c 1 1l•'l .
\
l

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a
 . . . -: -·---- ·-=:- _: - .:.-:- . - --

5-29 Radiation Heat Transfer

: . Rate of heat reflected = P A G :....

- 0 ·3 x 0.5 x 10000
.- .. _. . ~d surfaces are at the same temperature). •.. Ans.
·.· . ·1osute
= lSOOW ••• Ans.
,.·. (.'~
. ,..:·.t:1111sslvlty of each ~Urface, EA and Ea
...,,,"' .. .
' (~O . · ,,.;,..,..hoffs Jaw, e =o. Example 5.12.15 black . . · d
·· ~ordiOg ~-
The filament of a 200 W r1ght bulb may be cons1dere
' a
oc The filament
A · ,.. =0.125 and £ 8 =:rt_ =0.85 body radiating into a black surface at 70 · . 'd ring .
' • £,. ::: "'A "."'B ···Ans. diameter is 0.15 mm and length is 6 cm. Consi e
j ·'. 1 e power of each surface e8 and eb
(bl i:1111ss v .
radiation, determine the filament temperature. ·
Solution:
e = a·G
Given : Q12 =200 W ;
.·. e. · - aA. G = 0.12.S x 8000=1000 W/m2
••. Ans.
Filamentl:d1 =0.15mm =O. 15. x 10- ·3 •• L-
. - 6 cm= .0.06 rn,
Cla x G =0._85 x 8000 =6800 W!m2 . ... Ans.

T2 =7oac = 70 + 273 = 343 K

Let T 1 be the filament temper~ture. The radiant heat transfer

is given by the equation :

... (i)

~ soJutlon : Since A 1 = 7t dL is very smaU compared to A

2
, therefore

a = 0.7

T = 500°C =500 + 273 K ::: 773 K £1 = Ei =1 being black surfaces ..

G = 10000W/m 2

2
Thus the Equation (i) reduces to ·: ·
A = 0.5m

CJ = 5.67x 10- 8 W/m2 K4

ro Total heat absorbed =aA G

= 0.7 x 0.5 x 10000

T1 = 5230.6 K or 49S7.6°C
••• Ans.
= 3500W Example 5.12.16
...Ans.
lil Emitted energy = {erAT") x a Calculate the · rate of heat loss from a thermoflask .If the
polished silvered surfaces have emissivities of o.os. The
liquid in the flask is at 100°c and the casing is at 20°c.
Calculate the heat loss if both surfaces are black.
= 7.08 x 103 W ·... Ans.
=
~. BRate of heat reflection, Solution : A 1 A 2 and e1 =Ci= 0.05

1
otopaque surface, -r =1 ('·'a.+ p + 't =1) .

... p :::: 17a.=1 - 0.7

= 1
p = . 0.3

·>-----
_ .. . c - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

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 •.?
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem.5-Me~h) s-3o
Case I. Wh li . (iv) Radiosity of the surface (J)
. · en po shed sliver surfaces

J pG+e.,=p·G+a·A"r4

= (5.67 x 10- 8
) x 0.0256 [(373)4 - (293)4)
= 867.SW
= .17.4 W/m2 ...Ans. ' ' ...~, '

ExampleS.12.18 . · ~
.
Case II : When two surfaces are black,
(i) If the shape factor of a surface w.r.t. itself is
06
!I
may be the nature of this surface ? Exp! . ' What lr

· . a1n With
help o_f a s~et~h. Also sketch and explain the tti~
F1-2 = and
· surface which has no shape factor w.r.t.1tself. 'YiiesOf !
2
(ii) 100 W/m of energy is incident over an opa
. . que surt
maintained at 27°C. Emissivity of this surt ace
= 679.65 W/m 2
...Ans. . ace:: 0-2.
Calculate the amount of energy flux reflected
1rorn ~ ,
Example 5.12.17 · Calculate its radiosity.
A grey opaque surface has an absorptivity = 0.7. It is (iii) The intensity of radiation in a direction norm · I
• 2 . a1to a
maintained at 200°C. It receives an irradiation of black surface 1s 100 W/m . Calculate the intensity I
2 .. I f na
1000 W/m • Its surface area is 0.2 m2 , Calculate, direction making an ang e o 30°.with the normal.Also
(i) rate of heat absorption calculate the emissive power of the surface).
(ii) rate of heat emission Solution:
(iii) rate of heat reflection
(i) Shape factor with respect to itself is the fraction of incidem
(iv) radiosity of the surface.
energy emitted by a surface which gets intercepted by ilse!f. •
Solution: I
Since given body has shape factor with respect to itselfis0.6,
Given: a.= 0.7, Temperature T = 200°C it is the concave surface as shown in Fig, P. 5.12.l&(a).

Irradiation, G = 1000 W/m2 , surface area A =0.2 m2 ... Am. :

(i) The total radiation absorbed

= ex x A x irradiation, G = 0.7 x 0.2 x 1000

= 140W ...Aris.
Hemispherical cavity
(ii) Rate of heat emission = (cr· A · T4)(0.7)
= (5.67 x 10-
8
) (0.2) (200 + 273/ x 0.7 Fig. P. 5.12.18(a)

= 397.33 w ...Ans. :

~
I
'

(iii) Rate of heat reflection '

'

For opaque surface, transmissity, 't = 0

:. Absorptivity, a+ reflectivity P =1 (".'ex+ P + 't = l)

Plane surface convex
surface I
Fig. P. 5.12.lS(b)
p= I -a=0.3
till !
·. with respet .
Plane _o r convex surfaces have shape factor ,,.Ao> :
Rate of heat reflected, =p x A x irradiation,
itself as zero. (Refer Fig. P. 5.12.18(b))

___ .G = 0.3 x 0.2 x 1000

_;_~-----~-_:__:__
=60 w
_
... Ans.
_;,__ ______ ~___,,;_;,__ __ ~
~--- .,-~, '·

_ _____ \.oUI,,_-~--~---

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___:j
 r--.•
J~~f
.i2}::f j f'llBI
.. . .
· ·Tran•'"'
.·..;-- ":,·· . ·· 1ra~n~sf~e~r(~M~U~-~s::e~m~5~·~M~e:;c~hl----~--~5-~3~1------------~A~:ad~l:a!!tio~n~H::e:a~t:=~-=--
~-:~ : . ~t)', J . •-,
' - ,· 'Jl'dl . 2 By reciprocal relation.
/·\i0:· . ,. 100 W/m;
: . .. t11•': a .
·: Gi,.ell : ei,"'1;
O
t:1,.. .2 •
T =27°C
.
=300 K ... (iv)

J = £1 Ci. + (I - .£1) G
On substituting in Equation (i)
. ~er of block body,
j!llrlssive po ... (v)
= 0 • T4 =5.67 x 10- 8 x 3004 =459.27 W/m2
. ei.
e = £ •eb = 0.2 x 459.3 A1 = . al surface
base surface area+ vertic · area

91.8SW/m
2 = ~D2 +1tDH
...Ans.

0 = ~·
(1 - £) •

= (1 - £) G + £ 11,

= (1 _ 0.2) I 00 + 91.85
= 171.85 W/m 2

(iii) Given: Intensity of radiation, In= 100 W/m2 ; ~ = 30°

:. Intensity, I= I~ cos f3 = 100 cos 30 = 86;60 N/m2 ... Ans.

i----D-_..,.

EmJsslve power, e
Fig. P.,S.12.19

11. 02
On substituting, F 11 = 1------ 7t
1-
4

~[4DH+ 0 2 ]
2
nDH+4D

e = 100 x 3.1412 =314.12W/m2 •.. Ans. = 1

D 4H+D-D
4H+D= 4H+O
4H
= 4H+D

Example 5.12.20
Solution:
A sphere of radius 5 cm is concentric with another sphere.
Refer Fig. P. 5.12.19. Find the radius of outer sphere so that shape factor of outer
By enclosure theorem sphere w.r.t. the inner sphere !s 0.6. _
• ·., .
. Solution: '·
... (i)
Refer Fig. P. 5 .12.20.
2
... . (ii) Given : A 1 =4 1t r 1 ;

But, F - o (S' · · .
t' 22 - ince surface 2 is a flat surface and it ~annot
-~ . . ~ Since inside sphere (r 1) is totally enclosed in outer sphe re (r ).
=
therefore, F 11 0 ~.- 2

By enclo.sure theorem, F 11 + F 1., = 1 ' e p

'.:(iii) .. 1• • 12 =1

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 .
.
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 5-32 Radiation Heat l . . .'-:'. j
. ran.. · ,
. ~ :
We know that F12A1 = F 21 A 2 (Reciprocal relation)
F 12 A 1 x1
.. Az = A----
I F21 - F21
2
2 47t r 1 x 1
41t r 2 = F21
2
2
r2 =
..5.. - (0.0~!) 2
.
F21 - 0.6

r2 = 0.0645 m =6.i&S cm ... Ans.

From Equation (i),

= I - F 1 ..: 2
.
( ••• F, -1 =0 being straight. plane SllrfilCe)
.
= 1- 0.i'65 =0.835
" •(Vi)
Substituting the values from Equation (vi) in Equati'
on (v)
r r
f3-1 = F1-3x2L =0.835 X2[

Fig. P. 5.12.20 5
F3 - I . = 0.835 x 2"Xi'5 =0.139 ...(Vii)
Example 5.12.21
The radiation shape factor of the circular surface of a thin Substituting from Equation (vii) in Equation (iv),
hollow cylinder of 10 cm diameter and 15 cm length is 0.165.
F3 _ 3 = 1 - 2 X F3 - 1 = 1 - 2 X 0.139 =0.721
What is the shape factor of the curved surface of the cylinder
with respect to itself ?

Solutfon : Given : d 1 .=dz= 10 cm i.e. r 1 =r2 =5 cm;

L = 15cm; F1 _ 2 =0.165

Solution : Refer Fig. P. 5.12.22

:.:: Cir'ci.i1ar.
•. · su11~ce2

. ,..
· :... : . 1~ : ,,_:_~,-~. L:::.1s«:n-(-~_~:~:'.' ~:· .-,
..... :
L =10 cm, F1 _ 2 =0.1716
Fig. P. S.1Z.Z1 : A cylinder ·

The shape factor relation among three surfaces is given by i.---- L =10 an ----<M
(enclosure theorem),
Fig. P. 5.12.22
... (i)
F1 _ 2 = F 2 _ 1 '=0.1716(asA1 =Az)
... (ii)
The shape factor relation among three surfaces is given by
But, F3- 1 = F3-2 (By symmetry) ....(iii)
(enclosure theorem)
· Also, F 1 _ 1 =F2 _ 2 = 0 (since it cannot view itself) ...0)
Substituting Equation (iii) in~o (H),

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 . . . (2)
T2 100°c = 373 K
... (3)
A = xxy=4X2=8m2
4 4
= cr·A·F 12 ·(T 1 -:-T2 )

·= (5.67 x 10-8) x 8 x 0.072 (4734 - 3734)

= 1002.6W •.. Ans.

... (4)

r
. F3-1 = -2LxF1_3
. .. (5)

From E.quation (1)

Fig. P. 5.12.23

= l -F1 _ 2 =I -0.1716:0.8284
Substitute in Equation (5),
r
Fl-I = 2i:XFl-3
5 Solution:
= 2XiO x 0.8284
Blackbody
Fl- I = 0.2071
.. . (6)
Substitute Equation (6) in Equation (4) The body which absorbs entire radiations and emits
maximum radiations is called a block body. It implies that
F3 _ 3 = l-2_xF3 _ 1 =1-2x0.207J P=-r=Oand·a.= 1.

-
Uample s.12.23
= Q.SBSB ·
•.. Ans.
Now,

:. we have
p = 0.55, 't = 0.032

The rectangular surfaces of equal size having dimensions p+-r+cx =

4
2rn x mare Placed parallel to each other at a distance of
temper~ture
5
rn. The .. 0.55 + 0.032 +a =
of surfaces are 100°C and 200°c
~ely. Considering the surfaces to be black, find the
exchange
Fi;=0.012. by radiation between two surfaces. Assume .. ex = 0.41

Soluuon: Now, a = 2a
Q
.Rererfig. P. 5.12.23. .. 0.41 = ~
Q
T1 = 200°c =473 K; ..
:;.....__
. :·. '··.- ~
.
Q = 231.70W/m2
···Ans.
;,·· ~-------------~----------....;__----~
~~0. ii1j~--:"""1-.__
.·
_
.
.......... ,
"'"'"'•'""
.

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 1_1f
.,
-V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 5•34
,
Radiation Heet ~
If~
,_.",'
•-

Example 5. 12.25 fll) Energy emitted by aphere 2 to •Phtra 1 ~

A small sphere - 1 of 0.3 m outside diameter at 600 K kept at It shows that only 25% of radiation energy of large
the geometric centre of a large sphere-2 of Internal diameter 'Phcrt.
incident upon the small sphere and absorbed by it as black ~
of 0.6 m having a temperature ~f 300 K.
since F21 =0.2~ ...~
Calculate :
(I) Shape factor F21 and F12
(Ill) Net heat axchang~ ~twffn two •Phtrtt, a1111
4 4
(ii) Energy emitted from sphere 2 to sphere 1 assuming Q DOI = A1 C1 · F12CT1 -Tz)
their surfaces to act as black body.
(iii) -Net heat exchanged between two spheres.
2
s"olutlon: = 41t co.15) x (5.67 x 10-•> x 1 x c600• _ .l
300
Given: d1 =0.3 m i.e. r1 =0.15 m T 1 =600 K _ _ _ _ _ _ _...Aas.
_...;__ _=_1_94_1._83_w

(I)
_ d2 =0.6 m i.e-. r2 =0.3 m, _T2 = 300 K
Refer Fig. P. 5.12.25.

Shape factor F12 and F21

-
Example 6. 12.26
Two mutually
Fig. P. 5.12.26. Find
perpendlcular
F12·
surfaces are
---
shown In

Solution:
By summation rule (enclosure theorem),
The_radiant energy leaving the surface 1 to 2 is equal to the
difference of the total energy leaving the surfaces 1 and 3 and the
energy lea~ing the surface 3 to 2 i.e.
But Fu = 0 ('•'energy leaving surface 1 strikes itself)
Assuming all surfaces to be black and at the same
...Ans. temperature, then

:. A1 · F12 = Ao + 3> • Po + 3)2 - A3 F32 ...(i)

x = t.2m,

z = 1.2m, Y 0 + 3>= 0.9 m

.. xz = u=
1.2 I
.
Fig. P. 5.12.25

By reciprocal relation,

A 1 F 12 = Az · F21 ;

A1 A1
F21 = Az x F12 =Az x I

Fig. P. 5.12.26
2 2
4n r1
r1
= --z=2
4n r2 r2
From Fig. P. 5.12.26

(0.15i Fo + 3>2 = 0.24

---2
= (0.3) - =0.25 ..• Ans;
ForF : X =
 ,,..--.··
:'~.·.' ~:..V.. '.Heat!!'"
. . .1'·, ~s~fe::.r.iiMiiiU~·~S•e•m•5···M·e~ch~)~:i------~5-~3~5.·..;.-------~----·~R~a::d~la:it~lo~n~
=·

t 2 Y o3 ·
· H:;;::ea:t~T~r~a~n;.sf;;;e;;;;r..
c "~ ~ =. t.z· 1 and x=n= 0.25 Ri = 1Aiei
- ei - t - o.s =o.000658
- 380x0.8 .
· · . · all fall outside
Since energy leaving surface 1 (roof) w111 .
walls and floor, shape fact9r F 12 =1
tltutinS the values in Equation (i),
on subs Shape resistance R12
1F
= -A
I ll
= 1001 x 1 =0.01
-. Z) p .. (0.9 x 1.2) 0.24 ;... (0.3 x 1.2) o. 37
~6~1· d . 4 4
a ( T;-T;) 5.67 x 10- 8 (333 - 303 )
F12 = 0.545 . ••• Ans. = _R1 + R 12 + ~ . = 0.0067 + 0.01 + 0.000658
. 8
8
04~29_ X 10 )
~pl•5.1i.21
~~ . =
5.67 X 10-8 (122.96 X 10
0.017358
-

slons of a room are 10 m >< 10 m x 7 m height

fhS dlrneri 0
. • •
... Ans.
temperature Is 60 C, while the walls and the floor = 12.632kW
1h' roo1
13000. calculate the rate of heat transfer from the roof
~· all§'•and floor together. emlaslvlty ·
of walls and
to th• W .
8 Emissivity of roof Is 0.6.
ffOO'" 0• . -
so1ut1on:
Solution:
Gfvetl data
r, =60 +273 = 333 K Given: e1 = 0.3, ei = 0,6,
r2=30 + 273 = 303 K
"
T 1 "'800 + 273 =1073 K, T2 =300 + 273 = 573 K
2
,6.1 a10 x 10 =100 m (Roof area) Net heat transfer Q1

=~80 m T~ -T;)
2
>.z = 10 x 10 + 4 x 10 x 7 (floor+ 4 Walls area) a( 5.67 x 10- 8 (10734 - 5734 )
£1 :0.6; E:i.= 0.8
Ql = 1 1 = 1 1
£i+~ -: 1 Q.3+Q.6- 1

= 17261.72W ...Ans.

10m

Fig. P. 5.12.27(a)
. F.quJVIJent electrical circuit Fig. P. S.12.28

r,

Fig. P. S.12.27(b)

b · 1-e
"1 ::: --...!. 1 - 0.6 .
A1 ~ = 100 x 0.6 =0.0067

-·--·----·~--

Scanned w ith CamScanne<"

 ~
·~·~~-~~~~~~~~~~-=--=--=--=-;;;;;;;m;;;;;;~~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;a;-=-=;;;;;;;;;;;;;;im;;~mRmamdl~at~loii:n.iH~e:at~i~rA
:;;~ Heat Transfer (MU-Sem S·Mech) 5·36 ~ .... : - '·,.
SQ.lution : Emissivity of walls and ceiling, £1 =0.82
· Heat transfer by radiation Emissivity offloor, ~ = 0.7

Ai = Total area of walls and ceiling

::: [(l + b) h] + 2 + l xb
= -1245.54
1.25 + 1.429 - I .. [(1.5 + t.75) 2) x 2 + 1.5 x 1.75 .. 15.623 11\2
=.- 741.83 W/m 2
(heat flowing from plate 2 to 1) A2 = floor area= 1.5 x 1.75 =2.625 m2

T1 =420K By summation role,F2 - 1 + F2 -2 = l

:. Fl_ 1 = 1 ... As floor is completely enclosed by area A,

=
e 1 0.8

Fi-l ::: p.,_IA,=2.625/15.625:::0.168

Rnte ofhent transfer by radiation from the walls and the ceiling to
Fig. P. 5.1!.29
the floor ·
lf e.mi;sj\i ty clt::n~e--' fn~m pl3.!~ l to 2 it shs.U not affect the
r~uh b .rt it ii: trui." C':tly fl'r fl:lt1:s facing CMh other; not for
crKk-..,u r~ I ..," l:n .,j ·!':l.ufs..""les.
=
+~[1--1]
F1-2

1i1 T : .:..::n K. T:= ~ K [ .l.

e1 -
l] +-1
F Ai . ~
1- 2

~ .n7 x 10- t <~ 20' -s~·) 1

l.679 =
= - 1820.67 \\'/m 1 ... Ans.
::: 0.114

Q 1• 2 = (5.67 x 10-
8
) 15.625 x O. ll4 (523' - 423 )
4

Q :: = a ( T' -T,')1
= 5.67 x 10-£ (·UO' -480)
'

Q1 _ 2 = 4.23 x 103 W =4.23 kW ... Ans.

••• Ans.
Example 5.12.31 MU· Dec. 15, 8 Marks · -._', : } ..!
irhe net radiation from .the- surfaces of· two '. pa~~(~
j

.Example 5.1~ YU - Dec. 11. 5 Mafk5 . I

An c-nd-o.surei rr..£:~t&s ~.5 m -x 1.75 m with ti t~ght of 2 m.'
:maintained artemperi\ture ·T, and T2
! • ... . •
t()be' red~:WJ
\ •
Is
' , ' -- • - , . .. i • •
.
The wa':s a1td -ce..~_g a.re ma:nta:!.r.ed 250~ i1.nd tne floor at f79 times. Calculate - ~e ·nu~b.er of ~een~ to~-~~
( i •. between the two surfaoes to achieve this reduotlorHn ~
a: 1s-c.~c. Tns ..... ~ and ce!!it'g have .en emh~~iV.ity o.f 0.02
~xchanga. Assuming e~isslvity or sc~e?s :es.~~~-·~
ttt1
an:::! ~he ~ (o:.·n. Oet.em( M.ih.e riet fa.Qiatkm ilo1tn~_flQor. " ; .that of...tbe.JlYrtac~s..ae Q,fl... _. .• . -"
Solution:
Solution:
e1 = 0.05 E1 = £.i =0.8, o = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K
&...:i~r ure. J =LS m. b = J.i5 m. h = 2 m
a (r;-T;,,i_ x _..!.. ...0)
Q, c
I I - I I - 1.5
Gh·en:
-+--
e1 £.i
1 -os+os- 1
• .
T ..._,,..""'",....,"u·~ - - T,• =250:.C = 523 K
...... or·w~l~ and ~ilimr~
u.J.r~ '"'""'"'
(Let: o ( T41 -T42 ) =x for converuence) •

Temp;-nr.un~ of floor. T~ =50<-C =423 K

Sca nned w ith CaroScaonef

~·
:?.:·.• ·..· t fransfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
5-37
.
· Radiation Hea
tTransfer
.· H~ .
1 . .. (ii)
,:; 79 QI · · .(ii) By summation rule,

cr(T~ -T~) ('•'Surface cannot V1

·ew itself)
=0
Q10 :: -(..l.+--1
1 ) + (2--1) n'. But, F 22

\. f.1 Ei e, ·

is number of shields) Ai
(\\'flere n .
x
By reciprocal relation, F12 = A';XF21
x
... (iii) A . A2
Q.. = 1.5 + ( o.~5 - 1) n 1.5 + 39 n
= -
A
2 1 =A
x -
1
.
. . •(iii)
1

.. .. .9.L - x A2
fiotll
Equation (u) : 79 - 1.5 + 39 n From Equation (i) F11 1-F12 = 1-Ai°
•. Fu = i -m= ..
' 0.25 0 8

Equation (i) therefore,

froIll Rate'of heat loss when door is open
1 x x
= 4 (1 - Fu)
79"1.5 1.5 + 39 n
Q = <r' A1. E1. Tl. 1 -1 (1 - e1) X Fu

-- 1
79>< 1~
=

=
1
1.5+39n ;

1.5 x 79
=
\
(5.67 x 10-
8
)
4
x (1..25) x t x (873) 1 -1 (1 - l) x 0.8
(1-0.8} ' _

t.5+39 n
= 8.2334 x td W =8.2334 kW ... Ans. "
n = 3 shields ••• Ans.
T2
Example 5.12.33
T,
Find out heat transfer rate due to radiation between two
infinitely long parallel ~lanes. One plane has emissivity of 0.4
and is maintained at 200°c. Other plane has emissivity of 0.2
. and is maintained at 30°C. If a radiation shield
(E =0.5) is introduced between the two planes, find
percentage redu6tion· in heat transfer rate and steady state
temperature of the shield. ·
Fig. P. 5.12.31 Solution : Refer Fig. P. 5.12.33.

Example 5.12.32 Given: Plane 1 : e1 = 0.4, T 1 =).00°C =473 K

A cubical oven has inside sides equal to 0.5 m. One of the
faces of the oven forms the door. If the five other inside faces Plane 2 : ei =0.2;. 12=3oac .= 303 K
I
are black and maintained at 60ff'C, find the rate of heat loss
Radiation shield-3 : ~;: 0 .5
ij the oven door is kept open.

SolUtlon:

Given: Cubical oven with side =0.5 m ; e 1 1 = ' £3.

I
T, =600"C =873 K I
I
I
I
.One of the faces to be a door, surfac.es are black and are at I
~ I
I

Slltf
ace area of door= A2 =0.5 x 0.5 =0.25 m2
· \®
I
I
I
.Area of other five surfaces= A 1 = 5 x (0.5 x 0.5) = 1.25 m2 Shield
I .

... (i)
Fig. P. 5.12.33

- Scanned w ith CamScanner

 ·~
V Heat Transfar MU-Sem tl·Meoh ~-38 Radiation He
•t'l'r-~
..:. ,. ' '
. 1
1
1. Hent tranafor rate without 1hl•ld, 01a Givan 1 Ti • 308 K · ' 'r
X • Y•L•3m
x 3 y 3
'L • 3• 1: 'L •3• t

,•, From shape factor chart. (Fig, S.9.1)

2
.. 363.1 w1m By reolprooal relatlon

2, Haat tran1,fer rate when 1hleld 11 ln11rted1Q 1.,

a (T;-~)

c A3 .. 4 x (3 x 3) = 36 m2

,., Slnco surfaces 1 and 2 CM not view themselves respective by,

3. Porcentage reduction In heat tranafer.due to
rodlatlon shield, ...A111,
Q12 -Q13 x 100% By enclosure rule: F 1 _ 2 + F, _3 =
= Q,2
and
(363~ J.~48.4) x JOO
= 6
F1 _ 3 = 1 -0.22 c o.78 ...AllJ.
= 31.59% ••• Ans.

Example 5.12.34
Net heat transfer rate
The size of a room Is 3m x 3m x ~r;r:i. ll:le walls arid celllng
are maintained at a temperature of 3.1·5 K. The floor of the
room Is at 308 K. Calculate the net rate of heat trnmsfer by
radiation to the floor. If floor Is considered as surfac:e ·~' and
(ceilings + walls) Is consldP,(ed as surface '2', calculate,
+ 36 x 0.78 (S.67 x 10- 8) (31~4 - 308•)
F1 -1• F1 -2• F2-2• Fa-11 F1- {and F2-3·
Solution: cs 1442.6 w ...Am.
Refer Fig. P. 5.1 'i.34.

,.14--- 3m ~I
Solutlon:

________________:.F~f~·~p~·~S=.1~2.~34____~~~~~~..LG~lv~en'.!..:...:~·~D:::.i..:=~6~0~m~m~!..
· ~·~r~=~3~0~m~m~=~0~.0~3~m--;;~
~ 11 ··
..-1:111111 1
-

. ' .1
' -----··---"~~
Scnoned with CamScanner
 S·39 Radiation Heat T ransfer. ·

Solutlori:
Refer Fig. P. S.12.36.

T1 .. eo•c
_ e 1.• ~.3
T2 •30
e 2 0.7=

'1 2

Fig. p. 5.12.36

T1 .. 90 + 273 =363 K; E1 = 0.3

T2 • 30+273=303K; ~=0.7
0.032
= tx ~=0.0278
0.18
4
o (T , - ! 2)
4 ' .
s.67 x 10- 8 <363" - 303 >
. . "

ql2 .. 1 1 II 1 l
t"+ p_ -1 03+Q.7'-1
I.e. 2.78 ~ radladon from sphere 2 ls lnclde~t on sphere . I ~
1
. ...Ans. S.67 x io-• 073.6 x 10 84.2g x 108)
8
-
= 3.34 + 1.429 - 1

= 134.43 W/m2 .••Ans.

Example 5.12.37

Cryogenic fluid flows through atube 30 mm diameter which

Is concentric with a tube of 90 mm diameter. Surface
emissivities of Inner and outer tubes are 6.2 and 0.5 while
Fig P. 5.12.35
respective temperatures are 100 K and 300 K. Find the heat
gain by fluid.
Solutlon:
Given:

=
d 1 30 mm = 0.03 m; e1 =0.2,
Since both spheres are black bodies, hence e1 =ez =1 ~ = 90 mm= 0.09 rn, ~ = 0.5,

Heat flow rate from inner pi~e to outer tube by radiation per
m length,
8
= 5.67 x 10- x 47t x 0.03 2 (573" - 2884)

-...;....., =64.64 w ...Ans.

Exainp~r.~s.-12~;3-s----~~~~~~~~~-

~ double.walled thermos flask may be · assumed to be

~Pialent to tw · fi ·
~ o rn rnlte parallel plates. The emissivities of
3
ev are o. and 0.7 respectively. Space between them is .
tuated Find h ·
~ A._ •. t e heat transfer rate by radiation through
'ICISk if lnsid ·
~~~ e Surface temperature is 90°0 and outside . Negative sign indicates that heat is being rece
. . ed b b
. . ataooc Under stead state. .
i.e. by the fluid flowing in it.
. .1v . y . ody l

· ~·
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.Y Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
. 5-40 Radiatlo -H · ···.:(.
n eatl' v• \' ·.' ·:
Example 5.12.38 A1 = (7td1L)11eatu =7t x 0.02 x L = O.Oi 7t L ·· ~·: .
A cylindrical heater element with diameter =2 cm has
A2 = (7t<1i L)pipc =7t x 0.2 x L =0.21t L
emissivity= 0.7. It is kept at 727°C. It is located in a large
5.67x 10- 8 (10004 _ 300•)
room wh0se walls are maintained at 27°C. Find the rate of .. Q = 1 0.7 +--L •-02-
length from the heat~r towards
radiant heat transfer per unit _ 0.027t L x 0.7 0.02n L + 0.27t L ~
the walls of the room. Q
.
If the heater is enclosed in another pipe at 27°C, with
.. L =
1932.SW/m

diameter = 200 mm and emissivity =0.2, what is the rate of

radiant heat transfer ?
SolutJon:
., .
Given : Heater element d 1 = 2 cm i.e. r1 = 2=I cm= 0.01 m,
£ 1 =0.7, T 1 =727~c=1000 K

T2 =27ec =300 K. Assume length L =1 m

=2nr1 L=~ nx 0.01 x l=0.06:?83 m
2
A1
Solution;
l - £.i l -0.7
R1 . . , - . 68.,
A 1 £ 1 0.06~3 x 0.7"" . • D = SOmm=0.08 m; L= 1 m

Consider the pipe :u sl1If'3re (1) nod enclosure ns surface (2) T1 = 300 + 273 =573 K ; E1 =0.79

a (T~ -T;) =0.93

Q = ... (i) T2 = 27 + 273 =300 K ; ~
I -£1 I 1- t:
--+--+-- (I) Case I : Heat lost by radiation,
A, ti Ai F12 A: t:
Q = OE1A1 (T.4 -T24)
Case- (i) Enclosure as la.rgc as room
( 4 4

(I - £.,)
= o x Et x nDL x T 1 -T 2 )

As A -. is ,-en·
- !.:!....,...
· ~--.
cbe resisun~
. A: t:- ~~II be _, sm:tll
V""'
Q = (5.67 x 10" 8 ) x 0.79 x (1t x 0.08 x 1) [573 - 300~
4

and cm be neglected.. Alc;o. F12 = l (since :!.II the he:u is absorbed

by ~ \\"'ills of the n:icm) Q = 1122.4 W/m length ...Ans.

(I.I) Case II: Refer Fig. P.5.12.39

The E.qm:tioo (i) reduces to :

0 1 =0.08m
= 0.06283 x 0.7 x (5.67 x Io- 8
) (I 000
4
-
4
300) D2 =0.16m

= U73.S W/m ... Ans.

Case (U) Endosu.tt as plpe at 27°C

D.: =200 mm =0.2 m i.e. r1 =0.1 m. tz = 0.2 Fig. P. 5.12.39

o (T;-T~) D1 = 0.08m ; D2 =0.16m ; L=lm

In this case also we have F 12 =I (Since surface I is enclosed A-i = nD2L = 7t x 0.16 x I= 0.5026

Sca nned with CamScanner

 F' •.··- - ) - ..
:

~G.··•'.<",·"1f8lll"l"l~~-=-======-;;;:;;;;;;i;;;;-i;;;;;;;;;;;11111;i~5~.4~1~
. . -·
-... s.ter (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
· -------=------==;;;;;~~~~~--;i;;;;;;;;;;;;-
, A.ad1'ati
··on Heat Transfer "
''·.-:t:' ...fl~t - . . - -
'{. · .. . . · pidiatlon, - . .·
. . . · 1o'st bY
· . ~~~ ..
Q1 ::::: Given: r 1 =0.15 m, r2 ::::r 0.2 m,

. ::::: I
F12
5.67 X Io- 8 (573 4 - 3004 ) T1 . = -J83+273=90K;
= -1 - 0.79 + 1
+-1 - 0 .93 -
Qi
0.2513 x 0.79 0.2513 x l 0.5026 x om T2 = 40+273=313K

Qi = 991 w)m length ...Ans. r2 =

dz 0.4
2=2=0.2m
~
/1es.12.4u 5
12.4; -
~f!IP1ne the heat loss rate by radiation from a sheet tube e1 = Ei = e, =0.03; hr,= 210 kJ/kg
oe1Bfll11de d'iameter 70 mm and. .3 m long at a temperature of Rate or evaporation of liquid gas
0routs is tube is located within a square brick conduit of

~7o(;. ~d .
SI e
and at 27°C. Assume, emissivity of steel
, •
The heat of flow from the inner sphere surface to the outer
sphere surface is given by,
o.3 11'1 • rnissivity of brick, ~ 0.93. =
,o.79,e
e1~

sc1ut1on : .
. rube 1 : d 1 =70 mm
GiveJI'
=0.07 m, L =3 m;
- 221oc =500 K
T1-

=
Ai n d1 L =.1t x 0.07 x 3 = 0.65974 m2 ; ~\ = 0.79
= (2...:5.) + 1 + ( 1 - Ei\ r~
srlck co11dult 2
£1 · Ei Jr
= 41t (0.15)2 x (5.67 x 10- 8 )(904 - 3134;
Each side, a = 0.3 m 0.03) 1 cl _ 0.03:\ c0.15)
( 1 _0.03 + + 0.03 ) 0.2
Hence, Ai = -4 x ax L =4 x 0.3 x 3 =3.6 m2 ;
= -2.966W ..• Ans.
. £z = 0.93
Negative sign indicates that heat is gained by surface 1 i.e.
T2 = 27°C=300K heat flows from outside surface to inside surface.

Heat loss rate by tube surface, Rate of evaporation of liquid

Ql2 2.966 x 10-3

Q. _ Ai . a (T; -T;) _ 0.65974 x (5.67 x 10-s) (5004 - 3004 ) m = hr, - 210 kg/s ·
12
- I A1 ~I
-+- - I) - - 1- + 0.65974 ( -1 - -1)
e1 A2 ·Ei - 0.79 3.6 0.93 2.966 x 10- 3 x 3600 k
= 210 g/hr
=1591.SW
•.• Ans.
Example 5.12.41 = 0.05085 kg/hr
••• Ans.
Consider two concentric spheres 'A' and 'B' of diameters 300
mm and 400 ·mm respectively. Space between these two
spheres is evacuated. Liquid gas at -1 a:3°c is stored inside
~ sPhere
9
'A'. The surfaces of the spheres 'A' and 'B' facing
-~
Olva .er ~re coated with alumini~m (E 0.03). Latent heat
0 . -
=
~ PDnzation of liquid gas is 21 kJ/kg. If the system is kept
o
, evaa sp~ce01
Vehicle having 40°C, calculate the rate of

'°"'"°' .liquid gas. Solution: . Refer Fig. P. 5.12.42(a)

~~----------------------~-:----------=---­ •·
1ll*J1~~••,.,
"'l" r.~ b t.1 t • l 1 ~-,
 ~~~~H:ea~t~T~!:~~~~~~--------~·~.4~2i....------~~-::---::•Ra~dla~t -o·nH.: ~,.~
_ rana er (MU·Sem IS·Meoh)

T, • 427 + 273 • 700 K

"'
70CJ-T
2.611l1 •
4
T:-300
3.1666
4
-='"' t
~

(700
3.1666>< 2.6111
4
-TJ • T'3 -3004
0.6, a 3 • 0.4, A• l m1
a 1• 0.9, • 2•
:. 1.21276 (700 - T3' ') • T' -300
3
4

(•) lhdlant heat tranafer Q without ahleld 4

II 4
:. 2.9118 X 10 - t.21276 T 3. .. T3 -300'
&1,T1 G2 ,T2
II 4 4
:. 2.992 x 10 • T 3 + 1.21276 T
3

.·• T3 = 606.4 K
aA (T:-T;)
l 1
-+--1
E1 E3
1 2
Fla. P, .5.12.42(•) 5.61x10-* x 1 [7004 - 606.4).
I
(T;-T;y • (i.9+ch-1)
~\
oA
I ~
Q • 1 1
-+--1
I e 1 e2 = 2
I
I
I
1

4 4
2277.495 W/m ...
I. · .. 5.61 x 10-* [700 - 300 ) I

(c) . '% Reducdon of radiant with shield

'
(~+0~6- 1 ) 7399.35 - 2277.495 100 at..
r
• 7399.35 x 7f}

I. = 1399.35 W/m 2
••• Ana.
i: • 69.22 %
(b) Radiant heat tramter Q 14 with shield
.Example 6.12.43
Refer Fig. P.5.12.42(b) Two large parallel planes with emissivities of 0.8 and 0.4
When a shield is placed between the plates 1 and 2, then have temperature of 427°0 and 27°0 respectively. It they.,.
RadlaUon kept feeing eaeh other, find the rate of radiation heat tranater
ah leId between them. If this rate of heat transfer Is to be reduced to

I
1th
4 of original value, caleulate the emissivity of radiation
shield to be Inserted In between them. The shield has same
emissivity on both sides.
Solution:
3 2
Given 1 eL = 0.8, ez = 0.4
Fig P. 5.12.42(b)
TL= 427+273=700K
(Q13)net = (Q32)nct Tl = 27+273=300K

aA 41-T~-
(r') aA {r~4 -T')
2_
1. Radiation heat transfer, 0 1
1 1 = 1 l
-+--1 -+--1 Using Equation (5.11.1) as applied two large parallel planes,
e1 E3 E3 E2

4 4 4 4 a· (T~ -T;) 5.67 x 10- 8 (7004 .-300 1

4

700 -T3 T -300

... 1 1 = l .1
Q, = 1
-e +--1
E.z
1 = 1
-+--1
Q8 OA
1

0.9 +0,4 - 1 0,4+ 0.6- l 1

= 4783.4 w •••Ans.

·~~_ JI'
-- Scanned ¥>1lh camSeannl'f
 f ,•
. .... -~ft
', f, .
·rransfer (MU·Sem 5·Mech
S·43
Radiation Heat Transfer
d
. J t:
:

··[.

., of radiation
. . . 11•1~lhl . •hleld
1'h
If the rate of heat
· . ~ to b• reduced to 4, ~ ...Ans.
-~ ' lf"''''r .
47
Shields do not deliver or remove heat.
~·
4

02 ,.
.3l::
4
= 1195.8 w
4 4
cr·T
( 1 -T )
2
J19.5.8W= 1 . 2 1 (W) Temperature of shield B and C
02 "' . -+-+--2
E1 ~ fa
8 4
· . er (T4 -T)
8
.5.67 x 10- (700 - 3004} :, For plane A and shield B, q 1 - A
_. J 3 1 1 1
-+--1
. 1195.B "' Q.8+~+Q4-2 EA E8

0.216 A 189060.3
e, " - ------~~~~~~------___._
.. ___
ns.
~.44
EJ'~:rge parallel planes 'A' and 'D' are maintained at TB = 1454.9K ••• A.ns.
fWO 111tures of 1500 K and 600 K respectively. Their For surface C and D
te111P'
Mtles are an
d 4 respectively.
o.9 o.
~SS diation shields 'B' with emissivity = 0.5 and 'C' with
r~111 qi =
a(T~-T;>
1 1
.~ty ,. o.2 are Inserted In between them, such that A, -+--1
Ee f.o
0 are placed one after the other. Calculate
9,cand 5.67 x 10- 8 (T~ - 600
4
)
18906.3
ro Heat transfer rate without radiation shields, · = 1 1
0.2 + 0.4 - l
Ii) Heat transfer rate with radiation shields,
[~ Temperatures attained by planes 'B' and 'C'. Tc = 1234.72 K ... Ans.
Solution:
Example 5.12.45
Gift11:
A long steel rod 20 mm In diameter is to be heated from
Plane A-+ £ 1 = o:9, T1 =1500K E1 =EA =0.9 427 °C to 538 °C. It Is placed concentrically In a long
Plane D-+ Ea = 0.4, T2 =600K Ea= Eo = 0.4 cylindrical furnace which has an inside diameter of 160 mm.
Shield B-+ ~ = 0.5, T3 =?; ~= Eii = 0.5 The inner surface of the furnace is at a temperature of
Shield C -+ E4 = 0.2, T.j=? 1093 °0 and has an emissivity of 0.85. If the surface of the
E4= fo =0.2
rod has an emissivity of 0.6. Estimate the time required· for
(i) Heat transfer rate without shlelds
heating operation. Density of steel = 7000 kg/m3 ; Specific
heat =0.67 kJ/kg·K.
= a.1(T;1- T;) -_ (5.67 x 10-
8) (15004 - 6004)
q
1 1 Solution:
E1+£a -1 0.9+[4-l
Steel rod : d 1 = 20 mm= 0.02 m, T 1 = 427°C =700 K ;
= 107117 W/m2 •••Ans.

f~ Heat transfer with shields

· Furnace:~= 160 mm= 0.16 m; T2 = 1093°C = 1470 K

The configuration corresponds to a relatively large body

t+l.-1+(1:.._1 +1:..-1)
A £o \f:s . Ee enclosing a smaller body. The inner body sees only the outer

= 5.67 x 10- 8 05004 -6004) surface and not itself. Therefore, F = I.

12

Scanned wrth Ca mSca nner

 '" ::
I ',
·:
'
Heat Transfor MU·Sam 5-Maoh 5.44
I

.
. ,;

I•
'·
lfoncc, tho rodl11111 hi.lot trunsfor ruto per unit 11.lngth of tubu Is
(I) Monochromotlc cmlsslvc power nt). = 1.2 µrn
·ii giVl.lll by, 2nc, 27t'X o.596 x 10-16
\
·Cb)."'! ')...' (eClt>.T -1)- c~~
i 1.2 x 10-0 ~ )
. (1.2 x 10- 6)' >< 2773-1
·!
.1,
X 10 - 16 37
_ _3.743
::..:..:..;~,;_.:..;::....-~-=~
'L = 2.488 x 10-30>< (e4,3l - I) 74.2 x 2.488 X 10·30

12 2
::: 2x10 W/m

(II) Wnvclcngth, nt which emission Is maximum,

At the beginning of the heniing period,

~ .T = 0.0029 mK
"''"
0.0029 1·05 x 10- 6 m= l.OSµm
2773=
Ti = 700KondnttheendT2 =811 K 'J.,.111 =

Therefore,
(Ill) Total cmlsslvc power of furnace when If lt Is ass
lllned as,
lni1i11lly, Qu = (igg)] =
0.211 [ ( ' , : ) 4 - 6840 W
rcnl surface with e = 0.8.

E = ecrAT4=0.8x5.67 x10- 8 x l x(2773)•

(\~6) -G~~)]=
4
Finally, Q 1, = 0.211 [ 6433.8 W
= 2.68x10 W/m
6 2

.... 1 :. Mean rate of heating per unit lenglh,

,I I
' I
.
.'l
I
= 2I [6840 + 6433.8]
I i

:I I
I
= 6637 W =6.637 kJ/s
Heat required to raise the temperature of rod from 700 K to 811

= mCP.6T
K.

I
I
I = [~ (0.02)2 J
x 7000 x 0.67 x (811 - 700)
1

I
Solutlon.:
= 163.55 kJ
:. Time required for the desired heating,
163.55
t = 6. 637 = 24.64 sec
••. Ans.

~
;ex.an1pie 5.12.46 li;li&.iJliidfMij·(.>.;..::~.i:..,: ;,;;.~:,X.) .,
• •• • -· ~· ' . • i ro 7•1 ~ I •

~.a~c~i~t~}h~ ·!olfo~r~.g to.r'~-,; 1nci~~trlai. )~_r'na_c~ :i!l th~}~~~.~~,

a'~Jack bOdy and emitting radiation at 2500° c.· ·: · (... ··., .</, "·
I ' f' • ; , I 1

f$9tef~n ..~oltz~~nri. constant= 5.67 x.1o-8,,...·· .· ·. ·:.':~ :,~j· .~_( '.~j

: ' I• · ~' 1 •," ,/, /

1 Fig. P. 5.12.47
(Qt,:·· ~o~o?~~~m.atlc e~!s~lye P?wer ~·- 1.2 ~~:_: <·.) j,:'[: !.'.:. :\:1
[<~~).:>: .y~~~a . '~~~~~~a,• ~~~~~:the ·em!~slon .is.~~-~~·r·~·(::~'.i'i.~:; .{ Refer Fig. P. 5.12.47
[~i.1}) ..,l~~~r,_~~!ssi~~::P:PW~:.:~f: t~~::. '~f:n.~~~}~.~~,!~ -~~~;~~~~~.~~· \
[-~~~aL~~L~Y.11§.c;~,Y.:fJm._em!~sl~.tY. ~qu_~l.Jo.'.Q~~~. .:~.i:· ~~: .b')..;.'.:iJJ d 1=10mm=0.0lm; T 1 =80K ; e 1 =0.2, I
l
~=15mm = 0.015m;T2 =280K; ei=0.3; \
Solution:
l=5 m
Given: T5 =2500° C =2773 K; black body
. • 1.0~
po.t•lllll)tJI ·1

__J
-- -- ·'-----~·----. . . ---- ..- - - ·-
Scunned w itll CtunScarnier
 . ~.

~ ... ;'
...,,
• • I
·.;

!'._.:\'
.,
~ ... i
• !1 l

: ':
;1:

. Solution:

;..:54.35 = - 8.29 w Ei = ez =0.7; e, =0.04

Qii
:::: 5 + t.56 . ... Ans. ;:
;•
Heat transfer without shield
~egauve s1
. ·gn indicates that heat is. flowing from pipe 2 to

~'1. percen~g
1
' e beat reduction when shleld is u~d
.
CU)
Heal flow from pipe I to shield. 3 ; .
crA1 (T,4-T~4)
QJ3 : ..L+~(..1.-1)+~(.l_- })
t1 A2 ~ A3 ~ I
I I
I I
I
T1 I I I T2
-54.35 I I I
I I . I
= 1t x 0.01 x 5 ( 2 I I I
6.56 + 1t x 0.012 x 5 o:os- 1) I
I
I
I
I
. I
I
I
I
I I . I
-54.35 W I I I
= 6.56 + 32.5 =- I.39 I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I
.
• %reduction
..
=. OnQ-12On x
lOO I I . I

- 8.29- (- 1.39) 100 Fig. P. 5.12.48

= -8.29 x
. Since 99% reduction is desired,
= 83.2 % ...Ans.
OwJth screen = 0.01 OwJlhoutacreen

= 0.00538 cr (T:- T:)

= cr(T:-T:)
(..l..+..l..-1)
E1 ~
+n (l..- 1)
E1
8
5.67x 10- xnxo.01 x 5 (so -T 4 4)
3
_I_ n x 0.01 x 5 c·-1_ l) =
0~ - 1)
0.2 + 1t x 0.012 >:< 5 0.05 -
· 1.857 + n (
9 7 4
8.9 x 10- (4.096 x l0 -T )
-1.39 =
5+15.833 = 0.00538 cr (T: -T:)

-~ . 4
8.9x 10- . = 4.096 x 107 -T
3
or 1.857 + n (o~ - I) = 185.87

- 325.374 x 10'
= 4.096 x 10 7
- T:
n x (50 -1) = 184

TJ = 239.58 K ...Ans.
n = 3.755 "'4 screens
••. Ans.

Scanned with CnmSco.nner

 Gr = v

_ 9 81 x-Lx .J 200-30lxf.
- · 388 c24.93 x 10- ~2 "'s.s3 )( ,
10
7
Gr Pr = 5.53 x 10 x 0.687 = 38 x 106

Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)0.2.S = h·k d

Use following relations :

Nu= 0.53 (G.r.Pr)o.ai; for horizontal pipe Air properties:

6-_0l.l
0.53 (38 x 10) . =hxo.2
0.033

2
h = 6.87 W/m K

~ = h·A1 (T1 -T..)

30 0.0267 16.00 0.701
115
= 6.87 x (1t x 0.2 x 1) (200 - 30)
0.033 24.93 0.687
200 = 773.8 W~m length of pipe
0.0393 34.85 0.680 ...(ti)
Solution: ·(Ill) Total heat 1011, O

Given : Pipe diameter, d =20 cm= 0.2 m ; T.. 30°C 303 K = = Q = Qr+ Q;, = 1185.6 + 773.8

=
T, = 200°c 473 K, e 0.8 = = 1919.4 W/m length

Nu =0.53 (Gr Pr)0·23

. T,+T.. 200+30
Mean temperature, Tm = 2
= = 115 C.
0
2

Therefore,

k = 0.033 W/mK; v = 24.93 x 10- 6 m 2/s, Pr= 0.687

A1 .
Room area, ~>>>pipe area, A 1, therefore~ =0.
and A 1 = d ·L =
1t 1t x 0.2 x 1 =0.2 n m2/Jength of pipe. Solutlon: Refer Fig. P. 5.12.50
Heat is Jost both by radiation and convection.
D1 = lOcm=O.lm
(I) Heat loss by radiation D2 = 20cm=0.2m
4 ..4) _ cr·A1 (T,-T
cr·Ai(T,-T 4 ..4) D3 = 30cm =0.3 m
Qr = 1 Al
- + - --1
G] )- J.+
£
0 .·•. r1 =
Qi 0.1
2 =2 =O.OSm
£1 A2 £.i I
.Qz. 0.2
r2 = 2 =T =O.lm

Qr = 1185.6 W/rn of pipe length ... (i)

(II) Heat loss by convectfon, Oc

1 1 __1_
f3 =:r-=11s+273-3BB
m
Fig. P. 5.12.50
 r--...... '
:-~·;J.:·r.. ..,.:.s~fe~r~(M~U~-~s~e~m~
..
:.;;•;~·-,,,~tfrB·~
tl '·H'" .· . " .
. . · s~-~M~e~c~h~)
. =~r;;;;;;;;;;;;;i==-~S-4~7.;;;;;;;,====-=~--=----=i;;;;;;;=~R~·
.o. _ 0.3 __ 0 15
. . . .
·
a~d~ia~t~lo~n~~He:at:~:;·
. . h"eld
.. 'Transfer

· diatlon s 1
"" · . ,..... . r,' -- .-2 - 2 · m b) p ercentage. re duct'ion ·in heat. gain ' If a ra
di. meter an d
of · tubular shape having · 45 . mm a on outer 5
== 80 Kand T3 =280 K
11 emissivities of .o.1 on Inner surface and O. 0 ·
::= e2 = E 3 = 0.05 surface Is Introduced between th.a· two tubes.
.EI
Solution: Refer Fig. P. 5.12.51.

~ =90 mm= 0.09 m,

d 1 =30mm =0.03 m

£1 =0.2, ti= 0.5,

1'1 =100 :K, T2 =300K
· ·;·
·:

'i
~ !

:_\

Fig. P. S.12.Sl

Consider length of tube, L =1 m

A 1 =nd 1 L; A2 ::::na;L

(a) · Heat gain rate by fluld/m length of tube, 012

4 4)
= cr.A1 (Ti - T2 · • • •Equation (5. ll.2)
.l+~(.l_
E1 A2 "-t::i
1)
(5.67 x 10- 8) x (7t x 0.03 x 1) (1004 - 3004 )
4 4
= _1_ (1t x 0.03 x 1) (-1- )
4 T4
T-
.:.L...-.:l
2(T2 -T3 ) 0.2 + (1t x 0.09 x 1) x 0.5 - 1
29.5 = 32.6654

4
T -T
.:L...:l
4
T4 -T4 = .-8.016W
= 2 J
29.5 16.3327
i.e. Q12 = 8.016W ••• Ans.
so• -T
~
4
T2 -280
4 4

29.5 =
16.3327 Negative sign shows that the radiant heat is received from
surface 2 to surface 1 i.e. received bY. fluid .
:. T2 = 251K ... Ans.
(b) Percentage reduction In heat gain if radiation
Example 5.12.51 shield of diameter, d 3 = 45 · mm = 0.045 m and
emissivities ~1 = 0.1 on Inner surface and ~ = 0.05
Ciyogenic fluid flows throu.gh a tube of 90 mm outer diameter on outer surface Is provided
2
· 8i"d 30 mm inner.
Surface emissivities of inner and outer
IJbes are 0.2 and 0.5, while respective temperatures are
. 100 Kand 300 K. Find : . ("·"A =n dL)
a) Heat ·
Qarn rate by the fluid per meter length of tube.
~
--------~~~~~~-:-:--~~~~--~--~---------------
·, . .• ltdl~RGlllltdge
r .u b 11 " • 11 0 n •

Scanned with Ct1mScan ner

 ~=-
..... Heat Transfer (MU-Sam 5~Mech) 5·48

Heat transfer with shield,

a A1 (T: - T;)
Q13 =
.L+~(.L_ 1)+~(.J.:.+..!..-1) Jnsulsted
e1 A2 \~ Al \~ 1 £:i2 '

= (5.67 x w- 8)x (1t x 0.03 x 1) (100, ·- 300)

4

i
·r
0~2 + gg~ (0~5 - I) + o~~ (~~J + o.~5 ~ 1)
Fig. P. S.12.52(a)
- 1.733 w
Since Q3 =O => ~ and R3 can be taken in series,.
Percentage reduction Q 1 ~- Q 13 x 100 % Equivalent resistance between T1 and T2
12

= - 8.016 - (- 1.733) x 100 J_ = J_ +_J__

- 8.016 . . R0 R1 ~+R3

= 78.38% . ... Ans.

R1 =· -
1
-
A 1F 12
1
- 0.25 x 0.5
-8·
- '
i ' Example 5.12.52
'
I
I 1 1
In a boiler, heat is radiated from the burning fuel (A1) to the ~ = A F 13 = 0.25 x 0.5 = 8 ; RJ = 8
1
side walls (A3 ) and the boiler tubes (A2 ) at the top. Assume
J_ 1 1
,,i
black body behaviour and side walls perfectly insulated. .. . Re = 8 + 8 + 8 =0.125 + 0.0625 = 0.1875
Derive the equation for the temperatur~ of the side walls T3
as a function of the temperatures for the fuel bed T1 and the
boiler tubes T2 and the corresponding areas A, and ~· a1 .-
Calculate also net radiative heat transfer to the boiler tubes if
A1 = A 2 = 0.25 m2 .

Comments on the results.

Solution;

Refer Fig. P. 5.12.52(a). Fig. P. S.12.52(b)

Since surface A 3 is insulated.; 03 =0, Hence 0 13 + 023 = 0

& = 5.334K/W
4 4
a CT1 -T2) 5.67 x 10- 8 (1973 4 - 5734)
Re = 5.334

4 4 4 = 160kW •••Ans.
or T3 ( A1F13 + AiFz3) =A1F13T1 + AzFz3Tz
4 4
A1F13 Ti+ AzF23 Tz
or
A1F13 + A2F23

or

Required temperature Expression

Given : F12 = F23 = Fn ·= 0.5 ; T1 =l 700°C, T =300°C 2

Solution:
Equivale~t Electrical Circuit (Refer fig. P. 5.12.52(b))
Enclosure l =1.5 m, b =1:75 m, h =2 m
Temperature of wall and ceiling, T1 =523 K
 r-·· .
"·i' ~.. . . .

_,::; · ·. . sfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) fer

\~ )~e9t ~~
~~ i~r~a=ne~o;f~fl:o:or~T~2~=~4:.OO:K~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~5~-4~9~;;;;;=~~========~A~a~d~ia~t~io~n~H~e~a·t~T~gra~n;;is~;. 3
:. ,.. feJ!lpe . of wall and
·ssivJtY · ceiling e 1 :i:: 0.85 A = 1t o L =n x S x 10- x 1
3 3
. . ·ssivtlY
.. etJll . _. of floor Ei = 0.7 = 15.7 x 10· 3 m2/m length of tube
etJ11 · :; : Total area of walls and ceiling
A1
:;;:: [(l + b) h] + 2 x l x b =11.75 m2
Az :::: Floor area= 1.5 x 1.75 = 2.625 m2 Substituting values in above expression
, I .~
..
. ation rule 5.67 x 10- 8 (T~ - 3934 )
· 11ysurnm .
1-0.43 ] + ] ~~
F2-• + Fz-2 = 1 0.785x10- xo.4+0.785x10- 3 7.85xt0 x0. 6
: I ·.j 1

.·. F2-1 = so floor is completely enclosed b A 5.67 x 10- 8 (3934 - 2784

_-.._;_1--~0-.6...2.:..!:!..!.2::.....!..!:!--!1~:!...::...::..!.~~1:--:on.~7--- )
y I
3
1.s5 x 10- x 0.6 + 7.85 x 10- 3 + 15.7 x 10- 3 x 0.7
..''
8
T; - 238.5 x ·1 0 238.5 x 108 - 59. 73 x to8
· f beat transfer by radiation 1910.8 + 1273.9 + 84.93 = 84.93 + 127.39 + 27.3
Rate o . 4 4
4
!_i - 238.5 x IO 8
8
.
' .
'.

01-Z
- . <1A1 F1 -2 (Ti - Ti) 179.11x10 .. l
-3 . 3269.63 = 239.62
= (5.67 x to )x 11.75 x 0.2234x (5234 _ 4 4)
T~ =
" 01-Z . 8
00 8
238.5 x 10 + 2443.97 x 108 = 2682.47 x to
= 7.325 kW
•..Ans.
T1 = 719.67 K =446.7°C ·.;.Ans.

Solution:
I I
I I
Gi~-en: 01 = 0.25 mm; E1 =0.4 ; T =?
1
I
I
I
I
I I
0 2 =2.5 mm; Ez =0.6; T2 = 120°C + 273 =393 K I
I
I
I
I I
D3 =5mm; I I
~=0.7; T3 =5°C+273=278K I I
I I
I I
For steady state heat flow conditions ; I I
I I

Heat loss rate from wire 1 to tube 2 is equal to heat loss rate
&om tube 2 to tube 3. Fig. P. 5.12.55

E1 ::: 0 .05 ; E1 = Ez= 0.8

cr(T~-T~l x x
QI = 1 ::: 1 11 =15
-+--1 - + - - 1 .
E1 Ez 0.8 0.8
A1 = 1t DI L =1t x 0.25 x 10-3
. 4 4
(
= 3 2
0.785 x 10- m /meter length of wire
assunung o ( T 1 -T2 ) = x for convemence)

A2 :::
1t D2 L "" n x 2.5 x 10- 3 x 1

:::
.7.85 x 10- 3 m2/m len of tube

scanned with c amscanner

 Radiation Heat ir
5-50
~
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)

We know, P 11 + P12 + F13 =

Q
11
"' (J_e1 +J_Ez _l) + (1-
e,
l) n F33 + F31 + F32 =1
F33 = 0 (flat surface)
where n is number of shields
F12 = F 13 (due to symmetry)
x
=
1.5 + ( o.~s - t) n Since F32= 0.05
x 0.2x -"·· o+ p31 +0.05 =
1.5 + 39 n = 1.5
p
31
= 0.95 and F21 =0.95 due to symmetry
1 0.2
1.5 + 39 n = 1.5
p 13 • A1 = F31 • A3
2
0.2 (l.5 + 39 n) 1.5 nD3 · 03
0.3 +7.8 n 1.5
F13 = 0.95 x 4nD,l =0.95 x 4f (as D1 = D2::: D~
7.8n = 1.2
=
0.95 x 0.025 = 0.0594
4x0.1
n = 0.15 =1 •.• Ans.
1

Fig~ P. 5.12.56

p 12 = 0.0594 (by symmetry)

Since F23 =F32 and surface 2 and 3 are at same temperature,

hence no heat flow between these two_surfaces. Hence heat transfer
.between two surfaces l and (2 or 3) can be written as.

o (T>T:)
1 - e1 l I - Ei
-+-+-
A1 e1 A1 F12 A2 Ei

2
A1 = nDl = 1t x 0.025 x 0.1 = 0.00785 m

A2 = 14 tD2=4x
1t 2
0.025 =0.00049 m
2

Solution:

Given:
1-·e1 1 1-ei
e1 =0.8, ez = E:i =0.85 --+--+--
A1 e, A1 F12 A2 ti
T1 =500°C = 773 K, T2 =T3 .,; 400°~ =673 K

D1 = = =
D2 D3 25 mm = 0.025 m = ( 1 - 0.8 ) . ( 1 ·) ( 1- 0.85 )
0.00785 ' 0.8 + 0.00785 ' 0.0594 + 0.00049 . 0.85
= 100mm=O.l m
= 3.376 Won each surface 2 and 3 ...Ans·
 ~" ·. ..
~y= >-.<·,
•1

' 5-51 . ·
Radiation Hea
t Transfer
= ~ :~'
~· ...;
entire radiations . .' '.·
···.:..··:·: A black body is one which absorbs t (
i:
. Ct. =1. It is also a perfect emitter
1.e. . or radiator
. of heat.
:." . .. - · rsdlatlori is defined as the transfer of heat due to
~ailed ,.,
:~
. . .t10lllagtt
etic waves without_requiring any medium.
·
A body having negligible transmissivity is
opaque
•'
. el~- . are . body, r,
,. .. of radiation · · · -.
i1JeOoes . . . . called white body
A body whicl:i reflects the radiant energy is
wave Or Maxwell theory ' says that electromagneti'c
. . . ns· propagate in the form of waves in a
J, f111SS10
(a== 't =0 and p =1)
'I
. of em1ss1v1ty
A body having same value . . . at all wavelengths is
e · thetical medium known as ether.
bYl'° .
.called gray body (e.g. metals)
· Velocity of light, C (3 x 108 mis)
th
waveJeng • -I. - ----;:;:::::=::-:-~---=.:.:..
Frequency, v (per s) . is called
A body which · transmits entire radiations
transparent body. (t = 1)
').."' o.02 _ 0.04 µm (ultraviolet rays), visible radiation ·
. ·area 1s
The radiant energy per umt · called radiant flux.
(0.4 - 0.8 µm)
. area per unit time is
The radiant energy emitted per unit
"-•ed radiation (0.8
Jn1•.., . - 800 µm)
called emissive power of a surface, e (WIm1
· niennal radiation (A = 0.1 µm to I 00 µm)
Emissive power of a black body is by i;,. ·.
z. _Quantum or Planck's theory : According to this Emissive power of a surface. e
theory, emissions are in the form of series of entities Emissivity,£ Emissive power of a black body•.eb
known as quanta or photon having certain amount of ·· · · · :. ·· · ts the radiant
Monochromatic emissive power, e>. represen .
energy which is · proportional to its frequency of
· t.1me per unit area at a
energy emitted by the body per umt
emission. These quanta move at velocity of light Thus,
particular wavelength.
Energy/quanta= h · v = h · I ; 'h' = 6.625 x 10- 3 Js
A. :oo
(Planck's constant) e = f ~·di.
Total em.issive power of a surface, E is defined as the total
emissions of thennal radiation by a surface per unit time per Radiosity (J) is defined as the total amount o.renergy emitted
unit area in all directions into hemi-spherical half space above from a surface per unit time per unit surface art.: a.
•(
· the surface. E =d.A 4
~ o d.A
~) · .
.
Laws of radiation are Planck's, Wien's, Stefa.a Boltzmann
and Kirchoffs law.
Irradiation, G is defined as the total energy received per unit
- 2rt C1 \ 2
time per unit area from all directions ~all wavelengths. According to Planck's law: eb>. = /A.T) , W/m
A.s [e(C 2 _ l] :
- · Total irradiations, G or Q = Energy reflected, Q, + Energy
ct,),, -t Monochromatic emissive power of black body at
absorbed, .<4 + Energy transmitted, QT
wavelength A.
Energy reflected, Q,
• ReDectivity, p =Total .mc1'dent energy, Q C 1 =0.596 x 10
-16
(W/m ),
2

. Energy absorbed, Q3 2
C2 =1.4387 x 10- (m), A in m, Tin Kelvin.
• Abso ti 'ty -------~
rp VI 'ex - Total incident energy, Q
• Tra . •. Energy transmitted, QT Wien's displacement law gives the relationship between the
nsnuss1VIty, 't = T . .d
otal mc1 eat energy,
Q maximum wavelength Am at which maximum monochromatic
P+ll+t:: I a
emissive power is obtained at given absolute temperature

(a) .For solids and liquids : t =O i.e. p +a= 1 Am· T = 0.0029 mK

{b) For gases : p =o i.e. a+ 't = 1 (Cii0max. = l.287 X 10-s · T5

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V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)

Stefan Boltzmann's Jaw state that the total emissive power

5-52

of a black body is directly proportional to fourth power of its

Shape factor is· defined as ·a fraction of
Radiatl

energy Clt)j
on Heatl
fe; ;.
-.· '-. -, '" 1

r!na ..
..,,,

i·. srL one surface and directly intercepted by the th lte.j ~

. '' absolute temperature i.e. ~ oc r' . o ersulf \
.I'.::. also called as view factor/cootiguration racto ace.11~ .
•J
r/ang1,fac: '\
. Ci, (a) Reciprocity relation A 1 F12 =A p . lat.
"'
: I
.·r'
2 21

e = (b) Enclosure theorem (i) F 11 =O if flat 0 r convex·

(ii) F 11 ~0 (concave surface) surr....
""'
(where, a= Stefan Boltzmann constant= 5.67.x 10-s Wm
I 2K•)
. (c) Additive rule: F 12 =F 13 + F14
Kirchhoff's Jaw states that the emissivity, E of the surface is
(d) Shape factor, Fu = 1 (if surface is flat or
equal to its absorptivity, a. when body is in thermal A, convex) ind
· equilibrium with its surroundings i.e. (E =Cl) · F21:: A2
. "'
·' ! Emissivity at certain wavelength is called spectral cmis~lvJty
,, i' (e) Shape factor when two surfaces are
1arge llld
EJ.•
! parallel (A 1 ~ =
I" Emissivity in certain direction is called directional
' emissivity, Ee·
~; . iI
r I Average emissivity in aU direction is called hemispherical 1. Hemispherical shape
,· i
I ,
I ' I
emissivity.
!f 1'
I' Emissivity averaged at all wavelength is called total
~;. I . emissivity,£ (T).

·:;I i
'
' I
I
A solid angle, dc.o is the measure of space enclosed by a
2. Two concentric cyllnders
2
conical surface with the vertex of the cone whose apex is at
J
I
the centre of srnaH area dA 1 relative to the total space area, A 2

I of a sphere of a radius, r. [ dro =-1- J

~ .
Solid angle 'between two small areas ~at dA 1,
F12 = A';° ; F11 =O.S.
A1 d1
dw = F12:=' I; F22= 1- A2 =I -ct;
A 1 d1
(where, (32 is the angle made from normal to dA2 with line
F11 =0 ; F21 =-A =d
2 2
joining dA1 and d~)
3. Equilateral triangle
Intensity of radiation (i) represents the rate of energy
leaving a surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per
unit area of emitting surface normal to the mean direction in

space. i
de].
[.=drn··
Lambert cot;ine Ja\v states that intensity of radiation in any
direction is JJroportionaJ to the cosine of angle made by that
· . de ·
= =
direction wiJh the normaJ. (i i0 •• cos '3) and r dw ; e = 1t • ~
Equilateral triangle
(for hemisp'here)

- - - - - - --
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Vr..-1h•'"''
-
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r~~:-f/> :;: . ·- ". ' .

::</':, «:· .< ter(MU-Sem 5-Mech) . .

·/·,·~t1'r8115 -5·53
. Radiation Heat Transfer
;~} . flie(ds are us~ to reduce the rad" : .
·-'~- . · tfDll s lative heat Q
-·:-~ tween two surfaces by using thin and . •6 State the Planck's law of radiation and explain .
. ·.· : 'er be . highly
:~ . '...nS'' . surf
. .. '. p...- . ..
. aces. [Section 5.5.1)
~- · - ·ve
;,::jelleet1 . .. T~ - T~) Q.7 . .!.·

~+1. _ 1 (without shield) ;

0 . · State and Prove Wien's displacement law.· . ·:'i
.... qii ""'
'. ,
j-l'.,
[Section 5.5.2) . .·.1;.
-''. e1 Ez ' t •I
. 1 •• :

Q.e State and explain Stefan Boltzmann's law. State the .

i
-~
~

value of Stefan Boltzmann's constant, cr. ·

[Section 5.S.3)
i•
0.9 What is Kirchhoff's law ? Prove that em.i ssivity is :·I
equal to absorptivity In isothermal black 'I
l

surroundings: (Section 5.5.4) · I

;
I
. '
·. . . · ~r answers, please refer the section Q.10 Explain various types of emissivities of · grey
rv numbers
~ '.ndicated
I .
in bracket.] surfaces. [Section 5.6] ·

Write a short note on radiation. 0.11 Define intensity of radiation.·(Section 5.7.2]

rsectlons 5.1 and 5.2) Q.12 Define solid angle. Derive an expression for solid
a.a . Define radiation. State the range of wavelengths for angle between two elementary ·areas.
ultraviolet, visible and thermal radiations. (Sections 5.7.1 and 5.7.1.1)
[SeCtions 5.1 and 5.2] Q.13 State and explain Lambert cosine law.
State the speed of radiant energy propagation [Section 5.7.2.1)
o.3
between two bodies when there exists a vacuum Q.14 Derive an expression for radiant heat exchange
between bodies. [Section 5.2]
between two finite black bodies at · a distance L
having the areas dA1 and dA2 making angles 13 1 and
a.•
'32 froni their respective normals. Hence, define
shape factor and explain its meaning.
[Section 5.8]
o.s
Q.15 Define shape factor cind discuss the shape factor
algebra. [Sections 5.9, 5.9.1 and 5.9.2]

Q.16 Derive an expression. for radiations emitted in the

following cases :

(I) Hemispherical_shape of radius, R.

· [Section 5.9.3 (1)]
(ii) Two concentric cylinders.
[Section 5.9.3 (2)1

Q.17

0.18

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Y' Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 5-54

.;;;;;;~========;i:;;;lli;;;;;====-======-======-=-=-=-=~====-=-=============----~~a~d~ia~tio~n~H~ea~11
R

Explain .the surface and space resistances.

ranar
Q. 19 Q. 21 Show that the expression for er
. radiation .
[Sections 5.1 o and 5.10.2] exchange between two concentr· he~
. . IC, Very

Q, 20 Show that the radiant heat exchange between two cylinders is given as : o12 -_ a · A1 •· 1• la~
1 '~
1 A 1
parallel infinite plane surfaces is given as : £ +-.!.(.1
1 A2 \~'1)
cr . A (r; - r;) (where, A 1 Is the surface ar!3a of inside .
. . cyhllder)
012 = (1.+1.-1) [Section 5.11.2]
\e1 ~
Q.22 What are radiation shields ? Explain Wh
[Section 5.11.1]
radiation shields the heat transfer rates . y Using
t11e red
by analytical analysis. _[Section s.121 ~

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 Boiling and Condensers and
Heat Exchangers

syUabLIS:
and Condensation : Boiling heat transfer, Pool boiling : different regimes and pool bolling curve, Fl~W
aoil 109
.. . Different Regimes
·
an
d · B ·· ·
01hng curve Condensation heat transfer Film condensation,
Dropw1se
b0i11n9 · ' •
condensation
· · 0 f heat
Heat exchangers : Typ~s of heat exchangers, Overall heal transfer coefficient, Fouling factor, Analysis
exchangers, LMTD, Effectiveness - NTU method, Correction factor, Effectiveness of heat exchangers
Heat pipe : Introduction and application

latent heat, density difference, buoyancy · forces etc. It is_

further affected by the surface finish, coating on surface and
the materials of the surface with which the fluid is in·contact.
_.e b Topic : Aspects of Heat Transfer In Bolling and
Sylla u9 . (iv) At moderate temperature difference of 5 to Ib°C, the heat
Condensation
transfer coefficients in both condensation and . boiling are
generally much higher than those in single phase system.

6.1 Introduction During phase changes, the heat transfer coefficient may be of
2
the order of 5000 to 50000 ,W/m K, thus, very high rates of
Previously, we had discussed the natural and forced heat transfer are obtained. ·
coovecrion processes of heat transfer in which there is no change of
phaSC of a working fluid. However, there are large number of Syllabus Topic : Condensation Heat Transfer· Fiim and
applicatioa.s in which the fluid undergoes a change of phase (either Dropwise Condensation
vapour to liquid in condensers or liquid to vapour in evaporators)
during transfer of heat energy with the surface in contact. For _6_._2__C_o_n_d_e_n_s_a_t_io_n____________
example, in all vapour power cycles and refrigeration systems, the -+ (MU • Dec. 10, May 16)

coodeosers and evaporators are extensively used involving phase

change of fluid during heat transfer.

Tht important aspects of heat transfer in condensation (in

condensers) and boiling (in evaporators) are:

6) During phase change, the fluid transfers its latent heat at I. Definition of Condensation
saturation temperature (Ts ) only. 2. Types of Condensation
ru) The properties of the film formed on the surface, during
1• 3. Comparison between Film and Drop Wise
condensation (a liquid film) and in boiling (a vapour film), Condensations

governs the heat traI)sfer process. 4. Methods of Improving Heat Transfer Rates in
('iii) Deterrrunation
. . of heat transfer coefficient during phase Condensation

chaogets
· more complex as compared to single phase system.

The Variables affecting the phase change ·are surface tension,

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 Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6·2
-,
Boiling and Condensation & H
eat
·'

1. ... (II) Dropwise condensation

Definition of condensation

Condensation is a process in which the vapour changes into

a liquid at its saturation temperature correspo~ding to its vapour
pressure. Such a process occurs when vnp~ur comes in contact with
solid surface which is at a temperature lower than the saturation
temperature of vapour. The latent heat is liberated during
condensation process which is transferred to the surface in. contact.

2• Types of condensation

There are two types of condensation depending upon the

condition of surface. These are : 3• comparison between film and dropwise
condensations

· Type~. of.conden~atl~~ .+ (MU - May 10, Dec. 10, May 11,

(i) Filmwise Condensatiqn .· ·

(ii) Dropwise Condensatio~ .• '

~-
........... ~.--
. .- - - - . .· - • • • • . , · - - · - - -. .¥ ... . -. . . . . . .. . - : . :. . . --~-J

Fig. C6.1 : Types of condensation

_. (i) Filmwise condensation

1. Film of vapour is formed Vapour droplets are formed

on the surface. on the surface.

2. It wets the surface. It does not wet the surface.

3._ High thermal resistance Low thennal resistance as

It is shown in Fig. 6.2. l (a). The thickness of film increases in due to film. no film.
downward direction.
4. Low heat transfer rate. High heat transfer rate 6to
8 times of filmwisc

Surface condensation .

5. Rate of heat transfer from Rate of heat transfer from

Film
vapour to surface is less. vapour to surface is more.

(a) Filmwjse condensation (b) Dropwise condensation 6. This type of conderisation This type of condensation
usually occurs on clean usually occurs on rough
Fig. 6.2.1 : Types of condensation ·surface. surface.

This type of condensation usually occurs on clean surfaces.

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 Boiling and Condensation & Heat Exchangers

rr Definition of Bolling

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Diagram : W;"wh'iih~ilu{lfqum~"clialries:.,£#:p!f0~?!~·~ ~a!'°;":_
~ ·y"·· . •,1'· yr ..,1, ("~'• • '"r -t~· ,· · ""' · • / : -..~ ,
i 'fl.H~ 'lift.Uii:fpqpi}.fl,(iliterfac.e~.. :/. ·· :r-- : ·•
)i . ·: ,
, -c
·
••
,

1.
Such a process occurs when the heat is transferred from the
solid surface to liquid in contact and surface temperature is
maintained at a temperature higher than the saturation
temperature of liquid.
Film The heat transfer from solid surface at T111 to liquid at T'31 can
be written as :
Dropwisc condensation
q ·= h(T111 -T121)=h·ATe
The temperature difference b.Te = (T.., - T53t) is called excess
Methods of improving heat transfer rates In
t temperature
condensation
Boiling process ·is used in boilers for steam fonnation, heat
following methods are used to increase the heat transfer rates absorption in evaporators in refrigeration system, dehydration. and
ndensation process : drying of foods, distillation of liquids etc.
~gco

F dropwise condensation to occur, the heat transfer surfaces

ITT qr 6.3.1 Modes/Methods of Boiling
are ·g·iven special
. coatings such as zinc.
~ (MU - May 16)
(tl) CertaiD additives like oleic acid, mercaptan etc. are added to

condensing . fluid to promote drop condensation. These

additives are called "promoters''.

(tii) Sometimes the condenser surfaces are slightly inclined to the

horizontal so that the droplets vacate the contacting surface. Mod~stMethods.~f

_:-: :·.·· .·
. · :·;··..
Bolling. ··.;

Ov) By keeping higher temperature differential between the

temperature of the surfilce and the vapour. 1. Pool Boiling .

Though the promoters help in promoting drop condensation

initially but the effectiveness of the promoters gradually decreases
: 3. Sub-cooled .or Local Boiling Ji
with the lapse of time due to fouling and oxidation. For this reason, " ·•••·" ••- ,.••• , ,,,.,.,. " " •'•'- "'"' " " ~ ··~ ' ..,.,.,_.... ~ •• V• • - -~· ' " "" · · -~ ..·

Lit condensers a~e designed based on filmwise condensation ~ a

safidesignfor give11 heat transfer rates. Fig. C6.2 : Modes/Methods of Boiling

There are various modes in which the phenomenon of boiling

Syllabus Topic : Bolling Heat Transfer - Modes of Pool
is observed. These are as follows :
Boiling
~ 1. Pool boiling
~Boiling It refers to the condition in which the hot surface is
submerged below the free surface of a stagnant liquid and its
motion near the surface is due to free convection ~nly.

The liquid particles near tl1e hot surface get. heated with
bubble formation and growth and its detachment. Thus it
provides the mixing of fluid particles.

~ ·

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Bolllng and Condensation & Heat Ex~

V (MU-Se~ 5-Mech) 6-4
~
Heat Transfer
... 3. Sub-cooled or local boiling
Example of pool boiling is the formation of steam in
B~~ock-Wilcox boiler using natural convection. This is tt:e case of pool .boiling in which the
l~llid
temperature is below its saturation temperature.
~ 2. Forced convection boiling
· In such a case the bubbles formed at the heated &Urf11ct
In this case the fluid motion is provided by external means condensed in the liquid as they leave the surface. · ilt
like a pump as in case of modem boilers.
.+ 4. Saturated boiling or bulk boiling .
The forced convection improves the rate of heat transfer due
to increased heat transfer coefficient. This is also the case of pool boiling in which the Ii .
quid isai
saturation temperature.

=:.=:.== o""l""'B=o=ll=ln""g""c""u""rv""""e""F=lo=w=B=o=ll=.'in=g~(F:"o""r""'c=es=-:C~o""'n=v=ec=t=lo=n=B==o=l"'"llni:..g.,,.)-=-...._
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6.4 Regimes of Pool Boiling

(MU -May 1o, Dec. 13, Dec. 14, May 15, Dec. 16, May 17•.___D
ec.17)

The process of boiling depends on excess temperature with regard to formation of bubbles, the nature.of surface, thermo-physical
properties of the fluid like surface tension, latent heat, viscosity etc.
Film boiling region -
Transition Radiation and film
Stable film boiling
Free convection E
II III IV v
Nucleate
..- boiling
N
E 1000
~ Max mum or .
~
r:r critical eat flux
~ 800
~
...
~ 600
~

"'
I
QI
400

200

·o
0 5 30 120 1000
Excess temperature, log ATe =log (Tw-Ts) (~C)

(a) Pool bo.iling curve for water

Fig. 6.4.1 contd•..

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~1 ·
~- · . '

.; . : I 1rr1~an~s~fe~r;;;(M:i:=oU=-S=e=m=S=·=M=e=ch:;;;;)======~6~-i5=====~B~o~il~ln~~a~nd~C~o~nd~e~n~sa~t~lo~n~&~·H~ea~t:!E~x~ch~a~n~g:;:;e~r~;,;
~
., '
(i) Natural convection
(iv) Slugs and bubble formation

(v) Tran~ition film boiling

(iii) Individual bubble regime

.(vi) Stable film boiling
(b) Regimes of pool boiling

Fig. 6.4.1 : Pool boiling of water

\\'hen boiling occurs as pool boiling, there are six differem In this case vapour is produced .at free surface of liquid by
. . t regimes as shown in Fig . . 6.4. J. These regimes of
on0 d1sflllC . • . • evaporation hence this regime is also known as interface
ass.ociated with progressive mcreasmg surface heat flux
-~
bO'!be plot of beat flux, q and excess temperature, f1T. is obtained
.. evaporation.

q. ilrin" heat input and temperatures on an electrically heated
bY ineas "' • b d• n· .d
. resistance wife su merge m water 1qu1 .
plal!llUJII
Various regimes of pool boiling are as follows:
. ~egi~es of Pool Bolling
1. Free convection boiling (Region I)
2. Nucleate boiling (Regimes II and_Ill)
3. Transition boiling .
- (Regime IV) or Unstable film boiling (C·D) ·
• • •• > •••,.. .
4. Stable film boiling (Regime V)
·s. Radiation enhancement (Regime VI)
Fig. C6.3 : Regimes of pool boiling
.. 1. Free convection boiling (Region I)
~ In this regime the excess temperature, T0 is very small
(6T,:5°C).
~ In this, the heat is transferred from wall to the liquid. Density
of liquid at its surface decreases.
-+ 2. Nucleate boiling (Regimes lI and III)
Heat flux increases rapidly with increase in excess
temperature, LiT0 (= Tw -T,). The value of f1T0 is in the range
of-5°C to 30°C.
In this region the bubbles start fanning at certain locations on
the heated surface. It represents the start of boiling process. .
0
During period A t; B called Il d regime of pool boiling, the
bubbles formed are very few in numbers.
These bubbles condense in the.liquid and do not reach upto
- · -· ----~, · - - ·· · · " · · · ·-
l
- ~·- ·i
the free surface of the liquid. This regime is referred as
isolated nucleate boiling or unstable nucleate boiling.
With further increase in excess temperature, f1T0 in regime
ill, the large number· of bubbles are formed on almost al~
places.of surface.
These bubbles grow in size and rise to free surface of liquid
and form slugs of vapour which leave the surface. The regime
B to C is called the stable nucleate boiling.
In regime Ill, as the bubbles formed leave the surface almost
immediately, the heating surface becomes available for
further bubble fonnatiQ!l.
Therefore. the heat transfer rate continuously incr~ase and

' 1be hot liquid moves up and cold liquid decends and sets :UP ·reach to its maximum value at point C. This maximum value
of heat flux is called critical heat_flux, qc. It's value for
free or natural convec'tion currents. .Thus, the heating in this 2
water is 1 MW/m at atmospheric pressure.
case is by natural convection.

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I
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-6
Point P is the inflection point where the heat transfer
coefficient, h is maximum.
Nucleate boiling nt this point is desirable since maximum
' · why this regime is calJed the radiation ~n~- ·1li.t
"" heat flux is transferred with smaller temperature difference.
Howeve~. with. further increase in 6. T0 , the value of h
decreases so as to maintain the maximum heat flux.
~ 3. Transition boiling (Regime IV) or Unstable film
boiling (C-D)
W:ith increasing temperature difference, the bubble formation
is very high.
These bubbles start to combine and form a blanket of vapour
film on heating surface. It prevents the inflow of fresh liquid
on the surface.
The film formed on surface nets as a thermal resistance due to
which the rate of heat flux falls rapidly shown by curve CD in
Fig. 6.4.1.
In ~s region the vapour film is not stable and collapses. Due
to this a part of the surface will have film boiling and the
remainder surface will have nucleate boiling. For this reason,
this regime is called as the unstable film boiling.
~ 4. Stable film boiling (Regime V)
With further inc~e in AT0 , the bubble formation is so high
that th~ film becomes stable and covers the entire surface. It
offers more resistance to heat flow. The heat flux rate reduces
to minimum at point D. This point is known as Leidenfrost
point which occurs at about 120°C in water at atmospheric
pressure.
Thus the region beyond point D upto E, the film is stable on
the surface and this region is called the regime of stable fllm
boiling.
~ 5. Radiation enhancement (Regime VI)
With further increase in AT•• the rate of heat flux again start
rising for the following reasons :
o The thermal conductivity of vapour being low, the
thermal resistance is high and heat transfer rates are
low.
.. -~
.·' ~
!2geri
However, increase in ATc increases the heat .
0
rates by radiation which become dominant co lransr"
lllpaitd
heat conduction. Hence, heat transfer rates Slazts .. ~
rapidly at 'AT.' of the order of 1000°C and above ll.siog
JS ' · '"411Ce~
regime.
6.4.1 Critical Heat Flux
The point •c• represents th~ point of maximum critical heat
flux on pool boiling curve at which the nucleate boiling ends i1lld
the film boiling is initiated. The corresponding point E also
represents the point at which the maximum heat flux oecurs. IVhen
film is stable on the surface. The temperature at point ll ~
extremely high and it is normally the above the melting
temperature of solid surface. Therefore. any increase in heat Gul
beyond the critical heat flux represented by po!nt 'C' will cause a
sharp departure from the boiling curve in which the sunact
conditions change abruptly.
The temperature of surface (6.TJc will change to (6 TJpand
beyond which it is above the melting point of metal surface. It Will
cause the failure of the system and damage the metal surface.
For the above reasons, the point at which the maximum flux
occurs is called the ''burn out point" or ''burning crisis''. This is
the reason the evaporators and boilers are always ·designed for
values less than critical heat flux.
Zuber relation qmax = 0.18 (p/5 • h1g • [g · o · (p - p,)]v4
6.5 Forced Convection Boiling
The boiling phenomenon in case of forced convection is
different than pool boiling phenomenon discussed above.
In pool boiling, the bubbles are due to buoyancy driven
motion which originate from heated surface while in forced
convection it is due to both the directed motion of fluid from
external source and the buoyancy drive motion from surface.
The various regions involved in forced convection boiling, ·
inside .a tube are shown in Fig. 6.5.1.
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wl11i11 li1111irl dniplr,f~ 111'J11p,
, Hrl!l111111 ll1vulv111l l11 t11,.r111I 1•1111~111·111111 lwlllliu
JifM,1 ( ,,,.11 'l'l1 i; 111 y ij11111m11;d •1opw1r 111, tl1i; 1;111J p11rt 1>f tlu; wlm 1ti;t11

it ,, lllliflly fluW l'rj!l1111 ~11p•; 1l1 1·111,~i1 111ti1rurtl1m11w;4;fl1111 fm11l th~ l\lll'l'u~:~.

'
• hi lhld IP~j111J, !1111 fl11hflf1•4 1111111!•11 It( llilWI tll1t111 ·~ 11( fllf!

lll'''In1 1,11>"v 11hl 111J H·1I '"''' • 11 11k1I liy th•· ~1111111111•11 li1111id
lt\!lu~ iillt'f•I t11 ll 1w,1
OyllntJutj Topi": lft111t rJxotmnn~rts nnd th.,lr Appllcntlon
' - " I T ~--

'Iii~ [flllililn j!f1t\1, 111 1111.t ~ ·· 1 1 r11 1 1llt111 dq.1·11d ~ 1111 1fi1• llllVI

~~ ,,~ llY•'f f1~ ft r 11l ll r•fl ~ lr 1 \ 1 •rlfl1 11•111 lff! ' l f ll ~l'Q ,
o.o Doflnltlon ond Application of Heat
Exchangers
- w -~·~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~ (MU • Doo. 09 Mfty 16)

I~ !Ill• • ~¥j1111, thr IH1li v11l111il fiplil•frb ('f1111hlw 111 f11m1 f11rj!.rl' 1anwlftlIR•n&limam1 ,_, . .· ·· . . .. .. . .' :
fi , I} >' , •'•••'
l!llbbl~~ or •llll!~ ''' v11 1... ,., 111r. fo11w1J.
I •• , •I ' t ·J

Q, Wl)ttt 11:1111.}ftt t;,XOhftngftr 7 WIH1/.fJ am thoy .W013d .'} 'i ; '•

~ • , ,:; ,', ~. . , .~
· · ··.) ··: .. :. · , .· . :•tma._
i" .
namJm
, :1 .· • r , , <I , , I J

'lllil voh11no oi l111ht.ln h- 1·11 1111 111( frfl\l11g 1111 11 ffryn c~b

(1"'1l1m 11( (),I h 1r 11t lird, A /tt!{d 11~<ifmn11m.· t1J . a ~1~.vJco Uflr.d ./'or..era"naf~r,
ITI to /i11at '/'mm·" htrJ.lJ,:t«!i~p111,·r.it11tq /lU:l~t·;tp ·ii ~loul
.lfltufl'ltutur" {tufr); wtll~ l11Jth tl,ia · ftutcl8 i1fovinn
thliou ·fl //lu: ifrufi' :,i~M<frt, .".. _· .. , .; ,'. :· ":_·..:;·· ,;·.::;·;·::
• In 1hl~ rridon, thr v 11p 11111 f11111irtl r:11llr1 c;rn11hlt11.J 11111l ll11w 111
'l'llt:.rn 111r, 1111111y type ol' lieut exchu11gern which nre widely
l~1grr vrl1;~hy 1111 r11111il 1 ,,,,. ,,,. 111111; wllll1· th· lluld flown 111
llor.:d l11 l111h1~1ry u11tl 11ppllc1ttlo11u 111' power 1te11cl'lltlo11.

,, . AppllcrttloM of Hoot Exchongor

• Ct~lOclrnt 11f lieut 11011~1 r ·11ntl11ur,ti 11-, l111;1i;11F.1; ul!iny. fhi;
101 ,
Snmr, 111' fl1e 1111pllc11l10111j urc hc111lng t)f ulr by hentcr flt
l111ml~, null111or ln 1tlll<111H1hllctt, d1111J"Hllc·
.... . wnter I1e11tcr,
t:Vll 1or11f11r 11nd condc1rncr 111 refrJ crntlon und
 V Heat Tran~ifer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-8 B01.,.mg and Condensation
'
& He
.
.--.,
.

.
.
:
.
.

at~~" CJ
'."; ·'
-:~~\
· ·'- ~
: _., '. ·::'. J

air-conditioning, boilers, condensers and cooling towers in

steam power plants etc.
:::cJ~ss1iic~Uoh
..
~ . . .
~f ii~~t.. e~~h~~ger~
.. .
' . . : ' .
Some of ~e Indian manufacturers of heat exchanger are
Thennax, Forbes Marshall, Tata, Behr, Alfa Laval, Paharpur
of Kolkata etc.

6.6.1 Factors Considered In Design of Heat

Exchangers
.+ (MU - May 12)

1. Temperature range.

2. .;Rate of heat energy to be transferred between two fluids.

3. Phase of fluids (liquid to vapour or gas to liquid or liquid to

liquid) 3 ..Acco,rding to geometry of construction:
" " ' " "" '" ">'• • • • •> • A ' , A ,,.,.., ....,.., .• • v. , ,...,, , •• >n..- • , .,..,

4. Permissible pressure drops for hot and cold fluids. (Higher

pressure drops increases cost of pumping).

5. Overall size constraints.

6. Required ratio of surface area to volume. c ..F~n-~~~. ~~b_e_ ty~e heat exchangers

. .d. Compact heat exchangers

7. Fouling factors due to scaling and deposits on heat transfer
surfaces. Higher scaling causes shut down of heat exchanger Fig. C6.5 : Classification of Heat Exchangers ·
for longer period for the purpose of clearing.
6.7.1 · Heat Exchangers according to Flow
8. Manufacruring processes. Arrangements of Fluids
9. Overall cost
~ (MU • Dec. 15)
10. Stress considerations.

Syllabus Topic : Types of Heat Exchangers

6.7 Classification of Heat Exchangers Heat exchangers based on flow arrangement are classified as
parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow heat exchangers.
.+ (MU- May 10, May 11, May 14)
a. Parallel flow heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 6.7.1 in which
both the hot and cold fluids move in the same paralld
direction. These are also called as concurrent flow htaJ
exchangers.
Heat exchangers are classified based on the following b. Counter_heat exchangers : His shown in Fig. 6.7.2 in whic~
criteria. the two Quids flow in opposite but in parallel directions.

Sconned w ith CamSconner

W.:.
. . r (MU-S~m 5-Meoh) · · Ex~h~ngers
~~·. ~ '1 'fr&f19~fa~~===;;;::=-===~===6~·~9~~===~B~o~l~lln~gLa~n~d~C~o~nd~e~nis~a~ti~on~&~H~ea~t~~~~=-=
f.1.·..~. 9~ . cold fluld Annulus pl · a
·' ' · I pe parallel flow heat exchanger needs larger heat transfer are
' t Central tube
--+ compnred to cross and counter flow heat exchangers.
~ • .•I
~ ~ . , d
fluld Parallel and counter flow heat exchangers are also calle as
..
,
~
··tl"~~
.· . I

~
·
double pipe bent exchangers since it involves two cone
entric pipe
. the central and annulus pipes as shown ·tn F'igs. 6 ·7 · 1 and
Cold 11uld I1aving
6.7.2.
7 1 : Parallel flow heat exchanger
fig· 6..

t .__ ______
Cold fluld
Cross Dow heat exchnngers are further classified as :
Unmixed flow, mixed flow and one fluid mixed and the other fluid
unmixed type heat exchangers.
Hot For Example : In Fig. 6.7 .3, there are number of parallel
lluld
pat~s for hot fluid flowing in X-direction in tl1e tubes, each path is
t
Cold fluld
physically separated by neighbouring path. The fluid in tl1e tube is
fig. 6.7.2: Counter flow heat exchanger unmixed. While for cold fluid flowing in Y -directfon across the
tubes does not have separate paths, hence tl1e fluid is said to be
ross fJOW beat exchangers : It is shown in Fig. 6.7.3 in
mixed. (with itself).
c. C the two fluids flow in mutually perpendicular
which
Therefore the heat exchangers shown in Fig. 6.7.3(a)
directions.
r~presents a cross flow heat exchanger wifu one fluid mi.xed and
cold fluid in (Mixed), Td
another ~uid unmixed type heat exchangers.
~
~ <II Fig. 6.7.3(b) shows fue cross flow ·1leat exchanger in which
·~c: F
_,.
2. a
"O
both the fluids are unmixed.
.E ·5
tl
10:
6.7.2 Heat Exchangers according to Heat
..,
3 0
J:
() Transfer Process
J:

Cold fluid out. Tee These are further classified as :

Flg.6.7.3(a): One fluid mixed and another fluid uninixed a. Direct contact type or mixers.
Cold fluid In, Td
b. Recuperators or transfer type heat exchangers.
I

a> c. Regenerators or storage type heat exchangers.

F
~ :i
.r:. " - . , 0
"O
"CJ '5
"5
I;: ., ii::
i5
a. Dlrect contact type or mixers heat
0 I
J: exchangers
I: I '
I I
t In this type of heat exchangers the hot and cold fluids mix
Cold fluid out, Tee
togefuer and transfer heat by direct contact e.g. cooling towers, jet
(b) Both fluids unmixed type
condensers, open feed water heaters etc. as schematica.l\y shown 1n·
Fig. 6.7.3: Cross flow heat exchanger
Fig. 6.7.4.
Thennodynamically speaking, a parallel flow heat exchanger
~apoo .
r arrangement compared to counter flow heat exchanger.
For agiv h .
en eat transfer rate and set of temperature of fluids, a

°$ l1tb¥.1u1w\cdu
\ in
1• \I. ti\\ l -. fl

Scanned with CamScanoer

~
. I
. ~· . V .Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-10 Boiling and Condensation & He · ~-' . ,
. -~:
-Hot11llid · .
lri

.•...•...•...•
................. _.
........... ........ Cooling tower

' ............ ..... ....

:::::::::::: :::::i··:: .
.....................
' '
····r:.......
.... ...... ......
......
.... .......
.... ..........
.....
.... ..... ...
·--- ...........•.•.... (a) Single matrix regenerator

I,
..
Liquid Air

Fig. 6.7.4: Direct oontact type heat exchangers

b. Recuperators

w
DEFINffiON

(b) Rotary regenerator

Fig. 6.7.S: Regenerator or storage type heatexctiangel'I

All parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers are the 6.7.3 Heat Exchangers according to
example of recuperator type heat exchangers. These heat Geometry of Construction
exchangers are commonly used in engineering practice. There are ·large type of heat exchangers based on the
geometry of their construction. Some of the major type of heat
c. Regenerators or storage type heat.
exchangers based on their constructional features arc described
exchangers
below:
In this type of heat exchangers, the hot and cold fluids flow a. Tubular heat exchangers
alternately on the same flow passages (matrix).
b. · Shell and tube type heat exchangers
When the hot fluid flows over the matrix, it stores the thermal c. Finned tube type heat exchangers
energy. While during the flow of cold fluid over the matrix .later
d. Compact heat exchangers
on, the matrix gives away the thermal energy stored earlier to the
. cold fluid.
a. Tubular heat exchangers : These are also called as double
Therefore, the passages (matrix) gains the heat in the form of
plpe or concentric type or tube in tube type heat exchangers.
internal energy while ~ot fluid passes over it and loses .heat when
The parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers shown in
cold fluid passes over it · Such a energy transfer is called
Figs. 6.7.1 and 6. 7.2 respectively are of these types of heal
regeneration. exchangers.

The single matrix regenerator is shown in Fig. 6.7.S(a) and a b. Shell and tub~ type heat exchangers : These are built up of
rotary regeneration is shown in Fig. 6.7.5(b). · round tubes mounted in large cylindrical shell with tubes
parallel to the shell as shown in Fig. 6.7.6(a). These are also 1

called as surface condensers.

• ,a.,...;
•l111tf1l1111••
 MU-Sem 5-Mech)
. 6-11
. Bolling and Condensation & Heat Exchangers
Shllll outl11t
Baffle Tuba header Sheet

Heat tran&fer surface

area > 700m 2/m 3 on
either or both £Ides

Tube Outlet Plate

f'ig. 6.7.6(a) : Shell and tube heat exchangers

are widely used as oil coolers", steam cond ·

'fhese ensers,
reheaters
in power plants, as steam generators ·n
· 1 nuc1ear
P Jants, chemical industry and process applicati Fig. 6.7.6(c) : Compact type heat exchangers
p0wer p _ . ons.
e beat exchangers, the heat transfer takes place a .
ln thes · s one
Syllabus Topic : Temperatur~ Distribution In Heat
of the fluid flows in the tube and the oth~r fluid flows outside
Exchangers and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
bes tfuough the shell. BaffJes are used to · t
~w mae
turbu [ence• thus enhances heat transfer rates.
6.8 Temperature Distribution in Heat
· ~ed tube type heat exchangers : These are used as gas to Exchangers
" liquid beat exchangers when high heat transfer rates or high
~ (MU- May 10, May 11)
operating pressures are needed e.g. in application of gas
turbines, automobiles, aeroplanes, refrigeration and
airconditioning systems. etc.

Such a heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 6.7.6(b). Fins are

always added on gas side in various shapes to enhance ,the
heat transfer area since it increases the surface area for heat
transfer.

0
Distance from Inlet - l O'----------'L
DIS1anca from Inlet --..
Liquid
(a) Parallel flow heat
(b) Counter flow bent
euhanger .
exchanger

Condenaln Hot fluid

Glls AT1

Fig. 6.7.6(b): Finned exchanger

Bolling liquid ·
01' - - - - - - - - - - . . . 1 l
Distance from Inlet - . 01' - - - - - - - - - - i l
t Compact heat exchangers : These are special type of heat Distance from Inlet --..

exchangers in which the heat transfer surface area per unit (c) Condenser (d) Evaporator

volume (called area density) is very large. The heat · Fig. 6.8.1 : Temperature distribution for various cases of heat

exchangers having more than 700 m2/m3 of area density on exchangers

any one side or both side are classified as compact heat
exchangers. .These are shown in Fig. 6.7.6(c). These are
usua11y cross flow type ..
During the heat transfer from hot to cold fluid, there is a
change in temperature either of both the flui_ds or one fluid ns in
c·ase of condensation and . evaporation process. The prob.able
temperature distribution is shown in Fig. 6.8. l for various cases.

Sca nned w it h Ca rnScanner

I I
~

i.
' .
_._ Bolting and condem1atlon & Heat Exchan era
~? Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6·12
. Equations (6.9.2) nod (6.9.3) we get,
Compnnng
6.9 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) I
U = (.I L 1) ...(6.9.4)
\il;+"f + h"
I. Jn case of plane walls
2. OvcrnJI heat transfer coefficient in shell and tube type overall heat transfer coefficient In shell and tube
2.
heat exchanger type heat exchanger
Cold Fluld

1. In case of plane walls .k

Consid~ a plane: wall shown in Fis. 6.9.1 which Is exposed to Hot

_.
Fluid
hot fluid on one ~idc: and colder flu id on th~ other sid.:.

Let h, and h., be the Cl'n\'e.:ti\'e he<it u·.lllsfc.r C'('('fficient on hot

fluid and cold fluid side re-six·.:ti,dy.

k is thrnu:il conn:'l:"tiYity of w:i.11 of thid.:nl."sS L.

.. .(6.9.1)

1
Nore: h.A 1~11t e»rwec:tive 1hetmal resistance and
f'Jg. 6.9.2 : Overall hcnt trnnsfcr coefficient in shell and tube
~ ~ n-all ~t'N·e thermal resistance. bent cxchnnger

n-~ OH~r.ill ~ ~..r:sfer r-ie. Q C".1...'l lX" c\kul.'lteJ by thl' nie heat transfer is in radial direction. Firstly the heat is

~wtii.1'0. transfrm:d by hot fluid to inner wall of tube by convection, then

through the wall of the tube by conduction and finally from the
...(6.9.2)
outer wall of tube to cold fluid by convection.

Surface area of inner tube, Ai = 2 1tr1 • L ... (i)

Surface urea of outer tube, A0 = 21tr2 • L .•.(ii)

Total thennal resistance, LR = Ri + R1 + R0

Vl&U Con v~lon = --+

I loSe(~ + -l - ...(6.9.S)
hi · A1 2nL k h0 • A0
L 1 °
,-l~
• l
1 loge (~) 1
-+ + ... (6.9.6)
fig. 6.9.J: On raU bt-.a.I rraruft'r c:otffldtnl tJ1rough 21tr1 • h1 2nL k 2nr2 • h0
a plant M'aU
Ti-To
If ·u· is the owrall he;;J tramfrr ~ffi dent tht'n,
Q = TR=U.A. 6T

Q = V...\ (T, - T;_i •..(6.9.3) ...(6.9.7)

2
where, U 11 Overall heat transfer coefficient in W/m K.

S.:-:nnnltd with\.nm:.r.nnm!r
 MU·Sem 5-Mech)
6·13 Bollin and Condensation & Heat Exchangs-r~

ca.re the rate of heat tram/er rm vr.r side will lie very [mv. In order
ncelling AT from ubovc cquutlon we g ·t to l«-ep hA constant I.e. 111 A, = h,, A,, the surface area on gaJ side
After c11 c'
I I I is increased by providing fins on rhe tubes. .
l:R c: VA= u-:A
1 I
= u-:-
A ... (6.9.8)
0 0
The net heat transfer area with finned heat exchangers ca.n 1%:

· ernll hcut trunsfcr coefficient based on outs'd written as;

'fhO ov . 1 e surface
nn be expressed as :

--=
.....n oftUbO c
lll~ I I
Va == l:R· A0 ~+~l
A1• h1 · 21tLk n ~ + h0
(r2) I ... (6.9.9) 6.9.1 Energy Balance Equation in Heat
Exchangers

... (6.9.IO) In a heat exchanger, there is an exchange of heat energy from

hot fluid fo cold fluid. Therefore, during heat exchange the intc::nd
energy of the cold fluid increases on the expense of decrease· in
. ,·tarly overall heat transfer coefficient based 0 n inner
.
s1111 I • internal energy of hot fluid.
rea of tube can be exp'ressed as : .
surface a . Thus, Decrease in internal energy of hot fluid
I I
U1 = ~ =.L ~ (r
h1 + 21tLk ln -;;-
2)
+A.
Ai 1 .. .(6.9.1 1)
i10 '
=Incre~e in internal energy of cold fluid.
0

... (6.9.12)
where suffix 'h' is for hot fluid and 'c' is for cold fluid, suflix
'i' and 'e' represent the inlet and exit temperatures respectively and

When the thickn.ess of the wall of tube is neglected and its

cp is the specific heat.
thermal conductivity is high, the thermal resistance of the wall of
Syllabus Topic : Fouling Factor
tube can be neglected. Then the Equation (6.9.4) can be modified

as:
6.10 Fouling·Factor
.. .(6.9.13) -+.(MU • Dec. 09, Dec. 1O, Dec 12, May 13,
May 14, May 15, Dec. 15, May 17)

Equation (6.9.13) can be used for practical considerations . ':.;.~·:.,~~HY/~;,, :,,, ~~~:,~~.:~i~z~?Y~~~1];[~§p\;~~: 0'.:~:·" -:...
since the tube is made of metal having high thennal conductivity '-";~. neat ,exch.ailger:derive·an:eqliation of:overa11·heat
-:'.;(.;:,{~=:,~..: v,. ·. .,.·"· :~':' ..·, :~. ~.. .:"' -..{ "'. ":""· . ·. , ·::...:_:. >.1.~ ... ; .,. ~ -;-, '{· .'-"~. :.:.. .,<( , c"' ~ ,.. ~- . . . ~ .

and if it is thin tube (zn :;. = ln 1 =0) Q~.er.W'eulc1~'nr¢0Qsioerrng:fou'ti'n9 'tac~6r;:,

0\;-·. .;;_::·~;-f:-. . .;. :.·<·_.. :'::~-~·-.1~~:;- ~;:~_';~~~·.:-~.:. ;~
·~~f;~~~:~-~t:·~(.~;;~.· :-;:... f
•·N••PI.
":- ..., . , · . : , / : . : :. ~"
.at ll:l:.llle·an·.by.foutiog factor/ ?·How·does it affect the

In case h1is much less than h0 , then U hi = .

h; • h0 h; • h0 )

( ... u =h. + h ::: - h - ::: hi .

I 0 O
5«Y<Jtfi1'Qi.~~nJ~i~" fo~11n9dact0t:?:~whaf 'a~~,·~th~·
Therefor~. smaller convective heat transfer coefficie~t will = =""'
: .=
··-:tJ. ~ f;,$1e~filt:6$l7;i~r;i;J.tt~~iM~itJ~i~:;t:r~~~;~.J~11i\\fifi
reduce the rate of heat transfer since Q oc U. Such a case occurs
When the h · Equations (6.9.9) and (69. 10) are valid for clean surfaces
eat transfer takes place between the two fluids as gas
and liquid fl · · only. ·
ow mg m a heat e~changer. Since h8as < < huquld' in such

Scanned with CamScanoer

 Vi" ZS

--==-
v Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech)

After the certain period of operation of the heat exchanger, its

surface do not remain clean due to :

I. Scaling or deposits caused by impurities in the fluid. ·

2. Ch~mical reaction between the fluid and wall material.

3. Rust formation or other reasons.

The effect of deposition of scale is to increase th~ surface

resistru1ce affecting the value of U.

TI1is e.ffect is taken c~ of by introducing an additional

thermal resistance called fouling resistance Rt which can be
1 , ddennined experimentally by testing the bent exchangers for both
Representative values of overall heat transfer coefficient are
clean und dirty col1ditions.
as indicated in Table 6.10.1. It shou~d be kept in mind that the
lh: fouling resistance, R, is defined as :
given values are representative values only to show that these vary
/ 1
I to a large extent. The values of fouling factors of common fluids
R< -- -U, - ... (6.10.1)
U -
I '
I I
001 - 0 =
I I
are shown in Table 6.10.2.
I'
i' If both sides of the inner and outer surfaces of the tube are Table 6.10.1 : Representative values of overall heat transfer
' · coefficient (U)
I ,
' fouled ha..ing the fouling resistances Rra and Rro rei>pectively, then
the total thennal resistance in the path of heat flow between hot
and cold fluids C.'.l1l be written as : Wat.er to water 850-1700
i•I
I Rr. ln (r/r1) ~o 1 Water to oil 110- 350
LR = A I · h-1 +A+
I
2 7t
Lk +A+
o
A ·h
o o
... (6 · 10·2)
Steam condensers (Water in·tubes) 1000-6000
The overall heat transfer coefficient Equations (6.9.9) and
Alcohol condensers (water in tubes) 250-700
(6.9. 10) can now be modified as :
Feed water heaters 110- 8000
I
= ---
Air-condensers 350-780

.. . (6.10.3) Air to various gases 60-660

Air to heavy tars and liquids As low as45

Water to gasoline 30-1000

... (6.10.4)
Finned Tube heat excha~gers (Water in tubes, ' 25-60
air in cross-flow)
I -
= Steam (in tubes) to air finned 30-300

Table 6.10.2 : Fouling factors of common fluids

= ... (6.10.5)

... (6. 10.6)

1. Well water 0.0004

2. Distilled water 0.0002 - 0.0006

. 0 T.CU,..1,..e
Vrwt.ll••ll"'

Sc;:mricd w ith c::imsconnct'

 Boiling and Condensation & Heat Exchang~

Subscripts h and c refer to the l1ot :ind cold fluidi;

· Ie t and our.let
respectively; subscript I and 2 correspond to the tn
0.0001 (below sooc) conditions respectively.
0.0002 (above 50°C) Assume that the heat exchanger is perfectly insulated 60 that
0.0001 there is no heat loss .to the surroundln~ and potential and
· from the energy balance in
kinetic energy changes are negllglble,
0.0001 - 0.0002
a heat exchanger, we have :

<0.0002 Heat given by the hotfluld, Q = 1?1ii C~ (Thi -ThZ)

0.0009 .. . (6. 1 J. I)
0.0002
Heat gained by the cold fluid, Q = me Cpc <Ta - ·T,,)

exhaust and fuel 0.0002 ... (6.1 J.2)

Total heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger,

·0.002

Refrigerant liquids, brine 0.0001 Q = UAATem ... (6.11.3)

12.
or oil·bearing Where U = Overall heat transfer coeffici'.ent between

the two fluids, W/m2K· .

syllabus Topic : Analysis of Heat Exchangers·LMTD A = effective heat transfer area, m1
· Method
A T1m = Appropriate mean value of tempcr.ature

difference or logarithmic mean

6.11 Analysis of Heat Exchangers
temperature difference (LMTD).
~ (MU· Dee. 17)
Log Mean Temperature Difference for
"Parallel Flow"
~ (MU - Dec. 09, Dec•.15, May 17, Dec..17)

For designing or predicting the performance of a heat

J e:tdwlger it is necessary that the total heat transfer may be related
: Jilb its governing parameters.

j (!) U (overall heat transfer coefficient) due to various modes of

beat transfer,
i
j (u1 A= (total surface area of the heat transfer), and

(iii) T1, T2 (the inlet and outlet fluid temperatures).

llt m = mass flow rate, kg/s.

specific heat of fluid at constant pressure J/kg °C

T ·= temperature of fluid, °C
One can ask a question why there is log mean temperature.
dT = temperature drop or rise of a fluid across the heat This can be very easi!y answered looking at the Fig. 6.11. L The
exchangers. temperature diff~rence between the two fluids is continuously

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 mz"'t - . , _:: -~·
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'
..
.. V Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6·16 Bolling and Condensation & H
I eat Eiccti
changing from the inlet to the outlet of the heat exchanger. This and dQ = me Cpc dTc =Cc dTc
· 1emperature difference must be averaged over the entire length of "·(6.11 .
Where Ci, and Cc are the hot and cold nI -61
. Udb~t
11eat exchanges. rates, (1.e. C = m · CP , the produc't of mass fl Clpa...
,. ow rate an """It
'
Fluid A___j L._Fluld A heat) respectively. d Bl>ctjr~
____,.. ---+ __.. _.,.. ---+

Fluid
____....
B~fl/11////////T~Fluld B
---... ~ ---+ --..
The temperature difference between two fluids
·/ I
----, r- (t.T) = Th -Tc
I
I FI u1dB
' j
I
I
I Above equation in the differential form, d (t.T) :: dTh -dl'
c

i ' ... (6.11.~

'
Substituting dTh and dTc from Equations (6.11.S)
. j • AT2 . and (6.11
---+-Lo- into Equation (6.11.7) we get. .6)
I
' '
l .
I · (. t I )
.I : d(t.T) = -dQ\ch+cc

.
!1
//
Oo putting 1he value .of dQ from equation (6 t I 4)
X=L _ . . . . . -~
/ .i
I '.
I
I Fig. 6.11.1.: J:f!mperature distribution for parall~I f1ow·heat
·d .( t.T)= -UdAt.T (~,+~J
, I
I '
) exchangers
I: J .
Integrating along the heat exchanger length between .
sec11on 1
ca- Assumptions and 2

i : I. The 0.verall heat tr:m~fer c~fficient is uniform throughout the

j· :1
;, ! exchlmgu.
I I
I !
;· 2. Toe'~otencial and kinetic energy changes are negligible.
~ :'
,•
The specific heat of the fluids are constant. = ' GI
-UA - + -
. ch cc
I) ... (6.11.8)

4. The heat exchange ta1ces place between the two fluids.

Substituting Ci, and Cc from Equations (6.11.1) and (6.11.2)
5. The temperature of both the fluids are constant over a given respectively.
I:
cross-section ·and may be represented by their bulk
temperature. ln (:~2) =
The heat transfer between the cold and hot fluid for a
differential element of length, dx, is
-UA ·
dQ = =
UdA ~T UdA (Th -Tc) .. . (6.11.4) = Q [(AT1 - t.T2)]

(LiT2 - AT1)
Q = UA ln (Li T I Li T )
2 1
is t11e local temperature difference between the hot and cold
(AT1 -AT2 )
fluids ...(6.11.9)
= UA /n (A'T1 I A T2 )
and dA = width x dx ·
Where
An energy balance over the hot ·and cold fluids for . this
differential element gives :

... (6.11.5)
 rr
('~:}..~~....
• !~-
"
.

' · - _
'

atfran
sfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
-
_
6 17
-1.. f'!EI - -abov-e result with Equation (6 11 3) w h -
Bolling and Condensation & Heat Exchan ers
- are the - . . e see l at
· coJ11P erage temperature difference is I Let us consider an elementary area dA of lhe beat exchanger.
- - rinte av 11 og mean
•~proP -
.o.t "' ,.. di ffere
nee (LMTD), 6.T1m·
u~ 1u1v - The rate of flow of heat through this elementary area is given by,
11°~
. wenta
y write ·
so - ' ... (6;11.12)
Q =/ VA 6.T1m ... ( 6 .l 1.IO)
In this case also, due to heat transfer dQ through the area dA.
lhe hot fluid is cooled down by dTh _whereas the cold fluid is heated
by dTc. The energy balance over a differential area dA may be
written as
-Since JTm contains log t~rm, it is called wgarithmic Mean
- Difference (LM. T.D ).
erature
rernP 6.Tt -AT2
In a counter flow -system, the temperatures of both the fluid
bTJl1or.::ff,;n = (AT1 ) .. .(6.11.11)
ln 6. T1 decrease in the direction of heat exchanger length, hence the - ve
sign.

. , Logarithmic Mean Temperature

611 2 dQ dQ
Difference for "Counter-Flow" = - ~ cph = -c:;:-- ... (i)

+ (MU - Dec.12, May 14, Dec. 16)

and
dQ dQ
dTc = - fl\Cpc =- Cc
~~~ ... (ii)

On substracting, dTh - dTc = - dQ [~ - ~c J

or, = -dQ[.l_..LJ
c; cc ... (6.11.14)

Inserting the value-of dQ from Equation (6.11. i2), we get

d(AT) = -Ud.A(Th-Tc{~ -~J

_ Fig. 6.11.2 which shows the flow arrangement and

= -UdA · AT[~ -:-~~

temperature distribution in a single pass counter-flow heat
exchanger. ·

- U dA[.l.._.1..J
- - c-
Hot Quid T ! ! . L . J r - - - - - - - - - - - - - . L _Hot fluid Th
- <; cc
~-
2

.__ +--- .._ ....,___

--i r- Integrating along the heat exchanger length between sections
Cold ftuld, Tc2 Cold fluid, Tc1 1and2

t\T2
Cold Fluid me T c1

... (6.11.15)

0
x dx
Now, the total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is
Area- X=L
given by,
6
- Fig. ·ll.2: Temperature distribution for c-o unter flow heat -
exchanger

... (6. l l.16)

v
/'
. i'

'
. Boiling and Condensation & Heat Exch
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-18 angell
.
. ".''
:''
I ~;
I• I l Thi -Tiil outlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids are not unifonn '
,: I ~ Ii• c;, . over'lit

' c Q .. .(6.11.17)
I ' entire cross-section from inlet to outlet
and, ... (6. 11.18) The analytical treatment of these type of heat exchan
. . . gcrs are
very complex as compared to single pass heat exchan
Substituting the values of ~ and ~. into Equation (6.11.15), • gCrt
However, these cross-flow and multipass type heat exchan ·
. gc11
we get, were studied and analysed by Bowman, Mueller and Nagle, ~
1 ,· '

: " t ! ;
;; I ·: type of heat exchangers are normally analysed by using the
I_!, • I !f
.1 / • ·following equation.
~ j I '

' '. ... (6.11.20)

' 'I
• I I
I
.'
:
UA where, Fis correction factor.
I ; ' = -"Q(AT1 -AT2)
· 1' ; ! F = I for counter flow H.B.
I 1 : /
UA
:
I
:
I

: I
= "Q(AT2 -AT1) (AT-AT']
ATrm = LMTD for counterflow heat exchanger [ 1 (
1
~
I
. n AT1 /ATz)
.~ i i UA (AT2 -AT1)
, I i·! Q = =
(Thi -Tc2) - (Th2 - Tei)
! I/. (AT9
ln AT1
ln (Thi -T,2}
· I I
; . \Th2-T, 1)
. 1 ·r
.:· I ;,: U.A. (.:1T1 -ATJ
:i: : = where suffix 1 and 2 represent the temperatures at inlet and
(AT1)
·:,!I'· In AT2 · exit of the respective hot and cold fluids.
I '

'F' represents the degree of departure of true lMTD for a

/U
I, '

!; I
i
Since,

..
Q

A T1m
=

=
UAATbn

AT2 -AT1
counter flow H.E. It is determined from graphs using following

factors:
'.·
In (AT9
AT, T,1 -T.2
Capacity ratio, R = Ta -Tu .. .(6.11.21)
I '
= ... (6.11.19) Ta -Ttt
I
J Temperature ratio, P = T,1-Tt1
...(6.11:22)

I 6.11.3 Logarithmic Mean Temperature · where T represents the temperature of fluid and subscripts arc

Difference (LMTD) tor Cross Flow and as follows:

Multlpass Heat Exchangers s ~ fluid in shell, .t ~ fluid in tube

+ (MU- Dec.11, Dec 12) 1 ~ temperature at inlet, 2 ~ temperature at exit

While designing a heat exchanger, the selection of parameters

R and P should be such that the value of correction factor, F is
more than 0.75.

The expressions so for derived for LMTD, in case of parallel The correction factor for convenience are represented in the

~d counter flow type heat exchangers, are only applicable to graphical form for different type of heat exchangers as shown in
Fig. 6.11.3 to 6.11.7.
single pass type heat exchangers. These expressions cannot be

applied to cross flow and muitipass heat exchangers since the

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~(<.. .
:< "\.·': · _,. f r (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
·'~.::}
>. ~~I
f rii15 ,e . . · .
6- t 9
Boiling and Condensation & Heat Exchangera :
l :···'.:, •·· heat exchanger with both fluid ·
?'c~j,.f(O\'/ 8 Unmixed
·.t· ~·
~ ·1
I ~ .. · . .
" I

..
. ' .ii'
:
. ,.
.,t
• I •
. l
·' ; ..·
.I: I

.! '·; .

., :
l
; . '

''
.\ j
'\,
I,., .
o.s Cit
--\; J-t\1\f~~~S~ 11
I
I
iI
'\
,.i

11 "i

'.\
1
.' ~

0.5 o.e 0 .7 o.e o.s 1.0

--+P = T12- T11
r,, -r11
Fig. 6.11.3 : Correction factor for cross-n
ow heat exchanger when both Dulds are unmixed
cross-flow heat exchanger with one fluld mixed and ano.ther fl uId unmixed

1.0

0.9
R= T,, -Ta2

l
T12 -Tt1

0.6 -.-

0.5 .._...___.__..__............__._.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 .9 1.0
- - -.. p

Fig. 6.11.4 : Correction factor for cross-flow heat exchanger having one fluid mixed and another unnilxed

..

h'.l!nteo
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r<·
, (
· ...
,. .
, ..
_ ~,.
.
.:

!',' ' Boiling and Condensation & Heat §Ch

... 'tjr Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-20
-~
I ,,I

3. Correction factor for one shell and two tube passes heat exchanger .
,).

I .

u..

~
Jg
c
.Q
• •' • J
0
.. '' ''
I ~
. I.
8

' '
i '
'
I !..·
i !' ;
'.
' f
Fig. 6.11.5 : ·correction factor for one shell and two tube pass
4. Correction factor tor two shell and multlpass (4,6,8 tubes), heat exchanger
Ts1
t
' f' r-::::====::i--T12
I

1.0

LI..
..:
.9
C.>
~ 0.8
c
.,,,0
u
jg . 0.7
0
()

0.6

0.5 ·--
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 .8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 6.11.6: Correction factor for shell and tube type beat exchanger with 2 shells and multipass tubes
 r[j:~~JJ!ans~e~~.(M~~Sem~----===~;;;;;;;:;;;.;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~-~~;;;;;;111;;;;=-a==si:;;;;;:._!B~o~il~in~g~a~n~dWC~o~n~d~e~n~s~a~tio~n~&~H~e~a~t~Ex~c~h:a~n~g:e~rs~
t r 5-Mech)
6 21
!..: ;. ~

·. l ' spec
· lal cases and Comments
. ·"
" '·
P. . . .
·~·ff•' . ,,e fltdd undergoes a Phase change 1g. 6.1 J .8 shows the temperature d1stnbut1on 1·n case of
Parallel of counter flow type heat exc~gers. It can be observed
0
wti'fl
.1• . . · f fluids undergoes a phase change e g d rl that: "t .
. one o . . . u ng '
ivfllltl ation of fluid, the temperature of the fl .d
ndePS UJ On (a) Th2 >Ta in parallel flow H.E. i.e. hot fluid cannot be cooled
'. d or co old side does not change as shown for I
~OPbOI Side or c · para lei .below the temperature of cold fluid.
,.-! 611·7·
In counter flow H.E., Th2 c~ be less than Ta. In other words
~~... i"· .
iJ!f" uon (b)
1109' c0f1dens9
the hot fluid can be . cooled below the c~ld fluid exit
temperature.

Therefore, ior a given heat flow rate and for given initial and
JllfenSatJoD (b) BoUlng final temperatures of the fluid, the heating surface area required
{•l (COT.i -- TIll'\ <Tu= Ta)
for counter flow heat exchanger is less than the heating surface
1.7 : Temperature distribution when one fluid area required for parallel flow ~eat exchanger.
flg· 6.1 undergoes phase change
For the above reason, the counter flow heat exchangers are
f{ere (m
C 1 •
rh
.arh. or (m CpJ., ·LIT., is replaced
or.
by (m . h ) normally used for industrial and other applications.
18
(h or A,) is the enthalpy of vapounsatUm of a fluid
;) where '11 . • •
hase change which is the function o>f tempe~nt .~ 3. Speclal case of counter flow he.a t exchanger when
(11
,Jtr8
oinS a P
eVaporating fluid.
•.. ure o
1
(m Cp)h =
(m Cp)c
~iflgOT
By energy balance, ·
'fbe value LMID (T1m) is same in all cases of flow
e parallel, counter flow or cross flow.
;raoge111ent • •
I.
. .

t comparison b~tween parallel and counter flow heat

exchangers (H.E.)

Condensation

LMTD for counterflow H.E. is given ·by the

Equation (6.11.I 9) as :

6.T1 -6.T2 0
6.T1) =o (al\ indetenninate quantity)
In ( ~ .
2

(a) Parallel flow

In such a case we can detennine LMTD by using L'
Hospital's rule as follows :

Let:

On substituting in ATm equation,

X·AT2-AT2 (x-l)AT.2.
--.;.__...;;._
x · AT2
ln ( 6.T
J ln(x) . .. (ii)
(b) Counter flow 2 .
Fig. 6.11.8 : Temperature distribution
On differentiating numerator and denominator of Equation (i)
independently w.r.t. x and on substituting x == 1.

'"-
 ,-·:·.: :·:V .Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-22
. ...·
. We get~ .

.. .(iii)

where, c = (m· c)
Combining Equations (i) and (iii)
· Heat capacity of hot fluid, C,, = (m · CP)h
. .. (6.11.23)
Heat capacity of cold fluid~ C0 = (m · CiJ
0

Syllabus Topic : Analysis of Heat Exchangers - NTU The value of C is : 0 < C < I
Method, Correction Factor and Effectiveness

6.12 The Effectiveness - NTU Method

We are generally faced with ·two types of problems in testing

and designing of heat exchangers. These ar~ as follows :

Case I:

Iri case the mass flow rate, inlet and exit temperatures and
specific heats of both the hot and cqld fluids alongwith overall heat
transfer coefficient are known, it is convenient to use LMTD Actual heat transfer rate Q '
method to determine the heat transfer for a heat exchanger. This Effectiveness, · e = Maximum possible heat transfer~Q • l

• mi.
can be done so by using the simple equation, Q = U ·A · ATim·

Case II: •••(6.12.2)

·It is a dimensionless parameter. It shows the measure of how

In case the type and size of heat exchanger are specified and
we know only the mass flow rates of fluids and their inlet
temperatures. In this case neither the heat transfer rate, Q nor
(.1 T1m) can be calculated since the exit temperatures of the fluids
are not known.
In the second case, the analysis of the heat exchangers is
. .
carried out by a method called the "Effectiveness-NTU" method.
well the heat exchanger is perfonning.
By energy balance ; Q. = m. cph. ATh =me. cpc. ATC
However, the· maximum heat transfer will occur when one of
the fluids is subjected to maximum temperature change. In other
words, the fluid out of the two having smaller heat capacity
(m . CP) will undergo maximum temperature change.

In this method, three parameters are needed to be defined which Thus the Equation (6. 12.2) can be modified as,
are being discussed below.
(m · CP · .6.T)hotorco1d
E = (m · Cp)smnll' (Thi -Tel)
1. Heat capacity ratio (C)
(m Cp · AT)h or (m Cp · AT)c
2. Effectiveness, e = ...(6.12.3)
(m Cp)s ·(Thi -Tel)

3. Number of transfer units (N.T.U.)

Subscript 's' is used for smaller of the quantities of the two
fluids i.e. between (mh · Cph) and (me · Cpc) whiche~er is smaller.
1. Heat capacity ratio (C)
_Thus,

(a) ... (6.12.4)

 . E hangers
Bolling and Condensation & Heat xc
... (6.12.5)

... (6.12.6)
Q.::: e . (m Cp). ·(Thi -Tei)= E · Qmax ... (6.12.7)
· -11111s, . .
·. . n (6.12.7) it is evident that the actual heat
_ £q1'at10 .
· ftoffl . expressed zn terms of (m · c).rmau,,. effectiveness and
,ate IS •
L d'ef. wres of hot and cold fluids only. Since the
P"' teTTIPera •
pJtl " t include the eXJt temperatures of two fluids this
;t : doesno · • .
Refer Fig. .
6.12.1, which shows the temperat ure profile in a
~si011 h can replace LMTD analysis discussed earlier.
.cal approac . parallel flow heat exchanger.
~ f transfer units (N.T.U.)
rribero .
~ NII ~ (MU • Dec. 09, Dec. 14, May 16)

x=O ix=L
Fig. 6.12.1 : Temperature profile for a parallel flow beat
Jt is defined as :
exchanger
U· A
N1'lJ == (m Cp)wo11 or (m Cp), or (m CiJmin. ... (6.12.8)
Assuming, (m · Cp)h < (m Cp)c

N'flJ is a dimensionless parameter since, Th1-T~ - ... (i)

Effectiveness, E -
- Thi -Tei
U [ W or ( ~) x~ x-k} A (m2)
Actual heat transfer rate is given as,
NTU ==
m( :g). CP ( k: K )
NTU is the measure of heat transfer size of a heat exchanger ... (ii)
because the value of U and (m C~, are constants for giv_en flow
conditions. It implies that higher the value of NTU, higher will be mh· cph . Te2-Te1
... (iii)
.. me. cpc - . Th1 -Th2
thlphysical size ofthe heat exchanger.
Now we shall discuss the effectiveness of a heat exchanger as . . (m Cp)min mh . Crh
Capacity ratio, C =(m C , C ... (iv)
applied to parallel flow and counter flow heat exchanger. JYm... me. pc

6.12.1 Effectiveness of a Parallel Flow Heat On substituting the values from Equation (iii) in (iv)
Exchanger
Tc2-Te1
~ (MU· Dec. 10, May 11, May 13, C = T T ... (v)
hi - h2
Dec. 13, May 15, May 16)
We need to obtain the value ofTc 1 and Te2 in terms of Th1 and
Th2 so as to apply the energy balance equation.

Thi -Tb2
From Equation (i),
E

- - "":!:::

Scanned w ith C;1mScanner

 Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-24

or, _ T (Thi -T11i) Thi Th2

Tcl - ht - E =Thi - -E + E- .. .(vi)

From Equation (v), Tc2 - Tcl = c (Thi - Th2)

On using the value ofT01 from Equation (vi),

Thi Tb2J
Tc2- [ Th1-7+7 =. C(Th1-Tia)

.. . (vii) . NTU(t+C)_= Int-e(l+C)

1 NTUCl-+C)

1-E (1 + C) =
or,
e
On using the values of T01 and T02 from above, we can now
T
get the values of 6. T1 and 6. T2 in tenns of Thi and 112 as follows: -NIU (I+ C)
. 1-e(l+C) ::: e
6.T1 = Th1-Tc1 =Th1-[Th1- T;1+ :J .. e =
J
-e
-lfnJ(I +C)

(1 + C) ... (6.12.9)
Thi -Th2
= ...(viii)
E 6.12:2 Effectiveness of Counter flow Heat ·
Exchanger
6.T2 = (Th2 _. Tc2)
~ (MU· May 10, May 1 ~)
= Th2-[Th1 -
1
~ + : ~ C·Th1-CThz]
112 . :?

Th2 Thi
= Th2-7+C · Th2-Th1+7-CTh1

= Th2(1-~+c)-Th 1 (1-~+c)

= (1-.;+c)(Th2-Th1)

6.T2 = CTh1-Tb2)(~-1-c) ... (ix)

Refer Fig. 6.12.2 in which the temperature profile in case of

Heat transfer rate through the heat exchanger can be written
counterflow heat exchanger is show.n.
as:
Capacity ratio, C

Let,

• (m Cp)h ·(Thi -Th2) = (m Cp)0 • CTc2 -T0 1)

(Th 1 -Tia) ( 6.T1~ _!U_ (m Cp)h Tel -Tel
'' (6.T1 - 6.Tz) Zn \"6.T2 ) = mh · Cph Then, ...(i)
C = (m Cp)c =Thi -T112
NTIJ = UA (Refer Equation (6.12.8))
mh. cph From Equation (6.12.4),

Hence, Effectiveness, e = ...(ii)

On substitUting the values of AT1 and 6.T2 from Equations Again we need to find the values of T01 and Tc2 in tenns of
(viii) and (ix) we get, Thi• Th2, C and e so as to apply the energy balance equation.

-
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 ... -· --·':' · : -- _. __
6-25 . .· . . t Exchangers
Bolling and Condensation & Hea . . .

.~·
"
<' ·{ ...:·
' ~-··..· ~~ : ..·:
~~-

expression we get, .'.(

~j
.'

.
· L 12·" •
"• 'feJ11perature
. exchprofile
anger
of a counter Dow heat
'l
fi'•.,. .

. Th1 Th2
Tei = Thi--+-
e E ... (iii)

In(l-eC)
1-e
-...::...;;...._;~ = NTU ·
(1-C)

1-ec = {1-C)NTU.
·· 1-e e '.

...L::.L
t -ec =
... (iv)

] -e-(1 - C)N'ru = E (1-C. e-<1-C)NTU)

1-e-(l-C)NTU
E = 1-C·e-(l-C)Nru ... (6.12.10)
( Tb1 Tb2)
= Tei -\.C· Th1 -C· Th2 +Thi - 7 + 7

AT1 = Tb1(1-c-1+~)-Th2(-c+~) In order to determine heat transfer rate when the values of
both the fluids m, CP and inlet. temperatures with U and A are
= Th 1 (-c+~)-Th2(-c+~)
known, we need to calculate the exit temperature of fluid.
Following procedure is followed :
aT1 = (Thl-T~c~ -c) ... (v) . (i) Calculate (m Cp)h and (m Cp)c

aT2 =
(Th2 -Tei)= Th2-: ( Thi Thi . Th2)
-7+7 (ii) If (m Cp)h < (m Cp)c ;
and
NTU= UA
6T2 =
Th2 (1 - ~ )- Thi (1 - ~ ) mh· cph

(iii) Calculate e using Equation (6.12.9) fox; parallel flow H .E.

6T2 =
(1 - ~ ).cTh2 -Th1) I
and using Equatfon (6.12.10) for counter flo·~. H~E: .·, : ·:
I Th 1 -Th2 ..
.= CTh1-Th2) (~ -1) ... (yp ; (iv) Using equation fore = !hi -Tei· , the value.:~f ,?'~2 can be
l calculated.
Iieat transfer rates are give~ as-follows : ~--. · ' ··-., '
I
; (v) Using equation, Q =.e m~ · -Cph (Th1 - Th2), the heat transfer
• •.. ~ ' I
,-#\ "
fate can now be computed.

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 · .· . ·~
. ·.. . . ...>· ':;':~
-•~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~====;;a;;!;;~=====;mm;~B~o~ili:;.,;nii:gO.ia;;;n;;;d;;;Cjo"'n~dle"'n"'s"'.i"'tl"'o;;;;;n&-=H;;;;i;ea~t;;Ex~c~tia~
_,. HeatTransfer MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-26
·"...~-.• ._·•· ,j
6.12.3 ·Charts.of Finding Effectiveness for
Various Type of Heat Exchangers
.;. : Cross-flow eJ<N..
., ' With flulds ~ IQr.we,
The relationship between effecliveness - NTU derived above unmixed · ·

in parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers Jn terms of

l~ap:icity rntio, C can also be expressed in the fo~ of charts. ·
TI1e effoctiveness, e - NTU relutionship at various capacity
ratios (C) for various types of heat exchangers in g_raphicaJ form
arc represented in Fig. 6.12.3 to Fig. 6.12.8.

i
IV 0.6
!1
:!!
(!)
.2
0 0 .4
~
w i
i
I
-I
I

1 2 3 4 5
I
number of transfer units, NTUmax =~ ~
· C min
o '-..l_.L_..L......L~--L-L_-L.,_,__...i....._._.......__.._~-
· •s .· Effectiveness for cross-flow
. 612
Fig. • dheat exchanged With
0 2 3 4 5 both fluids unrmxe
number of transfer units, NTUmax =~ __.,
cm ln

Cross-flow H.E
with one fluid
mixed arid
the other unmixed
cmked
NTU is based on Cunmbced• 't.tlenC- >I
LlllTbof

2 3 4 5

number of transfer units, NTUmax =UA -

Cm1n
.2 3
Fig. 6.12.6 : Effectiveness of cross·flow heat exchanger, one
number of transfer units, NTUmax "' UA __.
Cmin
fluid mixed and other unmixed
F'1g. 6•12•4 • Effectiveness for counter·flow heat exchanger

Scanned w ith CamScanner

 ' .. . ·;·

We sha~I now discuss two special situations of heat flow in

. a
· heat exchanger :

I. When Capacity ratio, C =1 '·

I

2. When capacity ratio, C =0

3
1. When Capacity ratio, c =1
. 1 2 4
0 5
0
- =
of transfer units, NTUmax ~ - It implies that,
nc.inbOr cm.,

7: Effectiveness of shell and ~be heat exchanger, one

ffl· 6.1Z· shell and (2, 4, 6, .•• ) multitube passes
(a) · For parallel flow heat exchanger ; The ..effectiveness_from
i Equation (6.12.9) can be rewritten as:
Shell 1 1-e-NTU{l+C)
E = l+C

Shell 2 At C =1 we get,
-----+-4-'Tube fluid
1 -e-2NTU
i E = 2 ... (6.12. 11)
Shell fluid
1.0 ~..--;r-r-;-~.., ·--.-.--,---r--,:--T"'">'--r--.---.
·- _ J __
___ J .. -1--r--.r- (b) For counter flow heat exchanger : The effectiveness from
Equation (6.12.10) can be rewritten as :
O.B · l _ e-NTU (1-C)
E = 1-C·e-NTUO-C)

f AtC = 1, 1-e- o 0 . . .
! ' 0.6 E =
•
I
!
1-e-o = (An rndeterrrunate quantity)
0
1 Hence, applying L' Hospit<.il's rule,
g
' l:
0.4
w
-kn-e-NTU(l - C)l

C-71
Jim E = lim
C-7 1..!.
dC [I - C e- NTU Cl-C)}

0 -...._........_.
E = lim · - e- NTU 0 - C) x (- NTU) (- l)
0
C-71 - C · e- NTU - C> x (- NTU) (- 1) + e- mu 0 - C>
0
2 3 4 5 NTU
number of transfer units, NTUmax ~ = --+ e = NTU+l
... (6.12.1.2)

cmin
,; \u2.s : Effectiveness of shell and tube heat exchanger with
2. · When capacity ratio, C=O

· 2-sbeDs and 4 or multiple of 4 tnbO passes When one of the fluids undergoes phase change. the
saturation temperature of the fluid remains constant.
 /',
' i"

•.· ,· '·. =~~·~~;-~H~ea~t~T~r~agns~f~e~r~(M~U~-~S~e~m~5~-M~e~c~h~}======~6~-2~8~=====~B;,::;oi=lin~g~a;.;nd;;.;;C;::;o.n.de~n-Ga~ti-o•n•&•H•eaa:;;t=Ex~ch~a~ngera .

. ;
. hih" ed& ~
A beat pipe is a device w c is us ior transfer of high
. ··! Such·a condition of phase change of~ fluid occurs in case of
I
rateS of heat energy over long distances.
' .. condensers and evaporators.
;·.
: ,.. relatively small cross-sectional area and during the
It .needs
During phase change the heat capacity of the fluid C = (m ·
'i': C,Jho1 or cord can be assumed to be infinite. process of heat transfer there is very small change in tempeIafure
"1'
(1..e. the process is theoretically isothennaJ process).
I .-~-'Jn : case of condensers the hot vapour condenses, hence
" (m C,,)1, =ao =(m C,Jrrw:.
The heat pipe is usually a sealed tube made of material
;,.
J.,
. high thennal conductivity like · copper or aluminium · 1t 18.
havmg
1n case of evaporators, satiirated liquid converts into
lined with a wicking material containing a condensable &as. '!lie
saturated vapour, therefore, (m C,Jc = oo =(m C,,)rnax.
central portion of the tube is well insulated to avoid any heat
(m CrJmln (m · Cp>mln
Capacity ratio, C =
(m Ci)mo.x
...
oo
=.0 transfer losses. The ends of the tube serve as evaporator and
condenser as shown in Fig: 6.13.1 .
Thus in either case of condenser or evaporator the capacity Heat addition Liquid now Insulation Heat removal

ratio equals to zero. :. :;::::,:·-.:·,., ·\·;·~<~''''"'-'-::. , >:.~.· _,_;;,: !! !

- -- - -
-;:,- -~..:- .-,-..- ;;.1 · - -·~ ,...-::~.o; - -:-'r" . ....; _. ...--· -..:.- --"' ·r-;:.

] . +CJ
-e- NTU(I outer tube
Parallel flow : E = (l + C) (Refer Equation (6.12.9)]
'- '- _ , / , /~1-i=I- C
Vapour
/ . / - - - ""- ""- entra<:Qll
AtC=O; E = ]-e-NTU . ..(i)
] - e -NTU (I - CJ
Counter flow : e
= 1-C · e-NTUo-C)

(Refer Equation (6.12. 1l)] Fig. 6.13.1 : Heat pipe

AtC=O; E=l-e-Nru The wick may be filled with cintered powder material or it
From above, it is clear that the effectiveness in both types of may have grooves with holes projecting outwards to.promote heat
heat exchangers when C =Ois given as : transfer coefficient, h.

E = 1-e-NTU
A vacuum pump is used to remove all the air from empty beat
(AtC=O) ...(6.12.13)
pipe and then it is filled with a fraction of volume of a working
fluid (or coolant) choosen to match the operating temperatures.

Due tQ partial vacuum, a part of fluid will be in liquid form

and partly in gaseous form.
Syllabus Topic : Heat Pipes and It's Applications
The heat pipe combines the mechanism of heat tr~sfer by_
conduction and phase transformation between two soli~ interfaces.
6.13 Heat Pipe
At hot surface, the fluid is evaporated by absorbing its latent
~ (MU- May 10, Dec. 10, May 11, Dec. 11, heat. As a result the fluid converts into vapour. This vapour
May 12, May 15, Dec. 17} naturally flows through the central core at high speeds towards the
Universi Questions cooler end. At the condenser section, it is converted back into
liquid by releasing its latent heat. The liquid then returns to the hot
interface through capillary action in the wick where it again
evaporates once more and repeats the cycle.

The internal pressure of heat piPe can be set/adjusted to

facilitate the phase change depending upon the demands of the
working conditions of the thermally managed system.

~n nccl with CamScanll<'f

 ~ ' ;. :!r- ,··
'ft¢.r::~ •. . . ·. ·: ~(.~~
·,~.~~, .
!s. ... . 9115 e
f r (MU-Sem 5-Mech) _ . ·~ 7:
!·
6 29 :~
{:µ~t E:x cnan9~rs
' ..

fr edium (fluid) is selected based on th Boiling .arid Condensation

. &· Heat
l>-' . \\'otidng f :at pipe is needed. e ., .

-
0 ~ - ~o .
, v·, ¢1 king medium and their range of temperatu Syllabus Topic : Design Aspects of Heat Exchangers I .
i

tbe wor res

. ,1;;.,oeof. . and their Selection

'.:. ~?"'.
5

~P,·,, ; .· (2· : ({ _ 4 K) . I<._ 923 I<.)

Mercury (523
6.14 Design Aspects of Heat Exchanger :
,'-·..- ~en: ~rtJ-. (873 ·K - t473 K)
.,;.· -!IJ1I
Ethanol (273 I<.-
403
I<.)
and It's Selection
~';/·~~(303
· J{ to 473 K) Methanol (230 K _ 400 K)
F. II ·
:~
·
o owmg aspects are considered · design
m · and selection· of
. can be installed in tilted/vertical direction 'th
.. : ~eat pipe . l It ~ il' . Wt heat exchangers :
"1tJC ·~oeated at higher Ieve . iac t~tes the flow of liquid
111 I. Principal consideration is that it should meet the
rJ1Y.Jlftr under gravity and the vapour nses up because of 1"ts
·¢fdS;"' 'fhiS
· . is called thermosypbon effect requirement of heat transfer rates within specified
' 1)51•;' temperature range.
f-d oe
. rita9
es of Heat Pipe
f J.d'fl 2. Flow rates of fluids in a heat exchanger decides the velocity

..
1itPPiP
. e /llJS thefiollowing advantages :

JtJ5 -m~-
.
. 0 ,.,,,.,,,;on
. .
as it does not have any moving parts·

11does not require any external source of energy except the

of flow which affects the convective heat transfer rates.
Velocity of flow should be kept optimum so as to avoid .
noise, vibration, higher frictional losses and pressure drops.
Generally, velocities are
limited_to 5 to 6 mis.

Jta1 transfer during phase change of fluid from source and L) · .P· v!-.
Pressure drop in pipe, lip =f · ( Dh - -.
2
It is re\'ersible in operation. And . pQw_e r .= m. x ~
. _.. -.. _~ - '._P, um~m.g 1 (kW)._
p x 'iOOo
• ~.......i in construction.
ItJSnJ~w
where, f = friction factor
ftblS ve.ry high races of heat transfer. The equivalent thermal L = Length of pipe
c0nducti\1cy several hundred times the thenna) conductivity
=
Dh Hydraulic diameter ;
of copper of the order of 1 Lakh W /m K or more.
vm = Mean velocity of flow
r Applications of heat pipe m = mass flow rate
p = Density
a.. pip<S = us<d foe removing the localized boat and in 3. Fluid pnipertlos will offect scale fo•mation:. This offects
""""'""''""'>' sysie<ru. Some i" 'J>pli<:ations are : soh:ction of m'"'rial of heat exchange., iti \ life span,
l. In gas to gas heat reaivery systems. Usually heat pipes are
p-D\'ided \\ith fins to enhance the heat recovery to maintenance requiremenl In addition it adds t<? fouling .
compensate for low coefficient of thennal convectivity of thennal resistance which reduces the heat transfer r~tes with
gases. passage of time. \

i In electronic systems to dissipate heat.. It's evaporator section 4. Outer shape and overall dimensions are decided based on
is kept in contact with the electronic device. space and shape of space available in the main equip~nent.
Based on this, the length of tubes are decided.
i In electrical transformers for removal of heat generated.
1 5. ~ecbanical design of heat exchanger, for its strength ._is
· In refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. The return air
decided based on the pressure, temperature and velocity ~f
of the conditioned room can be either cooled or heated in fluid.
S1l!nmer and winter respectively by heat pipes to affect the
sa~ing in cost energy. 6. Materials· are selected not only from strength point of view ··
1 but its cost and weight are also considered.
To preheat
COl!lbus .
the compressed gas air before supplied to
7. Basic and operating cost of the heat exchanger should be ·
lion chamber in gas turbine power plants. minimum.
Cliemica1 d .
. an Industrial applications.

'-----------------------------------:--"------..:...._____
Scan ned with camscanner
v• Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech)
6·30 Boiling and Condensation & Heat Excn

Table 6.14.1 : List of formulae

scanned w ith CamScan ner

~
~· - ~?··
... ,.::·.·
: ··.·"r_.......

I !' ~

'.

Sc<Jnned w ith Ca mScan ner

: I "'
I;'

-~~-·-~=-~~~~~~~~~~~~b=====~~~====_.;B~o~i~lin,;;ig~aiiiinii;id;;:C;;:o;;:n;;:d;;:e;;:n=sa=t=io
..n=&;;:;i;;H~ea~t~E~
·x·~~a~'·
- ..·.,::·
..
, '
..

I . _'"""' Heat Transfer (MU-Sam 5-Mech) 6-32

AT,-AT, ·
Exampl~ 6.14.1 Q = UA x (AT,)
ln AT ·..(i)
. 0

Hot water at 100°C flow through a horizontal steel pipe with

i !.
: • !
' ' .
inner diameter. 5.0 cm and outer diameter 6.0 cm. (k = 54
W/ml<) and is exposed to atmospheric air at 20°C. The water
velocity 0.2 mis. Calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient; if h, = 1600 W/m2 K and h0 =8 W/m2K. 1.4 x 4187 (70-40) . = 2 x 1900 (llQ-TiJ

~olutlon: Q = 175854 J/s or W Md The= 63.72 °c

d 1 = 5.00 cm i.e. r 1 =2.5 cm ; dz= 6 cm i.e. r2 = 3 cm,
On sub~tituting.the values in equation (i)
' . 2
T1=100° C, T0 = 20° C, hi= 1600 W/m K, h0 = 8.0 W/m K.
2
(110 - 70) - (63.72-121
k=54 W/mK. :. 175854 = 350 x A (110- 70)
ln (63.72 - 40)
I •· Overall heat transfer coefficient.
; I I
(40-27.72)
' . : 502.44 = AX 40 ) . .
ln ( 27.72
·.:
12.28
A= 15 m2
= 502.44 = A x.0.3667 ...Ans,
3 I 3 I (3) .J_
15xT6oQ+ JOO x 54 ~ 2.5 + 8.0
10

7.9-'5 W/m:K · ... Ans.

i'.- . ~F .
: •• · - I,/ - •• • . • .
_i•I
~Exa!r!pre,.p.1·.u MU - Dec. 14. 1O Marks . . • •. I

~~_:iter ( ~!!~ =. ~:·4, 1(9!s ~ 5i.=..'.'!~187~~~_-t_<) ~ ~~~~- fK?~.i

·40°C
. .
to~_1o~c by
'J ; .
an-oil {mass ·="2 ~ec. C '· =1.9·KJ/kg·K)i
• . .. • . .. I• 0 •. > ' ' ·l
~~ntennp, .~t · 1_~-0 ~--in -~ ·cOi.tnter ~pw. he:t· ~xch~ger:~ If' Solution:
overafrtieat"transfer c:Oefficieot is 3oO~W/m t<; calculate the
· '! - • ' ·.; ~\ ·, • ·._ .... _7. t ~~·- .. . · . ..: .. Tho= 38°C; =1.25 kg/sec
~r1ace ar~Jt.::~ui~;_:_.,_ · _,:_;_. 'l.:....:.--- · · .-. ..J Thi= 66° C;

Sorn. _: J:tefc!r flg. P. 6.14.2

=1.6 kg/sec
. 3
m.r = I A L:.gls. Cpw = 4.1 87 kJ/kgK Cp = 1.05 kl/kg K = 1.05 x 10 J/kg K =Cl'h = Cpc
2
u = 80W/m K

m.,, = 2 kg/s ; Cpa =1.9 kJ/kgK . 1. Parallel Flow Configuration [Refer Fig. P. 6.14.3]

Q = ~h Crh (Th1 -Tho)

3
= 1.25 x (1.05 x 10 )(66 - 38)

Surfuce area reqaired, A Q = 36750W

Q = ~c Crc (T,0 -TCJ)

3
1.6 x (1.05 x 10 ) X <Teo - 15)
36750 =
T,0 = 36.875° c

. p ? • Counter flow beat exchanger

F 1g. - 6•14·-.
p 11 •Ill••"''

- - - --- --- ----- ----

 ..... ~.

': ..

"•
.'
-,~

Tho= 3s•c
..-;.·. : ·· AT2
Teo= 36.S7s•c

Fig. P. 6.14.3

,,.. _ T . :: 66 - 15 =51 °C ; Hot 50000 Th1 =95°C Thl = 65oC

~ iru Cl
water kg/hr
Tho -Teo= 38-:- 36.875 =l.l25°C Cool 50000 Tei =30°C Ta=? cpc: ::4.2
Water kl/kg K
~g/hr
AT1-AT2. - (51-1.125) =13.osoc
~ . -(~) - l ( 51 )
in ~T2
2
n .1.125 U = 2270 W/m K

(I) Required heat transfer area,

., soxAx 13.08 ; A=35.17m1 Heat transfer rates,

...Ans.

. oow configuration,
CoUnwr .
~
. Fig P. 6.14.3(a) 6
Refer · :. Q = 1.75x10 W

6T1 = Thi -Teo= 66- 36.875 = 29.125°C; By energy balance equation between hot and cold .water

Th1
6 T2 = Tho-Tei= 38-15 =23°C

6T1 -6T2 29.125-23

ATLm = =
in (~)
~T2 ln ( 2;~25 )

=25.94°C

Q = UA~TLm Fig. P. 6.14.4

36750 = 80 x A x 25.94
~ Cph (Th,:.... Thz) = ·Ille Cpc {Tcz -Tc1)
A = 17.71 m
1
...Ans. 50000 . 50000
3600 x 4200 (95 - 65) = 3600 x 4200 x (TC2 - 30)

.. To = 60oc
Tho= 3a·c
.iT2

Tei= 1s·c Th2 -Tcz =65 - 60 =5°C

6T 1 -6T2 65 - 5
Fig. P. 6.14.3(a)
ln C*J = In (
6
ff)
~Tm = 23.39°C •.. Ans.
Q =
l.75 x 10
6
= · 2270 x Ax 23.39

b,
-----~---------·--

Scanned with Ca mSca nner

 · -·· ·. '.
··: ~. : j.'!'~
., ~

. ·. . .
Y· HeatTransfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-34
·e ·1·1ng. and Condensation & Heat Exch;....,:·:. :\
01 .. . -•gel\ ·· :
:l
'· - --~ -1 · .· -~1
A . = 32.9563 m 2
· •••Ans. Heat exchanger area needed, A .
. .
.

2
. .. · l
.,
(ll) Effectiveness of heat exchanger (e) A, = 1t d, L =n x 0.06 x L (m ) .. . .
1

= Actual heat transfer rate Q. = 1t do L =1t x 0.07 XL (m2} -· . ~

e Maximum possible heat transfer rate Qmax

mb Cm (Tb, -Tb,)
Ao fi · U based
Overall heat transfer coef c1ent, I on inner area. is
l
e = mh cp11 (Thi -Tei>
·1·

given as,
e = Tb1-Tb2 -~
.. Th._-Tc1 -95-30

e = 0.4615384 ...Ans.

Example 6.14.5

A concentric tube type heat exchanger operates in counter

. . Fig. P. 6.14.S(b)
flow mode. The OD and ID of the inner tube are 7 cm and 6
cm respectively.
_J_
Hot oil is cooled from 70°C to 45°C while flowing through the
U1·At =
inner tube at the rate of 2 kg/sec. Cpo11 1,500 J/kg K. =
Fouling factor on oil side =
0.0001 m2 KJIN. Heat transfer
coefficient on oil side = 400 W/m K. Water flowing
2
..l =
through the annulus at the rate of 3 kg/sec. enters at
uj
20°C, Cpwater =
4180 J/kg K. Fouling factor on water
1 I 1t x 0.06 x L (0.07/2)
side = 2
0.0001 m KJIN. Heat transfer coefficient on water Ui = 400 + O.OOOl + 21t L x 220 ln Q.06ii
2
side ·= 600 W/m K. Conductivity of the inner tube
00001x1t x 0.06 x L 1t x 0.06L
material =220 W/mK. . + x I-
+ 1t x 0.07 x L 1t x 0.07L 600
Calculate the heat exchanger area required.
Solution:

Refer Fig. P. 6.14.S(a) and (b).

Heat transfer rate from oil,
Hot oil: Th 1 =70°C, Thl = 45°CO

mh = 2 kg/s, Cph = 1500 J/kg K

Fouling resistance Rru =R1 =0.0001 m2 k/W = 75000W

2
hi=400W/m K
By energy balance
Water: me =3 kg/s, Tet =20°C
75000 = 3 X 4180 (Tc2 - 20) ;
Cpc =4180 J/kg K. R00 = R0 = 0.0001 m2 k/W
. 2
h0 = 600 W,lm K AT1 = Th 1 -Tc2 70 - 25.98 = =44.02°C
Tube : k =220 W/rnK, di = 6 cm = 0.06 m, d0 = 7 cm= 0.07 m
iiT2 = Th2 -Te1 = 45 - 20 =-25°C
,r Water ~T -~T

- ,_.. '· r-- Tc 1 =2o·c LMTD,L\Tm =

In (:;J
I l =(44.02 -
ln (~) 4
2 5)
2
=33.6190C

------------
rh 1= 7o·c
Oil
Th2 j.=7® Q =
75000 = 241.82 x Ai x 33.619
Fig. P. 6.14.S(a)
A1 = 9.2254 m2 · ...Ans~
~Jidi......
11
..,, r.~al1e1 Lh

ScilrmOO with CamS<.:<1111)1;1(

 Boiling and Condensation & Heat Exchangers .

Th2 =120~C
Te1== 1o·c

Fig. P. 6.14.6

3
500 x 10 2
u ::: 3600 138.89 W/m K

1200
m = 3600 =0.33 kg/s; CP =1200 J/kgK

Q = mCP ~h2- Th,)= 0.33 X 1200 X (400- 120)

::: 110, 880W Solutlon : Refer Fig. P. 6.14.7

1500
!10. 880 = 3600 x 4180 x <Tei- IO)

.. Tcz = 73.66°C

(i) Wheo flow is parallel

Fig. P. 6.14.7(a)
!!. T1 = Tb2-Tci = 120-73.66 = 46.34° C
Water:
= AT, -A T1 390 - 46.34
A T1
ln [ ~
J= [ 390 ] - 161.34° C
ln -4634 Tc1 =30°C, Tc2 =80° C
l!.T2 ·

Cpc ".' 4190 J/kg K

·· Q = U · A ·A Tm
- 10500
110880 = 138.89 x Ax 161.34 me - 10500 kg/hr.= 3600"' = 2.91666 kg/s

A = 4.95 m 1 ...Ans. Steam:

\ti)
When flow arrangement is counter low : Th,= 18ooc, Th2 = 13ooc
Q = U·A·ATm
U =814 W/m2°C
110880 = 13 8 _89 x Ax (400- 73.66)-(120-10) i. Heat transfer area, A
l 0 ( 326.34)
110 For counter flow heat exchanger ,

= 138 89 A 216.34
. x x 1.088 Q = ·mc C pc
(Tc2 - T cl)

A = 4m1 ... Ans. = 2.91666 x 4190 (80- 30)

·------~--~---------L______=_6_11_.04_16_x~10~~w:_____:-----.:..
3

1·.
,
. .
•
!
-
·-· ~·~Kiieat..c ..
·u b.I <·1 L la h l

Sconned with CamSconner

 .· ~
. ,,!:
I ' :

,.._.,~
- ·~~~~~;!:~~~~~~~~;;;;;;;;;;;;~;;;;;;~~~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;;;;;;~Bo~l~lin~g~a~n~d;C=o=n=d=e=n=s=at=io=n=&~H~ea~t~Ex~cn·
;;?', Heat Transfer {MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-36 . ~.
solution:

Given: mh =2.5 kg/s;

mc =5 kg/s;
u = 1000 W/mzK; · A=23m2
:. ATmbecomes indetenninate.
.· Take. Cl3w =4186 J/kg K
:. By using L'Hospital's rule

L.T.M.D, A Tm = .:iT1 =.:iT2 =100°C

:. Q = U AATm

:. 611.0416 x 10
3
= 814 x A x 100
:. A . = 7.5066 m2 ••. Ans. Fig. P. 6.14.8

2. For parallel flow heat exchanger, area A To find: Q, The and Tee

AT1 = AThl -Tei =180 - 30 =I50°C Since only. two temperatures are given, NlU-e methOd Will
be applied .
AT2 = .:iThl-Ta =130- 80 = 50°C
.:i T 1 -a T2
: . A Tm =
(g_)
lo&e AT mecpc = 5 x 4186

25
;. · c = 5 -- 0.5
,,___ ,Th2
UA l000x23
aT2 NTU = (mC )s
13
=2.5 x 4186 =z.tgg
·c ·__::.:--,Ta
mhCph <Tru-T.J Thi-Th•
E = (mC~s(Thi-Tre)= Thi-Tei
1- e-(1 - e) NTU
Fig. P. 6.I4.7(b): Parallel flow Also E = l
-c.
- (I - e) N to

= 150 ~;~ =91.023oc 1 _ e-<1-o.sp.19s . 1_ e-1.099

lo&e (5o) . for counter flow HE = 1 _ 0.5. - 0 -0.3) 2.198 = 1 _ O.S e-1.tm

1- 0.333 0.667 .
e = l - 0.1666 =0.8334 =0 ·8
:. 6Il .041 6 x10
3
= 814 x Ax 91.023 Now

2
:. A = 8.2469 m ... Ans.
•.. Ans.

We know that

~ 2.5x4186(100-36) = 5x4186CTce-20)

~ 669760 = 20930 (Tee - 20)

Scanned w ith CamScanner

 1NWM«de~~ £C· -m .., ..

'.

···Ans.
14.9 If the oil is dirty, it will cause fouling <?n the oil side of the
pie 6• .
~~Ill ter flow double pipe heat exchanger is used to heat
· surface. It will increase the overall thermal resistance, hence reduce

Ar,0un ,,0oc to .40°C by cooling an oil from oc t

the .•Vom!! boat ""'•for '<>effici<nt ~.' U =~} Sinoe Q =U • A ·
trorn " 90 o
11'81er The exchanger is designed for a total heat transfer ATm and the value of A and ATm re~mning the same, it will
55<>C·0f 59 kW with overall heat transfer coefficient of reduce the heat transfer rates.
••• Ans.
rsta . 2t< ·
W/rn . .
340iculate
· th e surface area required.

CB111e oil. Is dirty, which creates a fouling

. factor on oil side of
~Jf 9 ~eat exchangar,
? what will be the affect on total heat

transfer rate? Why·

Solution : Parallel flow,
solution·. Refer Fig. P. 6.14.9.
Oil: Tb1
= 90oc, "T112 =55°C

water: Tc1 ::; 2ooc. Tc2 =4ooc By·NTU - Effectiveness method :

Q=59kW, U=340W/m2 K mh Cph (160-110) = me Coe (60- 24)

1. Surface area, A c = mhcph 60-24

fie Cuc -160-110 =0.72

1 -e-0 +c)NTU
E = l+C
Fig. P. 6.14.9
o".3676 = I ,-e-{I+ 0.72) NTU
I +0.72
Log mean temperature difference, ATm can be c~culated as
follows 0.632

AT1 = Tb 1 -Tc2 = 90- 40= 50°C 0.3676

el.7lNTU = 2.72
= Tb2 -Tel= 55 - 20 =35°C
= AT1 - AT2 - (50·- 35) =42.055oc
l.72NTU =
/n (:;:) - In (~~) NTU .= 0.582

For counter flow arrangement

Q = U-A·ATm
3
59x 10 =340 x Ax 42.055 c = 0.72 NTIJ =0.~82

A :: 4.1263 m 2 E = 1 - e-{I - c)NTU 1 - e-{I - 0.72) x 0.S82 .

••. Ans. 1- ce -{I - c)N'I'U = 1 - 0. 72e -<1 -o.12> x o.m:
0 163
1 - e- · 1 - 0.85
= =1 - 0.61 =0 .385
'-------------------~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-:--~-:--~~~~----------:~;::1:,~=.K.~= •:l": ~~
1 - 0. 72e :U.i6!

Y P.Ub.ll\1lltns

Scon ned w ith CamScannet""

...
•·.

• Heat Transfer (MU-Sam 5-Mech)

E = Tb! -The= 160-Thp = 0.3Ss

Thi -Tei 160-24
6-38

(x-32) =
Boiling and Condensallon & He t

l7.26[lnl5-ln(47-x))
a E)(

160-T1ie = 52.36 = 46.74 -17.26 ln (47 - x)

107.64 °C ... Ans. x+ 17.26/n(47-x) = 78.74

Th• =
·T" -T,c By hit of trial,
c ,. ·Thi-The
•0.72

T,c-24
160-107.64 = 0.72

... Ans.

Example 6.14.11

A 1.5 tons of refrigeration (TR) window airconditioner rejects

6.3 . kW of heat in air cooled condenser. The vapour
refrigerant enters in condenser at 47°C while the
surrounding temperature qt air is ·32°C. Assuming the OD= 4cm = 0.04 m

product of area and overall heat transfer coefficient as mh = 6kg/s Thi= 65°C
365 WIK, find the temperature of ai~ at exit of condenser.
The = 40°C,_ Cph = 3.6 kJ/kgK
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 6.14.11.
me : 6 kg/s Tc; = 10°C
U·A = 365W!K, TaldngCP=41867/kgK , . U0 = .567Wlm2Jc

Q = 6.3kW We know that,

Refrigerant vapor : .Th, ·= Th2 =47°C (condensation)

Air: 6 x 3600 x (65 - 40) = 6 x 4186 (Tce-10)

Tee = 10 + 21.5 = 3J.5°C

(I) Parallel flow arrangement

AT-AT
where, x =Tc2
Q = UA (' AT1 )c
Zn ilT
Vapour
-----------------. .6T2 T112 e

l0) ~ ~~~ 3t.S)

6
6 x 3600 x (65 - 40) = 65
567 x A x < _ -
Zn 40- 31.5

. 540,000 = 567 x A. x
55
S~· 5
Fig. P. 6.14~11 Zn 8.5
AT1 -AT2 15 - (47 - x) (x - 32)
(1T1') - I (. 15 .\ =In 15 - In (47-x)
= 567 x A x l~~(,; =14119.83 x A
In \6.T ) . n \.(47 - x)}
2 A = .38.24 m2 ...Ans.

Q = U·A · ATm

3 365 x (x -32)
6.3 x 10 = In 15 - In (41 - x)

scanned w i1h CamSc:anner

 , ..· " .
...
_ ·- ·:);~;
~- ·_ .
. _· ;.
•!. ,,
}
. ~.

-----irhe= 4o•c '

'
Tee= 31 .s•c
.· .- · ·c
·, "fai'' 10

Fig. P. 6.14.12

··· floW arrangement

.. aou11ter .
-plJ . Fig. P. 6.14.13 ·
.,. ::::65
·~1
Effectiveness heat exch~ger,
l-e-o+cnm.J
- ----..;.-1 Tei =1o·c. E = l+C
18333.33
Fig. P. 6.14.12(a) c = 58055.56= 0 ·316
AT;-AT..c...
= NTU = UA _ 1050 x 10 _ O
Q UA ( ATL) (mCP)•m•ll - 18333.33 ·573
ln AT
e
1_ e-CI +0.316) x o..sn
1
-e-0.7S4

= 567 xAxi65-31.5)-(40-1Ql
E = 1+0.316 = 1.316
540.000
. .{§_5 - 31.~
ln (40-10) E = 0.4024 •••Ans.
33.5-30
540,000 = 567 x Ax .
33 5
Also, e
ln30

3.5 The = 79.76°C ••• Ans.

= 567 x A XOJI= 17984.01 x A
We also know that heat given out by hot fluid is equal to heat
A = 30.0267 m
2
... Ans.
accepted by cold fluid.

Hence me Cpe (Tee - Tc;) = mh Cph (Thi - Th.)

mhcph
Tee = Tel+ m C (Thi -TtiJ
c pc

18333.33
= 20 + 58055.56 (120 - 79.76)

= 32.72°C •.•Ans.
Example 6.14.14

Solution: In ~ shell and tube heat exchanger, the water ·passes

Given: through the tubes and the steam passes into the shell. Dry-
Tru =120°C; mh =20000 kg/h, Cph = 3.3 kl/kg K
saturated steam is condensed at 100°C while the water is
Tei= 20°C; me= 50000 kg/h; Cpc = 4.186 kl/kg K
heated from 30°C to 70°C. If the overall heat · transf.er
2 2
A= 10 m ; U =1050 W/m2 K coefficient is 800 W/m K and surface area 1.2 m2 , find the

2 rate of heat transfer in the following arrangement of flow :

= 0000 x 3 .3 x 10
3600
3
=18333.33 (Smaller) . (a) Parallel flow (b) Counter flow
(c) Cross-flow. .
5 Solutlon:
= 3600
oooo x 4 . 186 x 10 =58055.56 (Larger)
3

Steam:

•'.1'·~11- ......
V" r u b.11c. 1 111 n· 1

Scanned w ith C<1mScnnner

'
1.: 1
J; r!

..
' ,• 1•
'j·:
·,I
'
•

..•.;;
· ~· .; H~e~a~t~T~ra:::n::s:.!fe~r~(M~U~-S~e:m~S-~M~e~c~hl.)-=-~-=~-~6-~4~0=:;;;:;11;;:mi;i;;;;;;;:;;::i::;;;;;;.Bo;;;l;:;lln~g~a=n=md==C==o=n=d=e=ns=a=ti:ia.o;;;n
,
==&=H~e;:a~tE~xc~an ~
.;
. ~r, .
·I" where F is correction factor which need to be dete ~ 1'
J1.: Wnter: Te 1 =30°C•. Te1 =100°C · rrr111led 1
/ is as follows : . · ·It

'l
1 2
J:j, U t: 800 W/m K. A= 1.2 m
·' ,,•I

•J:'
.l
ti .
(a) Heat transfer rate, Q for parallel flow H.E.
t~ I
Refer Fig. P. 6.14.14(0).
"
"'
:j' ·
"',
I<
AT1 = Thi -Tcr = 100 - 30 70°C =
From Fig. 6.14.14
AT2 = Th1 -T,2=JOO- 70 =30°C
(AT1 -AT2) !70- 30l Correction factor, F =1
·LMTD, ATm = = =42.209°C
(AT1)
In AT2
Jn (~g) Q = U ' A· F · (AT)eouniuflow

= 800 x 1.2 x 47.209=45.32x103 w

Q = U·A·ATm

= 800 x 1.2 x 47.209 = 45.32 x lOJ w ...Ans.

(a) Parallel flow

Solutlon:

Given : mh =0.2 kg/s ; me =0.5 kg/s

(b) Counter flow

The= 45°C, h =650 W/m2°C
Fig. P. 6.14.14
Area I size of heat exchanger shall be found out by,

(b) Heat transfer rate, Q for counte-r flow H.E. Q = U · A· ii Tm

1 1 1 1 ·1
Refer Fig. P. 6.14.14(b). u = h+h=
I 2
650 +650
2
.6T1 = Thi -Te2= 100-70 = 30°C u = 325 W/m °C

.6T2 = Th2 -Tei= 100-30 = 70°C

(.6T1 -.6Tz) 30-70 =47.209°C .
.6Tm = =
In (.6T
1
)
.6T2
In(~~)

Q == U . A· .6Tm = 800 x 1.2 x .47.209 Fig. P. 6.14.15

3 ... Ans.
= 45.32X 10 W We know that,
..
. . ,.I •• _.:,, ! :_ 'n ;· n•,;

(c) Heat transfer rate, a with cross-flow H.E.

••• Q

r:(;J:..;-: . : l: r~. .:.? "!..3:\~

J. I " .

.~--~--------~------·~--~---------- Scunned with comSco.nner

 - ···-...·~· ~-
..
6-41 . . . t Exchangers
Boiling and Condensation & Hea

1.1 x 2400 ( 400 ~ 300)'= 26.4 x l

04
= w ..
•, ·.·
o.z x 4187 x (75 -45) =25122 w
. Q "'
From Equation (i); 26.4 x 104 = U x 0.8 x 0.85 >< 184.97 ·
.area of beat exchanger : 2 ....Ans·.
JJcllce. · . ATi-AT. U = 2098.9 W/m K ·
::::: U·A (6T1 )
Q · /n AT .r
. c

(75 -20)- (45 -3~

,,ct22 "" 325 x Ax . (75 - 2Ql
/,.I ·
10 (45-32)"

' z
J\ ::::: Z.65 m ...Ans.

~ Th1
~a~P · .
~T
1oa cross·
floW single shell and tube heat exchangers hot oil
' 1
. of 1.1 kg/s enters at 400°C and leaves at 300oc
8
1the ra1e • AT.
Id fluid enters the tubes at 30°C and leaves at 280oc 2
fhe co . . Tc1
rtace area of the heat exchanger is 0.8 m2 find the
fhe slulheat transfer coefficient. . ' Fig. P ..6.14.16
overs ·
Take,·cPo1i "' 2400 J/kg K, CP 11u1d =4200 J/kg K .
. Example 6.14.17

~lutfon: Refer Fig. P. 6.1 4 .16. A long copper tube (k = 400 W/m K) of a condenser has an
aotoll: Il1ti:;: L 1 kg/hr, Cph =2400 J/kg K inner diameter of 1 cm and outer diameter of 1.2 cm. The

Tb 1 = T11 = 400°C, T112 = Ts2 = 300°C water at 25°C flows at 2 mis in the tube. The heat transfer
~

coefficient for condensation of steam at outer surface is

Fluid: T01 = T11 =30°C, Tc2 =T12 =280°C 2
11880 W/m K. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient
2
A=0.8m
based on outer surface of the tube.

overall heat transfer coefficient, U Assume for water: p =996 kg/m3 , µ = 8.6 x 10- 4 kg/ms,
kt= 0.614 W/m K, Pr= 5.86
Q = U · A · F-AT1m ... (i)
Solution:

L.M.TD, Refer Fig. P. 6.14.17.

Water inlet temperature, T 1 =25°C

= (400 - 280)- (300- 30) . C
184 970 Velocity, V = 2 mis, d 1 = 1cm=0.01 m
l (400 - 280:\
n 300-30)
d0 =1.2 cm= 0.012 m,
T.1 - T12 400- 300
R = T12 - T ti = 280 - 30 =0.4 h0 =11880 W/m2 K, k =400 W/m K.
·steam
h0 = 11880 W/m 2 K

From Fig. 6.11.4, the correction factor, F w~ get,

r, =: '.;t:t;=_=_=_=_=_: _: l~ -1_-_----+-1· r, i'
- -------
F = 0.85
Fig. P. 6.14.17
.!!tat transfer rate, Q =
Il1ti · cph • <Thi - '.Tia)

h ·- --------··--- Scanned with CamScanner

 . . ...
' ,, , ! • ;' .
·.. ; ,;. ,w
• .... . .~. ;..:..,.'!• •,. ;

.
.
. .
~. .
'
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. \ \"\.

i=••,.,~· . · )\ ·
Boiling and Conden!.ation & Heat ""'l..,1&
• ' ' • I

' V. ·Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-42 ',. .

Solution: Refer Fig. P.·6.14.18. . .. . ~;~ ..
To calculate overall heat transfer coemclent, uo. based on outer
~:

surface on : mo= 0.4 kg/s. Thi= 160oc I

di =2 cm= 0.02 m, d0 = 3 cm =0.03 m ~ l
In order to find U0 , we need to first calculate the convective I
2
hi= 8000 W/m2 K
heat. transf~r: coeffi~ient.
·.
at•.lnt~mai ~urlace of th-e tube using basic h0 =80W/m K;

concepts of convection. Water : ffiw =0.6 kg/s

Re = P V di= 996 x 2 0.01 _ x T,1=3ooc ; Ta= 60°C
µ . 8.6 x 10-4 - 23162.8
(I) overall heat transfer coefficient, U
Since Re > 2300, the flow is turbulent.

08 04
=0.023 (23162.8)°"8 (5.86)°"4
- -- -
:. Nu 0.023 Re · Pr ·

= 144.78 3cm 2cm

h; = N~: kr =144.7g.;10.614 - 8889.5 W/m2 K

Tc1

i
- - - Tt2

Th2
From Equation (6.10.4),
Fig. P. 6.14.18
u = 1
. o rz 1
-.-+--/n -
Ao (rz)·+-·-
Ai 1 Since the thickness of the tube have been ~eglected, ~
r1 hi 21tLk r1 A 0 h0 overaJI heat transfer coefficient can be written as :

Above equation reduces to,

= 79.208 W/m. K
2
... ~

(II) Heat transfer rate, Q

Assuming,
U0 =· 0.012 l 0.012 (0.012) O.DI l
D.l x 8889.5 + 2'X400 /n "QI + 0.012 x 11880
Cpw = 4.187 kJ/kg K
2
= 4810.7 W/m K ...Ans.

Example 6.14.18 = 0.6 ~ 4.187 (60 - 30) =75.366 kJ/s or kW ...Ans.

Engine oil flows into a double pipe counter flow heat
exchanger at the rate of 0.4 kg/s. The inner tube has internal (Ill) Exit temperature of oll, Thi
diameter of 2.0 cm and the inner diameter of the outer tube
is 3.0 cm. The water flows in the Inner tube at the rate of
0.6 kg/s with its inlet and exit temperatures as 30°C and
60°C respectively. The convective heat transfer coefficient
75.366 = 0.4 X 2.25 (160 -Th2)
2
on water side is 8000 W/m K and on oil side of tube is ...Ans.
2
Th2 = 76.26°C
80 W/m K. The oil temperature at inlet is 160°C. Neglecting
the thickness of both the inner and outer tubes, find : Example 6.14.19
(i) Overall heat transfer coefficient.
In a double pipe heat exchanger has it~ inner tube of intemal
(ii) Heat transfer rate.
diameter of 1.6 cm and outer diameter of 2 cm. The thermal
(iii) Exit temperature of oil. . conductivity of.inner tube material is 300 W/m K. i
Assume, Cpo = 2.25 kJ/kg K
....
.....~
.. I ~
!

Scanned w ith CamSCanne-r

 . . , •.
tj~j'.7' . .
• I ~ •.

.
~1 '~)~· }; · : . · .· . · ·r (MU.Sem 5·Mech) : . · .
f~·''.~"I · -rrans19 · · · 6·43
I · · ~eal - · B~ili~g ·and condensation & ·Heat Exchangers .
:.ff
:""' ·
· .
·,,
.. . ...8r· '"' "·..·:
,be ·co. ncentric to inner tube . has a ·di'ameter of
·~~:~W: d~la available regarding this H.E. ts as follows: (II) · Overall heat transfer ·c oefficient based c>"ri l~n.er and
8 11 outer surface area I.e. U1 and U 0 .
:·.,·Gf!i/ . . • e heat transfer coefficients on inner tube.
-.. '. 0onvecl1V . 2 - · 1400 W 2 . , .. ~R 1 1
'(sF · •· ooWlm K, ho -
.-. . n:.. 10 . . . . .
Im K · =
U1. A1 Uo. Ao =
.... ' " . factors . on both sides of inner tube
=
·1·._fQ1.111ngooos m2 K/W and A,o o.0001 m2 K/W .. ui --L. = 1
~ · R"'~ . A;·Dl 0.05027 x 0.05724
. fi
1 te the following per metre length of tube :
ce1c1.1a . . .
. Total thermal resistance. 347.53 W/ = K m" ... Ans.
(i)
overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner 1 1
(ii) and outer surface areas of the tube.
uo =
A0 . LR 0.06283 x 0.0572~ =
~1ut1on: uo = 278.06 WI m 2 K ..• Ans.
_ d _ l 6 cm= 0.016 m i.e. r; = 0.008 m
tube= ;- • . .
••ner . . .
j)I"'' . .
Example 6.14.20
. do
d =2 cm =0.02 m
0 I.e. ro:: T:: 0.01 m The steam is condensed at atmospheric pressure in a shell
and tube type of heat exchanger using water as a coolant.
During condensation water is heated from 28°C to 48°C.
Water flows through the tubes and the steam .condenses on
the outside. Size of the tubes is as follows :
Cold fluid
LD. = 2.6 cm, 0.0. =3 cm, Length =2.5 m.
Inner tube
Flow rate of water is 30,000 kg/hr. Coefficient of heat
Outer tube
Hot fluid . transfer on steam and water side are 8000 and 3000 Wlf!t 2 K .
Fig. P. 6.14.19 respectively. Neglecting all other resistances, ·calculate the
number of tubes required.
2
i.=300\V/mK, h;= 1000W/m K, h0 = 1400W/m2 K Solution : Refer Fig. P. 6.14.20.

Rr.=0.0005 m2 KJ\y" , Ri-

0 = 0.0001 m2 KIW Water: Tei= 28°C, T00 =48°C

Outer tube: D; = 4 cm = 0.04 m, Tube : di= 2.6 cm= 0.026 m ; r1. = 0.013 m
d0 = 3 cm ~ 0.03 m.; r0 = 0.015 m; L =2.5 m
:. A1 =1t d; · L =1t x 0.026 x 2.5 =0.2042 m 2 ;
(I) Total thermal resistance, l: R
A0 =1t d 0 • L =1t x 0.03 x 2.5 =0.2356 m2
30000
ffiw = 30000 kg/hr =3600 = ~.3333 kg/s
... (i)
h0 = 8000 W/m K, h 1
2
=3000 W/m2 K
Perm length of tube i.e. L = 1 ·m we have,
Since all resistances except for convective heat resistance
~ = 21t r; L:::: 21t x 0.008 x 1 = 0.05027 m 2
have been neglecteq i.e. resistance due to thermal conductivity is
neglected. Therefore, the overall heat transfer coefficient based on
Ao = 27t r0 L = 21t X 0.01 x L =0.06283 m2 outer surface area,

.. ~ = 1 0.0005
l (
n Q.OOs
O.ot) u 0 =
1000 x 0.05027 + 0.05027 + 2n x 1 x 300
+..Q,.0001 1
0.06283 + 1400 x 0.06283 = 1962.4 Wlm2 K

~.OS724KfW ••• Ans. Heat transfer rate (assuming, Cpw =4187 J/kg K),

Scanned w ith Cam8canllel"

 .. ·. . .
..
.·

I •
.
.
: .
.
.
. : .. : · ~
'.
•
~ ....': ;..;:
. .. ·-·~ ·.~: ;.~
~~
..v
• -- · -
Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) ·
·
6-44 -
Boiling and Condensation & Heat ~.:
....,ctia11
·: .- -
" ·'
:J
= .ffiw · Cpw (Teo -}c;) =8.3333 x (4187) x (48 - 28) Afor parallel flow H.E. ~. _J

l
Q (a) . surface area,

• 697830.5 W Th, . .: • ,

Calculation for LMTD, aTm

Since steam at atmospheric pressure condenses at 100°C i.e.

(a) Parallel flow

hi . Tc1
· Condensation
·r--------11 (b) Couqter flow
Fig. P. 6.14.21
Tel
Heat transfer rate from the oil,

Fig. P. 6.14.20

No. of tubes required, N

= 3000 x (400 - 300) = 3 x 10s W

= Th 1 - Tei= 400 - 30 =370°C

Q = U 0 · A0 • aTm;

697830.5 = 1962.4 x A 0 x 61.46

Ao = 5.7729 m
2 LMTD, 6.T1m =

·: Q = UAaT1m ;
5.7729 = 1t x 0.03 x 2.5 x N
3 x 10s = 800 x Ax 159.88
N = 24.5 ray 2S tubes ... Ans.
A = 2.3455m
2
... Ans.
Example 6.14.21
Hot oil with a heat capacity rate of 3000 WIK flows through a . (b) Surface area, A In case of counter flow H.E. -
double pipe heat exchanger. It enters at 400°C and leaves at
(Fig. P. 6.14.21 (b))
300°C. Cold fluid enters at 30°C and leaves at 2so0 c. If the
2
overall heat transfer coefficient is 800 W/m K, determine the aT1 = Thi - Te2 = 400 - 250 = 150°C
heat exchangers area for (a) Parallel flow, and (b) counter
AT2 = Th2 -Te1 =300- 30 = 270°C
flow.
AT1 - AT2 (150 - 270)
Solution :· Refer Fig. P. 6.14.2l(a) and (b). LMTD,AT1m = (AT) = 150 -204.16oC
·Given : Te1 =30°C, Te2 =250°C Th1 =400°C, ln _ 1 ln (210)
AT2

Th2 =300°C. U =800 Wtm1x.

Heat capacity oil, c; =mh · Cp11=3000 WIK
A = 1.8368m 2

Sl,;;irmW with CamScam1~

 ~··.· · ·' l .

~.t;~>. . ~r(~M~U~-~s~egm~5~-~M~e~c~h)b;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;i.;;;;;;;~6~-4~5~=,;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:;-~Bo~-~lli~ng.~a~nd~C~o~n~d~en~s~·a~ti~o~n~&~-·~H~e:a~t~ex~.c;:;:h; :a-n;:;ig;:;:e~rs~-

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_!!
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, .t be'et1' -. - . - . - r.)
r/' 6 14 (ButA~=Aisincer2_== ·1
r~;e_ • '~ s~eam
1 . .

:J!,~~.' ·ter flow

heat exchanger, the
-
enters at 10 Uo = Ao I In(;;) I -

.• ""'": c"8 nd 1eaves at 360°C at the rate of 20 kg/s. This

•/ .nlJl'I T1 · x h,. _+ 2n L k + h
if•· 0
.,. ,•_j90° d by flue gases which enters the heat · . -~ K
f' heate
· ~ i~ 680oc at the rate of 30 kg/s. The tubes of the = 1
I _
1 - I 1
=188.085 W/m
i-8_:.,,ang
; erst are of neg1·191"ble th"1ckness and they are . b,+O+h
• o
680+260
If!""_ hanger
.:.a1 e'J.C . eter and 3.2 m long. The heat transfer Total heat transfer area for N tubes,
riv- il'I d1arn . 2
io .atl'I stearn side 1s 680 W/m K and on gas side - -. . ·2
. ·e11t on
~tfiCI . W/rn2 K. Take, Cpsteam
.
=
2.5 kJ/kg K and
A = n d L x N =1t x 0.03 x 3.2 x N:;: 0.30,l 6 N (m )

i. ~ :~ KJJ1<Q K. Determine the number of tubes required. = Thi - Tcl = 680 - 360 =320°C
.
Cf'I"' R fer Fig. P. 6.14.22.
utton: e = T h2 -Tcl -- 396 •67 -190 =.206.67°C
sa' T ::: 190°C at 10 bar, Ta= 360°C .
• cl
~. lllc.::: 20 kg/s, CP• =2.5 kJ/kg K = AT 1 -AT2 _ 320 - 206.67 =259.22oc
2~.~7)
2
~:::680W/m K ln (:;:) - in (
Thi= 680°C, =30 kg/s,
~
2
h ::: 260 W/m K. Cph = 1.0 kl/kg K Q = mc . t pc.
. (Te2 -Te 1) = 20 x 2.5 x (360-1.90)
0

d =3cm =0.03 m = 8500 kW =8500 x 10 W

3 -

No.Of tubes required, N : By energy balance

8500 x 10
3
= 188.085 x (0.3016 N) x 259.22

N = 578 tubes ... Ans.

Example 6.14.23
A steam condenser . uses water flowing at the rate of
0.1 kg/sec as cooling medium. The condenser tube is having

Gas t--~--=F--J Steam

3 cm 0.0. and 22 m of length. Steam condenses at 100°C
on the outside of the tube. Overall heat transfer
coefficient based on tube outer. surface area = 100 W/m 2 K,
CP water = 4180 J/kg K. If the cooiing water enters the heat
Fig. P. 6.14.22 : Counter flow H.E.
exchanger at 30°C, calculate the exit temperature of this
water.
Solution: Refer Fig. P . 6.14.23.
30xix(680-Td = 20x2.5(360-190) _ Steam : Since steam condenses,
Th1 =Thi= 1oooc-
Th2 = 396.67°C
Water: me= 0.1 kg/s, Cpc =4180 J/kg K, Tc = 30°C
1
°"eran heat transfer coefficient, u O.DofTube,d0 =3cm=0.03m, L=22m, U
0
:: 100W/m2 K
Since tube is of negligible thickness, we can neglect the
tondn...:
. w-ve resistance,

. ln ( -r
2) t-
I\ . == --lL._o
21tLk -

Fig. P. 6.14.23: Parallel flo~

'----------~:--~~~~~~~-------~-------
L_
Scan ned w ith CamScanner
 -· ~
. ·- -. ·· ~:~: ..~

v .:>·n
~-=;H~e~a~tT~r~a~ns~f~er~(~M~U~-~s:em~s~
- ~M~e~c~h~l·.._.._.._::;;;;;;;::;;;;;;;::;;;;;;;~6.~4~6;;:::;:;;;;:::;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:::;:;;~8~0~11~1n~g~a~n~d~C~o~nd~e~n~s:at~io~n~&~H~ea~t~E~x~h~
c angers· ··
Exit temperature ~f water, yc
2
2
u =3400 W/m K. Cpc =4.187 kJ/kg K (assurned) '"'
. I
I

1. Surface area required, A

.AT2 = Th2 :- Tc2 =100 - Tel By energy balance,

Heat transfer rate, Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by cooling water

= 0.1 X4180 X (Tc2 - 30) = (418 Tc2 - 12540) W

LMTD; .:iTm=
0.76 x 2270 = me X4.187 (65 - 20) .

me =. 9.1564 kg/min

207.345 Cfa -30) Fig. P. 6.14.24

418 Te2 - 12540 =
ln Coo~TeJ LMTD,.6.Tm

On dividing by 207.345 we get

.:iT1 = Thi - Te1 =95.6 - 20 =75.6°C

2.016 Tei - 60.48 = Cfel - 30)

In 70- ln (IOO-Te2) 6T2 = Th2 -T02 = 95.6 - 65 =30.6°C
Cf0 2- 30) .6.T1 - .6.T2 75.6 - 30.6
= 4.2485 - In (100-T0 :J .6.T1) = (75.6) = 49.75oc
ln ( - ln 30.6
.:iTz . -
8.565 Ta - 2.016 Tc2 /n (100 -Ta)- 256.95 + 60.48 /ri (100 -T, 2)

= Tc2 -30 Q =

7.565 T0 2 - In_(100 -Ta) x (2.016 Tc2 - 60.48)- 226.95 = 0 mh • hrg = U · A · t.Tm

By hit and trial, 0.76 3
6Q X (2270 x 10) =3400 x A x 49.75

Tc2 = 57.374°C ... Ans.

2
A = 0.17m ...Ans.
Example 6.14.24
Example 6.14.25
A steam condenser is designed to condense 0.76 kg/min. of
steam with cooling water entering at 20°C and leaving a
A simple heat exchanger consisting of two concentric flow
2 passage is used for heating 111 o kg/h of oil (sp. Heat
65°C . Overall heat transfer coefficient = 3400 W/m K.
Calculate the surface area required for this heat exchanger.
= 2.1 kJ/kg K) from a temperature of 27°C to 49°C, the oil

Saturation temperature of steam =95.6°C. flows through the inner pipe made of copper (O.D. == 2.86

htgsteam =2270 kJ/kg. cm, l.D. =2.54 cm) and the surface heat transfer coefficient
2
on the oil side is 635 W/m K. The .oil is heated by hot water
Solution:
supplied at the rate of 390 kg/h and at an inlet temperature
Refer Fig. P. 6.14.24. · 2
of 93°C, water side heat transfer coefficient is 1270 W/m K,
!team : mh =0. 76 kg/min, Th 1 =.Th2 = 95~6°C; hrg =2270 kJ/kg . take thermal conductivity of copper to be 350 W/mK and
fouling factors on the oil and water sides to be 0.001 and
:ooling water :
...,;.rtli~
V P••Jn •111••

scanned wlll'I Camscenner

 ~
(: .~1],~l<:'.
.' : ~9Bt
-.
>~>~' :rransfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) _
6 47
~
Boilin and Condensation & Heat Exchanger$
KN'
' . -.:jy1
·o._tf>'
2

~r tor :
respectively, determine length of heat
r 1 r o
2. -+2x Rn +-k ln
r (rr) o 0 _
+•'fo
+-
1 .
ho
r 1 h1 r1
·,id1~11g .
1 .
II) Counter lluw
·. 11111e1floW I 1 . ~In (1.126)
I) pi • Refer Fig. p, 6.14.25(a) and (b) Un "" l.126x 635 +1.126x0.001+ 350 __

·~011 : _ 111okg/hr. cpc =2.1 kJ/kg K: + o.004 + 1270

1
()II: lllc"'.' . .
. ~ ~ z7oc, Tc2
lei
=49oc -1. 2
U0 = 0.00783 u 0
= 127.77 W/m K
0.D.Of I·nner pipe, d0 =2.86 cm =0.0286 m
1. Length tube, L for parallel flow
I.D· of inner pipe, d1 = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
2
_ 635 W/m K, Rn= 0.001 m2 KfW Heai transfer rate,
~- .

• ll1ti =390 kg/hr, Thi= 93oc Q = me· Cpc <Te2 -Tei)

sot Water. . .
2
ho= 1270 .W/m K. = ~~ x 2.1 x (49 _:_ 27) = 14.245 kW
2
Rro =0.004 m KIW
Q = mh · cph · <Thi -Tia)
for pipe: k='350W/mK
390
14.245 = 3600 x 4.187 (93 -Th2)
Ai = 1t d1 L =1t x 0.0254 x L (m ) 2

2 .
Th2 = 61.6°C
Ao . = n; d0 L = 1t X 0.0286 X L (m )

A0 1t do L 0.0286
· ro
AT1 = Thi -Te1 =93 - 27 =66°C
Ai = n di. L =CWi54 = 1.126 = f;" AT2 = Th2 -Ta= 61.6 - 49 =12.6°C '.
AT1 -AT2
LMTD, ATm = {66-12.6~
32.247'°C
(AT1)
ln AT2 ln (i~~6)
Q = U 0 ~ ATm
3
f· . 14.245 x 10 = 127.71x(1tx0.0286 x L) x 32.247
1:
ii
L = 38.Sm .... Ans.
2. Length of tube, L for counter flow

Refer Fig. P. 6.14.25(b).

(a) Parallel flow

= Th2 -Tc: 1 =61.6 - 27 = 34.6°C

. AT,-.:lT2_{44-34.fil_ o

= (AT,) -
In AT2 ln
(..±!...)-
34.6
39.ll C

(b) Counter flow

Fig. P. 6.14.25 3

Overai1h · . 14.425 x 10 = 127.71x(1tx0.0286 x L) x 39.11 ·

.~ . · eat transfer coefficient based on outer surface area

i;. ;
'< ·'·

1::;:;<,. . ··
8

· :~----:----__:____ ~----:---
. '·

.
L = 31.74 m ·
_________ • •• A.ns.

& let\Ktt111I•
-

........____ Y r•~11 t •\ i

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 .. · . - -. . · ·~
" ' '.. ·'.'. ·· <-
~ ••• 1:~~-\ ~ ~)
4

. , •

. ....
-·:=-·.i-1.e; ;a:; t;T~r~a·n~s~f~er~(~M~U~-~s~;o~~-~~~~·M~e~c~h~==~===~6~_!4~8..· = = =; ;B~o~il~in;.!g; a~n; ;d;.;C:; o; ; n; ;d; ;e:;n;,;sa~t~io~n~&~H~e~a~t~ " .·t ~f..,.:
5
. ·. . .

• . . i=:"cQI)
_h· . ·-. · ·

Example 6.14.26 example s.14.21 . ·. · · : · ~::...:

In a double pipe parallol flow h~at excha~ger, the water is A parallel flow heat exchanger has its tubes of 5 d . ...·_ , - ,;:_:-
heated from 3ooc t , and. 6 cm externRI diameter. The afr flows .,·n-s·d ._I'll :, i~tetti.;
u.~· h~ving i~let the: tu~. '.
· . . o IJ0°C while flowing in the Inner tube. -· · 1 e th ", "' ·
T.ho oil flow"' ln outer. tube the and exit and receives heat from hot·gases circulated in
temperatures as 23rjoc and gooc. . space of the tube at.. the rate of 100 kW.
2
lnside· ando . .
11
nnu~i
6
In case the . . heat transfer cqefflc1ents are 250 W/m K and 4 1siu ·
OQ Wt i
~
01 1 needs to be cooled upto t.he temperature ·
equal to the exit temperature of water by increasing the respectively. . I'll
Given: Inlet temperature of hot gasesI T h1:: 500·oc
length .o f the heat exchanger. Find the temperature ofoil at
Outlet temperature of hot gases T ~
, h2 = .>Oo•c
exit. · .

Solution: Inlet temperature of air, Tc1 =50°c ·

.Refer Fig. P. 6. l ~.26.

Exit temperature of air, Te2 =14ooc
Calculate :
Oil- · _____ ,
-~;--1
(i) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on out
area. · er surface
Water- r.c2 .. 1I
r-------------~-----~I (ii) Length of tube
. required
. to affect the heat trans!

t-L L, .i-----j (iii)

rates. Neglect the thermal resistance of the tube; er
If each tube is 3 m length, find the number of tu
required. bes
Solution:
Refer Fig. P. 6.14.27.
Q =ioo kW, d.i = 5 cm= 0.05 m, d0 = 6cm =0.06 m,
2 2
hi= 250 W/m K. h0 = 400 W/m K
Fig. P. 6.14.26

Water: Tc.1 =30°C, Tc2 =80°C

Oil: Th 1,= 230°C, Th2 =90°c
I
1. Tt'tnper:ature at exit, Th3 = Tc 3
1.et me and Cpc be the rnass flow rate and specific heat of
watt>,r and corresponding values are mh and Cph for oil.
Fig. P. 6.14.27
By energy balance,
i
(I) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer
me· Cpc · <Te2 -Tei) = fl\,· Cph · CTh1 - .ThZ) I
surface area, Uo \
me· Cpc Tb1 -Th2 230- 90
.. = = =2.8
mh • Cp11 Tc2 - Tc1 80 - 30

Let the temperature of both the fluids at exit be Th3 = Tc3 by

increasing the length of H.E. Again by energy balance,
...Ans.
U0 = 136.99 WJ'.m K
2

=
(II) Length of tube, L required
230-ThJ 230-Th3 =2.8 Th3 - 84
= 2.8
. ~h3 -30 AT1 - Tht -Te1 =s.oo - 50 =450°C

Th3 = 82.632°C ... Ans.

-- ~
Scanned with CamScanoer
 . ; ..

6
= . 6.27 x 10 w
By energy balance between hot and cold water.

mh·. Cph · (Th 1-Th2) = me · Cpc ·<Ta-Tei)

::= 136.99 x (1t x 0.06 x L) x 280.45 50 x 4180 x (90- 60) = 500 x 4180 x Cra-25)
. 103
1oOl<
i.. ::= 138.088 m •.• Ans. Te2 = .28°C

of tubes, N If each tube Is I= 3 m long

....rnber .
nil) ..... . .
N ::= · ~ =
1 138 88
' . 3°
46.03 (say 47 tubes) ... Aris.

LMTD, (65 - 32) =46.567oC

ln (~i)
.. Q. = U·A·.6.Tm
6
6.20 x 10 = 2400 x A x 46.567

A = 56.102m
2 ••• Ans.

Hot 50 (II) Effectiveness of heat exchanger, e

water
Actual heat transfer rate, <4
Cold 500 25°C 4180 E = Max. possible heat transfer rate, Qmax
water
mh · Cph CTh1 -Th2)
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U =2400 W/m2 K = mh. Cph (Tht - Tei)
ftnd: (i) Heat transfer area needed.
(ii) Effectiveness of heat exchanger. Thi -Th2 90-60
= Thi - Tei =90 - 25 =0.4615 ••• Ans.
Solution: Refer Fig. P. 6.14.28.
Hot water : ffiti =50 kg/s. Cph = 4180 J/kg K Example 6.14.29
Th 1 =90°C, T b2 = 60°C A shell and tube heat exchanger is designed with ammonia
Cold water : me = 50 kg/s, Cr;x: = 4180 kJ/kg K vapour entering the shell at 60°C as a saturated vapour.
2 Water enters the single pass tube arrangement at 25°C and
Tel= 25°C, U =2400 W/m K
gets heated to 50°C. Total heat transfer rate is 250 kW.
Calculate the area of the heat exchanger to achieve 60%
effectiveness with overall heat transfer coefficient
2
1000 W/m K. How would the heat transfer rate be affected· if
the water flow rate is reduced to half ? If may be presumed
that the heat exchanger area and heat transfer coefficient
remain the same.
Fig. P. 6.14.28
Solution:
~ Heat transfer area, A needed :
Ammonia vapour: Th1 =Th2 =60°C
fieat Iransfer rate, ('·'Temperature remains constant during phase change)

Water: Tc1 = 25°C, Ta= 50°C

- ~mb · cpb. (Th1:- Tia) = so x 4180 x (90 - 60)
.·,

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 '
. .. . '
' .'.·

··:
.
-•
~: Heat Transfer (MU-Sam 5-Mech) 6-50

2
Q=250kW, e =60%=0.6, U= IOOOW/m K

.1. ' Area of heat exchanger, A

·Heat transfer rate, Q = Heat absorbed by water . Percentage reduction in heat transfer rate ·• ·J
'
= ( Q-
01) x 100% = ,G50 - 147.~
Q . 250 )()~
3 = 41.99%
250 X 10 = me x 4180 X (50- 25)

Mass flow rate of water, me = 2.3924 kgls Example 6.14.30

During phase change, the _temperature change is zero; In a tubular counter current heat exchanger .
1080
Therefore the heat capacity of ammonia vapour, c;. =ffitt · Cph =00 of water is heated from 40°C to ao0 c by h t l<Mir
=cmax. (Cp = 1.0 kJ/ kg K) which enters at 2oooc an~ ftue Qas
. 1eaves
100°c. The overall heat transfer coefficient anticip t at
•• cmin = fie· cpc = 2.3924 x 4180 = 10000.2 WIK 2 .
0.2 kW/m K. Workout the required surface area by bo
a~~~

cmin _ 10000.2 _ LMTD approach and the effectiveness approach. th the

Capacity ratio, C = cm... - 0
00 -
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 6.14.30.
1080
.. e = 1-e-NTU ; 0.6 =l - e-NTIJ Water : me= 1080 kg/hr= 3600 = 0.3 kg/s ; T el =4~oc,
e.-NTU = 0.4 NTU =0.9163 Tc2 = 80°C ; . Cpc::;; 4.187 kl/kg K (assumed)

U·A NTUxCmin Hot Gases : Cph = 1.0 kl/kg K, Thi =200°C, Th2 = toooc
But. NTU = ; A= u
cmiA 2
U =0.2 kW/m K.
A = 0.91631~0000.2 = 9.163 ml ••• Ans.
1. Surface area, A by LMTD method
Th1
2. Heat transfer rate, 0 1 when mass flow rate of water
Is reduced to half with area of H.E. and 'U' kept
the same

me 2.3924
me 1 = T = - 2- = 1.16862 kgts
Fig. P. 6.14.30: Counter flow
('•• cpc_is constant)
Heat transfer rate,
1
= 2x 10000.2 = 5000.1 WIK
U · A _ 1000 x 9.163 _ l .
NTU = 8326
(Cmin) 1 - 5000.1 - · Q = 50.244kW

Effectiveness, 1 - e- NTU::: l -e-1.8326 = 0.84 By energy balance, Q =~ ; Cph (Th 1 -Th2)

C1. (Thi -Tia) 50.244 = mh x 1 x (200 - 100);

But, E1 ::;; Cmin (Thi -Tel)
mh = 0.50244 kgls
In this case c;. > Cc. Therefore,
If T' is the new exit temperature ·of water due to reduced
c2 .
mass flow rate of water.

Cc (T~ -Tel) ( 2 -Tei

EI = Cmio-(Thl -Tc1) Thi -Tei ' b.T1.- b.T2 _ (120 - 60) =
86562
oc
= 54.4°C ln (
\u~TT21) - ln (16200)
1

T'cl -25 = 0.84 (60-25) Tc2

.
~_...'.::---------:---~~~-'"".~~~-'-~~~~~~---:-~~~~-:::.~~
.,.. ; 11 (11• l•

i
~
Scaoned with CemScanner
 -~--.--=-~~-- ....:I.ml. . . . . . . . . ._ .__~~--

6·51

: 0.2 x A >< 8<1.562

•' , - ~o.Z4 •
l
2.902 Ill
... AnH.
roa A by otfoctlveneea method
511rf1tCO 0 '

t· ' it)'. C,=mc·Crc=0.3x4. l87= 1.2561 WIK

flellfCllpa'
-cap11Cl't)'• c;. = mh · Cr"= 0.5024 x I = O' 5024 WIK Tltl = 11s 0 c, T t.t = 4lf' C
~cat
For water: T" = 15" C, Tu= 75" C
. C1111n -
_ c;. =0.5024 WIK and C
nux
= cc -_I •2561 WIK
" Actual heat transfer Q · u = 1450 W/m
2
"c
• a
···eness. E == Max. heat transfer Q -
£1fcCn• ' nux
Thi
Thi -Th2 200 - 100
= . T111 '-Tc1 - 200-40 .=0.625 ----~Trie

~-----1Ta
0.5024
cmin ch
capacity ratio. c = -
cmax- ---
- cc - =04
1.2561 . Fig. P. 6.14.31
- N11J ( l-C)
1-e
€ ::: 1- C e-NTU{l-CJ (For counter flow H.E.) NTU method

I -e~NTU ( l-0.4) (i) Mass Dow rate of water

0.625"' I-0.4e-NTuo-o.4J By energy balance,
We heat absorbed by water= Heat given by oil
-NTU x 0.6
0.625- 0 ·25 e = I -e-0.6NTU .

6
~-C~(T.,,-Tc1) = m0 Cpo(T111 -Th•)
0.75 e-0. NTU = 0.375 ; e- 0-6 NTU =0.5
mo Cro (Tru - T be )
-0.6 NTU = ln (0.5) = 0.69315 Cpw · (Tee - Tc; )

0.55 x 2.45 x (115 - 40 )

NTU = 1.15525 =
4.187x(75-15)
~
But, NTU = . cmin
= 0.402 kg/s •.• Ans.
l.15525 = ~ (ii) Effectiveness of heat exchanger
0.5024

E = Actual heat transfer rate

A = 2.902m2 ... Ans. max. x possible heat transfer rate in HE

~. cpw = 0.402 x 4.187 = 1.683

~ cpo = o.55 x 2.45 =1.3475

Hence 11\i Cpo < ~ Cpw; : . (m Cp)sm.i11::: mo C!Xl

11\i Cpo (Thi-The)

E =
Thi-Th• 115 - 40
= Ttu -Tei = 115 - 15

e = 0.75
••• Ans.

Scanned w ith CamScanner

 Boilin and Condensation & Heat Ex
• Heat Transfer (MU·Sem 5-Mech 6-52
75-15 .
= I00-15 = 0.706
(UI) Surruce Arcn Required

Substituting in equation
c . -- £-=Dill
c 1.683 , • = 0·8
1111
~ = 1-e-mu
For counter flow HE :
:: 1-e-tnU
l -e - (1-C)NTU 0.706
e = 1 - Ce -(1-C)lffil
} -C-( 1- 0.S)lffiJ
or e
-tml
= I - 0.706 = 0.294

0.75 = l-0.8e-(l-0.8)NTU mu
or e = 3.4

0.75-0.6e- 0·2 NTU = l-e- 0·2 NTU; 0.4e- 0· NTU=0.25

2
or NTU = 1.224

e-O.llffil = 0.625 .· e0.2 NTU -- 1.6

.
UA
(mCi)s=11
- 1.224

NTU=2.35 1.224 x 0.15 x 4180

0.2 NTU = 0.47; .. A = = 3.837 m2 ==JtdL
200
UA
But, NTU = 3.837
(mCp)small .. L = 1t x0.025 =48.88 m
1450 xA
.. 2.35 = 1347 .5 Hence length of single tube

•• •Ans. = ~-196 •••Ans,

•• A = 2.18m
2 25 - · m

MU - Dec. 13, 10 Marks

Solution: 2
Given: e = 0.7, A= 1.5 m
Given : .me = 0.15 kg/s _; Tei = 15°C =Tee= 75°C
Tee-Tei = 30°C, Thi -The =40
U = 2
=
200 W/m K ; d 2.5 cm, N = 25
2
(mCP)3 (mCp)e
u = 50 W/m °C .
. c = (mCP)I = oo = 0
Q = mh Cph (Thi -ThJ =me Cpc (Tee -Tei)
'
Hence effectiveness of HE Q = mh c ph x 40 = me c pc x 30
. - (!+CJNTIJ
. e = 1 - el + C = l - e- NTU putting C = 0

(mCP AT)11o1tcold
Also, E = (mCp)sm.all (Thi - Tel)

(mCP AT)eold ' <Tee -Tc1) _Tee - Tc1

= (mCp)eold (Thi -Tei) · -Thi -Tei

---------- ----···
 ~
I"

~
,

~~fe~r~(M~U-~S~e_m_s_·M--ec~h;)=-=-=-;;;;;;=-~~:===-=-----~~~~~~~~~~~!~h~n~~er;;;;;s
· ·,· · 1ran5 6•53 Boiling and Condensation & Heat xc a
. ·11. Heat .
· "~ ~..... ~ ~ := 0.75 := C Solution :
~"" 40
l11c CJ." . -(I - C) NTU · NTU method as only 2 temperatures are known.
1-e
- -(1-C)NTU
e "' 1-Ce rh, = 11e·c
-(t -0.7S)NTIJ
1-e Th•=?
- 075 -(1-0.?,)NTIJ To.=?
0.1 "' 1- . e
rcJ = ae·c
-0.2,NTU
= 1 _ e - o.2n.rru
. -o.525 e
07 Fig. P. 6.14.34

o.
475 e-0.2SNTU = 0.3
me = 0.076 kg/s
e-0.25 NTU
= 0.63
cpc = 42001/kg °C
0.2SNTU '
e = 1.58
Tei = 38°C

0.25NTU = . 0.459 mh = 0.152 kg/s

NTU = 1.838 =(m~1mn11 cph = 1880 J/kg °C
UA 50x 1.5
= NTU = 1.838 = 40.8 T.
(mC.,)sma11 hi = 116°C

mh cpb . 2 2
c = ffiC=0.75
u = 340W/m °C; A=·lm
e pc
mhcph = 0.152 x 1880 = 258.8 (Small)
(mh Cph) = (m Cp)small = 40.8
40.8 mcCpc = 0.076 x 4200 =319.2
me cpc = 0.75 =54.4
258.8'
.. c = 319.2 =0.895
Rate of beat transfer, : . · ..
. ~ .. -..;>.
UA 340X 1
NTU = (mC.,)small = 258.8 1.19
(!) Q = mh Cph (Thi -TiJ =40.8 x40
(mh. Cph)(Thi -The) Thi -T1ie
= 1632 w .•. Ans. E = (mh. Cph)(Thl -Tei) =Thi -Tc1

1-e-(1-C)NTU
(tl) LM1D
E = 1-Ce-(l-C) . NTU
We know that
1-e-{1-0.895)x 1.19
= 1 - 0.895 e- (1 - 0.895) x 1.19
Q = UALMTD
JL. 1632 = l -e-0.125 1-0.88
LM1D = UA = 50x 1.5 =21.760 C. ... Ans. 1 - 0.895 e- 0.125 =1- 0.79 - 0.57

116-Tbc
0.57 = 116-38

The = 71.5°C ·

Heat flow rate in heat exchanger~ .

Q = mb Cph (Thi -T.J =258.8 (116- 71.5)

= 11,516.6 w
...Ans.
 : :., ·:·· . . ' .' ...~ . . ·.· '. -

Solution : Refer Fig. P. 6.14.35

Solution : Refer Fig. P. 6.14.36

6T1
Th2
Fig. P. 6.14.35· Tc2
6.T2

m0 = 2500 kg/hr; Cpo: 1.9 kJ/kg-K TC1

Fig. P. 6.14.36

Counter-flow H.E.,

2
Ill_. = 1500 kg/hr; Cpw = 4.187 kJ /kgK
uo = 350W/m K

Oil: Thi ;;; 110°C

U = 300W/m2 K
3
2500 cph = 1.9 x 10 J/kgK
= 3600 x 1900 =1319.44

ffiwCpw =
1500 Th2 = 60°C
3600 x 4187 = 1744.58
Water:
: . m 0 Cpois smaller
· mC 1319.44 Tel = 40°C
(i) Capacity ratio =~c = 174458 = 0.756 ... Ans.
ffiw pw
3
(ii) NTU cpc ;;; 4.187 x 10 J/kgK

Since heat exchanger area is not given, calculation will be

2 Tez = 70°C
based on lm area
UA me = 1.4 kg /sec
NTU = (mC~small
Calculation for LMTD, 6.T1m
300x 1
= 1319.44 =0 ·227 .•. Ans.
AT 1 = Th1 - Tc2 = 110 - 70 = 40°C

(iii) Effectiveness, e
.t.Tz = Th2 -Tc 1 =60-40 = 20°C
-{I +C)NTU l _ e - (I + 0.156) x 0.227
1 -e
Effectiveness, e = 1 +C = 1 +0.756 .t.T1 -AT2
.t.T,m =
1 -e -0.3986 . loge (~)
.tlTz
= 1.756 =0.187 ... Ans.

.,~~
,,,,
. .,,.111•

~·"~ .
· -- - ·- - - -- - ·- - - - - - -- -- ·------m!Rll.IW\la~l\i-~
Scon ned w ith CamScanner
 . .·. . ·

6-55 .. . . . .. . . eat l':Xcha~gers .

Bolling and Condensation ai H _..
- 2.08 (1 - 0.832)
1 e ·
. - 2,08(1 - 0 .832) .
I.- 0.832 x e . .

~· -0714 -
= 0.413 - . .
. t
(An of a fluid having smaller m o
e = Max. Temp. difference

(Ans
E = Tht -Tei

(mCJ/6nc _ .!!!c Coc(Tc? -Tc ) T'c? -T,1

U 0 (AT)1m - U0 (AT)1m
1 .·.e = Thi -Tei

1.4 x 4.187 x 10\70- ~ T'c2 -40

= 350 x 28.85
: . 0.714 =
110-40

= 17.42m2 ... T'cl = 90°C •••Ans.

•.• Ans.

i M"SSS no .
w rate of hot oil, mh m'cCpc(AT)0 = m h Cph (Anh

. (mCpAT)c = (mCPAT)h .. m'cCpc(Tc2 - Tc1)= mhCph(Th1-T'ia)

3
.. 0.7 x 4.187 x 10 (90-40) = 1.851 x 1.9 x 103 X" (l10-T'ta>
;. JI\: Cpc ~c2 -Tc1) = mh Cph (Thi - Tia)
:. T'h2 = 68.38°C ... Ans.
· x 10
· 4187
;. l.4X
3
x 30 = mhx 1.9 x 103 x 50
4. Rate of leaf transfer, Q :
: . mh = 1.851 kg/s
••. Ans.
.Q = mhCph(AT)h
1 Exit' temperature of water T'cl and oil T'h2 when. mass
now rate of water is halved = mh cph (Thl - T'h2)

Le.m',=0.Sxmc= 0.5x1.4 =0.7 kg/s = 3

1.851x1.9 x 10 x (110 - 68.38)

(;, = (mCp)h = 1.851 x 1.9 x 103 = 146.5x103 w ...Ans.

= 3.52xl0 W/K
3 Example 6.14.37

C0 = (mCp)c =0.7 X 4.187 X 103 Hot water is cooled from 90°C to 60°C in a tube type_heat
exchanger by circulating cold water which enters at 25°C
and leaves at 55°C. Find the effectiveness of H.E. when it
~ty ratio, C :. operates in parallel flow arrangements . and counter flow
arrangements.
3
= £w.u.
c - 2.93 x 103 =0.832 .
cmax 3.52 x 10 In case the mass flow rate of hot water and cold water are
~'umber of transfer units, NTU increased to 2.5 times, find the exit temperatures of the
fluids.
N.T.U. . = ~- 350x17.42 =2 08 Solution: ·
. cmin - 2.93 x 103 ·
Ctcttiveness 0f th . Hot water: Th1 =90°C,
· · e heat exchanger, e ·: T112 =60°C
1-e-NTUO - C)
Cold water: T c1 25°C, =
E ::
1 C - NTU(l - C)

·~----·e--~~~~~------~----~-
~
· ·.
------
·"- _· · ..
... ........
·~·~~ ..
ws;;ftz;::aou
; ,
Sea"""" w oh C•mSc•-
 Heat Transfer (MU-Sem 5-Mech) 6-56 Boiling and Condensation & Heat Ex · ..: : :-::'.:· ; >i
I . . . , C~e~ · \
(I) Effectlveneas of ~.E; In parallel and counter 110~ . Te2-20 . ·,
=37.87Soc
. ~ ; . ·;
0.2544 = 90 _ 2 9 ; Ta
arrangements " ·i\111, .

By energy balance,
Example 6.14.38
A heat exchanger has a mean heat transfer c ff'
2
600 W/m K based on the outer side having the
1cie,nt Of · l °e
2 ~~ i
of 108 m . The hot fluid enters at 800°C at th e area · .i
~ . cph (90 - 60) · = m.. cp< (55 - 25) 18 kg/s and.the cold enters at 100°C at the rate ; rate of . {
0 2
Assume, Cph 3.2 kJ/kg K, Cpc = 4.2 kJ/kg K. Find ~ k9fs.
= J
temperatures of hot and cold fluids ·in the followi
0
ex1r I
· ng cases · l
(a) With parallel flow arrangement. ·
It implies that the heat capacity of both hot water and cold 1
water are equal.
(b) With counter flow arrangement. j
cmlo
Use effective - NTU method. l
Capacity ratio, C
cmax =1
= -- Solution:
2
Thus, effectiveness, e for parallel flow H.E. and counter flow Given: U =600 W/m K, A= 108 m'2
H.E. are equal · .Hot fluid :. Th I = 800°C. c ph =3.2 kJ/kg K, mh =18 kgts
Thi -Th2 90-60 Cold fluid: Tc1 = 100°C, Cpc = 4.2 kJ/kg K, me= 24 kgts
e = Thi - Tei =90 - 25 =0.4615 ... Ans.
ch =.mh · c ph = 18 x 3.2 = 57.6 kW/K
(Ii) Exit temperatures when fluid flow are Increased
to 2.5 times Cc= me· Cpc: = 24 x 4.2 =100.8 kW/K

N11J : . Cmio = ~ =
E = N11J + 1 (when C= 1) 57.6 and Cmax =Cc= 100.8 kW/K

c min 57.6
N11J
0.4615 = .NTIJ + 1 0.4615 N11J + 0.4615 =N11J Capacity ratio, C = cmax ='iCi0:8 =0.5714 .

0.4615 UA ·600 x 108

NTU ·.= l - 0.4615 - 0.857 = c min = 57.6 x 103 =1.1 25

m, 1 ·~~"'.arid, mh1= 2.5 mh; m, 1 =2.5 m,, (a) Consl~erlng parallel flow arrangement
I

1- e-NTU o +CJ 1- e- 1.12s o +0.5714J .

••• Heat .capacities cif tw o fluids will still be equal with C =1 E = l+C . = 1+0.5714 "'0.52n
and
Thi -Th2
E = 0.5277 = T _ T
(Cmi0 ) 1 = Cmax = 2.5 (mh · Cph) = 2.5 x Cmin hi cl

VA VA l
(NTU)~. = (Cmin)I = 2.5 x CmiD = 2.5 X (NTU)old ...Ans.

(NTIJ), = 07~; 1 =0.343 · By energy balance :

(NTU), 0.343 i Cb· (Thi -Th2) = Cc· (Tc2 -Tei) ·.

New effectiven~ss, , e 1 = .(NTIJ), + 1 = 0343 + 1 = 0.2554 - . .. . ·.
57.6 (800 - 430.6) = 100.8 CTez - 100);
= 311.1°C ... Ans.

I I ,
(b) Considering counter flow arrangement
where, Th2 and Tc2 are
.
new exit temperatures.
1-e-NTU(l - C)

90-Th2
1
E = 1- C · e- NTU (l- C)
0.2554 = 90-20
T~ =72.122°C •••Ans.

.,-~ , .1 1111 l
'

Sca nned w ith Ca mScanner

--~~i
 ···-·: ·.. : ··

c,,.,ft
:, Copacity ratio = -c....._.
=J
.
... . ... "":. ~' .
··, ., . ···Ans. NTIJ l'c'TIJ
~
e = l+NTU 0.84 -1 +NTU
,- ; •., ,, ; . I'' I· 1 ·•.•

Cc' (Tel - T 0
;)·
0.84 + 0.84 NTU = N1U 0.16 NTU =0.84
'· •: • •I , : i !J~ ·'
100.8 (Tel - 100) ..
NTU = 5.25
33s.2°c ·..._, n: ' · · '
... Ans. . -A0 = 1i d0 L x No. of tubes·
~9 , r. ·.:'·:·:-:- .:.:~)~: : ~. -~"" ·;'· . '_II/, -
.- ~ x 0.03 x 3 x N =0.28274 N
~P. le pass counter flow heat exchanger, the oil at
_,a singcooled from water, ~~taring ·at 30~C at. tl"Je: rC\te of -, . .. NnJ ' ·= ' _Uo : Ao
5.25
184.06 x 0 .28274
.r11•CThe
..,., Is ;in.. ternal and. outer diameter of tube
. . is 2.4 cm
. and
cmi.o. 8.4 x J03
zk~s. thermal~ conduct1~1ty __ qt_.,rJ:lat,e_rial
- ',.. .
5 actively havmg.
3 cm re PK The convective heat transfer coefficient's on N = 847.68 say 848 tubes
'f/J w:cf ~U.:,~id~, K~,a~9
••• Ans.
are.: 600_}ytrr:i2_. 300 W/m2 K
Example 6.14.40
water ' .1 The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is
esP6ctlve y. . .-. ..,, ..
:r;: .. :.:o. (,; '· '.: .. ·'" ·' .... , , ~·
r

r84 Find: In a parallel flow heat exchanger, the engine oil is cooled
o. · overall heat transfer coefficient on outer area basis . .
from 120°C to' 60°C by~~ter ente'ring af20°C and leaving at
00 N mberoftubes required. i ·-. !.i;; 0 ..
ku
(i)l· . 50°C, Estimate the following :
. Mass flow rate of oil~ 4 kg/s, CP 011 = 2.1 kJ/kg K j

AsSume • .., .,':i:,,•..,, ~-,, ..:; - i , ·:-.;, rr:< :·;,·; !.ll':.'; i-~:r.·1vw 1;,.-,~ .£, , (i)
J T - \.:

c,wa11r-_4.20' l(jfkg· K ; Length of tube 3 = m: ,. ··· · .,. . Ratio' ofheat ciipacitfes of oil.to· cooliiig water.

SolUtlon : It is assumed that:watei: n~~s in th~,inner tube. (ii) Effectiveness of heat exchanger and
. ~ :~ 1.· ',.. • ,.
NTU.
.-
. .

BotoD: Tb1 =200°c, ~~_.=14 k~~~ _h9 ~:_300,,W{7;,~ K, Ji~)__ _ I.~El._'!.'i~i~u_m t~~pe_r~tur~ !Yh~ch t>~
1
of oil upto it can
cooled by increasing length of tube of heat exchanger.
C~ =2.1 kl/kg K
~M.~ .. o ')· r: ~:·- .~~t ::; . ./=~ 2
A$sume .that.fluid . flow .. rates
. • • . . .. . ... ' ~ . remain the same as in the
• • - .. . '.Jl . -· ... . • • • - - • - •

Coldwater: T01 =30 C, me= 2 kg/s, h; = 600 W/m K, : above.case

; .~ ,_ •
.. ,..... ~
. ~ .
'' . •
. .,.
.. ' • _.. ' . - "'11
. I , -.. . •. ' ' •.· ' • ' ..i ·-
'
cpc =4.20 kl/kg :K : Solution: Refer Fig. P. 6.14.40.
·-- - - --- ...
di =}:4 c.m 0:024·m,d.0 .=-3 .<:'.in =,0.03 m, L =3 m,
1
:: I • - 1• • • • ~ '
' . ' '
"_.·: :Th2
k =i~~ '!f(~ ~!',. ~- , :\;E~· .: ' _9.1~~1 . <1:·. .:
;• - ·-
: : . (' !
- - · ·-·-- · - r --
: iiT1 :.
·----
I

.. :t '
T
~ ...____... -- --- -- . ..... . ...
._. \ . ".:.·'. I

'l'>la\et - .• - c:2 .
· n:\ ~\
1
,_;·: . I ·..:;3 ~. .. ..jC:1. ,.· ., . ··:..·~.· .. ... :... .
r -, , . 1r . .• .

_ .. I ~'
.'

'•
•
-
' • J ••
.
~

••• A1
' . . ~ .

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 .· .: ~
. '• ;.~. ':. ;·-:·,.1:.
:-"'·:
. . . . _·. ; •· ~eat E>c~ha·,..•, • {: '.'-°,
V ·. Heat Transfer (MU-Sem S~Mech) · s-sa· Boiling.and Condensr.tlon &
. . . · . .. - ~· .:
..·; Hot oil _has nlinimum heat capacity and water maximum 1, . Heattranster rate, Q - · ·
.. .
heat c.apacity. ·. · ·
Specific heat capacities are =.
(II) Ef!ectlvenesa, e and NTU ch = mh ; cph= 20 x 1.0 = 20kW/K
. c; .
cmin
Capacity ratio, C = C = C =o..5 cc = me· Cpc = 10x4.0=40kW/K
max c

Effectiveness, Thi -Th2 120'- 60 :. c; <Cc• therefore, Cm1n = C1, = 20 kW/Kand

E = .Thi -T01 = 120 - 20 = 0·6 .
cllllAo =40kW/K
1 - e-NTU(I +CJ - NI'U(I +0.~)
1 -e
E = 0·6 = cmln 20
I+C 1+0.5 Capacity ratio, C = c=40=
. max
0·5

0.9 = 1-e~UNTU ; e-UNTU =0.l NTU = U · A _ 280 x 3°? = 4_2

crnin 20 x 10
- 1.5 NTU = - 2.3026 NTU= 1.535 ... Ans.
From Fig. 6.12.5 at C = 0.5 and NTU = 4.2 we get,
(!II) Minimum temperature of oll, T '
....... . . -· . . ·. ·. .. h2
Effectiveness, e = 0.83
It will be .nlinimum when NTU -+ co. It's effectiveness
becomes,

1-e--·O•CJ 1-0
1+C = 1 + 0.5 = 0.6667
= 0.83 x 20 x (120- 15)

120-T:2 = 1743kW ...Ans,

0.6667 = 120 - 20 ;
2. Exit temperature of air, Tc2 and water Th2
T~ = 53.33°C ... Ans.

Example 6.14.41
1743 = 20X(120-Th2);
In a cross flow heat exchanger, water is used to cool the air.
Both fluids pass in tubes. The condition of water and air are Th2 = 32.ss c 0
...Ans.
as follows:
By energy balance,

Cold Water 4.0 10 15°C

Hot Air 1.0 20 120°c 20 (120 - .32.85) = 40 (Tc2 - 15)

Assume : Overall heat transfer coefficient ~ 280 W/m K,

2
T cl = 58.58°C :••Am.
Surface area = 300 m • 2
Find the outlet temperature of air
3. Q 1 when 1 shell 2 pass H.E. Is used
and water and determine heat transfer rate.

In case this heat exchanger is replaced by 1 shell and two Value of c = 0.5, NTU = 4.2 will remain same from
pass heat exchanger, what shall be the new heat transfer Fig. 6.12.7, we get effectiveness,
rate ?
E = 0.75
. Solution:

Hot air: mi. =20 kg/s, cph =1.0 kJ/kg K. Thi ·C 120°C

Water: 11\: = 10 kg/s, Cpc = 4.2 kJ/kg K, Tc1 =15°C =0.75 x 20 x{l20- 15)
z 2
U=280Wlm K, A =300m = 157SkW

Scannf!d w ith CamScanner

 . .. . t Exchangers
. Bolling and Condensation & Hea · .

Section I : Condensation and Bolllng

· phase systems
Condensation and bolling are two · m· which ·
. to liquid in condensation
vapour changes . an d 1·1qu1'd changes
.
to vapour in boiling. Related Important aspects of heat
transfer are : (i) Transfer of its latent heat at T sat·
(ii) Formation of film affects heat transfer. (iii) 'h' varies with
surface finish and materials of surface.
. which vapour changes into
. Condensation is a process m
liquid at its . saturation temperature corresponding to its
vapo~r pressure.

Types of condensation are Filmwise and Dropwise

condensation.

In mlnwi~e condensation of v~pour, the liquid wets the

pVd V·d 0.804 x0.04 surface and condensate flow~ down the entire surface forming
Re= ----
µ - v 0.6021x10- 6 =
53413
a film.

·: Re > 2300, flow is turbulent In dropwise condensation the condensate of vapour doesnot
wet· the surface and condensate collects in the form of
08 0
Nu = 0.023 x Re · x Pr .4
... (i) droplets which merge and finally falls down under action of
gravity from the surface.

Heat transfer ratf!s in dropwise condensation are many

= 0.6021x10~~6~ 990 x 4182 =4.087 times more than filmwise condensation.

08
Heat transfer rates can be improved by (i) using coating of
Nu = 0.023 x (53413) · x (4.087)0.4 =244.57 Zri on sunace (ii) use of additives like oleic acid to promote
Nu · k 244.57 x 0.61 . 2 drop condensation (iii) slightly tilting the surface
:. h = -a= o.o4 =3729.7 W/m K
condenser (iv) use of higher temperature differential betwee!
0

Heat transfer area, A,= 7t d L = 7t x 0.04 x 20 = 2.5133 m2 T sat and Tsurra~c·

'.'Walls are maintained at constant temperature, Boiling is a convective heat transfer process in which liqu

T11=Th2:: 65°C changes into vapour due to heat trans.f er from solid surface
liquid surface in contact.
c_._==c
"""
c
wa~r = Il\:' pc= l X 4182 =4182 W/K Modes of boiling are :
D·A h·A
:: ---..! ---..! - 3729.7 x 2.5133 - 2 2414 1. Pool boiling in which· hot surface is submerged bel
. cmin = cmin - 4182 - .
the free surface of a stagnant liquid and its moti~n r
~Veness . mu
' E ·= 1 - e- -= 1 - e- 2·2414 =0.8937 the surface is due to free co.nvectt'o·n
only. In

~ -~ . E = Tc2 -25
0.8937 = 65.- 25 ..2.
F~r.ced convection boiling in which .flui'd
motic
provided with external means.

··· . 60.7.5°C ..... Ans.

..
L
. .
•
~T•ut
...,.. ~ u bl"

Sca nned with ComScanner

 ..
-·~
:

••
.' -~

Heat Transfer MU-Sem ·5-Mech . , .. ,.. ' · 6-60 .,. ... ., Bollin arid Conde11satiori ·&·Heat Exct) '-v·,, · ·
anger-a .
::·-,
3. Subcoolcd or ~load bolllni In ·~hi ch liquid temperature Heat exchangers are used for heating of iui b~ -~~-h·~- .:·, .·.
is below its saturation. terripernture. home. radiator "in \ automobiles, domestic ·..vaier· rat

4.
·evaporators/ cooling tOW~fs, condensers 'in pOWer plan~'
Saturated bolling in which the liquid is at ils saturation
• I • . in various cheriiicaJ 'and 'other Industries. . . ;i..
_
1e1.~pern1ure. I r, l' • • ' · '• ; .' • • . ._ . ;·_ ': · ' · •~ - f •
1
~;
• I • ' •I • I ', , • • •1, , 1 ' I, 1 • I j I,
· Heat exchangers are classified ac~ordlng to: · -·.···.:,_ ...
The excess,t(,lmperaturc, Ll Tc .is 'the 'dlffercnce
. .
.of surface and
" . •,
• ': I • ' ' ' ' • :~ , , • '..: - , '' ~ ' , :. ; "' ,.

. Jiquid ~ l~nipernlures i.e. AT! o ..Tw -T = J. Flow arrangement offluids - parallel, counter fl ..., -.
• • ~ .! ., 1 . a : •; • • ·: r .... . 9W llJld
cross flow. · ·
; Regimes of pool bolling are': ,. ' ·'
HeaJ transfer process - direct contact type, -recu.' ·: ·

2.
I. · Free convection boiling· in which AT - 5°C

Nucleate boUing
' . .. .
which' AT." is 5°C to 30°c.' It has in
·- 2.
and regenerauon.
I f ,
•
.• t
·
. ·,.·
. pefalor.
·

' 'two regimes of Isolated nucleak :b6Utrig · iri · which

3. Geometry of construction - tu~ular 1?'pe, .shell and tube
type, finned tube type and compact heat e~ch~gers.
··' bubbles 'formed 'condense iri liquid and stable r1ucJeate
boiling in which large bubbles . are fonried; they Jn parallel flow type both fluids enie°r -~d leav~ lhe

·· ·combine and rise to free surface of liquid forming ·slugs H.E. at the sanie erids; in counter /Ww type the· fl .
· U1ds
of vapour. •, . • ;1 ... . ,, • enter and leave the _ H.E. from opposite ends.mt~ ·
cross flow tiP,e-_ th_~"flu~ds enter~~ ~eave in the direction
3. ·· Film · boiling· consists of!1ransitlon boiling ·. regime,
.'· ·stable rum boiling regime and radiation enhancement
perpendicular.to each other.

regime with increasing .AT0 • A blanket of vapour·film is ,- FoullDg fac'6r.. :. AJ:ter ~ertai~ _. period .?f operation of beat
·. fo_nned • on .· heating .. ••sur:face which , .acls• • ~!_as , thennal exchanger, it's surface do not remain clean caused by scali~g
.•• ' •• "- • •' ' • • I •\ : -,

' , . re_sistance, heat flux

.. reduces
. . and -·. will have .. . unstable
... .
or deposits of fluids, chemi~al ·reaction between .fluid and

fllm boiling. With. further increase in .AT the bubble surface and rust formation.
• ' '.' , .. ·- . . . '.. . 4: ·I c,• ..• · ' , .'

fn cre'~e\iie surfac
1 1
fonnation is very high and a·-·.stable . film is formed on
.. ' ... ...
.. : -.The effect of deposition of scale is to
surface. ~t very high, .AT. the radiation heat tra~sfer resistance, Rt affecting \he - value_ of _9verall he:rt transfe:
'· '~'I . ' . ;·. ;,:';~: ..·. · .: · ·-. ; : i;- . ! 1: . :,·,~(; 1 0 ·~:;.'! ... 1. 1."'! ~ -~· ~f. ·-
coefficient, U. This resistance is called fouling resistance,
comes into pl~~: ·:: , . , ., . ,.,,-:·! . ·~ ,. ' . . ;,,. . . :.:,.
Rr· ;~:.,, ,. . ----~ ~·... ..; ... --· - - .. ·_·.:
Ci:itical heat flux or burnout point or burning crisis refer
" '" '· .-j. ~~ • , ·:,··:.~>'. : P. ~r:·!. • ·<·'.(°> •'-· -.; -
to point of maximum heat , flux which can. take place in Overall heat transfer coefficient, U . In heat exchangers, the
heat'•tran·s fer ~tweeri the. fluids talces place by convection in
• • •• ·• - l •• ..• · ' • •• •, · ·, , •.. ,.I;!· 1. : ••

nu.cJ~ate boiling al!d correspondingly at temperatures above

• \ 1 • r' • ' -. ! ' ," { . ' .• ' ' " :: ,: • I ', : ~ I~
I 000°c; .in ~diation regimes. In such a case the melting and eac~ -~~id. and c?nd~~~o~ -~ough the ·',Valls separating the
fluids:·Th~s :We.use 'U' ortherin.ai ~sist~~e. R for anaiysis.
• 1 • • '; • \ I • , ; , • . ; I , ·- : • • • ~~ ' • ' " I : I • • , j : • • •1• •

distortion of surface · may take place due · to .which_ heat

... : ....

, · .., , ••
transfer surfaces are designed below the critical flux value.
, t ., , •' • : I ' •',I ' ' l • j ' • • • 1'
... •' , ·. : .. .·· ,.- (rZn - 2) ,........
: . .... . ...
. ..

:
_In forced boiling i.he
t. ' ! '' •' ' •• :l .. . .
liq~id is forced into tube un"Ci~r· ~~t~mal 1·
~
' : .., . ' . . . i . .. . . ;. ? • • t . ••
LR = R1·+Rwall
· · +R0 =h.I -
' A+ 21t L k +--
· h"' A:• ·;· ··
1 rl 1
I 0 0
force (pumping). It has the regimes of bubbly flow, slug flow,
1· • .! · · : - .-1. ' n · . ·; ·' ; • ) :- , : • I

annular flow and mist flow. where, Ai = 21t r 1 L or1t d 1 Land A 0 =21t r2 • L or1t~ · L
• l.. 'i 1 ; ~I ' {: :ii I • ", ; • ' ' ; j t
l ... :· . ; '
. . } . . '
.S ection fl : Heat Exchangers :- Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) rep~sents lhe
~· : j • : .: ~
~ average temperature differen.c e between tie hot and ...
• : • '· : I •" " .-, • • 1' :, I , I

cold fluid
[ Important Note : For. _fonnulae , and Equations on heat o I

exchangers refer '.fable.6.14.1.] over the entire length of heat ex~hanger. Thus, facilitates for
. ' _• • _ ,·; •I ,. • :I· '1 l:
determining . the size and rate of heat transfers in '-~
A heat exchanger is a device which is used for transfer of
exch~gers.- · I .
. ~eat from .a tJigh .. temperature flu.i d to low temperature. fluid - : _:'
• , • I • ' I • • ... ~. I• • • ' • ' ' • ~ ~1 I • ! • •' \ , ..

with both fluids moving !within the same device. LMTD methOd for analysis of ·cross-riow-.heat exchangers
... . i , ; ·~ ,r ... • r • 1 1 • • •• '

. _is applied by using correction factor, F in equation :

, .. . . . . . ' ... ~- - , ·.. ··- .· {

. . l•'"

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~):}i:._:_: .'· .· ..fer (MU~Sem 5-Mech) . :,~::

;:_.<:-' H~t·fr~an~..~-~~=-=-==a~~=-=~6~-6~1~::~,~
--:~===~B~o~lli~n~g~a~n~d~C~o~ngde~n~s~~~t1~on~&~e~a~~~~~
. H t exchangers
. ·,.
I

: .f..''. . o·• ~:· lJ.' A ; F:'(.:H,~)coun~diow· ;. :, .- .•.: < . (i ' .Q.3 '" ,What are the .methods of transfer lncrea~lng ,he_at
:;,-;::~ '";_. ' ·· 1 ., ; :. • .• , , . • • . · -:. · ·: ·• ,· · : ·, · :· .· ;
4
.. ·:rates J.n condensation? [Section 6.2( )k ·

;_ ~ ·t.:.1 ~.-·, d~P ractor, Fis ~etermined from CQarts by using :

~- ,;-~.:f0.~:. ;:. ·~TTs2; •s·~~tters
'. .~· ~·
(Suffix
1
todftuld temp; In shell and
:·: .· />rstiO,FI~ T12 -:: _1_1_ _ ., _ _o, u1_t~rnp._ in .t~bes)
_: ' ratio ' P.,= T~ '""Tu
1
1 :, ..·.,, .:-;: :~:· ::
1
,. : : ·
1·
· a. 4 What ·yoJ.'.'.mderstand

· '•· : . . (Section 6.3]

? do
· ...- ._ ·: affect the boiling:? Define excess em ·
. · .1 ." • ·;
by boiling ~h~~tef;;~~~

; . :_.-fejll~~~~~- :- .,-':-_: ~~ 1. -T~L:, ·,·:. :"·- ,. , , · a.s· '': ' b\scussinbrietvariciu-~modes·«>f_~oil~ng'. '- '
;· . . · ·ness - NTU method of analysis of heat exchan : [Sectlo'r.' 6.3.1 ( · ·· .- " .. . '-
:; .
. gttective
ben·e~t .temperatures of fluids.- are no~.Jcnown.
.··usc:u w.
__.
.
, gees '
1
1
·a:'({' - o'isc~ss' if( d~t~ilS,. th~ "va~iOUS regim~S
' ... , :
' '
of pOO•
,iS-. ti c· · boiling. (Section 6.4] ·· ·
.. cap~city- ra O,. . .. IS _defined ..as:the, ratio ·of
. (a) . JleBl •. . . th
. e ':. .. .. •. . I of .
i ,. -:. . capac~~. rate to maximum:heat capacity ;
rnioi!JlUIU heat Q. 7 What is critical flux? How it is use.ful to des gners
· .. rateot1t.?f~~two. fluids • .: ...y.. .!. _ -.-. ~ i evaporators?[Sectlon6.4.1J: · \

. -, . . - (Cmi.) =( ~ ~. Cp)mio Q.8 Write a -sho·rt note on forced convection boiling.

· ...c -.=. ·· cmax
· =·(rri _~ C:) ..... -
. J?'max : .
· ; ..
·' "
[Section 6.5) :,

) Efl'ecdveii~,' E: is·' ~~fi~-~ ~ 'ih~ ratiri~ ~f:~c;tual heat : .·_;; : sed1on·

~
i·r:·Heai
I:= - ' .
Exchanger
-: • t • .' ; : . .- • I· . I . ... : • ; • 'I •
(b : . '
. tra11sfer ~~· Q1 .to maxi.mum p_ossible, heat transfer rate 1 [Note : For theory answers, please _refer the section
p,_ , , ·~ ;
1
• • _1 •I • .., ... , ~ • t I

Qlllll· .. ,
· number Indicated in bracket:]
~ (m Cpt.T)borc
What is a heat e~changer ? _'. rsection ~.6]
E = Qmax - (m · CP)~ ·(Thi - Tcj)
Q.9
·- j . -' • ' ' -~ • I ' • '

Q. 10 Give the:·three brc)~d _classes of .heat exchangers

c.:1T) of fl~d havi'~gC . . ; . : .
~~~~~~~~m=
•n • along with application ?
:.-,. = ·... ,. _. (Tbl .--;- TJ ·· . ~ . ~.. . ! . . -. ~ . . .,·
. [SeC?tlon .6 .7] · - i.'.:. · .
"(c) :· Number of transfer units -(NTU) - ( U. A · '''~ . .'.:
· . ·. · ·: . m ·_Cp)min ' Q.11 Explain ··storage type-'h.eat · exchangers :and direct
contact heat exchanger. Give some examples.
;:".It is the measure of heat transfer size of a heat exchanger.
..; csect1ons·6:1.'2(3)'and s.1:2c1>r · · ··-
.:_~A" beat pipe is a ·device· which is used for trarisfer of.high :
I ~, > • 1, ~,.
.·,J; . ! •• • ;
l - . , : ; • - '

......rates of. heat energy over long distances. · needs small · _Q. 12 .. What . .are __ the . .different flow _ ~ arrangements
It in
··r'" .. ..
L • . 'Surface area and process is theoretically isothermal. It has no recuperative heat exchangers ? .
moving parts. [Section 6.7.1 and 6.7.2(2)]

Q.13 What do you mean by fouling factor ? What are

causes of fouling ? Can you give range of fouling
factors for various fluids ?
Section I : Condensation and Bolllng
[Section 6.10 and Table 6.10.2]
~ote: For Answers please refer the section number
indicated in bracket.] Q.14 What is she.II and tube heat exchanger ? Why are
0.1 baffles used ? What are headers ?.
What do you understand by boiling and
condensation ? State few applications. State the [Sections 6.7.3 (2) and 6.7.3 (3 )]
impartant related aspects of heat transfer in these
Q.15 What is. compact heat exchangers ?· Wh a t are its
cases. [Section 6.1 and 6.3)
applications? [Section 6.7.3 (4 )]
~2 Define and expIain• condensat1on.
• What are ..its. types
Q.16 What do you understand by mixed flow and
and state the difference between them ?
unmixed flow? [Section 6 •7 •1(3)]
~ctlons 6.2(1 ), (2), (a)]

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·,,'

":~:': ~ ' :
I.
'
.¥' ·Heat Transf~r (MU-Sem 5~Mech) 6-62 Boiling and Condensation & Heat Ex . '· : ·.
. Change .. .
Q. 17 . Give a comparison of para/lei flow and counterflow Q. 23 Show that if heat capacities of hot and "' -
heat exchangers. Why are counter .flow heat . case of counter flow heat COid ftltIda .
are aqua1 in
· ,: exchangers mostly used? [Section 6.7.1J then its LMTD Is a Indeterminate quanu -~9er, ·, .,
such a case: Tm= A.T1=.6.T2 • [Section ty and In .
a. 18 ,. For a balanced counter flow heat exchanger where 61
. 1.4(3)]
mh Cph =me Cpo• show that the temperature protlles Q. 24 Define the foHowing terms and give
of the two . fluids along . the heat exchanger are significance : llietr
linear and parallel. (Section 6.11 .21 (a) Capacity ratio (b) Effectiveness
a. 19 Show that LMTD for parallel flow heat exchanger is (c) · NTU

given as: [Sections : (a) 6.12(1) (b) 6.12(2) (c) s.1 2 ( ))

3
LiT1 -1ff2
Q.25 Prove that the effectiveness is given by
LiT.m = (LiT,') ;
relation : the
In ~-.:ff2J _ e - NTU (1 +CJ
1
where, LiT1 = Th 1 - Tc1 and LiT2= Th2 - Tc2 (a) e 1+ c for parallel flow H.E.
-e-NTU(1-C)
[Section 6.11.1 J 1
(b) e = 1 _ C. 9 -NTu c1-ci for counter flow H.E.
Q. 20 Prove that the fog mean temperature difference,
[Sections (a) 6.12.1 (b) 6.12.2)
Li T.m for counter flow heat exchanger is given as :
· NTU
' ~-~ ~~ Show that : e = {NTU + 1) ; for counter flow heat
LiT.m = ( LiT,)
kl \,"iiT2
· exchanger when capacity ratio =1
where, .6.T1 = (Th 1 - Tc2 ) and [Section 6.12.4(1 )]

.1T2 = (Th2 - Tc1) [Section 6.11.2) Q, 27 In case capacity ratio, C = 0, the effectiveness for
all . type of heat exchangers is given by .
Q.21 How the cross-flow and muftipass heat exchangers · =
e 1 - e- NTu [Section 6.12.4(2)) ·
are analysed using LMTD method ? Define
Q. 28 What is a heat pipe ? Explain its working with the
correction factor and state its significance. ·
help of a neat sketch.
[Section 6.11.3]
State some of its applications. [Section 6.13]
Q.22 Compare between parallel and counter flow heat
Q. 29 · Write a short note on "Selection and design aspects
exchangers. [Section 6.11.4(2)]
of heat exchangers". [Section 6.14]
OOrJ

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