Bilingualism and cognition

Adrian Camacho

BILINGUALISM AND ‘INTELLIGENCE

The detrimental effect

From the early 19th century to approximately the 1960s, the dominant belief amongst academics was
that bilingualism had a detrimental effect on thinking

There are three related controversies to that of the definition of ‘intelligence’:

• There is a fierce debate about the relative effects of heredity and environment on the development of
intelligence. A strong hereditarian viewpoint tends to argue that intelligence is relatively fixed and
unlikely to be affected by becoming bilingual. An environmental view of the origins of intelligence may
be more appealing to supporters of bilingualism. The environmental view holds that intelligence is
neither fixed nor static, but modifiable by experience (e.g. family, education, culture and sub-culture).
The ‘extra’ experience of two languages may thus contribute to the nature and growth of intelligence.

• Does intelligence comprise one unitary factor, or can intelligence be divided into a wide variety of
factors or components (e.g. Howard Gardner’s (1984) logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical,
bodily-kinesthetic, and personal ‘multiple intelligences’)? Is there one all-embracing general factor of
intelligence (labeled ‘g’), or is Guilford’s (1982) 150 factor model of intelligence more valid? A multi-
factor view of intelligence is more likely to reveal differences between monolinguals and bilinguals.

• IQ tests tend to relate to a middle class, white, Western view of intelligence. The cultural boundedness
or relativity of IQ tests suggests that cross-cultural generalizations are dangerous and limited (Valdés &
Figueroa, 1994).

To use an analogy: we cannot fully portray a football or basketball match simply from the number of
passes. Similarly, with bilingualism and intelligence, the whole game has not been studied, just one small
statistic.

While the dominant result was that bilinguals were inferior to monolinguals, particularly on verbal IQ,
these early studies share many serious methodological weaknesses. Singly and cumulatively, the early
research on bilingualism and IQ has so many limitations and methodological flaws that its conclusion of
detrimental effects cannot be accepted. While it is possible that, in some contexts, bilinguals may have
cognitive disadvantages, the early research cannot be used to support this claim. Indeed, as will be seen
later in this chapter, different conclusions may better reflect the current state of research.

The Period of Neutral Effects

His conclusion was that bilingualism is not necessarily a source of intellectual disadvantage.

The Period of Additive Effects

Peal and Lambert (1962) concluded that bilingualism provides: greater mental flexibility; the ability to
think more abstractly, more independently of words, providing superiority in concept formation; that a
more enriched bilingual and bicultural environment benefits the development of IQ; and that there is a
positive transfer between a bilingual’s two languages facilitating the development of verbal IQ.

BILINGUALISM AND THE BRAIN

two separate verbal language systems, one for each of a bilingual’s two languages;

• a separate non-verbal imagery system, independent from the two language systems;

• the non-verbal imagery system functions as a shared conceptual system for the two languages;

• strong, direct interconnecting channels between each of these three separate systems;

• the interconnections between the two languages comprising association and translation systems;
common images also being mediators. The model is given in the diagram below (adapted and simplified
from Paivio &Desrochers, 1980; Paivio, 1991):

BILINGUALISM AND DIVERGENT AND CREATIVE THINKING

The research findings largely suggest that bilinguals are superior to monolinguals on divergent thinking
tests.

Historically, bilinguals were regarded as having a relatively lower IQ than monolinguals. Subsequent
research showed the opposite.

• Research on the relationship between intelligence and bilingualism has moved from a period of
investigating ‘detrimental effects’ to a current focus on the additive effects given by bilingualism.

• The ownership of two languages does not interfere with efficient thinking. On the contrary bilinguals
who have two well developed languages share cognitive advantages.

• Bilinguals have advantages in thinking styles, particularly in divergent thinking, creativity, early
metalinguistic awareness and communicative sensitivity.

• Research on the metalinguistic advantages of bilinguals is strong, and suggests bilinguals are aware of
their languages at an early age, separating form from meaning, and having reading readiness earlier
than monolinguals.