Moral Philosophical Analysis of Protestantism on Filipino

Culture and Traditions

A Research
Presented to the
Faculty of Senior High Department
College of Education
Isabela State University
Echague, Isabela

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for Practical Research 1

by:

AARON LLOYD T. BINALAY

MARJORIE P. RUMA
Grade 11-2

Second Semester, June 2022

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents..........................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................3
Background of the Study..................................................................................................3
Statement of the Problem:................................................................................................5
Objectives of the Study:...................................................................................................6
Significance of the Study.................................................................................................6
Scope and Delimitation....................................................................................................7
Definition of Terms..........................................................................................................8

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE....................................................10

METHODOLOGY..........................................................................................23
Research Design.............................................................................................................23
Research Instruments.....................................................................................................23
Data Collection..............................................................................................................24
Analyzing Data Technique.............................................................................................24

PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA....25

The 97 Theses of Martin Luther: Disputation Against Scholastic Theology................25
Luther’s 95 Theses: The Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences........37

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.....................44

Summary........................................................................................................................44
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................45
Recommendations..........................................................................................................47

References....................................................................................................48

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 INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Religion is essential in the formation of social constructs. Even the

erroneous or absurd religion of savage tribes may be crucial and practical parts of the

social machinery. Without these religions, modern civilization's social evolution and

development would have been impossible (Radcliffe-brown, 1945). The evolution of

religion is still debatable. Some suggest it is a form of Functionalism- in this theory, the

religion is seen as an apparatus to achieve social harmony; Durkheim, the main author of

Functionalism, proposed that religion has three primary functions in society: it provides

social cohesion to help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs, social

control to enforce religious-based morals and norms to help maintain conformity and

authority in society, and it offers meaning and purpose to answer any existential

questions. This importance of religion had given it the power to gain influence on society,

politics, and culture.

This idea was especially true during the Middle ages and the power and influence

the Catholic Church held. The Middle Ages stretched from the fall of the Western Roman

Empire in the late fifth century to the beginning of the Renaissance in the 15th century.

The Roman Catholic Church controlled the European continent during that millennium,

exerting complete control over all aspects of culture and daily life. The West, including

the New World yet to be mapped and exploited, was irrevocably shaped by the

conventions and inventions of the medieval Catholic Church.

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 The Protestant Reformation was a spiritual, intellectual, and political upheaval

unlike any other. It encompassed several countries, including what is today known as

Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, but its effect was felt throughout

Europe. Even Henry IV's France toyed with the idea of destroying Catholicism. The

Reformation exerted its impact over decades of European history, in part due to its

sluggish political advancement, with crucial people appearing in different regions at

different times (Couenhoven, 2017, pp. 1-2)

Protestantism initially came from the Reformation in the 16th century, a

movement that stemmed from the Catholic Church's perceived errors. Unlike

Catholicism, which depends on the Pope's and bishops' interpretation of the Bible,

Protestantism encourages its believers to interpret the Bible privately, resulting in many

different denominations. One of the largest and the most impactful theology, however, is

from Martin Luther and his 95 theses, which had resulted in the rise of Protestantism and

built the Lutheranism. The 95 Theses became the catalyst for Reformation because they

were soon after translated from Latin into German and, thanks to the technology of the

printing press, were made available to the public. The theses had already been translated

into other languages and ignited the Reformation movement in other countries within a

year of their initial distribution because they represented a direct challenge to the church's

authority from a respected clergyman in good standing to those who read or heard them

read. (Mark, 2021). Even a month before this, Martin Luther had published the 97 thesis

that directly attacked Scholasticism, one of the most widely accepted theology that was

based on Aristotelian logic- this was rejected by Luther, even as far as saying that this

theology was unbiblical.

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 These theses then influenced many denominations, including Calvinism, founded

by many people, including Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and

Huldrych Zwingli, but bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin. Although,

Martin opposed the Anabaptist denomination which hoped to have Luther on their side-

this opposition to the current Protestant reformation and the Catholic church had resulted

to another reformation: The Radical reformation. The moral philosophy of Lutheranism is

based on the 95 and 97 theses and the doctrine of justification. Lutherans believe that

humans are saved from their sins by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith alone

(Sola Fide), and based on Scripture alone (Sola Scriptura).

Statement of the Problem:

This research aims to understand the fundamental theology of Protestantism through

analyzing the work which served to be the catalyst of the whole Protestant reformation:

Luther’s 97 and 95 theses. Through critical analysis, it is possible to determine the moral

philosophy and ideas of Luther’s work. To be exact, this research aims to answer the

following question:

1) What is the main theology of Luther? How and where did he come up with this

theology?

2) What are the main ideas of his thesis?

3) How did Luther’s idea affect Lutheranism? What are its moral Philosophies?

4) How did Protestantism develop based on Luther’s theses?

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Objectives of the Study:

This study will utilize critical analysis to understand the moral philosophy of

Protestantism through understanding the theology and learning the work that served as

the main basis of the protestant movement. Because different denominations have diverse

ethical perspectives, we will concentrate on the Lutheranism perspective based on the

theology of Martin Luther, especially in his 97 and 95 theses. This research aims;

1) Determine the main theology of Luther and how and where did he come up with this

theology.

2) Understand the main ideas of his thesis.

3) Understand and determine how did Luther’s idea affect Lutheranism and its moral

Philosophies.

4) Determine ow did Protestantism develop based on Luther’s theses.

Significance of the Study

Morality itself is based on religion. Until recently, morality has been seen as a

creation of religion and an integral component of religion. Because morality is inherently

an element of religion, some academics believe there can be no morality without religion.

As a result, it is considered that a religious person is fundamentally moral and that a

moral life may be impossible to live without religion (Iwuagwu, 2018)Furthermore,

religion plays a vital role in a society- this is especially true during the medieval period

when the Catholic church became the center of the society- specifically in Europe. Here,

a person could be excommunicated once deemed heretical, and going directly against the

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church can lead to death. Although modern society has since improved from the

conservative mindset, religions still have a specific role in our society, thus having a

massive influence in different sectors- specifically sectors it should not even influence. In

understanding the complexities and great reformations of religion, we may fully

understand its worth and fully grasp its theology- which we can then apply when

evaluating our morals.

1. To the youth. Morals are one of the fundamental bases for a person to function

logically. This is to determine whether something is right or wrong based on their

ideology and other factors. Through this study, they will have a basic

understanding of moral philosophy.

2. To the society. Morals are a part of the social construct. The influence of religion

on a person’s moral philosophy can change the views and perspective of a person

on specific topics; thus, understanding this will help society realize these effects. 

3. To future researchers. This research is a contribution that will serve as an

inspiration to broaden the topic being studied. This research can also guide future

researchers on the topics concerning Protestantism.

Scope and Delimitation

This study will be utilizing the Critical Analysis to study the perspectives of

Protestantism. Because of the Reformation’s complexity, it is not possible to speak with

any accuracy of “the Critical Analysis of the Protestant Reformation” as if there were one

such thing. The Reformation held under its umbrella multiple philosophies, albeit with

family resemblances enough that the major aims and teachings of its leading figures can

be recognized as sharing a reforming impulse that sought to correct abuses of Catholic

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practice and teaching, return to the Biblical texts, and re-emphasize the priority of divine

grace for the Christian life (Couenhoven, 2017, p. 2). Thus, rather than attempting to

cover all of the Reformation's major players, this research concentrates on the ideas of

one of the most influential members of the first and second generations, Martin Luther-

specifically his works that served as the catalyst of the Protestant reformation.

Definition of Terms

Christianity- the religion that is based on the teachings of Jesus the Nazareth. It

is mainly based on The Bible but contains different denominations due to

different interpretation of the Scripture.

Protestantism- a denomination which had resulted from the movement from the

16th century. It is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a

movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman

Catholic Church.

Protestant reformation- the religious revolution that took place in the Western

church in the 16th century. Having far-reaching political, economic, and social

effects, the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one

of the three major branches of Christianity.

Catholicism- adherence to the forms of Christian doctrine and practice which are

generally regarded as Catholic rather than Protestant or Eastern Orthodox.

Scholasticism- the theological and philosophical system taught at medieval

European colleges, based on Aristotelian logic and the works of the early Church

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Fathers, with a strong stress on tradition and dogma. It was the theology that was

rejected by Martin Luther in his 97 Theses.

Pelagianism- it is an outdated theology which was widely rejected by Augustine

of hippo. It’s infamous ideology, the independence of human to God’s grace to

attain salvation- which was discredited and considered as heretic by medieval

standards.

Augustinianism- constituted an attempt to gain a more complete understanding

of revealed truth by supernatural graces and gifts, supplemented by philosophical

inquiry principles.

Eudaimonia- in Aristotelian ethics, the condition of human flourishing or of

living well.

Theses- a statement or theory that is put forward as a premise to be maintained or

proved. In this paper, the term theses and disputations are used interchangeably.

In other terms, specifically in citing, it is only written as ‘d.’ (i.e. Luther, d.6

means Luther, Disputation 6)

Philosophical Belief- the basis that is chosen by someone to see what is right and

what is wrong. It will have an impact on someone's moral value. The

philosophical belief can be right or can be wrong; it depends on which side of

philosophical belief is chosen because both sides have different reasons for their

right and wrong decision.

Moral Value- relates to someone’s personality and behavior. Moral can be seen

as the customs which guide the action that someone has made with sense. Value

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 can be desirable for other people who have the same moral value; however, it can

be undesirable for people who have different moral values.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Aristotelian logic

Aristotle was one of history's greatest philosophers and scientists. He made

groundbreaking contributions to philosophy and science, including the invention of

formal logic and the identification and exploration of the numerous scientific disciplines.

Also, Aristotle created his own school in Athens known as the Lyceum, where he taught

students. (Amadio, 2021) 

Scientific reasoning, mathematical reasoning, and philosophical reasoning are all

examples of areas where logic is used. Since Aristotle is believed to have introduced this

logic, it is known as the Aristotelian logical system. Valid arguments are used to reach

conclusions in this logical framework. Ancient Egypt was the birthplace of Western logic

and science. In Greece, these reasoning and science were further developed. The Greek

word "logos" is the source of the term "logic." The term "logos" is defined as "reason,

science, language, and relation." However, in the New Testament, it is supposed to

denote the words, more specifically the "Word of God." (de Silva & Nandasena, 2017)

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 It's difficult to talk about logic without bringing up Aristotle at some point. As a

student of Plato, Aristotle was instrumental in the development of formal logic as we

know it today. Most of Aristotle's writings have been lost, but his students and scholars

who came after him wrote a lot about what he taught. Organon, which means

"instrument," was the name given to a collection of his writings. Aristotle saw logic as a

tool for philosophical reasoning rather than a discipline in and of itself. Categories, On

Interpretation, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, and On Sophistical

Refutations comprised the Organon's six sections. (TeacherVision, 2020).

According to Smith (2020) “All Aristotle’s logic revolves around one notion: the

deduction (sullogismos). A thorough explanation of what a deduction is, and what they

are composed of, will necessarily lead us through the whole of his theory. What, then, is a

deduction? Aristotle says:

A deduction is speech (logos) in which, certain things having been supposed,

something different from those supposed results of necessity because of their being so.

(Prior Analytics I.2, 24b18–20)”

According to the TeacherVision (2020), “Syllogisms are structured sentences

(called assertions) that are either true or false; they must contain a subject and predicate,

and must either affirm or deny the predicate of the subject. In other words, they are

sentences stating that one concept must, or must not, follow from another. You might

even be familiar with this form:

If A is predicated of all B,

and B is predicated of all C,

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 then A is predicated of all C.

Aristotle's famous example reads,

If all men are mortal,

and all Greeks are men,

then all Greeks are mortal.”

Augustinian Logic

St. Augustine (354-430 C.E.), whose birth name was Aurelius Augustinus, was

the bishop of Hippo in northern Africa. He was the first Christian philosopher. He was a

competent Roman-trained rhetorician, a prolific author (who created over 110 works in

30 years), and a prolific writer. (Mattox, n.d.). Confessions (about 400) and The City of

God (around 413–426), two of his most famous works, impacted biblical exegesis and

laid the groundwork for much of medieval and contemporary Christian theology. In

Roman Catholicism, he is technically acknowledged as a doctor of the Church.

(O'Donnell, 2021) St. Augustine's impact is seen in the Catechism of the Catholic

Church, where he is cited more than any other "ecclesiastical writer" by a great margin.

His work is cited 87 times. Saint Thomas ranks second with 61. Nobody else even comes

close. Similarly to St. Thomas, Augustine wrote extensively on many areas of Christian

theology. Unlike St. Thomas, he wrote primarily to respond to specific arguments to the

Christian faith or to combat specific heresies. His great book City of God, for example,

was written to answer the argument that Rome fell to barbarian invaders because the

empire gave up its official pagan practices. And he responded to Pelagianism with a

series of lesser treatises on free choice and grace. Augustine was titled the Doctor of

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Grace for this outstanding work in particular, and is even referred to by this title in the

Catechism. (Kelly, 2017)

According to Boyce (2015) “Augustine’s extraordinary theological output of

some ninety books and eight thousand sermons (distributed by relays of stenographers

and teams of copyists across the Roman Empire) was highly original, but his struggle to

achieve celibacy, as he documented in his autobiography, Confessions, was standard fare

in the saintly struggle. What was distinctive in Augustine’s account was that he blamed

himself, rather than the seductive temptations of the Devil, for his plight. Appropriately

enough for the author of the creation story of a culture which would become focused on

individual experience, lust led him to search within to understand sin’s inexorable grip,

and from this intensely personal journey emerged an explanation for everyone’s desire to

sin.”

Pelagianism

Pelagianism, also known as the Pelagian heresy, was a 5th-century Christian

heresy preached by Pelagius and his followers that emphasized the inherent goodness of

human nature and the individual's freedom of choice. Concerned about the poor moral

standards of Christians, Pelagius thought that his teachings might improve their conduct.

According to him, human weakness was not the source of their sin, but rather God's

design for free will, and that a person's act of rebellion against God's rule was a choice

they made on their own free will. A follower of Pelagius, Celestius questioned the

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church's teachings on original sin and the necessity of baptism as a newborn. (Britannica,

2022) 

  According to Rosser-Owen (1998), Pelagianism may be summarized as:

 Men are born in the same state in which Adam was created

 Adam's sin affected himself only

 Death is not a punishment for sin

 Adam's guilt is not imputed to his descendants

 Children who die before baptism are not therefore lost

 Human nature is not depraved, nor is sin hereditary

 The propagation of sin would imply injustice on the part of God

 Sinful propensities are not necessarily sinful

 Man has the power not only to sin, but to perceive and to do what is good

 Therefore, man is capable of procuring his own salvation by a proper use of his

inborn power.

 It admitted the grace of Jesus Christ and the efficacy of baptism for the forgiveness

of an individual's past sins, but laid great stress on man's own responsibility and

self-help.

 Baptism was not "a sign and seal of the remission of sins" but was a sign of

membership of the Christian community. Pelagianism did, however, have some

peculiar views with regard to the unbaptized.

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 The famous literary conflict between Augustine and Pelagius over the concepts of

sin, grace, predestination, and free will was not started by Pelagius, but rather by a

disciple, Julian of Eclanum (c.386-c.455). (Scott Clark, 2012). 

According to Slick (2008) “Pelagianism fails to understand man’s nature and

weakness. We are, by nature, sinners (Eph. 2:3; Psalm 51:5). We all have sinned because

sin entered the world through Adam: “Therefore, just as through one man, sin entered

into the world, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men, because all sinned,”

(Rom. 5:12). Furthermore, Romans 3:10-12 says, “as it is written, ‘There is none

righteous, not even one; 11 There is none who understands, there is none who seeks for

God; 12 All have turned aside, together they have become useless; There is none who

does good, there is not even one,’” (Romans 3:10–12). Therefore, we are unable to do

God’s will (Rom. 6:16; 7:14). We were affected by the fall of Adam – contrary to what

Pelagius taught.” 

Scholasticism

Scholasticism refers to a theological movement that claims a systematic vision of

the universe and human being in conformity with revelation and faith in a broad sense,

but in a more specific sense it pertains to Medieval philosophy. (Ayala & Press, 2021).

From 1100 to 1500, the academics (scholastics, or "schoolmen") of medieval universities

in Europe used a form of critical thinking known as scholasticism to articulate and defend

orthodoxy in a more diverse society. It was born out of the Christian monastic schools at

the early European colleges, and was a break from them. The earliest universities in the
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Western world were established in the late 11th and 12th centuries in Italy, France, Spain,

and England for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology, such as the University of

Salerno, the University of Bologna, and the University of Paris. It is difficult to determine

when they became real universities, but the lists of studia generalia for higher education

throughout Europe held by the Catholic Church and its many monastic orders serve as a

good guide. (Purna & Restyawati, n.d.). 

REFORMATION OF PROTESTANT/PROTESTANTISM

In the sixteenth century, the Protestant Reformation was a theological, political,

intellectual, and cultural revolution that separated Catholic Europe and formed the

institutions and ideas that would define the continent in the modern era. Reformers such

as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Henry VIII questioned the Catholic Church's ability to

define Christian practice throughout Northern and Central Europe. They advocated for

theological and political authority to be transferred to priests and princes who read the

Bible and pamphlets. The upheaval culminated in wars, persecutions, and the so-called

Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church's delayed but ferocious response to the

Protestants. (History.com) 

It was in 1529 that the name Protestant was first used, when Charles V, the

Roman Catholic emperor of Germany, annulled an agreement made at the Diet of Speyer

in 1526 allowing each ruler to decide whether to implement the Edict of Worms (which

banned Martin Luther's writings and declared him a heretic and a state enemy). On April

19, 1529, a complaint against this decision was read on behalf of 14 German free towns

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and six Lutheran princes, who stated that the majority vote did not bind them since they

were not a party to it, and that if forced to choose between devotion to God and

obedience to Caesar. They must choose obedience to God. A universal council of all

Christendom or a synod of the whole German people were the options they considered.

The protesters were called Protestants by their opponents, and the term came to refer to

anybody who committed to the Reformation's fundamental principles. Protestants in

Germany called themselves evangelicals and Huguenots in France. The designation was

given not just to Martin Luther's (c. 1483–1546) students, but also to the Swiss disciples

of Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) and, eventually, John Calvin (1509–64). After the 17th

century, the Swiss reformers and their adherents in Holland, England, and Scotland chose

to use the term "Reformed" to describe themselves. (Bainton et al., 2022)

A religious movement that took place in the Western church in the 16th century

known as the Protestant Reformation, or Reformation. Martin Luther and John Calvin

were undoubtedly its biggest leaders. The Protestant Reformation, one of the three

primary branches of Christianity, was founded. It was Martin Luther's claim that he was

different from past reformers because he focused on a fundamental theological issue—the

tampering with the church's teaching on salvation and grace. This complex system of

indulgences and good deeds was deplored by Luther as a pastor and professor at

Wittenberg University. His Ninety-five Theses criticized the indulgence system, saying

that the pope had no control over purgatory and that the doctrine of the merits possessed

by the saints had no foundation in the gospel. a result of the Reformation's wide-ranging

political, economic, and social impacts. (Britannica,2020). 

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 Luther had no intention of leaving the Roman Catholic Church to start a

Protestant church. His goal was to reform the Church of Rome hierarchy led by Pope Leo

X from within. This only made him and his fellow Protestants the target of religious

persecution until the Council of Trent rejected his recommendations from 1545 to 1563.

The Council of Trent concluded with its own version of Catholic Reformation, known in

Protestant circles as Counter-Reformation. It reaffirmed the traditional Roman Catholic

faith against Protestantism's aspirations. Protestant reformers weren't limited to Luther.

Later, Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin (who wrote the first systematic Protestant

theology) joined him, along with other reformers and extreme Anabaptists. In Western

Europe, where secularism and nationalism were on the rise, Protestantism was welcomed

by many people and even some magistrates. It quickly became a powerful force that

changed the whole outlook of the West and led to the start of modern Christianity.

(Vargas, n.d.).

MARTIN LUTHER AND THE BEGINNING OF LUTHERANISM

The Protestant Reformation's primary figure, Martin Luther (1483–1546), was a

German theologian. In nearby Mansfeld, his father ran a copper mine. Hans, his father,

provided him with a decent education so he might become a lawyer and support the

family business. In 1501, at seventeen, he enrolled at the University of Erfurt, where he

earned a Bachelor of Arts degree. Martin enrolled at that university's law school in

accordance with his father's desires. (Mathew, 2017). However, rather than finishing his

law career, Luther entered the Augustinian convent in Erfurt later that same year. (Stern,

2020).

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 Luther aspired to a life of solitary contemplation in the monastery. He tried to

pray and do good deeds to please God and help others. However, finding peace in his life

was hard because he was becoming too aware of how sinful he was. Long prayer sessions

and fasts were among his many devotional practices and frequent confessions. Luther's

supervisor, Johann von Staupitz, thought the young man needed additional work to keep

him from ruminating too much. He told the monk to seek an academic profession. When

Luther was ordained in 1507, he became a priest. At Wittenberg University, he began

teaching theology in 1508. A bachelor's degree in biblical studies was awarded to Luther

on March 9, 1508; a bachelor's degree in the Sentences of Peter Lombard was awarded to

Luther in 1509. On October 19, 1512, Martin Luther conferred the title Doctor in Biblia,

or "Doctor of Theology." (Mathew, 2017). After Staupitz's death in 1512, Luther took

over as professor of the Bible at Wittenberg University. When Luther took his first trip

outside of Germany, he traveled to Rome on behalf of Staupitz; he later described this as

an event that turned him against the religious ceremonies and practices he encountered

there, especially indulgences. The problem of indulgences drove Luther to write 95 theses

meant for debate or disputation on the subject. (Stern, 2020).  Protestant Reformation

was ignited by his "Disputation of Martin Luther and the Power and Efficacy of

Indulgences." In October 1517, Luther sent Archbishop Albrecht a letter containing the

Ninety-Five Theses in protest against indulgences. Luther sent a letter in which he

questioned the selling of indulgences, which he argued made the issue of forgiveness

look more like a business transaction than true repentance and change of heart. It was

Luther's belief that the Catholic Church was making money off of people's desire to

repent. He questioned the Church's ability to purchase, sell, and buy absolution of sin as

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if it were a commodity. (Tsagareli, n.d.) Rather than depending solely on the indulgences,

Luther viewed this practice as a misuse that might mislead his followers into relying

solely on the indulgences themselves. In 1516 and 1517, Luther delivered three sermons

in opposition to indulgences. (Mathew, 2017).  

Luther's basic thesis was expressed in the first two propositions of the theses,

which said that God intended believers to seek repentance that would lead to salvation.

The remaining 93 opinions endorsed this, with a few of them specifically criticizing the

practice of charging the poor for indulgences for the forgiveness of sins. Throughout his

theses, Luther denounced the excesses and corruption of the Roman Catholic Church.

Two of his most fundamental beliefs were laid forth in his 95 Theses: that the Bible is

authoritative and that the only way for a person to be saved is by trusting in Jesus Christ

alone, and not through their own good works. The term "Protestant" came to refer to

anybody who felt that the Roman Catholic Church needed to be reformed and that their

allegiance should be to God rather than to Charles V. As a result of this protest, many of

Luther's supporters declared their allegiance to God rather than to Charles V. He also

held that salvation could only be bestowed by God's almighty grace, and that mankind

could not achieve it on their own. Prior to Martin Luther's time, these principles had been

discussed, but Luther codified them at the right time for church reform. Some theologians

and scholars in early 16th century, Europe began to "challenge the doctrines of the

Roman Catholic Church." Translations of original texts, including the Bible and

Augustine's works, became more available during this period. By the time Luther died in

1546, his convictions had set the foundation for the Protestant Reformation, which would

change the Christian faith over the next five centuries. (Mzolo, 2016).

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Theoretical Framework 

This study is based on the Divine Command Theory. the study of Jeremy Alan

Evans about the Divine Command Theory. A variety of theories, such as the ‘God as first

cause’ argument and ‘God as the foundation’ for necessary moral truths, have a common

thread. Jeremy Alan Evans has attempted to arrange the theories of Robert Adams, Philip

Quinn, etc., in a way that allows for continuity. He focused on each of them individually.

Each theory was provided in response to key concerns, as their theories have undergone

several alterations. As a result, he did not provide their theories in their final form, but

rather in response to such arguments, in the manner in which they are gradually

discovered. Adams and Quinn fit into his argument, they deserved special treatment in

his analysis.

The main point of the Divine Command theory is the theory that proposes that an

action's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God.

According to the definition, Divine Command Theory is the belief that morality is

somehow dependent on God and that moral obligation lies in obeying God's

commandments. The thesis of Divine Command Theory is that morality is ultimately

founded on God's instructions or character, and that the morally right behavior is the one

that God demands or requires. The specific content of these divine commandments varies

depending on the religion and the individual divine command theorist, but all versions of

the theory include the idea that morality and moral obligations ultimately depend on God.

Immanuel Kant, who has usually been viewed as an opponent of Divine

Command Theory (for an opposing view, see Nuyen, 1998), contends in his Critique of

21
Practical Reason that morality presupposes faith in God and an afterlife. We must believe

in God, according to Kant, because the demands of morality are too great for us to bear.

We must believe that there is a God who will assist us in meeting the demands of moral

law. With such faith, we can expect to live decent lives. Furthermore, Kant claims that

"there is no justification in moral law for a necessary relationship between morality and

proportionate enjoyment of a creature who belongs to the universe as one of its

components and is thus reliant on it." However, if there is a God and an afterlife in which

the righteous are rewarded with happiness and justice is served, this difficulty is solved.

That is, being moral does not guarantee happiness, thus we must believe in a God who

will grant happiness to the morally upright. Although Kant does not use the concept of

moral faith to support Divine Command Theory, a contemporary advocate could argue

along Kantian lines that these benefits do accrue to this understanding of morality.

Through Kant’s perspective, we can rather question whether morality does have any

relationship with religion, for morality until recently has been seen as a brainchild of

religion and thus an essential part of religion from which it is inseparable. This

assumption has even led some scholars to hold that there can be no morality without

religion since morality is intrinsically a part of religion (Iwuagwu, 2018).

 This theory is the direct counterpart of the Natural law which states that humans

have a moral knowledge/reason that makes us able to decide what’s right. These opposing

theories are based on the famous age long question raised by Socrates in Plato’s work

Euthyphro as to whether “goodness is loved by the gods because it is good or whether

goodness is good because it is loved by the gods”. In this research, the researchers will

identify if Luther conforms on the divine theory.

22
 METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the research methods and procedures used in the study.

The following information provides details on the Research Design, Data Gathering

Procedure and Research Instrument. These procedures that researchers will use in this

study.

Research Design

The present study utilized the critical analysis to gather and analyze the data.

Critical analysis aims to analyze a subject, it’s main ideas and underlying meaning.

Furthermore, this research is conducted by collecting, compiling, and analyzing different

23
data. The Qualitative approach is also used in this research as it is appropriate because it

focuses on ideas and meanings- things that cannot be counted systematically.

Research Instruments

In this research, the topic will be focused mainly of Luther’s 95 and 97 theses

along with other references to further analyze the data. These theses were regarded as the

works that mainly pushed the Protestant movement and influenced several theologian and

denomination like the Calvinism that is named after the French theologian John Calvin.

Furthermore, the researchers used other works of Luther such as ‘The Bondage of

Will’, ‘Luther’s Discussion on Genesis, Ephesians etc.’ and related literature to further

understand Luther’s Theses and Disputation.

Data Collection

As it is a literature study, the writer used Luther’s 97 and 95 theses as the object

to obtain the data of the analyses. To further understand the literature, other works of

Luther, as well as other analysis of Luther’s works will be considered as a source to

understand the contexts of Luther’s works. In collecting the data, the researcher took the

following steps to collect the data:

1) Read the thesis

2) Identify the data related to the study

3) Classifying the obtained data

24
 4) Selecting the relevant ones

5) Describing the relevant data in the finding and discussion section of this

analysis

Analyzing Data Technique

The technique to analyze the data was to find and arrange the obtained data in a

systematic way. It was done by organizing the data into categories, then describing it

before concluding. Having collected the data, the writer analyses the moral-philosophical

value. These are steps of data analysis technique for this research:

1) Collecting relevant references to analyze the theses

2) Reading and understanding Luther’s theses.

3) Extracting the moral values and philosophical belief implied by the Theses.

4) Concluding the data analysis

PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF

DATA

This chapter discusses the gathered data to support in analyzing the chosen

literature, which was Luther’s 95 and 97 Theses. These works are known to be the

catalysts of the Protestant reformation that resulted to a religious upheaval like no other.

In this research, critical analysis was used to determine the overall meaning of

several theses, instead of analyzing it one-by-one. The researchers also use literary

analysis to analyze Luther’s theses. Literary analysis is a detailed, written comments of

25
an author regarding a piece of literature. Just like any need analysis, it discusses all

important elements including the structure, style, and context.

The 97 Theses of Martin Luther: Disputation Against Scholastic

Theology

On September of 1527, a theologian named Martin Luther posted the 97 theses as

an invite debate among the Scholastic theologian. These theses, however, was often left

out by many theologians as it was written in a scholastic approach (Potgieter, 2018).

However, the content of these theses contains the challenges that Luther had directed to

the Romish doctrines and practices during that era- specifically, the scholastic

methodology. It is also speculated that these theses became the gateway in order to make

the famous, or rather infamous, 95 theses which helped build the Protestantism.

It is also noted that Martin Luther had stated these theses that challenges the

church policies his careful phrasing kept his critiques soundly within the confines of the

very system he was arguing against (Mark, 2021). This is immediately apparent when

reading 'contra Gabriele/ Scotum 'Scholasticus,' which follows 'the style of disputation

then in use; stating precisely against whom one was speaking' (Barth, 2013)

A theological movement, Scholasticism, dominated the Catholic church since the

13th century. This however, was rejected by Luther. The 97 Theses present Luther's

theology based on the precepts of scripture and faith alone as the means of knowing

God's will while dismissing the scholastic tradition as counterproductive and even

unbiblical (Mark, J. J., 2021). In these theses, he pointed out and rejected several

theologians that utilizes the scholastic method based on the Aristotelian logic. Scholastics

26
placed a high value on human reason and free will, and used scholastic technique to

explain Christian theology. Instead of clarifying scriptural positions on issues in debate

and publication, Luther claimed that Aristotelian syllogistic influence leads to

synthesizing the obscure of what ought to be made clear in order to reflect Luther's own

experience as a result of his studying, preaching, and lecturing on Pauline texts.

(Potgieter, 2018) Some of the most prominent Scholastics, addressed in the 97 theses,

were the following: Peter Lombard (1100–1160), Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153),

William of Ockham (ca. 1280–1349), John Duns Scotus (1308), Cardinal of Cambrai,

Pierre d’Ailly (1350–1420), Gabriel Biel (1410/1425(?)–1495). Luther also refers to

Aristotle (384–322 BC) and Porphyry (c. 233/234–c. 303/304) (Potgieter, 2018).

Luther in Augustinian Theology

Augustine of Hippo’s theology is used both by Protestants and Catholics,

however, the Scholastic way of understanding it. Augustine (340–430) stressed the Bible

as the supreme religious authority, rather than Church leaders. He also believed that

humans could not achieve salvation via their own efforts, but that only God, through his

supernatural grace, could do it (Martin Luther and the 95 Theses, 2009). When the

Protestant Reformation erupted in 1517, Luther did not reject Augustine; instead, he used

him selectively, and even often out of context, to promote the shift in his own line of

thought. These are maybe the reason why Luther’s first thesis, was adamant in defending

his patron and patristics by questioning the scholastic methodology of the church. He

stated that the Augustinian exaggeration are all lies (Luther in Lull, d.1). The reason in

this is that, through continued scholastic synthesis, the theological shifting has deviated

from the Augustinian theology which had led to scholastic obscurantism. Furthermore,
27
scholastic arguments had allowed the revisiting of the exaggerated views of Pelagianism

and Manicheanism (Luther in Lull, d. 2, 8) through the constant manipulation and

modification of the Augustinian theology. To put it another way, there was no direct

rebuttal of patristic or Augustinian wrong — only an adjustment of their theological

views, ostensibly in accordance with the structured debate, accompanied by

condescension. Any direct reference to Scripture is conspicuously absent. Luther, on the

other hand, meticulously formulates his theses and so deals sweepingly with the

scholastic interpreters. With the theoretical foundation established, it is clear that Luther

used Augustinian theology to expose Pelagian influences in scholastic theology. As a

result, he emphasizes the root cause of these anomalies - an overemphasis on human will.

His emphasis on Augustinian theology concerning grace, predestination, and absolute

depravity strengthens his arguments. (Potgieter, 2018).

The Nature of the Will

Luther believed that the will is naturally evil. He believed that an erring man is

unable to love God and the will can only conform to the erroneous and not to correct

percept (Luther in Lull, d. 13-15). Though, it may be stated that the scholastics once used

love and hope as causes to direct the will, both of which are untrue and are rejected by

Luther. Such love, for that matter, does not reflect true love for God, because "(people)

desire to be God, but God does not want to be God" (Luther in Lull, d.17). In reality,

nothing can surpass self-love (amor concupiscentiae) unless it is preceded by divine grace

(Luther in Lull, d. 20)- though of course it should be noted that a verse from The Bible

28
states that A man should love his neighbor as much as he loves himself (Matthew 22:39).

In his next disputations, Luther made importance of grace as a way to free us from the

bondage of sin so as to choose God. On the contrary, a more developed scholastic

conception of grace saw it as a commodity that could be exchanged. Luther, on the other

hand stated that grace was centered on God, and it is his prerogative to provide such

grace to a sinner.

Luther’s next attack, was directed to Gabriel’s reliance to hope. First, he

explained that an act that goes according to nature is an act of concupiscence against God

(Luther in Lull, d. 21), and that an act of concupiscence is a direct fornication of the spirit

(Luther in Lull, d. 23). Finally, he countered Gabriel’s idea by stating that a virtue of

hope can do nothing to set an act of concupiscence as right (Luther in Lull, d. 24). Further

statements about hope is stated in Luther’s next thesis, ‘For hope is not contrary to

charity, which seeks and desires only that which is of God.’ (Luther in Lull, d. 25) and

“Hope does not grow out of merits, but out of suffering which destroys merits.” (Luther

in Lull, d.26)- which was an obvious opposition to the idea that most scholastics believe.

In a classic hatred of Luther to Aristotelian logic, his next attack was directed to

Aristotle’s idea of friendship. “If God is loved for his own sake as friends may experience

then it can be reasoned that this form of prevenient grace may allow for a pure love.”- as

based on Aristotle’s idea of love within friendship, was rejected by Luther, “An act of

friendship is not the most perfect means for accomplishing that which is in one. Nor is it

the most perfect means for obtaining the grace of God or turning toward and approaching

God.” (Luther in Lull, d.26), furthermore, he added “But it is an act of conversion already

29
perfected, following grace both in time and by nature.” (Luther in Lull, d.27) which again

emphasized Luther’s belief of grace.

With this, Luther demonstrated the inadequacy of scholastic teaching to assert or

achieve anything meritorious toward final salvation. However, he continues to argue, if

d.28 passages are correct, how can they be understood if they can't substantiate anything

worthwhile? (Potgieter, 2018).

Bondage of Will

The idea that human beings are completely reliant on God's omnipotent grace to

deliver us from the bonds of the will by creating and decisively fulfilling every

inclination to believe and obey God was at the heart of Martin Luther's theology. The

sixteenth-century disputes over the freedom of the will against the bondage of the will

were not completely unrelated to the Reformation. They were the crux of the problem, at

least, that's what Luther thought. Luther had in mind both the core theological assertion

—that human beings are only ungrateful if they seek to earn the favor God freely bestows

—and an additional claim about human psychology when he said that the sinner is unable

to win God's favor by his efforts. The Bondage of the Will was Luther’s work that goes

directly against Erasmus’ freedom of Will; here, Luther clarified the second point, that "a

person acts what is in him." It is Luther's reinterpretation of this scholastic phrase was

that people only select what they are inclined to do. Furthermore, human goals disclose

aspects of the personality that are too deeply embedded in human hearts and minds to be

freely chosen. This idea is stated in Luther’s thesis- ‘It is false to state that man's

30
inclination is free to choose between either of two opposites. Indeed, the inclination is not

free, but captive.’ (Luther in Lull, d.5). We make decisions based on who we are,

contrary to Luther's belief that we cannot choose who we are.

Luther supported his point of view with two compelling analogies. His most

famous image was of the human will as a beast of burden, subject to one of two riders,

God or Satan. Being subject to God is "royal freedom," while being subject to Satan is

"slavery." (Couenhoven, 2017). Similarly, Luther referred to people as trees that bear

whatever fruit grows spontaneously from their roots. These metaphors were his own, but

Luther followed Augustine's anti-Pelagian writings when he used them. Compared to

Augustine's moral psychology, Luther's is more complex due to its heavy reliance on the

scripture. Nevertheless, he still followed the Augustinian theology- beginning with his

picture of personal volition as flowing from a person's basic orientation. His idea was

certainly good news to the believers, as they can rely to the love of God, yet a horrible

news to the sinners that can do nothing to help themselves. Although this only promotes

Luther’s idea further- that moral and religious regulations had been enacted with the

express purpose of encouraging sinners to lose faith in their own abilities and seek help

from others (Couenhoven, 2017).

Predestination and Election

Luther briefly described predestination and eternal election as the best and

infallible path towards grace (Luther in Lull, d.29), it is to serve as a stepping stone of

31
what to follow. Grace was no theological method's servant, but a result of divine election

and predestination, a bulwark against any notion of previous grace (Spijker, 2001).

Nothing meritorious comes before grace (Luther in Lull, d.30). From this premise,

Luther holds that, regardless of the Scholastics' doctrinal adjustments, no amount of

reasoning can divorce election from predestination (Luther in Lull, d.32). Nothing, in

fact, eliminates any impediments to divine grace. No academic teaching promoting sinner

effort, good will, shifting responsibility claiming helplessness, or philosophical

argumentation can do so effectively (Luther in Lull 2012, d.33). For only a righteous

person can do righteous deeds (Luther in Lull, d.40), therefore, inners must be rendered

righteous.

Luther’s removal of Aristotelian Logic

Philosophy and theology were then separated from each other. It was Thomas

Aquinas who famously introduced Aristotle into Christian theology. To fuse the two

different thought systems of Aristotle and Christianity, he introduced a dualism of

grace and matter (Potgieter, 2018). The works of Aristotle, which formed the

foundation of the Catholic Church's theological methodology, were regarded as

crucial in building a good, rational theology by the church and were obligatory

reading for all clergy (Mark, 2021). This methodology that is founded on Aristotle's

ethics and a theology guided by Aristotle's insights was rejected by Luther. In his

thesis, he stated that unless one may become without Aristotle, one can never

become a Theologian (Luther in Lull, d. 44). Luther contended that Aristotle's ethical

32
teachings should not be applied to theology. His negative philosophical agenda was

also straightforward: he wanted to undermine Aristotle's influence. Luther claimed,

"He who aspires to philosophize by utilizing Aristotle without risk to his soul must

first become utterly ignorant in Christ"- in the Heidelberg Disputation. Aristotle

believed that practicing justice makes people more just, in which scholastic

theologians incorporated the idea into Christian theology by teaching that God

formed a habit of love in the believer's soul through which the Christian may

exercise his will and do good actions in order to make himself virtuous. Luther

explicitly rejected this notion by stating, "We do not become righteous by doing

virtuous deeds, but, having been made righteous, we do righteous things." (Luther in

Lull, d.40).

In his disputation from 41- 53, Luther constantly attacked Aristotle's logic and

emphasized that Aristotle's logic 'is the worst enemy of grace' (Luther in Lull, d.41).

Furthermore, Luther stated that one could never become a theologian whether he or

she conforms to Aristotelian teachings- regardless of anything that he or she teaches

(Luther in Lull, d. 43-45). In summary, Luther's opinion about Aristotle's teachings is

overviewed (in Luther in Lull, d. 50) 'Briefly, the whole Aristotle is to theology as

darkness is to light.'

Furthermore, Luther continued his attack on Aristotle by stating in his

sermon, 'Aristotle was the author of 'unchristian, profane, meaningless babblings' '

God had sent him 'like a plague upon us for our sins'. According to Luther, Thomas

Aquinas' celebrated efforts amounted to nothing more than transforming the

Christian church into the "Church of Aristotle." (Martin Luther, 'Sermon for
33
Epiphany'), and further stating that Aristotle's philosophy are the same ones that St.

Paul had warned us in Colossian "Beware lest any man spoil you through philosophy

and vain deceit, after the tradition of men, after the rudiments of the world, and not

after Christ." (Colossian 2: 8, KJV). However, his rejection of Aristotelian logic does

not imply a rejection of reason or rational discourse. Luther had merely realized that

human reason alone could not comprehend the divine. The passage in Romans "For

in the gospel the righteousness of God is revealed—a righteousness that is by faith

from first to last, just as it is written: "The righteous will live by faith." (Romans 1:

17, NIV)- convinced him that God had already provided humans to know his will and

no human method can improve upon that (Mark, 2021). 'Among others, he rejected a

methodology founded on Aristotelian ethics and a theology reliant on its

accompanying Aristotelian insights. Rather, Christian confession was a matter of

belief and not of knowledge and logic' (Spijker, 2001).

Anti-Eudemonism

Luther then attacks the Aristotelian belief of Eudaimonia. It is the belief in

happiness, and good spirit that Aristotle suggested was the ultimate purpose of

human searching, implying that there is nothing that extends beyond happiness. He

stated, 'It is an error to maintain that Aristotle's statement concerning happiness does

not contradict Catholic doctrine' (Luther in Lull, d.42). Together with John Calvin,

Luther did not consider personal happiness to be most important. Both Calvin and

34
Luther did not feel that personal flourishing was the primary purpose of individuals

who must die, at least not in this life. Those who are united to Christ should imitate

him and put themselves last. They believed that traditional morality was more of a

threat to the soul than a benefit because it is delusory to imagine that we can make

ourselves good by following rules when we need new joys and pains most

(Couenhoven, 2017).

Luther’s attack on Other Scholastics

Other than the Aristotelian logic, and the Scholasticism which was based on it,

Luther also attacked several Scholastics and rejected their ideas. ‘Luther started his attack

on the theology of Gabriel Biel, thereby attacking scholastic theology as such’ (Van ’t

Spijker 2001:295)- Gabriel Biel had been criticized by its Pelagian context in theology.

Pelagianism in Context, is the idea that focuses particularly on the rejection of the notions

of original sin and predestination, as well as the defense of fundamental human virtue and

free will- which was officially deemed as heresy by several theologian, including

Augustine of Hippo. Alongside Biel, the highly regarded Scotus was also mentioned-

there is no exact justification for the notion that the way out for a Christian who has

fallen short of perfection can just rely on the oft-touted phrase ‘facere quod in se est’ [to

do what is in one], expressing the supremacy of the will; ‘It is false to state that the will

can by nature conform to correct precept’ (Luther in Lull, d.6).

Luther had also mentioned William Ockham in his theses. He directly attacked

Ockham’s idea (in Luther in Lull, d.56) whose approach was directly against Luther.

35
God's grace, according to Luther, is not all-inclusive, for when justifying grace is

accepted, the law's devastating claims must be answered. ‘It is the will that strives to

make every effort in good works to please God.’ (Potgieter, 2018).

Grace and Law

First of all, this discussion was based on Luther’s disputation from 54-97. Luther

first stated the importance of Grace. Although grace is present (Luther in Lull, d. 54), it is

spiritually dynamic in its presence, exceeding the law (Luther in Lull, d.58–59)- From

this it would follow that "to have the grace of God" is actually a new demand going

beyond the law. Secondly, he stated the importance of the law, specifically on the nature

of human’s will. (Potgieter, 2018). suggests that d. 54–69 displays the tensions between

‘grace and law’, while in D. 70–97 the tensions are between ‘law and grace’.

In great disagreement with Ockham, Luther pointed out that it is outright wrong to

state that a man can survive without God’s grace (Luther in Lull, d.56). In the same

thought, his next attacks was toward Biel and the Cardinal- which could be pertaining to

Scotus (Potgieter, 2018)- by stating that the Law is in fact, not above grace (Luther in

Lull, d.57), that a person who is outside God’s grace is always prone to committing

concupiscence (Luther in Lull, d.65), and lastly, Luther once again established the real

importance of grace by stating that only through grace can a person not lust, anger or

commit concupiscence (Luther in Lull, d. 67).

In understanding the importance of grace in keeping our moralities in check,

Luther added law to the mix by stating that the law is below and can only be followed

36
through grace (Luther in Lull, d. 68), and that the law is the one keeping the will in check

(Luther in Lull, d.73). For the law is good, the will repels this due to its evil nature

(Luther in Lull, d.70), and due to the power of the will, the law can never overpower it

unless through the power of “the child that has been born to us” (Isaiah 9:6)- which is

pertaining to Jesus Christ. In this statement, Luther pertains once again to the dependence

of law to grace, for a good deed that conforms to the law but outside grace may seem

good on the outside, but is a sin on the inside (Luther in Lull, d.76). Therefore, blessed

are those who do good through grace but condemned are those who works for the law

(Luther in Lull, d.79-80).

Through understanding these, it is also then developed to a much greater point of

Luther, which is the origin of the will and grace. Once it is understood, both grace and

law are free to carry out their divinely ordained roles. In his last statement, ‘So that we

not only will what God wills, but also ought to will whatever God wills.’ (Luther in Lull,

d.97) directs the importance, not only to do what is in God’s will, but also to seek God.

This last thesis seems to sum up this section: the meeting of grace and law not only

allows for their proper origin and purpose, but also puts the human will in proper

perspective with the desire to keep and pursue God's will. (Potgieter, 2018).

Luther’s 95 Theses: The Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of

Indulgences

A month after the 97 theses was posted, Luther then published his work:

“Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences,” also known as “The 95 Theses,”

37
a series of question and proposition for debate which would soon be the foundation of the

Protestant reformation. These theses contained Luther’s perspective to the corrupt

practices of self-indulgence by the Catholic Church- where he believed that a man can

only be saved by the grace of God.

Even though the 95 theses were provocative, it was written written in a

remarkably humble and academic tone, questioning rather than accusing. The

first two theses conveyed Luther's basic idea: that God wants believers to seek

repentance and that salvation comes by faith alone, not works. The remaining

93 theses, many of which directly criticized excesses, backed up the first two.

They were written in an unusually humble and intellectual tone, asking rather

than blaming. Despite this, Luther’s document's overall tone was highly

offensive nonetheless.

The 95 Theses were swiftly disseminated throughout Germany before being

transported to Rome. Luther was sent to Augsburg, Germany's southernmost city, in 1518

to defend his beliefs before an imperial diet (assembly). A three-day argument between

Luther and Cardinal Thomas Cajetan resulted in no agreement. Luther refused to recant

and returned to Wittenberg after Cajetan defended the church's use of indulgences.

First and foremost, Luther started the 95 theses by stating “Out of love for the

truth and the desire to bring it to light, the following propositions will be discussed at

Wittenberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts

and of Sacred Theology, and Lecturer in Ordinary on the same at that place. Wherefore

he requests that those who are unable to be present and debate orally with us, may do so

by letter
38
 In the Name of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.”

Repentance, Purgatory, and self-indulgence.

Luther’s view on repentance is observed throughout the theses; as stated above,

his first two theses are mainly focused on repentance, while the rest is just a supporting

claim for these theses. He first quoted a verse from Matthew- From that time on, Jesus

began to preach, “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near.” (Matthew 4: 17,

NIV)- he then focused on the word ‘repentance.’ and further clarified the exact meaning

of repentance, which he discussed was not limited to inward repentance (Luther, d.3),

which means a continuous cycle of self-hatred (Luther, d.4).

In his theses 4- 14, he addresses the power of the pope, challenges the teachings of

Purgatory, corruption of the clergy, and the source of the forgiveness of sins as a direct

act from God. He stated that the pope has no power whatsoever to rescind any guilt or sin

of a person, nor does he want to (Luther, d.5). Next, he explained his points regarding the

Purgatory. He stated ‘The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and,

according to the canons themselves, nothing should be imposed on the dying.’ (Luther,

d.8). Furthermore, he clarified that death itself sets the believers free (Luther, d.13) and

should not be subjected to further penances.

Furthermore, Luther said that death is feared by those with imperfect love [for

God]; the smaller the love, the greater the fear (Luther, d.14), yet This fear of horror is

sufficient in itself, to say nothing of other things, to constitute the penalty of purgatory,

since it is very near the horror of despair. (Luther, d.15) applying these, hypothetically,

39
since the people in Purgatory should be there for repentance, should they grow love and

decrease fear instead? “Furthermore, neither reason nor Scripture appear to indicate that

souls in purgatory are outside the state of merit, that is, unable to grow in love, nor does it

is proven that the souls are ultimately saved” (Luther, d. 18-19). Therefore, the pope can

not relinquish all penalties, but only those imposed by himself, thus making the letter of

indulgence, which is used to absolve a man from every penalty is untrue (Luther, d.20-

21). In reality, only in life can a person be relinquished from their sins and not from

indulgences (Luther, d.22), for if a man can be absolved from penalties by anyone, surely

it would be the most perfect being, which is very few (Luther, d. 24)- in this, many are

deceived by the high sounding promise of being released from penalties.

In his next discussion, Luther attacked the churches’ indulgence and tactics. First,

Indulgences were a significant component of the Western medieval and Roman Catholic

Church's penitential systems that granted full or partial remission of sin punishment. It

was promulgated by the friar John Tenzel, a Dominican friar who is said to have

preached to the faithful that purchasing an indulgence letter entailed sin forgiveness. He

once had written a jingle in German which read: “So wie das Geld im Kasten klingt

Die Seele aus dem Fegfeuer springt” which is translated to "As soon as the money jingles

in the box, the soul leaps out of Purgatory." This jingle was made specifically to promote

or advertise the idea of indulgence letters, which is widely rejected by Luther- in his

theses he wrote ‘It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and

avarice can be increased’ (Luther d. 28). By contrast, Luther stated that the teachings of

indulgence are outright unchristian, condemning those who thinks that salvation can be

bought by merely paying; and that a Pope’s pardons are the inestimable gift of God that

40
he had given us to be reconciled to him (Luther, d. 32-35). In fact, a true Christian can

attain salvation even without indulgence (Luther, d. 36).

Nevertheless, a pope’s pardon is far from useless, according to Luther. As he

refers to his earlier thesis “The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring and

showing that it has been remitted by God; or, to be sure, by remitting guilt in cases

reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in these cases were disregarded,

the guilt would certainly remain unforgiven” (Luther, d.6)- which was referring to the

real importance of Papal’s remission and blessings. He, however, warns the Christians

that doing good works are preferable rather than indulgences, and that “Papal indulgences

must be preached with caution, lest people erroneously think that they are preferable to

other good works of love” (Luther, d.41).

It could be seen in his next disputation a formula in writing his theses- starting

with thesis 40, there is a detectable undercurrent of “reforming” sentiment in the work-

expressed in several theses beginning with the phrase “Christians are to be taught

that…”— these theses are just several cautions made by Luther in accordance to the

teachings of the church regarding the real value of good works over indulgences, lest they

want to be strayed far from salvation (Luther, d.56)

Luther’s belief in Purgatory

In Luther’s 95 theses, he seemingly accepted the idea of Purgatory.

Nonetheless, he still questioned the system of indulgence by stating that one can never

know what are the plans of a person in the Purgatory, for certain persons may want not to

be redeemed or wish to stay longer (Luther, d. 29)- which is pertaining to Saint

41
Severinius and Pashcal that stayed in the purgatory for them to achieve greater glory in

heaven, and one even suggested that the both had stayed inside the purgatory in order to

save their followers from the penalties. Later, he then admitted that the existence of

purgatory is still an open-ended question and cannot be proven by the scripture. Though,

in a series of Genesis lectures that began in 1535, he made his opposition to purgatory

crystal apparent. Purgatory, Luther contended, is not only unbiblical but also contradicts

the sola faith, sola gratia, and solo Christos’ notion of salvation. Luther penned the

following words:

Purgatory is the greatest falsehood because it is based on ungodliness and

unbelief; for they deny that faith saves, and they maintain that satisfaction for sins is the

cause of salvation. Therefore, he who is in purgatory is in hell itself; for these are his

thoughts: ‘I am a sinner and must render satisfaction for my sins; therefore, I shall make

a will and shall bequeath a definite amount of money for building churches and for

buying prayers and sacrifices for the dead by the monks and priests.’ Such people die in

a faith in works and have no knowledge of Christ. Indeed, they hate Him. We die in faith

in Christ, who died for our sins and rendered satisfaction for us. He is my Bosom, my

Paradise, my Comfort, and my Hope. (Luther’s discussion on Genesis, 1535).

He claimed that searching the Scriptures for such a doctrine would be futile. As a

result, Luther concludes, it is a doctrine born from the depths of hell:

Of purgatory there is no mention in Holy Scripture; it is a lie of the devil, in order

that the papists may have some market days and snares for catching money. . . We deny

the existence of a purgatory and of a limbo of the fathers in which they say that there is

42
hope and a sure expectation of liberation. But these are figments of some stupid and

bungling sophist. (Luther’s discussion on Genesis, 1535).

The Infamous ‘St. Peter Scandal’

In Luther's 86th thesis, it is written the infamous scandal quoted 'Why does not

the pope, whose wealth is today greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build this

one basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with the money of the poor

believers?' (Luther, d.86), which questioned the morality of the Catholic Church. This

suddenly became one of the most controversial disputations of Luther that had him

become the target of a few scholastics.

By the summer of 1518, the Causa Lutheri ("the case of Luther") had proceeded

far enough to force Luther to appear in Rome to be interrogated on his doctrines. Though

through the power of Frederick III of Saxony, Luther was instead taken to Southern

Germany to attend an imperial diet. Cardinal Cajetan, head of the Dominican order, a

fervent champion of St. Thomas Aquinas' theology, and one of the most scholarly men in

the Roman Curia, was the first to probe Luther. Cajetan had taken his task seriously and

was thus well equipped for his interrogation of Luther. A year later, many commissions

were formed to investigate Luther's beliefs. On January 3, 1521, the accompanying ex-

communication bull, Decet Romanum Pontificem ("It Pleases the Roman Pontiff"), was

published. Martin Luther was officially labeled a heretic. The first papal committee

declared them heretical, but the second only declared Luther's writings "scandalous and

insulting to religious ears.".

43
Luther’s Ethical Approach

Christian identity is an important foundation of Christian ethics since it defines

how to live in and for the world. Luther, on the other hand, is frequently misinterpreted as

someone who disregards morality and ethics. Some critique Luther's ethical stance as an

individual because of his emphasis on individual components of Christian religion like as

justification, forgiveness of sins, and freedom. This argument, however, is invalid for

correctly considering Luther's theology and ethics because his ethical concept obviously

has several social and communitarian dimensions.

Luther exemplifies Christian identity as both a free being and a servant.

According to Luther, the major basis of forming Christian identity is justification and

forgiveness of sins by God's grace, because a Christian obtains freedom via God's favor.

Luther based his idea of being a servant with the verse on the bible

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATION

This chapter summarizes the findings in the study and presents the conclusion and

recommendations based on the findings.

44
Summary

The study was conducted to assess the main point of Protestantism, especially on

how its theology was made. Due to the complex denomination of Protestantism, the study

conducted was solely focused on the Lutheranism, which is a denomination that is based

on the theology of Martin Luther.

Using the Critical Analysis method, this research focused on criticizing a

literature. Critical analysis aims to analyze a subject, it’s main ideas and underlying

meaning. Furthermore, this research is carried out by collecting, combining, and

analyzing various data sets. The qualitative approach is also used in this study because it

focuses on concepts and meanings, which cannot be counted systematically. As critical

analysis is often used to analyze a specific literature, the researchers decided to focus on

Luther’s 97 theses, and 95 theses- these theses are often regarded as the catalyst of the

Protestant reformation due to it questioning the system of the Catholic church. Other than

these Theses, the researchers also used Luther’s other works such as: ‘The Bondage of

Will’, ‘Luther’s Sermon on Genesis’, ‘Luther’s Sermon on Epiphany’, ‘Luther’s sermon

on Romans’, ‘Martin Luther’s Basic theological Writing’, etc.; for it is a continuation of

Luther’s thoughts in regards to his previous theses.

Luther’s 97 theses, was written by Luther in 1517 as a proposal for a debate

regarding the mistakes he perceived in the theology of few Scholastics. While the 95

theses were series of questions and proposition for debate which would soon be the

foundation of the Protestant reformation. These theses contained Luther’s perspective to

45
the corrupt practices of self-indulgence by the Catholic Church- where he believed that a

man can only be saved by the grace of God.

Based on the result, it could be stated that Luther conforms with the Divine

Command theory. Although this theory was also approved by several scholastics such as

William of Ockham, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus, Luther still believed that a good

deed is by the grace of God, for, according to Luther, only through faith can we achieve

righteousness. Only a righteous person can do righteous deeds. Furthermore, Luther had

stated that ‘Outside the grace of God, a man can never not lust, or anger and a deed that is

deemed good but outside the grace of God is still a sin. On the other hand, Luther had

attacked the Natural Law theory by stating that ‘Any deed that conforms with nature is an

act of concupiscence against God’s meaning, that a will of a person must be based on

God, and only through then, can humans achieve righteousness. Lastly, based on Luther’s

theses, we can finally answer Plato’s Euthyphro by stating that “Goodness is good

because it is loved by God”- clarifying that we can only achieve to do good by relying

upon the deeds to God.

Conclusion

This study provides analysis and interpretation on Luther’s 97 theses and 95

theses which is the main basis during the Protestant reformation movement.

46
 1) Based on the analysis, according to Luther, the Scholasticism had deviated from

the real meaning of the scripture that it had led to the obscurantism of the

Scripture. In regards to this, Luther also pointed out that Aristotle’s ideology is

morally incorrect and is the worst enemy of grace.

2) It was Luther's conviction that scholastic theology was nothing more than a

misjudgment of reality and an impediment that led people astray from the

teachings of Sacred Scripture.

3) Based on the analysis of the 95 theses of Luther, the indulgence, as preached by

several bishops, friars and popes are incorrect and proves that only through good

works guided by the Grace of God can a human attain salvation. This statement is

a rejection to the Church’s ‘corrupt’ practice of indulgence.

4) After the analysis, in summary, Luther’s main theology revolves around the

importance of the grace of God, and the holy scripture, which to him embodied

the ultimate authority and therefore also served him as the unquestionable basis

for any theological argument. With this, we can state that, according to Luther,

humans are saved from their sins by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith

alone (Sola Fide), and based on Scripture alone (Sola Scriptura).

Recommendations
Based on the result and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations

are made; either for further studying of the topic, or for the implementations of the result.

1) For further information, the researchers suggest reading “Martin Luther’s Basic

Theological Writing” amongst other things that are written by him or texts
47
 relating to him. 

2) Since different people have different interpretations, the researchers suggest

reading Luther’s theses with this research as a basis for further information

needed. Should the interpretations disagree with the researcher’s analysis, it

would be a further entry of knowledge for future readers.

3) Future researchers should be open-minded regarding the topic should they read or

deal with it due to its sensitivity, especially since this country is mainly

Catholicism. Furthermore, research on this topic should be objective and neutral

to avoid biases on specific topics or outcomes.

48
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53
 Moral Philosophical Analysis of Protestantism
on Filipino Culture and Traditions

Aaron Lloyd T. Binalay

Marjorie P. Ruma

Abstract
Religion is essential in the formation of social constructs. Even the erroneous or
absurd religion of savage tribes may be crucial and practical parts of the social
machinery. Without these religions, modern civilization’s social evolution and
development would have been impossible (Radcliffe-brown, 1945). This study showcases
the revolutionary building of Protestantism as a result of the division of the Catholic
Church based on Luther’s writings, mainly focusing on the 97 and 95 theses, which many
critics suggest as the catalysts of the Protestant Reformation.

Keywords – Protestantism, Religion, Theology, Martin Luther, Analysis

Introduction
Protestantism initially came from the Reformation in the 16th century, a
movement that stemmed from the Catholic Church's perceived errors. Unlike
Catholicism, which depends on the Pope's and bishops' interpretation of the Bible,
Protestantism encourages its believers to interpret the Bible privately, resulting in many
different denominations. One of the most impactful theology, however, is from Martin
Luther and his 95 theses, which had resulted in the rise of Protestantism and built the
Lutheranism.
The 95 Theses became the catalyst for Reformation because they were soon
translated from Latin into German and, thanks to the printing press technology, were
made available to the public. The theses ignited the Reformation movement in other
countries within a year of their initial distribution because they represented a direct
challenge to the church's authority from a respected clergyman in good standing to those
who read or heard them read (Mark, 2021). Even a month before this, Martin Luther had
published the 97 theses that directly attacked Scholasticism, one of the most widely
accepted theology that was based on Aristotelian logic- this was rejected by Luther, even
as far as saying that this theology was unbiblical. These theses then influenced many
denominations, including Calvinism, founded by many people, but bears the name of the
French reformer John Calvin. Although, Martin opposed the Anabaptist denomination
which hoped to have Luther on their side- this opposition to the current Protestant
1
reformation and the Catholic church had resulted to another reformation: The Radical
reformation.

Methodology

Research Design
The present study utilized the critical analysis to gather and analyze the data.

Research Instruments
In this research, the topic will be focused mainly of Luther’s 95 and 97 theses
along with other references to further analyze the data. These theses were regarded as the
works that mainly pushed the Protestant movement and influenced several theologian and
denomination like the Calvinism that is named after the French theologian John Calvin.
Furthermore, the researchers used other works of Luther such as ‘The Bondage of
Will’, ‘Luther’s Discussion on Genesis, Ephesians etc.’ and related literature to further
understand Luther’s Theses and Disputation.
Data Collection
As it is a literature study, the writer used Luther’s 97 and 95 theses mainly as the
object to obtain the data of the analyses. In collecting the data, the researcher took the
following steps to collect the data:
1) Read the thesis
2) Identify the data related to the study
3) Classifying the obtained data
4) Selecting the relevant ones
5) Describing the relevant data in the finding and discussion section of this
analysis
Analyzing Data Technique
The technique to analyze the data was to find and arrange the obtained data in a
systematic way. It was done by organizing the data into categories, then describing it
before concluding. Having collected the data, the writer analyses the following theses,
it’s contexts, meanings, and ethical depictions. These are steps of data analysis technique
for this research:
1) Collecting relevant references to analyze the theses

2
 2) Reading and understanding Luther’s theses.
3) Extracting the moral values and philosophical belief implied by the Theses.
4) Concluding the data analysis

Result and Discussion

The 97 Theses of Martin Luther: Disputation Against Scholastic Theology

On September of 1527, a theologian named Martin Luther posted the 97 theses as
an invite debate among the Scholastic theologian. The content of these theses contains the
challenges that Luther had directed to the Romish doctrines and practices during that era-
specifically, the scholastic methodology. It is also speculated that these theses became the
gateway in order to make the famous, or rather infamous, 95 theses which helped build
the Protestantism.
A theological movement, Scholasticism, dominated the Catholic church since the
13 century. This however, was rejected by Luther. The 97 Theses present Luther's
th

theology based on the precepts of scripture and faith alone as the means of knowing
God's will while dismissing the scholastic tradition as counterproductive and even
unbiblical (Mark, 2021). In these theses, he pointed out and rejected several theologians
that utilizes the scholastic method based on the Aristotelian logic. Scholastics placed a
high value on human reason and free will, and used scholastic technique to explain
Christian theology. Instead of clarifying scriptural positions on issues in debate and
publication, Luther claimed that Aristotelian syllogistic influence leads to synthesizing
the obscure of what ought to be made clear in order to reflect Luther's own experience as
a result of his studying, preaching, and lecturing on Pauline texts. (Potgieter, 2018)
Luther’s first main point in these set of theses was the correction of the
Augustinian theology. In Luther’s first thesis, he was adamant in defending his patron
and patristics by questioning the scholastic methodology of the church. He stated that the
Augustinian exaggeration are all lies (Luther in Lull, d.1). The reason in this is that,
through continued scholastic synthesis, the theological shifting has deviated from the
Augustinian theology which had led to scholastic obscurantism.
In Luther’s next point, he states that the will is naturally evil. He believed that an
erring man is unable to love God and the will can only conform to the erroneous and not
to correct percept (Luther in Lull, d. 13-15). Though, it may be stated that the scholastics
once used love and hope as causes to direct the will, both of which are untrue and are
rejected by Luther. Such love, for that matter, does not reflect true love for God, because
"People desire to be God, but God does not want to be God" (d.17). In reality, nothing

3
can surpass self-love (amor concupiscentiae) unless it is preceded by divine grace (Luther
in Lull, d. 20)- though of course it should be noted that a verse from The Bible states that
‘A man should love his neighbor as much as he loves himself’ (Matthew 22:39).
Luther’s next attack, was directed to Gabriel’s reliance to hope. First, he
explained that an act that goes according to nature is an act of concupiscence against God
(Luther in Lull, d.21), and that an act of concupiscence is a direct fornication of the spirit
(d.23). Finally, he countered Gabriel’s idea by stating that a virtue of hope can do nothing
to set an act of concupiscence as right (d.24). Further statements about hope is stated in
Luther’s next thesis, ‘For hope is not contrary to charity, which seeks and desires only
that which is of God.’ (d.25) and “Hope does not grow out of merits, but out of suffering
which destroys merits.” (d.26)
In Luther’s other works, ‘The Bondage of Will’, Luther discusses the lack of
freedom of the will of humans. The Bondage of Will was Luther’s work that goes directly
against Erasmus’ freedom of Will; here, Luther clarified the second point, that "a person
acts what is in him." It is Luther's reinterpretation of this scholastic phrase was that
people only select what they are inclined to do. Furthermore, human goals disclose
aspects of the personality that are too deeply embedded in human hearts and minds to be
freely chosen. This idea is stated in Luther’s thesis- ‘It is false to state that man's
inclination is free to choose between either of two opposites. Indeed, the inclination is not
free, but captive.’ (Luther in Lull, d.5). We make decisions based on who we are,
contrary to Luther's belief that we cannot choose who we are.
Luther’s next discussion focuses on predestination and election. Luther briefly
described predestination and eternal election as the best and infallible path towards grace
(Luther in Lull, d.29), it is to serve as a stepping stone of what to follow. Grace was no
theological method's servant, but a result of divine election and predestination, a bulwark
against any notion of previous grace (Spijker, 2001).
Theses 40- 53 focuses only on rejecting Aristotle’s idea and its influence in the
Christian theology. In his thesis, he stated that unless one may become without
Aristotle, one can never become a Theologian (Luther in Lull, d. 44). Luther
contended that Aristotle's ethical teachings should not be applied to theology. His
negative philosophical agenda was also straightforward: he wanted to undermine
Aristotle's influence. Luther claimed, "He who aspires to philosophize by utilizing
Aristotle without risk to his soul must first become utterly ignorant in Christ"- in the
Heidelberg Disputation. Aristotle believed that practicing justice makes people more
just, in which scholastic theologians incorporated the idea into Christian theology by
teaching that God formed a habit of love in the believer's soul through which the
Christian may exercise his will and do good actions in order to make himself
virtuous. Luther explicitly rejected this notion by stating, "We do not become

4
righteous by doing virtuous deeds, but, having been made righteous, we do righteous
things." (d.40).
In his rejection of Aristotle, Luther briefly mentioned his anti-Eudemonistic
approach. He stated, 'It is an error to maintain that Aristotle's statement concerning
happiness does not contradict Catholic doctrine' (Luther in Lull, d.42). Together with
John Calvin, Luther did not consider personal happiness to be most important. Both
Calvin and Luther did not feel that personal flourishing was the primary purpose of
individuals who must die, at least not in this life.
His longest discussion, however, is about grace and law. Luther stated ‘person
who is outside God’s grace is always prone to committing concupiscence (Luther in Lull,
d.65), and lastly, Luther once again established the real importance of grace by stating
that only through grace can a person not lust, anger or commit concupiscence (Luther in
Lull, d. 67).
In understanding the importance of grace in keeping our moralities in check,
Luther added law to the mix by stating that the law is below and can only be followed
through grace (Luther in Lull, d. 68), and that the law is the one keeping the will in check
(Luther in Lull, d.73). For the law is good, the will repels this due to its evil nature
(Luther in Lull, d.70), and due to the power of the will, the law can never overpower it
unless through the power of “the child that has been born to us” (Isaiah 9:6)- which is
pertaining to Jesus Christ. In this statement, Luther pertains once again to the dependence
of law to grace, for a good deed that conforms to the law but outside grace may seem
good on the outside, but is a sin on the inside (Luther in Lull, d.76). Therefore, blessed
are those who do good through grace but condemned are those who works for the law
(Luther in Lull, d.79-80).
In Luther’s last theses, he stated that most importantly, we should do and follow
what pleases God. The final sentence of the 97 theses reveals Luther’s commitment to
being faithful to the classical understanding of the faith of the church. He sincerely
believed that his theses did nothing but question those who deviated from the Catholic
Church and its teachers (Lull 2012: preface)

Luther’s 95 Theses: The Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of

Indulgences
A month after the 97 theses was posted, Luther then published his work:
“Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences,” also known as “The 95 Theses,”
a series of question and proposition for debate which would soon be the foundation of the
Protestant reformation. These theses contained Luther’s perspective to the corrupt

5
practices of self-indulgence by the Catholic Church- where he believed that a man can
only be saved by the grace of God.
These theses are mostly a disputation against the indulgence that are taught,
preached and advertised by several popes, bishops and friars. First, he tackled the topic of
repentance, He first quoted a verse from Matthew- From that time on, Jesus began to
preach, “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near.” (Matthew 4: 17, NIV)-
focused on the word ‘repentance.’ and further clarified the exact meaning of repentance,
which he discussed was not limited to inward repentance (Luther, d.3), which means a
continuous cycle of self-hatred (d.4).
In his theses 4- 14, he addresses the power of the pope, challenges the teachings
of Purgatory, corruption of the clergy, and the source of the forgiveness of sins as a direct
act from God. He stated that the pope has no power whatsoever to rescind any guilt or sin
of a person, nor does he want to (Luther, d.5). Next, he explained his points regarding the
Purgatory. He stated ‘The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and,
according to the canons themselves, nothing should be imposed on the dying.’ (Luther,
d.8). Furthermore, he clarified that death itself sets the believers free (Luther, d.13) and
should not be subjected to further penances.
Furthermore, Luther said that death is feared by those with imperfect love [for
God]; the smaller the love, the greater the fear (Luther, d.14), yet This fear of horror is
sufficient in itself, to say nothing of other things, to constitute the penalty of purgatory,
since it is very near the horror of despair. (Luther, d.15) applying these, hypothetically,
since the people in Purgatory should be there for repentance, should they grow love and
decrease fear instead? “Furthermore, neither reason nor Scripture appear to indicate that
souls in purgatory are outside the state of merit, that is, unable to grow in love, nor does it
is proven that the souls are ultimately saved” (Luther, d. 18-19). Therefore, the pope can
not relinquish all penalties, but only those imposed by himself, thus making the letter of
indulgence, which is used to absolve a man from every penalty is untrue (Luther, d.20-
21). In reality, only in life can a person be relinquished from their sins and not from
indulgences (Luther, d.22), for if a man can be absolved from penalties by anyone, surely
it would be the most perfect being, which is very few (Luther, d. 24)- in this, many are
deceived by the high sounding promise of being released from penalties.
In his next discussion, Luther attacked the churches’ indulgence and tactics. First,
Indulgences were a significant component of the Western medieval and Roman Catholic
Church's penitential systems that granted full or partial remission of sin punishment. It
was promulgated by the friar John Tenzel, a Dominican friar who is said to have
preached to the faithful that purchasing an indulgence letter entailed sin forgiveness. He
once had written a jingle in German which read: “So wie das Geld im Kasten klingt
Die Seele aus dem Fegfeuer springt” which is translated to "As soon as the money jingles
in the box, the soul leaps out of Purgatory." This jingle was made specifically to promote
6
or advertise the idea of indulgence letters, which is widely rejected by Luther- in his
theses he wrote ‘It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and
avarice can be increased’ (Luther d. 28). By contrast, Luther stated that the teachings of
indulgence are outright unchristian, condemning those who thinks that salvation can be
bought by merely paying; and that a Pope’s pardons are the inestimable gift of God that
he had given us to be reconciled to him (Luther, d. 32-35). In fact, a true Christian can
attain salvation even without indulgence (Luther, d. 36).
Nevertheless, a pope’s pardon is far from useless, according to Luther. As he
refers to his earlier thesis “The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring and
showing that it has been remitted by God; or, to be sure, by remitting guilt in cases
reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in these cases were disregarded,
the guilt would certainly remain unforgiven” (d.6)- which was referring to the real
importance of Papal’s remission and blessings. He, however, warns the Christians that
doing good works are preferable rather than indulgences, and that “Papal indulgences
must be preached with caution, lest people erroneously think that they are preferable to
other good works of love” (d.41).
In Luther's 86th thesis, it is written the infamous scandal quoted 'Why
does not the pope, whose wealth is today greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus,
build this one basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with the money of the
poor believers?' (Luther, d.86), which questioned the morality of the Catholic Church.
This suddenly became one of the most controversial disputations of Luther that had him
become the target of a few scholastics. This resulted in a trial which resulted to him being
excommunicated and almost beheaded. Luckily, he was given another chance through the
famous ‘Diet of Worms’ where Luther's writings are just declared as "scandalous and
insulting to religious ears."

Conclusion
This study provides analysis and interpretation on Luther’s 97 theses and 95 theses
which is the main basis during the Protestant reformation movement.
5) Based on the analysis, according to Luther, the Scholasticism had deviated from
the real meaning of the scripture that it had led to the obscurantism of the
Scripture. In regards to this, Luther also pointed out that Aristotle’s ideology is
morally incorrect and is the worst enemy of grace.
6) It was Luther's conviction that scholastic theology was nothing more than a
misjudgment of reality and an impediment that led people astray from the
teachings of Sacred Scripture.
7) Based on the analysis of the 95 theses of Luther, the indulgence, as preached by
several bishops, friars and popes are incorrect and proves that only through good
7
 works guided by the Grace of God can a human attain salvation. This statement is
a rejection to the Church’s ‘corrupt’ practice of indulgence.
8) After the analysis, in summary, Luther’s main theology revolves around the
importance of the grace of God, and the holy scripture, which to him embodied
the ultimate authority and therefore also served him as the unquestionable basis
for any theological argument. With this, we can state that, according to Luther,
humans are saved from their sins by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith
alone (Sola Fide), and based on Scripture alone (Sola Scriptura).

Recommendations
Based on the result and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations
are made; either for further studying of the topic, or for the implementations of the result.
4) For further information, the researchers suggest reading “Martin Luther’s Basic
Theological Writing” amongst other things that are written by him or texts
relating to him. 
5) Since different people have different interpretations, the researchers suggest
reading Luther’s theses with this research as a basis for further information
needed. Should the interpretations disagree with the researcher’s analysis, it
would be a further entry of knowledge for future readers.
6) Future researchers should be open-minded regarding the topic should they read or
deal with it due to its sensitivity, especially since this country is mainly
Catholicism. Furthermore, research on this topic should be objective and neutral
to avoid biases on specific topics or outcomes.

8
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