Module 3 THE EARLY WRITERS

OF GREECE

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the early writers of Greece and their literary pieces.
3. Explain the summary of the literary pieces from the early writers of Greece.

Introduction
Greek literature has influenced not only its Roman neighbours to the west but
also countless generations across the European continent. Greek writers introduced
such genres like poetry, tragedy, comedy and western philosophy to the world. The
Greeks were passionate people and this can be seen in their literature. They had a rich
history of both war and peace, leaving an indelible imprint on the culture and people.
Author and Historian Edith Hamilton believed that the spirit of life abounds
throughout Greek history. In her The Greek Way she wrote, “Greek literature done in
gray or with a low palette. It is all black and shining white or black and scarlet and gold.
The Greeks were keenly aware, terribly aware, of life’s uncertainty and the imminence
of death. Over and over again, they emphasize the brevity and the failure of human
endeavour, the swift passing of all that is beautiful and joyful. Joy and sorrow,
exultation and tragedy, stand hand in hand in Greek literature, but there is no
contradiction involved thereby.”

Homer (1000 B.C.)

The Greek poet Homer was born sometime between 12 th and 8th centuries BC,
possibly somewhere on the coast of Asia Minor. He is famous for the epic poems The
Iliad and The Odyssey, which have had an enormous effect on Western culture, but
very little are known about their alleged author.
Homer is thought to have been blind, based solely on a character in The
Odyssey, a blind poet or minstrel called Demodokos. A long disquisition on how
Demodokos was welcomed into a gathering and regaled the audience with music and
epic tales of conflict and heroes to much praise has been interpreted as Homer’s hint
as to what his own life was like. As a result, many busts and statues have been carved
of Homer with thick curly hair and beard and sightless eyes.
The early Greeks insisted that there was a single individual named homer, to
whom they ascribed The Iliad, The Odyssey, and several minor works called the
Homeric Hymns. However, around the third century B.C., the so-called Homeric
Question was first propounded. Several of the grammarians of the time asserted that
the Iliad and the Odyssey were actually composed by two different writers. At various
times, later European critics supported this view.
Another school of thought, especially popular in the nineteenth century, claims
that Homer never lived, and that the two epics are the collective works of groups of
anonymous bards to whom the name Homer was later applied. These scholars suggest
that the two poems were constantly revised and added to whenever they were recited
and did not reach their present form until the 6 th century B.C. when, in Athens, they
were written down for the first time.
Homer’s, whoever he is, style falls more in the category of minstrel poet or
balladeer, as opposed to a cultivated poet who is the product of a fervent literary
movement, such as a Virgil or a Shakespeare. The stories have repetitive elements,
almost like a chorus or refrain, which suggests a musical element. However, Homer’s
works are designated as epic rather than lyric poetry, which was originally recited with
a lyre in hand, much in the same vein as spoken-word performances.

The Iliad
The Iliad is an epic poem by the ancient Greek poet Homer, which recounts
some of the significant events of the final weeks of the Trojan War and the Greek siege
of the city Troy (which was also known as Ilion, Ilios or Ilium in ancient times). Written
in the mid-8th Century BCE, The Iliad is usually considered to be the earliest work in the
whole Western literary tradition, and one of the best known and loved stories of all
time.
Through its portrayal of the epic subject matter of the Trojan War, the stirring
scenes of bloody battle, the wrath of Achilles and the constant interventions of the
gods, it explores themes of glory, wrath, homecoming and fate, and has provided
subjects and stories for many other later Greek, Roman and Renaissance writings.
The epic poem revolves in the tenth year of the Trojan War. Tensions are
running high among the Achaians (a super-ancient name for the Ancient Greeks). First,
the priest Chryses comes to ask their leader, King Agamemnon, to release his
daughter, whom Agamemnon was holding captive. When Agamemnon refuses, the
priest prays to the god Apollo to send a plague against the Achaians.
After nine days of plague, the Achaians assemble again and demand that
Agamemnon give the girl back. Agamemnon eventually agrees, but only if he gets to
take Briseis, the girlfriend of Achilleus, the greatest warriors of the Achaians. Even
though Achilleus gives her up, he becomes so enraged that he refuses to fight
anymore. That and he prays to his mother, Thetis, who happens to be a goddess, to
pull some strings with the other gods so that the Achaians will starts getting defeated in
battle and realize how much they depend on him.
Achilleus’ mom definitely spoils him. She gets Zeus, the king of the gods, to
agree to Achilleus’ request. Sure enough, the next day, the Trojans make a successful
counterattack, led by Hektor, their greatest warrior. Several days of violent fighting
follow, at the end of which the Trojans have Achaians pinned against the beach, and
are threatening to burn their ships.
At this point, Achilleus’ best friend Patroklos asks for permission to go into battle
in Achilleus’ place. Achilleus grants Patroklos’ request, and even lets him wear his
armor. Patroklos’ gambit is successful—when the Trojans see him, they think he must
be Achilleus and become absolutely terrified. The plan goes off the rails, however,
when Hektor kills Patroklos—with the help of the god Apollo and a minor Trojan warrior
named Euphorbos. Hector then takes the armor off Patroklos’ body.
When Achilleus learns of the death of his friend, he experiences terrible grief
and sears revenge. He sends of his mother, Thetis, to get a new suit of armor made
especially for him by the fire-god, Hephaistos. The next day, Achilleus rejoins the battle
and kills many Trojans, including Hektor in a one-on-one battle.
But Achilleus isn’t satisfied. For the next few days, he continually abuses
Hektor’s body in gruesome ways, even after Patroklos has received a proper funeral.
The gods don’t like this, and send a message down to Achilleus telling him to give up
the body. When the Trojan King Priam—Hektor’s father—comes unarmed, by night, to
ask for his son’s body, Achilleus agrees. The two men eat together and experience a
moment of shared humanity. Achilleus grants the Trojans a grace period to perform
their funeral rituals. The poem ends with the funeral of Hektor—though we know that
soon Achilleus will die and Troy will be captured.

The Odyssey
The Odyssey is Homer’s epic of Odysseus’ 10-year struggle to return home after
the Trojan War. While Odysseus battles mystical creatures and faces the wrath of the
gods, his wife Penelope and his son Telemachus stave off suitors vying for Penelope’s
hand and Ithaca’s throne long enough for Odysseus to return. The Odyssey ends as
Odysseus wins a contest to prove his identity, slaughters the suitors, and retakes the
throne of Ithaca.
The three most important aspects of the Odyssey:

• The Odyssey is an epic, a very long poem on a single subject. Some

epics were composed in order to be performed from memory, and so they
include poetic devices to make them more memorable. And many epics,
 probably including The Odyssey, were written to be performed to musical
accompaniment.
• The journey of Odysseus from Troy to Ithaca taken ten years—the same
amount of time that the Trojan War itself lasted. The extraordinary length of
Odysseus return trip, which should take a matter of weeks, is due to his many
antagonists, including the god Poseidon, the many mythical creatures he
encounters, and Odysseus’ often greedy and lazy crewmen.
• Odysseus’ most memorable quality is not his bravery or strength—though
he is brave and strong—but rather his cleverness. In fact, Homer refers to his
protagonist throughout the epic as “wily Odysseus.”

Sappho (630-612 B.C.)

Sappho of Lesbos (c. 620-570 BCE) was a lyric poet whose work was so
popular in ancient Greece, and beyond, that she was honored in statuary and praised
by figures such as Solon and Plato. Very little is known of her life and of the nine
volumes of her work which were widely read in antiquity only fragments survive.
Contrary to popular opinion on the subject, her works were not destroyed by closed-
minded Christians seeking to suppress lesbian love poetry but were lost simply through
time and circumstance.
Some kind of written works were composed concerning her during her lifetime or
shortly after because the outline of her life was known by later writers but, aside from
inscriptions such as the Parian Marble (a history of certain events in Greece between
1582-299 BCE) it is not known what these works were. Her name has leant itself to
`lesbian' and `Sapphic', both relating to homosexual women, because of her extant
poetry which concerns itself with romantic love between women.
The simplicity of construction in her work concentrates the reader's attention on
the emotional moment itself and, like all great poetry, creates an experience which is
easily recognizable. The intimacy and honesty of this poem is characteristic of all
Sappho's surviving work. She was not only a brilliantly honest poet, however, but also a
virtuoso of technique. She invented a completely new meter for poetry, now known as
Sapphic Meter or the Sapphic Stanza which consists of three lines of eleven beats and
a concluding line of five. Sappho’s works include Sappho 31, Ode to Aphrodite,
Brothers Poem, Sappho 16, Midnight Poem, Tithonus Poem, Sappho 2, Sappho 44
and Sappho 94.
Anacreon (570-488 B.C.)
Anacreon ((570 BC – 488 BC) was a Greek lyric poet, notable for his drinking
songs and hymns. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of nine lyric poets.
He wrote all of his poetry in the ancient Ionic dialect. Like all early lyric poetry, it was
composed to be sung or recited to the accompaniment of music, usually the lyre.
Anacreon's verses were primarily in the form of monody, which means that they were
to be performed by a single voice rather than by a chorus.
In keeping with Greek poetic tradition, his poetry relied on meter for its
construction. Metrical poetry is a particularly rhythmic form, deriving its structure from
patterns of phonetic features within and between the lines of verse. The phonetic
patterning in Anacreon's poetry, like all the Greek poetry of the day, is found in the
structured alternation of "long" and "short" vowel sounds.
His poetry touched on universal themes of love, infatuation, disappointment,
revelry, parties, festivals, and the observations of everyday people and life. It is the
subject matter of Anacreon's poetry that helped to keep it familiar and enjoyable to
generations of readers and listeners. His widespread popularity inspired countless
imitators, which also kept his name alive. Anacreon poems include Old Age, Beauty,
As Late I Sought the Spangled Bowers, I Pray Thee By the Gods Above, Listen to the
Muse’s Lyre and many more.
Old Age by Anacreon
The women tell me every day That
all my bloom has passed away.
‘Behold,’ the pretty wantons cry,
‘Behold this mirror with a sigh;
The locks upon thy brow are few,
And, like the rest, they’re withering too!’
Whether decline has thinn’d my hair,
I’m sure I neither know nor care;
But this I know, and this I feel,
As onward to the tomb I steal,
That still as death approaches nearer,
The joys of life are sweeter, dearer;
And had I but an hour to live,
That little hour to bliss I’d give!

Greek Myth
Greek mythology is a body of stories concerning the gods, heroes, and rituals of
the ancient Greeks. The myths contained a considerable element of fiction was
recognized by the more critical Greeks, such as the philosopher Plato in the 5th–4th
century BCE. In general, however, in the popular piety of the Greeks, the myths were
viewed as true accounts. Greek mythology has subsequently had extensive influence
on the arts and literature of Western civilization, which fell heir to much of Greek
culture.
Although people of all countries, eras, and stages of civilization have developed
myths that explain the existence and workings of natural phenomena, recount the
deeds of gods or heroes, or seek to justify social or political institutions, the myths of
the Greeks have remained unrivaled in the Western world as sources of imaginative
and appealing ideas. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived
inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and
relevance in Classical mythological themes.

Orpheus and Eurydice

The myth of Orpheus and Eurydice is one of the most famous and beloved
Greek myths. It is a myth about love and passion, and also about the weaknesses of
the human spirit. The story revolves between the two lovers mentioned in its title.
Orpheus, son of Muse Calliope and Thracian prince, was gifted with an
enchanting music. The melody that he played was extraordinary. It could charm and no
one could resist the power of the music his lyre could create. The trees, flowers, and
rocks were led with enchantment. The beasts in the wilderness were tamed. When
Orpheus sailed and got tired of rowing, he could strike his lyre and would regain energy
and would smite the sea together in time to the melody. The sea could change its
course and the fiercest spirit grew calm from the soothing melody.
Orpheus married Eurydice. After the wedding, she walked in the meadow where
she was stung by a venomous snake and died. Orpheus grieved the maiden that he
loved so dearly. He went to many different places playing sad songs.
Orpheus took the journey to the underworld to seek favor from Hades and
Persephone as he wanted to be reunited with Eurydice. Charmed and soothed by his
music, the king and queen granted the will of his heart. Orpheus could take Eurydice
back to the earth on one condition. That he would not look back at her as she followed
him until they had reached the earth. As Orpheus and Eurydice were climbing up the
way to the upper world, the darkness was turning gray and finally there was daylight.
Orpheus stepped out joyfully and quickly look back at Eurydice but it was too soon
because Eurydice was still in the cavern, a few steps from the earth. Orpheus stretched
out his hand to reach for Eurydice but she had slipped back to the darkness. All he
heard was, “Farewell”.
Pygmalion and Galatea
The story of Pygmalion and Galatea is an enchanting myth about a Cypriot
sculptor who fell in love with his own sculpture. He prays to goddess Aphrodite to bring
the sculpture to life for it to be his wife. The goddess grants his wish, and the bottom
line is, Pygmalion and his creation lived happily ever after.
The myth was turned into an erotic novelette when Ovid (43 BCE-17 AD)
adapted the story in his Metamorphosis (8 AD). But even this perfumed version gives
away the inconspicuous hope of an artist that his creation might spring to life one day
and so been inspiring many since its Ancient Greek origin. Franz von Stuck (1863 –
1928), Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904) and François Boucher (1703-1770) are among
those in line. But one of the most favoured versions was portrayed by the
PreRaphaelite artist Sir Edward Burne-Jones (1833-1898) in his series of four panels
shown below.
Pygmalion and Galatea I: The Heart Desires
Pygmalion is seen here in his studio, with a look of deep thought etched
on his face. Disgusted by the debauched lifestyle of the local women, he
decided to stay celibate and devote his life to his craft. Oblivious to the women
peering through his doorway, nor to his previous statues that remind us of the
Three Graces, he sees in his mind an image of the perfect woman he’s yet to
create.
Pygmalion and Galatea II: The Hand Refrains
One day, Pygmalion has completed his creation of a woman of his
dreams and hopelessly falls in love with it. In the moment of inspiration, he
names the figurine, Galatea, meaning “she who is white like milk”. Countless
were the nights and days he spent staring at her. Tools and instruments,
including the almost translucent soft brush, scattered beneath its feet show the
work he’s put into perfecting it.
Pygmalion and Galatea III: The Godhead Fires
In the meantime, the city was celebrating the festival in the name of the
goddess Aphrodite. While making offerings to Aphrodite, Pygmalion prayed with
all his heart and soul, for the goddess to bring his statue to life. Touched by his
deep veneration, the goddess visits his studio and was amazed by the beauty
she’d discovered and grants the artists his wish.
Pygmalion and Galatea IV: The Soul Attains
 Upon returning home Pygmalion noticed a flush on the cheeks of the
sculpture, and slowly he realised that his prayer was heard. He embraces
Galatea, and life breathed into the cold marble.
Their love blossomed and wedding vows were exchanged. With the
blessings of the goddess Aphrodite, they lived happily ever after. The couple
had a son, Paphos, who later founded the city Paphos in Cyprus.