CAREE

R
GUIDA

1
 ca·reer
an occupation undertaken for a significant period of a person's life and with opportunities for progress.
synonyms profession, occupation, job, vocation, calling, employment, line, line of work, walk of
: life, métier
"a business career"
job1
1. 1.
a paid position of regular employment.
"jobs are created in the private sector, not in Washington"
synonyms occupation, profession, trade, position, career, work, line of
: work, livelihood, post, situation, appointment, métier, craft; More
2. 2.
a task or piece of work, especially one that is paid.
"she wants to be left alone to get on with the job"
synonyms: task, piece of
work, assignment, proj
ect; 
oc·cu·pa·tion
noun: occuption; plural noun: occupations
1.
a job or profession.
"his prime occupation was as editor"
synonym job, profession, work, line of
s: work, trade, employment, position, post, situation, business, career, field, métier, vocatio
n, calling, craft
"his father's occupation"
o a way of spending time.
"a game of cards is a pretty harmless occupation"
synony pastime, activity, hobby, pursuit, interest, entertainment, recreation, amusement, diversio
ms: n, divertissement
"her leisure occupations"
work
noun: work; plural noun: works; plural noun: the works
1. 1.
activity involving mental or physical effort done in order to achieve a purpose or result.
"he was tired after a day's work in the fields"
synonyms
labor, toil, slog, drudgery, exertion, effort, industry, service; More
:
antonyms: leisure, rest

Career guidance consists of services that help people successfully manage their career development. Career
development, an aspect of human development, is the process through which an individual's work identity
emerges. Although it will occur on its own as you mature, you may benefit from getting assistance as you
navigate through this process, which can be quite confusing at times.

Many people seek out assistance from career development professionals only when they are trying to choose
a career for the first time, or perhaps when they are going through a transition. The intent of career guidance,
however, is to provide support to individuals throughout their entire lives. Let's take a look at when, during your
career, you should get help.

Get Help When You Are Choosing a Career

Far too many people are dissatisfied with what they do for a living. Why is that? They make mistakes when
choosing a career and end up in an occupation that isn't a good fit. That's not surprising since going through
the career planning process, including the four steps one should take when choosing a career, is difficult. It
may seem like it would just be easier to pick an occupation out of a hat.

While making a random choice may be simpler, it is certainly not wise. Given the amount of time you spend at
work, you should do everything possible to make a well-informed decision. Getting help from a professional
who provides career guidance can be the difference between ending up in a satisfying career or one that
makes you miserable.

A career development professional, such as a career counselor, may use self-assessment instruments to help

you learn about your interests, values, skills, and personality type. After coming up with a list of
occupations that seem suitable for you based on the results, he or she can show you how to explore them and
then weed out the ones that are not as good a fit as others. Then, the counselor can help you create a career
2
action plan that will allow you to pursue the occupation you chose.

Get Help With Your Job Search

What is the point of choosing a vocation if you don't know how to find a job? Career guidance also consists of
providing job search assistance when you are looking for your first job or any subsequent ones. The way in
which we look for work has changed significantly over the last decades, and it continues to change. Career
guidance professionals keep up-to-date on the best methods to use when job searching.

A career counselor will show you what resources to use to locate job announcements. He or she will help you
write an effective resume and will teach you how to network. When it comes time to go on job interviews, you
can also get advice on how to best answer questions and negotiate a job offer.

Get Mid-Career Advice

In addition to getting help with matters that involve beginning your career, such as choosing a vocation or
securing your first job, you can also get direction about things that occur later. For example, career guidance
services also include helping individuals advance their careers and deal with workplace issues.

A career development professional can answer your questions about career advancement. He or she can tell
you what to do to be promoted or get a raise, or even help you decide whether to quit your job. You can get
advice about getting along with co-workers and your boss, preparing for and responding to performance
reviews, and managing job stress and burnout.

Get Help If You Lose Your Job

Job loss is devastating both financially and emotionally. When you lose your job, a piece of your identity is also
taken away. The most tangible result, however, is the loss of income. Assisting those who are dealing with this
devastating life change is a component of career guidance. Since you probably don't want to spend extra
money when you are already feeling distressed about your finances, you should look into free or low-cost
career guidance services, as will be discussed later on.

A career counselor or other advisor can assist newly unemployed clients to cope with practical issues like
applying for unemployment benefits and continuing health insurance. Eventually, he or she can help the client
begin the job search process. They can also get encouragement and advice from professionals and, through
support groups, from others who are in the same situation.

Get Advice About Making a Career Change

Since most people do not stay in the same occupation for their entire working lives—some individuals even
switch careers multiple times—there will probably come a time when you will want to make a change. A career
guidance professional can give you advice when you are taking on this kind of transition.

Meet with a career development specialist who can help you assess your transferable skills. With their
assistance, you can discover what skills you can bring to your new occupation and which ones you will need to
acquire before you can begin a new career.

Get Motivation

When you are engaged in the day-to-day activities of making a living, searching for a new job, or making
another change, sometimes you just need an unbiased cheerleader by your side. Your partner, friends, and
family have a stake in your future and may have difficulty being impartial. For example, if you need
encouragement to make a big career change but your partner is worried about how it will affect your finances,
a professional advisor who doesn't have any skin in the game can be just what you need.

A career guidance professional can motivate you when things aren't going the way you would like. He or she
will encourage you not to give up whether you are stuck in an unsuccessful job search campaign or having
trouble making a decision about leaving a career behind and pursuing a new one, even if it will be difficult to
retrain. They can give you a realistic look at what to expect, tell you whether you are making a wise decision,
and cheer you on when you feel like giving up.

Where Can You Get Career Guidance

Professionals who provide career guidance include career counselors and career development facilitators.

School guidance counselors provide these services to middle and high school students, who can get an early
start on making career-related decisions. A college student can seek career counseling from the career
services office at his or her institution.

3
Career centers in public libraries are a good source of free career planning assistance. Librarians can teach
you to use all the resources and tools. Many also have counseling services available. In addition, many
community agencies provide free or low-cost vocational assistance, including occupational training programs
and workshops on job search skills. One-Stop Career Centers, which the U.S. Department of Labor sponsors,
are located throughout the country. These offices provide tools and services to help job seekers and students.

WHAT IS CAREER COUNSELING?

Your career development is a lifelong process that, whether you know it or not, actually started when you were
born! There are a number of factors that influence your career development, including your interests, abilities,
values, personality, background, and circumstances. Career Counseling is a process that will help you to know
and understand yourself and the world of work in order to make career, educational, and life decisions.

Career development is more than just deciding on a major and what job you want to get when you graduate. It
really is a lifelong process, meaning that throughout your life you will change, situations will change, and you
will continually have to make career and life decisions. The goal of Career Counseling is to not only help you
make the decisions you need to make now, but to give you the knowledge and skills you need to make future
career and life decisions.

What can I expect?

YOUR CAREER COUNSELOR WILL:
Help you figure out who you are and what you want out of your education, your career, and your life.
Be someone for you to talk to about your thoughts, ideas, feelings, and concerns about your career and
educational choices, who will help you sort out, organize, and make sense of your thoughts and feelings.
Help you identify the factors influencing your career development, and help you assess your interests, abilities,
and values.
Help you locate resources and sources of career information.
Help you to determine next steps and develop a plan to achieve your goals.
YOUR CAREER COUNSELOR WON’T:
Tell you what to do, or tell you what you should major in or what career you should pursue.
Who needs Career Counseling?

Since career development is a lifelong process, Career Counseling can be appropriate for anyone, including
freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors, and even alumni. The earlier you get started making intentional
decisions about your future, however, the better prepared you will be! We recommend that all freshmen come
in and visit with a Career Counselor.

Below are some examples of concerns that bring students to Career Counseling:

Exploring Career and Major Options

“I have no idea what I want to do with my life.”
“I don’t know what to major in.”
“I’ve narrowed it down to a couple career options, but I’m having a hard time choosing between them.”
“I know what I want to major in, but I have no idea what I want to do once I graduate.”
“I know what I want to do, but I’m not sure what the best major would be.
“I want to know what kinds of jobs I can get with my major.”
“I don’t feel like I know enough about all the different careers out there to know what I want to do.”
Resolving Conflicts
“I like a lot of different subjects, and I keep changing my major because I’m not sure which one is the best for
me!”
“I don’t like any of my classes and none of the majors seem really appealing to me.”
“I have a lot of work experience and I want to find a new career path that will build on the skills I already have.”
“I was planning on going into the _______ program, but I applied and didn’t get in. What do I do now?”
“I always thought I wanted to be a _______, but I got into my major and I really don’t like it!”
“I really like my major, but it’s not what I want to do for my career.”
“I know what type of work I’d like to do, but I’m afraid I won’t be able to make enough money doing it.”
“My family really wants me to be a _______, but I’m not sure if that’s really what I want.”
“I’ve always planned on being a _______, but I’m wondering if it’s only because that’s all I know.”
“I want to find a field to go into where there will always be plenty of jobs.”
“I want to find a career that will allow me to provide significant financial support for my family.”
“I’m working towards my career, but I think I might just really want to be a stay-at-home parent.”
“I’ve always planned to stay in Boise, but to do what I’d like to do I’d have to move.”

4
 “I can’t find a job, so I’m thinking about going to grad school.”
Who is a Career Counselor?

The Career Center staff member assisting you holds a masters degree and has expertise in career
development theory, counseling techniques, administration and interpretation of assessments, and career
information resources.

Your job search/ career attainment process is also a critical aspect of your career development, and therefore,
Job Search Advising and Career Counseling are intertwined. Your Career Counselor is also fully trained to
assist with all aspects of your job search.

THE HISTORY OF CAREER GUIDANCE

By Julia Forneris; Updated September 26, 2017

You might take for granted that today you have several resources for career counseling: private consulting
forms, college career centers and organizations such as the National Career Development Association. The
history of career guidance has its roots in the late 1800s and the dawning of the 20th century.

Origins

Before the late 19th century, little was available in the form of career guidance for those looking to find a job.
Back then, career guidance was known as vocational guidance. Most work prospects developed from close
community contacts such as family, friends and perhaps church. The turn of the 20th century saw a rise in
immigration, resulting in an increased need for a more organized effort to help people find jobs.

Vocational Guidance Movement

The Vocational Guidance Movement was the precursor to career counseling. It begin in 1907, when the
founding father of vocational guidance, Frank Parsons, created the first methodology of career guidance. In
1908, he began the Vocational Bureau of Boston, with a mission of aiding people to discover what careers
were available. His theories were rooted in first improving working conditions, then focusing on the individual
workers' needs. Parsons' methodology focused on making people more in tune with their skills and interests,
thus leading to the right fit for a career.

Mid-20th Century

The mid-20th century brought several changes to the work force and with it, some changes to the career
counseling industry. With the end of World War II, more women and veterans were in the work force with
higher education levels. Technology development increased, opening new types of jobs and demand for
certain skills. The government began placing a higher emphasis on education and vocational guidance with
several acts such as the Vocational Educational Acts of 1963 and the 1964 Education Opportunity Act.

Contemporary Thinking

Though the types of jobs have changed considerably in the past century, some of the fundamentals of career
guidance remain. The central themes continue to be developing an awareness of personal skills and interests,
and learning about career opportunities and requirements. However, career guidance today is seen as an
ongoing process. Age is no longer the driving force it once was, and that has been brought an increased focus
on the self at work and work-life balance.

Career Development Theories

Trait-and-Factor Theory

Trait-and Factor theory has been one of the most enduring theories of career counseling. In essence, it focuses on
matching people’s personalities with careers. In order to determine someone’s personality this theory requires taking into
consideration someone’s abilities or aptitude, personal values, and occupational interests. The process includes three key
steps:
Studying individuals
Surveying career options
Using “true reasoning” to match individuals with an occupation

Trait-and-factor theory has been criticized because it assumes that there is one career goal for everyone and because
career decisions are based primarily on ability. Many people do not have one career goal as trait-and-factory theory might
suggest. Additionally, these career goals might change over time. Also, ability might not be the best way to match
someone with a career. Someone who might be interested in a career but not trained in that field. Rather than pushing
5
them away from that field they might just need some encouragement to get training. Critics of this theory would say that it
pushed people like this away from things they might be interested in.

Trait-and-Factor

Among the early theorists on career development, Frank Parsons in Choosing a Vocation (Boston, 1909) argued that a
wise vocational choice was made first by studying the individual, second by understanding the relevant characteristics of
occupations, and finally by matching the individual with the occupation. This process, called the trait-and-factor theory,
became the foundation for many career counseling programs and is still in use today. It has led to the development of
assessment instruments, as well as to the study of individual job requirements. This theory focuses on individual traits but
does not account for changes in values, interest, skills, achievement, and personality over the course of a lifetime. Thus,
although assessments based on the trait-and-factor approach are quite useful in career counseling, this theory is
generally considered to be quite limited.

Theory of Person-Environment Fit

The basic foundation of Person-Environment Fit is the idea that if someone has a positive relationship with their work
environment, they will have job satisfaction. The theorists Dawis and Lofquist proposed that work includes relationships,
interactions, reward, stress and other psychological variables. These psychological variables must be adequately
addressed by the work environment. Additionally, the individual must be able to meet the requirements of the work
environment. So, it isn’t just that the place needs to fit the individual, the individual must also be able to fit the place. When
both of these things happen, it is called consonance.

Four Key Points of Person-Environment Fit:

Work personality and work environment should be a good match
Individual’s needs more important when deciding if the environment is a good fit
How well a person’s needs match the environment and vice versa is a good indicator of satisfaction
Job placement is best done by matching the individual’s personality with the requirements of the work environment
Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Learning Theory was first proposed by Krumboltz, Mitchell, and Gelatt in 1975. You can read their original journal article
about the theory here. This theory is broken down into two parts. The first part aims to explain where career choices come
from. The second part of the theory addresses how career counselors are supposed to help people solve career or job
related problems.

According to Learning theory there are four factors that dictate how someone choices a career. These include, special
abilities or genetic endowments, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills.
The main takeaway is that there is not one thing that dictates someone’s career choice. This theory also stresses that
there is not one career that is best for a person. Instead, the theorists emphasize that someone can grow into a career as
long as they are willing to expand their skills and interests.

Here, the role of a career counselor is not so much in job selection as it is helping people deal with career or job
problems. It is an approach where individual therapy and career counseling might overlap. This is because career
counselors using this theory will address issues like burnout, change, relationships, obstacles to career development and
more.

Social Cognitive Career Theory

Social Cognitive Career Theory was first described by Lent, Brown, and Hackett in 1996. The theory blends some aspects
of social learning theory and cognitive theories. There are three key components to this theory.

Self-efficacy
Outcome expectations
Personal goals

Counseling is centered around helping people develop self-efficacy. Outcome expectations are addressed by counselors
as well. These are the personal beliefs people have about what will happen as a result of their career actions. Finally,
counselors help people address personal goals so that these goals can help guide and sustain someone’s behavior. Even
just the process of generating goals is thought to be helpful for building up a sense of efficacy. Essentially, this theory is
all about helping clients create a sense of agency related to career choices and issues.

The Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Approach

Authors Peterson, Sampson, and Reardon first wrote about CIP in 1999. Florida State University has a great page that
describes their theory and research in detail. In a nutshell, the theory is applied to how people make career decisions and
use problem solving skills in career decisions. This theory is very cognitive and rational in nature and rests on the
assumptions that people make career decisions as a top down process. CIP relies on 10 main assumptions:

Career choices come from the interaction of cognition and affect

6
Making career choices is a problem-solving activity
How well someone can problem solve depends on their cognitive abilities and knowledge
Career problem solving requires a good deal of memory skills
Someone must be motivated
Career development relies on someone continuing to grow and change their knowledge
Career identity depends on self-knowledge
Maturing in a career depends on the ability to solve career problems
The goal of career counseling is achieved by helping people grow their information-processing skills
The aim of career counseling is to help people solve career problems and become better decision makers

One main critique of this theory is that it really only works with people who have full cognitive ability. You could not do this
type of career counseling with someone who has a developmental or learning impairment because they probably would
not be able to do this kind of thinking. Another issue that it assumes that even people who do have full cognitive abilities
are totally rational. As we know from psychology research people rarely make decisions rationally. Rather they rely on a
combination of cognition, emotion, and environmental circumstances when making decisions.

Psychodynamic Theories are descendants of the original psychoanalytic approach developed by Sigmund Freud in the
late 1800s. Dr. Freud was one of the first "psychotherapists" (professionals who treat mental problems with a talk therapy)
and was nothing if not influential. Freud introduced the idea that the mind is divided into multiple parts, including the
irrational and impulsive Id (a representation of primal animal desires), the judgmental super-ego (a representation of
society inside the mind), and the rational ego which attempts to bridge the divide between the other two parts. He
popularized the idea that the mind has conscious and unconscious parts which can conflict with one another, producing a
phenomena called repression (a state where you are unaware of certain troubling motives or wishes or desires). His basic
therapeutic idea was that mental illness was caused by mental tensions created by repression, and that mental health
could be restored by making repressed knowledge conscious. As it turns out, reality is more complicated than this. Talking
about your problems and coming to understand them doesn't necessarily make them go away, but it can be very helpful
nevertheless. Many ideas from psychoanalysis turn out to be important, including the idea of repression (and the related
idea of dissociation) which has developed into the study of coping strategies and defense mechanisms (ways that people
attempt to manage or ward off knowing about stressful information).
One branch of modern psychodynamic theory (sometimes called "object relations" theory) is much less concerned about
struggles between parts of the mind, and much more concerned about how people understand and represent their
relationships with other people. The "objects" in object relations theory are representations of people (how others are
experienced, represented and remembered by the person doing the objectification). Object relational therapists note that
people's early relationships often set the tone that later relationships will take. This occurs in part because of a
phenomena called transference, and also because what you experience early in life seems "normal" to you and you
become in some ways drawn to new relationships that help you replicate that original "normal" feeling. This tendency
works out well when early relationships are healthy, but very poorly when they are disturbed. People whose early
relationships involve abuse or neglect often end up not feeling quite comfortable in later relationships unless those
relationships recreate in some fashion those early abusive or neglectful dynamics.

Transference occurs when people use representations of older relationships as a means of jump-starting their
understandings of new relationships. When an older relationship has been "transferred" onto a newer one, the older
relationship will be the point of comparison against which the newer one is judged. The person doing the transferring may
read characteristics or tendencies into the newer relationship that aren't there, simply because they were there in the older
original relationship. For example, a young man who has had a difficult and distant relationship with his father, might
generally react angrily towards other adult males, but not really have insight as to why he does this. He might end up
sabotaging career prospects by alienating potential employers if he can't get a grip. Object relational therapists might help
this man by making him aware of his prejudicial pattern, helping him to process his anger feelings in the moment (should
he attack the therapist), and by offering a new model of what a relationship can be like (e.g., trusting, trustworthy, non-
abusive) which the young man can then transfer to other relationships.

The key insights to take home from psychodynamic theory are: 1) that the mind is not so straightforward as it might seem,
but instead may play tricks on you (e.g., you may end up repressing knowledge because it is disturbing to you), and 2)
that your early relationships set the tone for your adult ones. Psychodynamic techniques are designed to help you
become more conscious of unconscious habits, patterns and preferences laid down early in your life that may not serve
you as an adult. As you become more conscious, you may gain the motivation to change those no-longer-working habits
and tendencies Psychodynamic approaches help create insight. Insight is a motivator; it is not a cure. If knowing "why"
you have a particular problem is important to you; if it will help you become more free to challenge what you are presently
doing that doesn't work for you anymore, then learning more about psychodynamic techniques is a good idea for you.

Career Development Theory Review: Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory

Donald Super created a developmental model which emphasized how personal experiences interact with occupational
preferences in creating one’s self-concept. Many theorists before him simply looked at personality and occupation and
focused on a trait matching approach.

One of Super’s greatest contributions to career development was his emphasis on the importance of developing a self-
concept, as well as his recognition that this self-concept can change with new experiences over time. Before this, career
development was mostly seen as a singular choice; however, Super viewed career development as a lifelong activity.

7
This might not seem groundbreaking today, but it was a marked change from the way theorists thought when Super
began formulating his theoretical concepts in the 1950’s. In addition to recognizing that people change over their lifetime,
he also identified different areas or “life-spaces” that help make a person who they are. The six main life-spaces that
make up who we are include: parent/homemaker, worker, citizen, leisurite, student, and child. So many of these roles
imply that other people are involved in our lives and thus impact who we are. There are many other spaces in one’s life –
other than work – and Super believed that these inhabited social spaces didn’t constitute a distraction but were an integral
part of the rainbow of our lives. (Figure from http://career.iresearchnet.com/career-development/supers-career-
development-theory/.)

Super’s self-concept is the belief that our identities and by extension our career identities are a product of how we see
ourselves. Our vocational choices put this concept into practice in the real world.

Super’s Five Life and Career Development Stages

1. Growth (Age: birth – 14)
Characteristics: development of self-concept attitudes, and general world of work
2. Exploration (Age 15 – 24)
Trying out classes, work, hobbies; tentative choice and skill development
3. Establishment (Age 25 – 44)
Entry-level skill building and stabilizing work experience
4. Maintenance (Age 45 –64)
Continual adjustment process to improve position
5. Decline (Age 65+)
Reduced output, preparation for retirement

The stages that Super outlined are guides looking at a macro-perspective of one’s life. These stages often correlate with
important events and denote a time of transition. Look at the stages and see where you fit in. Do you agree with how they
are laid out? Some critics have argued or adjusted these stages and say that the language used is too deeply rooted in a
1950’s perspective.

Either way, if you are looking for a key takeaway in reviewing this theory and trying to find a practical application to your
life, then simply remember this. Super’s work was important because his idea of the self-concept profoundly changed the
field of career development.  It challenged individuals to construct their own identification and understanding of their life-
space identities including that of their careers. Take a moment to think about and list all of the roles (scientist, parent,
yogi, dog owner, caregiver, student etc.) you assume in your life. These roles will likely change depending on your life
stage.  Super’s theory is a good reminder that an individual’s life situation changes with time and experience while noting
that the concept of vocational maturity may or may not correspond with biological age. People may find themselves in
the Exploration stage at 35 years-old since people tend to cycle through these stages when they go through career
transitions.

Career Development is the process by which a person’s career identity is formed from childhood through a lifetime.

There are a number of Career Development theories, but no one theory is comprehensive. As such, career practitioners
need to be aware of each theory’s strengths, limitations, and biases. For instance, most theories are limited in that
minorities, women, and socio-economic diversity are underrepresented in the research (most studies are based on middle
class white males). Also, some theories may not translate across all cultures since the studies are based on the
experience of specific cultures.

For these reasons, it is recommended that career counsellors employ a holistic approach by drawing from a combination
of theories that best suit their personal style as well as the unique needs of their client.

Career development theory comes from four disciplines:

 Differential Psychology is interested in work and occupations.

8
  Personality Psychology views individuals as an organizer of their own experiences.
 Developmental Psychology is concerned with the “life course.”
 Sociology focuses on occupational mobility.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is important to career development theory. Work-related needs follow the basic physiological
needs, begin at level 2, and continue as follows:
 Level 2 – Safety Needs: Basic needs and security of employment, property, family, and resources.
 Level 3 – Love & Belonging: Individuals start working and discovering/developing their career paths.
 Level 4 – Esteem: Achieving career status.
 Level 5 – Self-Actualization: This is where an individual feels comfortable relying on his or her own experiences
and judgements. The person is comfortable with him or herself, sees problems as challenges, is creative, fair, and
accepting of others’ skills. The person also may have a need to fulfill inner potential.

Understanding your clients’ work-related level can help you in determining the best theory to employ.

Popular Career Development Theories

Frank Parsons’ Trait and Factor Theory

Founder of the vocational guidance movement, in the early 1900s Parsons developed the talent-matching approach that
later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice.
 Individuals and occupations each have unique characteristics and traits. Individuals develop these traits over their
lifetime.
 The highest satisfaction comes when there is a good match between the characteristics of the individual and the
occupation.
 Many aptitude tests, such as True Colors, are based on Trait and Factor Theory.
 One challenge of this theory is that it relies on the stability of the labour market, individuals’ values, interests, etc.
over time. Individuals must be prepared to change and adapt to the circumstances.
Career Typology Theory of John Holland

Under this offshoot of Trait and Factor Theory, career choice is not random but an expression of our personality. The
focus is on personal characteristics and occupational tasks.

 Individuals possess a combination of two or more of six personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social,
enterprising, and conventional. Occupational environments are also a combination of these six types.
 Holland theorized that people in similar jobs have similar personality traits.
 The highest career satisfaction comes when there is congruence between the individual’s type and that of the
occupation.
 Many career assessment tools are based on Holland’s theories.
 Advantage: It helps the individual get oriented to varied work environments.
 Limitation: There is no insight as to how type is developed or how to work with specific types.
Social Learning Theory of John Krumboltz

This theory focuses on heredity, environment, learning experiences and task approach, and how these factors influence
behaviour and career choice.

 The counsellor’s role is to help people create more satisfying lives for themselves.
 The counsellor tries to understand how someone arrived at a career-related view of him or herself and the world,
and helps the client reframe this view by identifying how it may be limiting or problematic.
 Counsellors can help shape the environment, making it conducive to learning.
 Pace and life uncertainties of the 21st century make it impossible to have plans laid out in advance, and research
shows that most people are in their current careers as a result of a series of unplanned events.
 The counsellor’s role is to encourage the client to actively engage in tasks that will help maintain an exploratory
attitude and generate unplanned career opportunities when encountering unexpected events.
 The focus is on the learning process and how it affects vocational choice and change.
 Indecision should be labelled open-mindedness.
Career Development Theory of Donald E. Super

9
Super’s development self-concept theory focuses on how careers unfold over the life span. Career choice is affected by
complex and multi-faceted biological, psychological, sociological, and cultural factors.

 Self-concept, life stage, and life roles (e.g., student, worker, spouse, mother) are central to Super’s theory, as are
developmental stages of work (growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline).
 People choose careers that allow them to express their self-concept. As someone’s self-concept becomes more
stable, so do career choices.
 People have various abilities, personalities, and self-concepts, and are qualified for a variety of occupations based
on these and other characteristics, which change with time and experience.
 Multiple trial careers involve new growth, re-exploration, and re-establishment.
 Career maturity is the agreement between vocation and current life stage.
 Negative self-concept is related to less satisfying work choices. Work is seen as dissatisfying if it’s not an
expression of an individual’s vocational abilities, interests, and values .
Constructive Narrative Approach

This theory focuses on the client’s narrative of past experiences, current meanings, and future actions, which reveals the
client’s self-knowledge about interests, abilities, values, and motivations.
 This approach is related to Existential Theory and is more philosophical in nature.
 It states that there are no fixed realities but rather multiple meanings. Individuals create their own meaning and
reality through their experiences.
 These constructs and stories may be useful or misleading to an individual’s career moves.
 The role of the counsellor is to engage clients in self-awareness, self-assessment, critical reflection, and
exploration.  This will help guide the client in uncovering values upon which to build future goals.
Transition Theory of Nancy Schlossberg

Schlossberg’s theory focuses primarily on specific times in life when change is occurring rather than the total life span.
Transition theory is the analysis of life changes and strategies to measure or control severity of the transitions.
 This theory states that life is characterized by an ongoing series of transitions (changes in roles, relationships or
routines) that have varying degrees of impact on different individuals.
 Success is dependent on how well individuals are able to cope effectively with the change.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Career Theory

Bandura stated that an individual’s confidence in her or his ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task
determines the willingness and motivation with which the client will pursue a career or educational path.
 Career counsellors help clients with low self-esteem and inaccurate self-efficacy to overcome obstacles, giving
encouragement and finding a career that matches their interests, values, and skills.
 In essence, a person’s biology (e.g. gender, race) interacts with social factors (e.g. culture, family geography) and
learning experiences to influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations.
 Self-efficacy beliefs influence interests, goals, actions, and eventually attainments.
 Clients are also influenced by the job opportunities, access to training, and financial resources to which they are
exposed.
 Providing opportunities, experiences, and significant adults to impact self-efficacy in all children becomes vital.
 Strategic career development interventions will positively impact young people in the context of this theory.
Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

According to this theory, career choice is a process of elimination or circumscription in which a person eliminates certain
occupational choices from further consideration.
 This is influenced by self-concept development and various developmental life stages.
 Compromise is a complex process in which compatibility with one’s interests is often compromised for options that
are in line with the need for prestige or external realities such as the labour market, gender expectations, or cultural
expectations.
 Although hard to test, it can be a useful framework in understanding the influence of prestige and gender on career
choice in diverse cultural contexts.
 Gottfredson’s theory is seen as an attempt to study Super’s growth stage.
Strength-Based Approaches

These theories focus on strengths and successes. The career counsellor focuses on identifying strengths and resources,
understanding client goals and aspirations, and supporting the individual in addressing barriers that may be stopping the
client from moving forward.
 This is a client-led approach with a focus on strengths and future outcomes.
 The client is empowered by acknowledging her or his strengths.

10
Value-Based Career Decision Making

This approach revolves around the understanding that an individual’s values are important to helping attain job
satisfaction.
 Values are solidified in early adulthood and remain stable over time, although they can be modified by age,
experience, and life events.
 Values guide decision-making and actions and help an individual determine how they meet needs.
The Integrated Life Planning Theory of L. Sunny Hansen
This holistic view involves six critical tasks:
 Generating an income through needed work
 Connecting family and work
 Valuing pluralism and diversity
 Managing transitions
 Exploring spirituality and life purpose
 Attending to our health
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
This theory asserts that thought patterns influence career decision making. The key components are broken down into a
seven-step service delivery model:

1. Screen individuals for career decision-making readiness before delivering services.

2. Match level of staff assistance to identified individual needs.
3. Use career theory to help individuals understand and manage career decision making.
4. Use print and online career resources within all levels of service delivery.
5. Use career resources that are appropriate for diverse individual learners.
6. Use staff teamwork in delivering services to individuals.
7. Provide common staff training for delivering resources and services.

Ginzberg

In contrast to the static approach of the trait-and-factor theory, Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (1951) were the
first to view career development as a lifelong process, with an emphasis on very early development. Ginzberg and
associates outline three distinct stages or periods in the career-choice process, each of which is divided into substages.
During the fantasy stage (childhood before age it), play gradually becomes work oriented and reflects initial preferences
for certain types of activities. The second period, called tentative, is divided into four substages (interest, capacity, values,
and transition) and lasts from ages II to 17. During the tentative period, the individual be comes more aware of work
requirements and of his or her own abilities and values and makes decisions regarding vocational likes and dislikes. At
the realistic stage (ages 17 to young adult), there is further integration of perceived abilities and occupational interests. as
the person first narrows his or her choices to a few possibilities and then makes a commitment by selecting a job or
entering specialized training. Ginzberg (1984) reemphasized that career development is lifelong process for those who
seek to attain major job satisfaction. As changing work goals occur, a person will reassess how to improve it with the work
environment.

Super

Donald Super’s (1953) life span developmental theory includes five major stages. The first, growth, occurs from birth to
ages 14 or 15 and is characterized by the development of attitudes, interests, needs, and aptitudes associated with self-
concept. During the exploratory stage (ages 15 through 24), occupational choices are narrowed, and the establishment
stage (ages 25 through 44), is characterized by work experience. From ages 45 to 65 the person experiences a continual
adjustment process to improve the working situation. Finally, during the decline phase (ages 65 and over) there is
reduced work output and eventual retirement. Super’s theory has been expanded and reined over the years. Super’s
(1996) theory has increasingly been viewed as the most comprehensive of the developmental approaches.

Roe

Roe’s (1956) theory focuses on early relations within the family and their subsequent influence on career choice. Roe
classifies occupations into two major categories: person oriented and non-person oriented. Empirical investigations of
Roe’s theory have generally failed to provide validation, and the theory itself is difficult to implement in research terms.
Roe’s major contribution appears to be her emphasis of the impact of childhood experiences on career development and
her job classification system.

Holland

The theory that has generated the most research and has the most influence on the career prac tice of psychologists and
counselors is the work of John Holland. According to Holland (1985), the choice of a career is an extension of one’s
personality into the world of work. Individuals choose careers that satisfy their preferred personal orientations. Holland
developed six modal personal styles and six matching work environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enter-
prising, and conventional. A person is attracted to the particular role demand of an occupational environment that meets
his or her needs. For example, someone who is socially oriented would seek out a work environment that provides
interactions with others, such as nursing in a hospital setting. Holland and his colleagues have developed a number of
11
instruments (e.g., the Self-Directed Search) designed to assist in identifying individual personality traits and matching
those traits to occupational groups. Holland’s theory assesses each individual in terms of two or three most prominent
personality types and matching each type with the environmental aspects of potential careers. It is predicted that the
better the match, the better the congruence, satisfaction, and persistence (Holland, 1985).

Krumboltz

Krumboltz’s (1979) theory of career development is grounded in social learning theory and in classical behaviorism. It also
incorporates the more recent ideas from self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977) and cognitive-behavioral theory (Beck, 1976;
Ellis, 1970). This theory incorporates many factors, each of which has a different impact on the person in his or her career
decision making. First, genetic endowment may expand or limit options for each individual. Included in genetic
endowment are set factors (sex, race, developmental disabilities), as well as those innate tal ents that a person can
choose to develop. Second, career decisions are influenced by environmental conditions and events beyond a person’s
control. such as cultural norms and economy. The third factor is individual learning, which can occur both instrumentally
(e.g., being rewarded for writing may lead to an interest in being a journalist) and associatively (e.g., watching a movie in
which a policeman is seriously injured may reduce the desire to go into law enforcement). Learning experiences include
acquiring (or failing to acquire) work habits and problem-solving skills. Finally, Krumboltz highlights the importance of what
he calls self-observation generalizations. That is, people compare their own performance, skills, and abilities with some
standard and draw conclusions about their competence and worth. These conclusions are used in making re sponses to
future situations. If the conclusions reached are not reasonable but rather unrealistic or inappropriate, their images of
themselves as workers, may be damaged. For example, a girl may not believe that she could be capable in math, and so
she avoids math-related activities and career possibilities. In summary, Krumboltz sees career development as unique for
the individual and believes that most of the influences on career development and career choice (e.g., interests. self-
concept) are capable of being altered at any point in life.

Other Noteworthy Theories

Other theories of career development include the work of Tiedemann and his colleagues (Tiedemann & O’Hara, 1963) on
the career decision-making process; a psychoanalytic approach (Bordin, Nachmann, & Segal. 1963); the theory of work
adjustment (Lofquist & Dawis, 1969); and a theory of circumscription and compromise in career aspirations (Gottfredson,
1981). Tiedemann’s theory has had little empirical support, but his ideas have served to highlight the importance of self-
awareness in career decision making. The approach of Bordin and his colleagues (Bordin, Nachmann, & Segal. 1963)
proposed that psychoanalytically developed dimensions of need that are established by the age of 6 inluenced career
choice. The major contribution of this theory is the attention directed to the early developmental processes and early child-
parent relationships. In the theory of work adjustment, the main construct of interest is correspondence, which is the fit
between the individual’s attributes and those required by an occupation. High correspondence should correlate with
longer tenure and greater satisfaction and performance (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984). Gottfredson’s (1981) theory postulates
that occupational preferences emerge from the complexities that accompany mental and physical growth. One unique
feature of her theory is that the range of aspirations narrows according to sex type and prestige during self-concept
development. Also, a person may compromise by settling for less compatible but more accessible career choices. In
general, persons are less willing to compromise in job level and sex type because these factors are closely associated
with self-concept.

Convergence of Theories

In 1990, Osipow suggested that the major career development theories are converging as empirical evidence about
vocational behavior accumulates and as the theories are continuously revised. His analysis of four major theories include
those of Super, Holland, Lofquist and Davis, and Krumboltz. Osipow identified common themes among those theories:
biological factors, parental influences, personality, outcomes, and life-stage influences.

Hackett, Lent, and Greenhaus (1991) have also argued the need to work toward unifying career decision theories to bring
together conceptually related constructs (e.g., self-efficacy and self-concept), to more fully explain outcomes that are
common to a number of career theories (e.g. . satisfaction), to account for the relations among seemingly diverse
constructs (e.g., interests. needs. abilities), and to identify the major variables crucial to a comprehensive theory of career
development. If career development theory is to be comprehensive and useful, it must include some variables that have
received relatively little attention or that are even omitted in current theories. These include the influence of life roles (e.g.,
sex role, racial identity), what opportunities are available to a person within a particular geographic area, and economic
influences. It must be noted, however, that all-encompassing theories are likely to pose barriers to research and practice
because of the increased number of constructs and the complex network of interrelationships among them.

THE GENERATION TEMPLATE THEORY

THE GENERATION TEMPLATE THEORY
Prepared by: Bernacel C. Doyo

I. THE PROPONENT 
ALEXA P. ABRENICA
II. TENETS
1ST TENET
When one joins the work force he/she spends most of his/her waking hours on the job. It is thus very important that one is
able to choose what is related to his/her abilities, competencies, interest and personality so that one can meet the
demands of the job, thereby, be more or less assured of a satisfying work life. 
12
 2ND TENET
Socialization, positive experience and availability of successful models in one’s family are important ingredients in
choosing a career. 
Alexa P. Abrenica, Ph.D. is a Professorial Lecturer at the Psychology Department of De La Salle University. She retired
with the rank of Full Professor of the Psychology Department of DLSU where she served in various capacities for 28 years
including Chair of the Psychology Department, Director of Graduate Studies of the College of Liberal Arts. She obtained
her B.S. Psychology at the University of Sto. Thomas and she obtain her Masters in Guidance and Counseling as well as
her Doctor in Philosophy in Counseling Psychology at Della Salle University. 
3RD TENET

Holland's Theory of Career Choice and You

Strengthen your career well-being with a career or major that fits your personality.

Choosing a career or education program that fits your Holland personality is a vital step toward career well-being and
success–job satisfaction, good grades, and graduating on time. You want to say, "Yes!" to the question, "Do you like what
you do each day?" Your career well-being depends on it.

The Holland theory is the best known and most widely researched theory on this topic. It is widely used by professionals.
(Watch our videos)

Understanding the theory and using an accurate Holland assessment like Career Key Discovery will help you identify
careers and education programs that fit who you are and put you on a path to career well-being.
Summary of Holland's theory:

1. In our culture, most people are one of six personality types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising,

and Conventional. Some refer to these as Holland Codes or RIASEC.
2. People of the same personality type working together create a work environment that fits their type. For example,
when Artistic persons are together on a job, they create a work environment that rewards creative thinking and
behavior -- an Artistic environment.
3. There are six basic types of work
environments: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. "Work" includes doing things to
achieve a purpose, like paid and unpaid jobs, volunteering, sports, or hobbies.
4. People search for environments where they can use their skills and abilities and express their values and
attitudes. For example, Investigative types search for Investigative environments; Artistic types look for Artistic
environments, and so forth.
5. People who choose to work in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and
satisfied.For example, Artistic people are more likely to be successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has
an Artistic environment, like choosing to be a dance teacher in a dancing school -- an environment "dominated" by
Artistic type people where creative abilities and expression are highly valued.

6. How you act and feel at work depends to a large extent on your workplace (or school) environment. If you are
working with people who have a personality type like yours, you will be able to do many of the things they can do,
and you will feel most comfortable with them.
Next step: Match your personality to compatible environments

Choosing work or an education program that matches, or is similar to your personality, will most likely lead to success and
satisfaction. This good match is called "congruent" (meaning compatible, in agreement or harmony).

So for example, imagine you score highest for the Realistic type on the Career Key Discovery assessment. On the table
below, you see that your most compatible work environment is Realistic, a congruent match. It's best if you choose a
Realistic job, or you might also choose Investigative or Conventional jobs.
Compatible Work Environments

 Your Personality Type

 Realistic
 Investigative
 Artistic
 Social
13
 Enterprising
 Conventional

 Most Compatible
 Realistic
 Investigative
 Artistic
 Social
 Enterprising
 Conventional

 Other Compatible
 Conventional & Investigative
 Artistic & Realistic
 Investigative & Social
 Artistic & Enterprising
 Conventional & Social
 Enterprising & Realistic

Most people, in reality, are a combination of types–like Realistic-Investigative, or Artistic-Social.  Therefore, you will
probably want to consider occupations in more than one category.

In summary, you are most likely to choose a satisfying work if you choose to do something that fits your personality type.

If your two strongest personality types are "inconsistent"–Realistic and Social, Investigative and Enterprising, or Artistic
and Conventional–be sure to read the next section, below, and this article.
Holland's Hexagon

John Holland created a hexagonal model that shows the relationship between the personality types and environments.

Notice that the personality types closest to each other are more alike than those farther away. You can see this most
clearly when you compare the personalities opposite each other, on the hexagon. For example, read the description of the
types for Realistic and Social. You will see that they are virtually the opposite of each other. On the other hand, Social
and Artistic are not that far apart.

The same holds true for the work environments. Read their descriptions and you will see.

See how the hexagon reflects introversion and extroversion; personality-environment match applies to those dimensions
also.

Inconsistent Personality Patterns

If your two strongest personality types are Realistic and Social, Investigative and Enterprising, or Artistic and
Conventional, read about inconsistent personality patternsand how they can work to your advantage.
Two requirements for using Holland's theory

To benefit from Holland's theory, you must use a:

1. Valid (accurate) measure of Holland's personality types, supported by published research, and
2. List of careers and majors that are accurately assigned to the correct personality types.

The assessment in Career Key Discovery is one of the few that meets these two requirements.

14
Theory of Work Adjustment

The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) describes the relationship of the individual to his or her work environment. TWA
was developed as the guiding framework for a program of research in vocational psychology, and this is the area of its
greatest application today. TWA has led to the development of the instruments and materials as well as a series of
research monographs, The Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation

The following statements briefly summarize the main points of the Theory of Work Adjustment as presented in A
Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment: An Individual-Differences Model and Its Applications, by René V. Dawis and
Lloyd H. Lofquist. Earlier statements of the Theory of Work Adjustment were published as Minnesota Studies in
Vocational Rehabilitation Monograph XV, A Theory of Work Adjustment and Monograph XXIII, A Theory of Work
Adjustment (A Revision).

 Work is conceptualized as an interaction between an individual and a work environment.

 The work environment requires that certain tasks be performed, and the individual brings skills to perform the tasks.
 In exchange, the individual requires compensation for work performance and certain preferred conditions, such as a
safe and comfortable place to work.
 The environment and the individual must continue to meet each other's requirements for the interaction to be
maintained. The degree to which the requirements of both are met may be called correspondence.
 Work adjustment is the process of achieving and maintaining correspondence. Work adjustment is indicated by the
satisfaction of the individual with the work environment, and by the satisfaction of the work environment with the
individual--by the individual's satisfactoriness.
 Satisfaction and satisfactoriness result in tenure, the principal indicator of work adjustment. Tenure can be predicted
from the correspondence of an individual's work personality with the work environment.
 Work personalities and work environments can be described in terms of structure and style variables that are
measured on the same dimensions.

The instruments and materials available from Vocational Psychology Research measure the work personality and work
environments, thus allowing prediction of degree of person-job correspondence.

Brown’s Values-Based Career Theory

Brown’s values-based career theory emphasizes the central importance of values in career counseling and occupational
choice. Values are defined as cognitive structures that are the basis for self-evaluation and one’s evaluation of others.
Values also have an affective dimension, are the primary basis of goal-directed behavior, and are the stimulus for the
development of behavior related to goal attainment. Values have been portrayed as more fundamental traits than
interests, and it has been suggested that concerns for values should be the primary consideration in career counseling,
without precluding the use of other constructs. The values-based approach is also predicated on the idea that career
counseling should in most cases be life-role counseling because of the interaction among life roles and the unlikely
outcome that an occupation can satisfy all of an individual’s values.

The model assumes three types of values—cultural, work, and life values. Cultural values can be subdivided into five
categories of social relations, time, relationship to nature, activity, and self-control. Work values are those values that
clients expect to fulfill as a result of choosing and entering an occupation. Life values are those values that clients expect
to have satisfied as a result of the choices they make in their major life roles, such as work, leisure, citizen, and
relationships to significant others. Understanding these three types of values provides career counselors with the
information needed for lifestyle planning.

Life-career counseling from a values perspective is based on the following assumptions: (1) Highly prioritized work values
are the primary basis of career choice. When choosing an occupation to match values is constrained, structuring other life
roles in ways that will satisfy highly prioritized life values should be pursued. (2) The most successful decision makers are
likely to be those individuals or groups who have a future or past-future time orientation and a doing-activity value. (3)
Clients with an individualism social value are required to make a series of estimates about their personal characteristics
and the occupations they are considering if they are to be successful. (4) The sources of job satisfaction will vary for
people who hold individualism and collateral social values. (5) Job success as determined by the supervisor or employer
will be determined by the same factors for people regardless of their social relations value.

Sensitivity and attention must be given to cultural, work, and life values as a counselor works through the following stages
of career counseling: client identification, relationship building, goal setting and assessment, problem solving, and
termination. Perhaps the most important issue to be addressed during this process is to crystallize and prioritize the
client’s cultural, work, and life values in the context of life roles. Culturally sensitive interviewing, card sorts, and
standardized values clarification surveys are helpful techniques for this process. The Life Values Inventory is an
empirically derived values assessment instrument developed from the principles of this model. At the end of the process
clients should be aware of their values in the context of life roles; how values influence their motivation, goal setting, self-
evaluation and thus satisfaction; and their evaluation of others.

Educational, Vocational and Career Guidance Service in the School

Objectives

The Guidance Services promote the holistic development of pupils and students by providing on-going prevention and

15
intervention services and offering personal curricular and career guidance.
Services Offered
Promoting guidance in support of the education of students.
Facilitating the transition of students from primary to secondary, from secondary to post-secondary educational institutions
to other educational institutions and/or work.
Providing curricular guidance regarding subject options and choice of courses, at different levels.
Providing personal career guidance.
Providing information through various activities, materials, seminars both at school and at systems level, through the
organisation of career seminars, career exhibitions, career orientation visits, information leaflets, etc.
Providing job exposure to the Form 4 or Form 5 students.
Promoting staff development in the field of guidance.
Participating in research projects related to guidance which include Tracer study.
Organising seminars, talks and/or contacting parents on personal development, educational achievements, educational
issues and developments.
Organising seminars, talks and preventive programmes on guidance related topics.
Career Guidance and Counseling Programs

What is a Career Guidance and Counseling Program?

It is a comprehensive, developmental program designed to assist individuals in making and implementing informed
educational and occupational choices. A career guidance and counseling program develops an individual's competencies
in self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning.
Why is Career Guidance and Counseling Key to the Delivery of Vocational-Technical Education?
Career guidance and counseling programs help individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, and experience necessary to
identify options, explore alternatives and succeed in society. These programs better prepare individuals for the changing
workplace of the 21st century by:

 teaching labor market changes and complexity of the workplace

 broadening knowledge, skills, and abilities
 improving decision making skills
 increasing self-esteem and motivation
 building interpersonal effectiveness
 maximizing career opportunities
 improving employment marketability and opportunities
 promoting effective job placement
 strengthening employer relations

Who Benefits from Career Guidance and Counseling Programs?

Everyone benefits--youth and adults, male and female, disabled, disadvantaged, minorities, limited English proficient,
incarcerated, dropouts, single parents, displaced homemakers, teachers, administrators, parents and employers.
Where are Career Guidance and Counseling Programs offered?
Everywhere--elementary, junior and senior high schools, community colleges, technical institutes, universities, career
resource centers, correctional facilities, community-based organizations, human services agencies, community and
business organizations, skill clinics, employment and placement services.
Where is Career Guidance and Counseling Working?
During 1997-1998, four career guidance programs were selected as exemplary in the following sites:

 Dorchester District Two Career Development Initiatives, Summerville, SC

 La Crosse Central High School Guidance/Career Center, La Crosse, WI
 Lewis and Clark Community College: Career and Employment Services, Godfrey, IL
 Rich South High School: Horizon Program, Richton Park, IL

Additionally, States implementing the National Career Development Guidelines have many success stories.
What are the Key Components of Successful Career Guidance and Counseling Programs?

 A planned sequence of activities and experiences to achieve specific competencies such as self-appraisal,
decision making, goal setting, and career planning
 Accountability (outcome oriented) and program improvement (based on results of process/outcome evaluations)
 Qualified leadership
 Effective management needed to support comprehensive career guidance programs
 A team approach where certified counselors are central to the program
 Adequate facilities, materials, resources
 Strong professional development activities so counselors can regularly update their professional knowledge and
skills
 Different approaches to deliver the program such as outreach, assessment, counseling, curriculum, program and
job placement, follow-up, consultation, referral

16
What does the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act Highlight about Career
Guidance and Counseling Programs?

 Ensures qualified leadership and supervision

 Continues expenditures for program support
 Ensures program quality and effectiveness
 Requires career development and activities for special populations
 Promotes counselor training and retraining
 Encourages elimination of sex bias and stereotyping
 Strengthens tech prep programs through recruitment, retention and placement

What are some Opportunities for Career Guidance Counselors under the Perkins Act?
Counselors have opportunities to participate in an education and training system that integrates academic and vocational
education, to encourage individuals' greater participation in further education by articulating secondary and post-
secondary education, to renew their commitment to servicing the most at-risk or disadvantaged of our society, to promote
program outcomes and performance measures, and to respond to business and economic development.

Career Counseling Competencies

Career counseling competencies consist of the knowledge, skills, and personal attributes that career counselors need to
deliver quality services to clients. Even in so-called developed countries, large portions of the population are not well
served by existing approaches to delivering career development services. Articulating career development competencies
that are cross-indexed to client services is a substantial step toward providing comprehensive and quality career
development services.

Career development is a lifelong process of managing learning, work, and transitions in order to move toward a personally
determined and evolving preferred future. Career paths develop over time, regardless of whether people are planful about
the process or leave it to chance. Those who are planful about their education and training and the opportunities they
pursue are more likely to achieve a meaningful and satisfying life. When people have a vision of what they want to do with
their lives, they tend to be more focused, better able to spot opportunities, and more persistent in pursuit of those
opportunities.

Some people naturally develop the ability to create focus in their lives, but others need assistance, especially as the rate
of economic, occupational, and social change escalates. Comprehensive career guidance and counseling services are
designed to provide that assistance. Providing effective and comprehensive services requires a broad base of knowledge,
skills, and personal attributes (i.e., competencies). In addition, those providing the services also need to devote attention
to developing an infrastructure that makes such services available and to creating a culture that encourages people to
seek assistance when they need it.

Background

Over the past 10 years, there have been several initiatives directed at articulating the competencies needed to provide
quality career development services to clients. In most cases, the starting point was to identify the types of services clients
need, then map out the roles involved in providing those services, and, finally, elaborate on the competencies needed to
perform those roles. In most initiatives, career counseling is seen as one of many services that clients need.

Clients also need career information, assessment, advocacy, job-search knowledge and skills, and job-maintenance
knowledge and skills. These services are provided by a range of practitioners, with varying degrees of training and a wide
variation in competencies. Most initiatives have recognized this and have developed a competency framework that is
inclusive of all service providers.

In developing a competency framework, most initiatives have focused on the functions performed in providing
comprehensive services to clients. It is a competency-based (rather than a training-based) approach, emphasizing what
service providers do to offer quality services to clients rather than how they learned to do it. This approach has many
advantages: It recognizes that people become skilled in different ways, not only through formal training; it readily connects
to prior learning assessment and recognition; and focusing on the activities professionals perform is easily understood by
both practitioners and clients.

Competency Frameworks

Most career development competency frameworks have two types of competencies: core competencies that all
practitioners should have and specialized competencies that depend on the nature of a person’s work. In most cases, the
areas of specialization extend into the core competencies but are elaborated in more detail and at a more advanced level
in the specialization. For example, all career development practitioners need to have a certain amount of competence in
assessment (core); however, assessment specialists have these core competencies plus many additional and advanced
assessment competencies.

Core competencies are usually grouped into categories such as ethical behavior, professional conduct, advocacy,
awareness and appreciation of client cultural differences, awareness of their own (i.e., the professional’s) capacity and

17
limitations, knowledge of labor market information, and the ability to communicate effectively with colleagues and clients.
Specialized competencies are usually grouped into categories such as assessment; ability to design, implement, and
evaluate guidance and counseling programs; career counseling; consultation and coordination; group facilitation and
educational guidance; program and service management; information and resource management; work development and
job placement; research; and community capacity building. All service providers are expected to have the core
competencies, and, in addition, they may have competencies in one or several areas of specialization, depending on the
nature of their duties and the services they provide. There is no hierarchy intended between core and specialization or
among the specializations. All competency areas are equally valued, and no area of service is more or less important. All
competency areas are important in providing comprehensive career development services to clients.

To date, career development competency initiatives have stopped at identifying the competencies needed to deliver
quality services to clients. The next step will be to articulate in greater detail the specific knowledge, skills, and personal
attributes that make up the competencies, for example, the specific knowledge, skills, and personal attributes needed to
work effectively with a diverse range of clients with a social inclusion perspective and in the context of a global labor force.
It will also be necessary to specify the knowledge, skills, and personal attributes needed to advocate effectively for all
areas of the competency framework. Once these competencies (the knowledge, skills, and personal attributes) have been
identified and validated, it will be important for practitioner training programs to modify their curricula to give greater
emphasis to these competencies.

Preparing Career Development Practitioners

The career development competency initiatives undertaken to date have adopted a broad vision based on providing
comprehensive and quality career development services to clients. Most counselor education programs focus primarily on
the core competencies outlined above. However, to offer effective service, career counselors will need to extend their
expertise beyond the core competencies to include a range of specializations. Thus, the scope of most training programs
will have to expand substantially in order to provide the competencies needed to deliver comprehensive services. There is
a need for making program evaluation a more integral part of training programs, teaching the knowledge and skills
required for more effective interactions with policymakers and fund providers, expanding the role boundaries of career
counselors to include social action and advocacy, and including a greater emphasis on assessing and intervening with
contextual variables that affect career-life planning of clients.

18