Astrologers professed to be able to foretell the future, and

within certain limits to control it. I propose to give in this chapter

a concise account of the rules they used for this purpose†.
I have not attempted to discuss the astrology of periods earlier
than the middle ages, for the technical laws of the ancient astrology
are not known with accuracy. At the same time there is no doubt that,
as far back as we have any definite historical information, the art was
practised in the East; that thence it was transplanted to Egypt, Greece,
and Rome; and that the medieval astrology was founded on it. It is
probable that the rules did not differ materially from those described in
this chapter‡, and it may be added that the more intelligent thinkers of
the old world recognised that the art had no valid pretences to accuracy.
I may note also that the history of the development of the art ceases
with the general acceptance of the Copernican theory, after which the
practice of astrology rapidly became a mere cloak for imposture.

All the rules of the medieval astrology—to which I confine myself—

are based on the Ptolemaic astronomy, and originate in the Tetrabiblos*
which is said, it may be falsely, to have been written by Ptolemy himself.
The art was developed by numerous subsequent writers, especially by
Albohazen†, and Firmicus. The last of these collected the works of most
of his predecessors in a volume‡, which remained a standard authority
until the close of the sixteenth century.
I may begin by reminding the reader that though there was a fairly
general agreement as to the methods of procedure and interpretation—
which alone I attempt to describe—yet there was no such thing as a
fixed code of rules or a standard text-book. It is therefore difficult to
reduce the rules to any precise and definite form, and almost impossible, within
the limits of a chapter, to give detailed references. At the
same time the practice of the elements of the art was tolerably well
established and uniform, and I feel no doubt that my account, as far
as it goes, is substantially correct.
There were two distinct problems with which astrologers concerned
themselves. One was the determination in general outline of the life
and fortunes of an enquirer: this was known as natal astrology, and
was effected by the erection of a scheme of nativity. The other was the
means of answering any specific question about the individual: this was
known as horary astrology. Both depended on the casting or erecting
of a horoscope. The person for whom it was erected was known as
the native.
A horoscope was cast according to the following rules§. The space
between two concentric and similarly situated squares was divided into
twelve spaces, as shown in the annexed diagram. These twelve spaces
were known technically as houses; they were numbered consecutively
1, 2, . . . , 12 (see figure); and were described as the first house, the second
house, and so on. The dividing lines were termed cusps: the line
between the houses 12 and 1 was called the cusp of the first house,
the line between the houses 1 and 2 was called the cusp of the second
house, and so on, finally the line between the houses 11 and 12 was
called the cusp of the twelfth house. Each house had also a name of its

own—thus the first house was called the ascendant house, the eighth
house was called the house of death, and so on—but as these names
are immaterial for my purpose I shall not define them.
Next, the positions which the various astrological signs and planets
had occupied at some definite time and place (for instance, the time
and place of birth of the native, if his nativity was being cast) were
marked on the celestial sphere. This sphere was divided into twelve
equal spaces by great circles drawn through the zenith, the angle between any two
consecutive circles being 30◦. The first circle was drawn
through the East point, and the space between it and the next circle
towards the North corresponded to the first house, and sometimes was
called the first house. The next space, proceeding from East to North,
corresponded to the second house, and so on. Each of the twelve spaces
between these circles corresponded to one of the twelve houses, and
each of the circles to one of the cusps.
In delineating* a horoscope, it was usual to begin by inserting the
zodiacal signs. A zodiacal sign extends over 30◦, and was marked on
the cusp which passed through it: by its side was written a number
indicating the distance to which its influence extended in the earlier of
the two houses divided by the cusp. Next the position of the planets in
these signs were calculated, and each planet was marked in its proper

house and near the cusp belonging to the zodiacal sign in which the
planet was then situated: it was followed by a number indicating its
right ascension measured from the beginning of the sign. The name of
the native and the date for which the horoscope was cast were inserted
usually in the central square. The diagram near the end of this chapter
is a facsimile of the horoscope of Edward VI as cast by Cardan and will
serve as an illustration of the above remarks.
We are now in a position to explain how a horoscope was read or
interpreted. Each house was associated with certain definite questions
and subjects, and the presence or absence in that house of the various
signs and planets gave the answer to these questions or information
on these subjects.
These questions cover nearly every point on which information
would be likely to be sought. They may be classified roughly as follows.
For the answer, so far as it concerns the native, to all questions connected with
his life and health, look in house 1; for questions connected
with his wealth, refer to house 2; for his kindred and communications
to him, refer to 3; for his parents and inheritances, refer to 4; for his
children and amusements, refer to 5; for his servants and illnesses, refer
to 6; for his marriage and amours, refer to 7; for his death, refer to 8;
for his learning, religion and travels, refer to 9; for his trade and reputation,
refer to 10; for his friends, refer to 11; and finally for questions
connected with his enemies, refer to house 12.
I proceed to describe briefly the influences of the planets, and shall
then mention those of the zodiacal signs; I should note however that
in practice the signs were in many respects more influential than the
planets.
The astrological “planets” were seven in number, and included the
Sun and the Moon. They were Saturn or the Great Infortune, Jupiter
or the Great Fortune, Mars or the Lesser Infortune, the Sun, Venus
or the Lesser Fortune, Mercury, and the Moon: the above order being
that of their apparent times of rotation round the earth.
Each of them had a double signification. In the first place it impressed certain
characteristics, such as good fortune, feebleness, &c., on
the dealings of the native with the subjects connected with the house
in which it was located; and in the second place it imported certain
objects into the house which would affect the dealings of the native
with the subjects of that house.

To describe the exact influence of each planet in each house would

involve a long explanation, but the general effect of their presence may
be indicated roughly as follows*. The presence of Saturn is malignant:
that of Jupiter is propitious: that of Mars is on the whole injurious:
that of the Sun indicates respectability and moderate success: that
of Venus is rather favourable: that of Mercury implies rapid practical
action: and lastly the presence of the Moon merely faintly reflects the
influence of the planet nearest her, and suggests rapid changes and
fickleness. Besides the planets, the Moon’s nodes and some of the more
prominent fixed stars† also had certain influences.
These vague terms may be illustrated by taking a few simple cases.
For example, in casting a nativity, the life, health, and general
career of the native were determined by the first or ascendant house,
whence comes the expression that a man’s fortune is in the ascendant.
Now the most favourable planet was Jupiter. Therefore, if at the instant
of birth Jupiter was in the first house, the native might expect a long,
happy, healthy life; and being born under Jupiter he would have a
“jovial” disposition. On the other hand, Saturn was the most unlucky
of all the planets, and was as potent as malignant. If at the instant of
birth he was in the first house, his potency might give the native a long
life, but it would be associated with an angry and unhappy temper, a
spirit covetous, revengeful, stern, and unloveable, though constant in
friendship no less than in hate, which was what astrologers meant by a
“saturnine” character. Similarly a native born under Mercury, that is,
with Mercury in the first house, would be of a mercurial nature, while
anyone born under Mars would have a martial bent.
Moreover it was the prevalent opinion that a jovial person would
have his horoscope affected by Jupiter, even if that planet had not
been in the ascendant at the time of birth. Thus the horoscope of an
adult depended to some extent on his character and previous life. It
is hardly necessary to point out how easily this doctrine enabled an
astrologer to make the prediction of the heavens agree with facts that
were known or probable.
In the same way the other houses are affected. For instance, no
astrologer, who believed in the art, would have wished to start on a
long journey when Saturn was in the ninth house or house of travels;

and, if at the instant of birth Saturn was in that house, the native
always would incur considerable risk on his journeys.
Moreover every planet was affected to some extent by its aspect
(conjunction, opposition, or quadrature) to every other planet according to
elaborate rules* which depended on their positions and directions
of motion: in particular the angular distance between the Sun and the
Moon—sometimes known as the “part of fortune”—was regarded as
specially important, and this distance affected the whole horoscope.
In general, conjunction was favourable, quadrature unfavourable, and
opposition ambiguous.
Each planet not only influenced the subjects in the house in which
it was situated, but also imported certain objects into the house. Thus
Saturn was associated with grandparents, paupers, beggars, labourers,
sextons, and gravediggers. If, for example, he was present in the fourth
house, the native might look for a legacy from some such person; if
he was present in the twelfth house, the native must be careful of the
consequences of the enmity of any such person; and so on.
Similarly Jupiter was associated generally with lawyers, priests,
scholars, and clothiers; but, if he was conjoined with a malignant planet,
he represented knaves, cheats, and drunkards. Mars indicated soldiers
(or, if in a watery sign, sailors on ships of war), masons, doctors, smiths,
carpenters, cooks, and tailors; but, if afflicted with Mercury or the
Moon, he denoted the presence of thieves. The Sun implied the action
of kings, goldsmiths, and coiners; but, if afflicted by a malignant planet,
he denoted false pretenders. Venus imported musicians, embroiderers,
and purveyors of all luxuries; but, if afflicted, prostitutes and bullies.
Mercury imported astrologers, philosophers, mathematicians, statesmen, merchants,
travellers, men of intellect, and cultured workmen;
but, if afflicted, he signified the presence of pettifoggers, attorneys,
thieves, messengers, footmen, and servants. Lastly, the presence of the
Moon introduced sailors and those engaged in inferior offices.
I come now to the influence and position of the zodiacal signs. So
far as the first house was concerned, the sign of the zodiac which was
there present was even more important than the planet or planets, for
it was one of the most important indications of the durations of life.
Each sign was connected with certain parts of the body—ex. gr.
Aries influenced the head, neck and shoulders—and that part of the

body was affected according to the house in which the sign was. Further each sign
was associated with certain countries and connected the
subjects of the house in which the sign was situated with those countries: ex. gr.
Aries was associated especially with events in England,
France, Syria, Verona, Naples, &c.
The sign in the first house determined also the character and appearance of the
native*. Thus the character of a native born under
Aries (m) was passionate; under Taurus (f ) was dull and cruel; under
Gemini (m) was active and ingenious; under Cancer (f ) was weak and
yielding; under Leo (m) was generous, resolute, and ambitious; under
Virgo (f ) was sordid and mean; under Libra (m) was amorous and
pleasant; under Scorpio (f ) was cold and reserved; under Sagittarius
(m) was generous, active, and jolly; under Capricorn (f ) was weak and
narrow; under Aquarius (m) was honest and steady; and under Pisces
(f ) was phlegmatic and effeminate.
Moreover the signs were regarded as alternately masculine and feminine, as
indicated above by the letters m or f placed after each sign. A
masculine sign is fortunate, and all planets situated in the same house
have their good influence rendered thereby more potent and their unfavourable
influence mitigated. But all feminine signs are unfortunate,
their direct effect is evil, and they tend to nullify all the good influence
of any planet which they afflict (i.e. with which they are connected),
and to increase all its evil influences, while they also import an element
of fickleness into the house and often turn good influences into malignant ones.
The precise effect of each sign was different on every planet.
I think the above account is sufficient to enable the reader to form
a general idea of the manner in which a horoscope was cast and interpreted, and I
do not propose to enter into further details. This is the less
necessary as the rules—especially as to the relative importance to be
assigned to various planets when their influence was conflicting—were
so vague that astrologers had little difficulty in finding in the horoscope
of a client any fact about his life of which they had information or any
trait of character which they suspected him to possess.