TEXTILES AND TEXTILE PRODUCTION IN EUROPE From Prehistory to AD 400 Colitcreme)\] Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering‘TEXTILES AND TEXTILE PRODUCTION IN EUROPE FROM PREHISTORY TO AD 400 edited by Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering OXBOW BOOKS Oxford and Oakville ANCIENT TEXTILES SERIES VOL. 11Published by Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK. © Oxbow Books and the individual authors, 2012 Ancient Texts Series Editorial Comite: Eva Andersson Strand, Margarita Gleba, Ulla Mannering and Marie-Louise Nosch ISBN 978-1-84217-463-0 This book is available direc frome Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK (Phone: 01865-241249; Fax: 01865-794449) and ‘The David Brown Book Company PO Box 511, Oakville, CT 06779, USA (Phone: 860-945-9329; Fax: 860-945-9468) or from our website wwwoxbowbooks.com ACIP record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging. in-Publication Data ‘Teatiles and textile production in Europe from prehistory to AD 400/edited by Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering, ~ Ist [edition} pages cm -- (Ancient textiles series; . 11) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84217-463-0 1. Textile fabrics, Prehistoric--Ensope. 2. Textile fabries, Medieval--Europe. 3. Textile industry-Europe—History. I. Gleba, Margarita, editor of compilation. II. Mannering, Ulla, editor of compilation, GN803.T49 2012 677.094-de23 2011050185 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Short Run Press, ExeterCONTENTS Foreword, Preface wusnnnn List of Maps Introduction: Textile Preservation, Analysis and Technology. Margarita Gléba and Ulla Mannering Austria 1. Austria: Bronze and Iron Ages 27 Karina Grimer 2. Austria: Roman Petiod samsonite 6s Kordala Gosteninik Denmark 3. Denmark... n Ulla Mannering, Margarite Gla and Marianne Bloch Hansen Germany 4, Germany: Bronze and Pre-Roman Iron Ages Susan Meiler-Wiering 5. Case Study: The Textiles from the Princely Burial at Eberdingen-Hochdorf, Germany. Jobanna Banck Burgess 6. “Germany: Roman Iron Age. Susan Moller Wiering and Julian Suber? Greece 7. Greece vs se Youle Spantidaki and Christophe Moulberat Italy 8. Italy: Bronze Age. Marta Bazganella 9. Italy: Iron Age... Margarita Gleba 10. Case Study: The ‘Textiles from Verucchio, Italy Annemarie Stanfjer 11. Case Study: The Tablet-Woven Borders of Veruechio. Lise Reader Kaudsen so 208 215 242,wv Contents Latvia 12, Lawvia.. Trita Zeiere 266 Norway 13, Norway. se Sunniva Hahorsen Poland 14, Poland... Jeray Maik. Slovak and Czech Republics 15, Slovak and Czech Republics. Tereza Belanové-Stoleova 293 Spain 16. Spain Carmen Alfaro Giner Sweden 17. Sweden . Mari-Louise Franz, Amica Sundstrimn, Eva Lundwall and Eva Andersson Strand Switzerland 18, Switzerland: Neolithic Period, Fabienne Médard 19. Switzerland: Bronze and Iron Ag Antoinette Rast Eicher Ukraine 20. Ukraine. Margarita Gleba and Tatiana Krupa 399 United Kingdom and Ireland 21. Scotland and Ireland, Elizabeth Wincott Hecket 428 22, England: Bronze and Iron Ages. 444 Des DeRache 23. England: Roman Petiod sesso ASL Job Peter Wild Index 437Foreword Lotte Hedeager and Kristian Kristiansen Over the last 10-15 years, textile studies have moved from being a specialised niche at the academic periphery towards the centre stage of archaeological and historical research. This book, originating from the Danish National Rescarch Foundation’s Centre for ‘Textile Research (CTR) at the SAXO Institute, University of Copenhagen is a testimony to the sustained and systematic efforts behind sucha development. Furthermore, itis amajor contribution to the expanding field of textile research, just as itadds yet another publication. to the Oxbow Ancient Textiles Series, which has opened up the field to the non-specialis. Beginning with the major synthesis ‘Ancient Textiles: Production, Craft and Society’, which took the reader around all important aspects of textile production and consumption in the ancient world, as handed down through texts, iconography and archacological finds, this most. recent book addresses the archaeological traces of textile production and consumption during the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe. The overview is systematically organised country by country, and each chapter is structured according to the same plan, beginning with chronology and cultural history and then movingon toa discussion of the archaeological evidence of textiles and their production, It will be an invaluable guide for the increasing number of archaeologists who understand the central role played by textiles, their production, distribution and consumption during later prehistory. Compelling new evidence from strontium isotope analyses of textiles is now for the first time able to trace the origin of textiles, and the first results from the well-known Huldremose woman's dress, a bog sacrifice from Denmark, demonstrate that some of the materials for clothing and the ‘woman probably originated outside Denmark. New studies of textile technologies are also increasing our understanding of the complexity and sophistication of textile production in Europe from the Bronze Age onwards, when ‘wool production took over as the dominant ‘material, and subsequently changed the animal economy towards this new domain. We know from the famous texts in ancient Anatolia of how the Old Assyrian caravan trade during the 19th to 18th centuries BC was organised around the highly profitable trade in fine textiles, and it is now becoming increasingly evident that 1 major shift occured also in Europe, where new wool clothing encultured the Bronze Age body, and created an entirely new economic sector that persisted and expanded into the Iron Age. ‘The articles in this book not only provide an overview of the evidence, but also summarise recent research. The editors and the authors are to be congratulated for presenting such a major, systematic endeavour which will serve archaeological research in years to come.Preface This book had its genesis in 2007, when the Danish National Research Foundation’s Centre for Textile Research organised the international conference “Textiles in Context” at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. A group of specialists from across Europe were invited to bring their knowledge of textiles and textile production from their respective regions to Copenhagen in order to help place the unique Danish prehistoric textile and costume collections from the Bronze and Early Iron Ages into a wider context. Since then, more colleagues have joined this project resulting in the present 23 arucles. ‘The book is organised geographically by country since these are the modern boundaries within which most archaeological research is conducted today. Each section is accompanied by amap of the sites mentioned and a chronological table for the region. Depending on the specialist knowledge, the ‘material from the same region is in some ccases split up into several articles (eg Italy, Germany, Austria, UK), while in others, two countries are covered by the same article (eg Czech and Slovak Republics, Ireland and Scotland). In the case of particularly important groups of finds, special case study articles are included (eg. Verucehio and Eberdingen-Hochdor All chapters generally follow the same structure: introduction, chronological and cultural background, and an overview of the ‘material in question organised chronologically and thematically. The sources of information used by the authors are primarily textiles and textile tools recovered from archaeological contexts. In addition, other evidence for the study of ancient textile production, ranging from iconography to written sources to palacobotanical and archaeozoological remains are included. The chronological period covered in thearticles spans from the earliest prehistoric finds to « AD 400. In some cases however, the presented material ventures into slightly later periods (eg. Norway). In principle, the overviews stop at the time of the collapse of the Roman Empire since its aftermath brought many new transformations to the social, economic and ethnic organisation of Europe. Textile technology, to0, underwent drastic changes in the following centuries eventually culminating in the medieval textile industry. For most regions, the articles in this book provide the first synthetic overviews on the topic, and, in some cases, this information hhas not been published eater. For example, the investigation of Greek textiles has only ‘begun in the recent years andit has not yet been possible to compare them to surviving tools, as well as written and iconographic evidence in a systematic manner. Likewise, most of the data on Ukesinian material has been unknown or inaccessible to western scholarship due to the linguistic barrier. As editors, we have aimed at giving a balanced picture of the presented data, although the countries differ in size and not all periods are equally represented for each country. Furthermore, the quantity, kind and preservation of the recovered archaeological material vary considerably throughout the European regions. Europe has almost allPreface types of textile preservation conditions, but they are not equally distributed throughout the continent. For example, the salt mines of Hallstatt have created a unique environment for the preservation of textiles that were discarded ring their use in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Textile production is hence well represented in Austria for these periods, although most of the preserved textiles are very fragmentary. The deposition of clothed bodies in peat bogs in Early Iron Age Denmark has ensured the survival of a large corpus of textiles and complete garments in this context, while textiles from graves are rare. The cremation burial practice used during the Late Bronze ‘Age in Scandinavia has resulted in the virtual absence of textiles from this period compared to the well-preserved costumes from the Early Bronze Age oak coffin graves. Another important factor is how and when. this material was investigated. Scandinavian countries and Germany, for example, have long-standing traditions of textile scholarship, while in Mediterranean Europe, particularly in Italy and Greece, the topic has only been broached within the last decade, ‘The authors have collected and systematised essential information on textiles and textile production from each country, esulting in an up-to-date and detailed sourcebook and an easily accessible overview of the development of European textile technology and economy from prehistory to AD 400. tis our hope that this book will bring textiles to the attention of wider range of scholars. As not all European regions are covered in this book and, in the case of some regions, the chronological coverage is incomplete, we also hope that this book will inspire the writing of similar overviews of textiles and textile production in other European countries. A recent overview for the Netherlands was published by Sandra Comis (in L. Bender Jorgensen, J. Banck-Burgess and ‘A. Rast Eicher (eds), Tein aus Archiolagie und Geschichte, 193-204, 2005), while a summary of Roman period textiles found on the territory of France was published by Sophie Desrosiers and Alexandra Lorquin (in L. Bender Jorgensen and C.Rinaldo (eds), Textlerin Eurgpean Archacalay. Report of the 61h NESAT symposium, 711th May 1996 in Boris, 53-72, 1998). This book would not have been possible without the help of numerous people. Marie- Louise Nosch as director of the Danish National Research Foundation’s Centre for Textile Research at the University of Copenhagen has provided the organisational framework for the editing of the book. Cherine Munkholt has assisted the editors during the proofreading and copyediting process. Vibe Maria Martens, Marianne Bloch Hansen, Peder Flemestad, Henriette Koefoed, Sidsel Frisch, Niels Moldrup Petersen, Sandra Holm, Egzona Haxha and Ingeborg Philipsen have helped with proof-reading, images, maps, communications and numerous other tasks. Joanne Cutler and Sergei Polin kindly provided information on the archeological background of Greece and Ukraine. Susanna Harris helped with the introduction. Yevgeny Kokorin created ‘maps. Sylvia Mitschke provided images for the chapters on Germany Juliet Blackmore created the layout. We thank them all and the authors of the following chapters for their enthusiasm and desire to participate in this pioneering endeavour. The project and the publication of the volume have been financed by the Danish National Research Foundation with support from the Culture Programme of the European Union DressID programme. Margasita Gleba and Ulla Mannering February 2011List of Maps ‘Map 1.1. Austria Map 3.1. Denmark. ‘Map 4.1. Germany Map 6.1. Germany Map 7.1. Greece Map 7.2. Greece, closeup of Attica Map 8.1. Italy Map 9.1. Italy Map 12.1, Latvia Map 13.1. Norway Map 14.1. Poland Map 15.1. Slovakia and Czech Republic Map 16.1. Spain Map 17.1. Sweden Map 18.1. Switzerland ‘Map 20.1. Ukraine ‘Map 21.1. Scotland and Ireland ‘Map 22.1. EnglandIntroduction: Textile Preservation, Analysis and Technology Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering Why Textiles? Using DNA to trace the evolutionary split between head and body lice, researchers recently concluded that body lice evolved from head lice approximately 190,000 years ago, pushing the time when human beings first began wearing clothing at least 100,000 years back (Bower 2010). While in those remote times clothing may have had a primarily utilitarian function and possibly permitted the hominids to occupy climatic zones that ‘were previously inaccessible to them, soon garments became more than a mere secondary skin. Many of the famous ‘Venus’ figurines of the Upper Palaeolithic (c.27,000-20,000 years before present) wear sophisticated elements of clothing (Barber 1991, 40, 255-257; Soffer al. 2000b). The earliest textiles found thus far in the Czech Republic also date to the Upper Palaeolithic and include “single ply, multiple-ply, and braided cordage, knotted netting, plaited wicker-style basketry, and a wide variety of non-heddle-loom-woven textiles, including simple and diagonal twined pieces and plain woven and twilled objects” (Adovasio eal 1996;Soffer eal 20002; 2000b, 513). None of this clothing is of any use for either warmth or what we would call modesty, rather it appears to have been intended to communicate messages. TEversince,textlesexpresswho we are— oor gender, age, family affiliation, social, political, economic and legal starus, occupation, religion and ethnicity (Schneider and Weiner 1989). Besides expressing ouridentty textiles protect us ftom harsh environmental conditions, whether as clothing or shelter. We use them at birth for swaddling, in illness as bandages and at death as shrouds. We use them to carry and contain people and things. We use them for subsistence to catch fish and animals. We use them for transport as sails. Knowledge of textile history is hence the key to our understanding of a multitude of hhuman issues. In fact, textiles represent one of the earliest human craft technologies, and they have always been a fundamental part of subsistence, economy and exchange. Textiles have an enormous potential in archacological research being able to inform us of social, chronological and cultural aspects of ancient societies Is the aim of this book to make textile research a more user-friendly field for researchers working on the archaeology and history of Europe by providing overviews of the extant material and sources of evidence for specific regions. The following summary on textile preservation, analytical techniques and production sequence should provide a background for the terminology and issues discussed in the various chapters. For the purposes of this book, we take a broad definition of textile as “all the products of textile techniques that consist of basic clements (thread or groups of threads) which have been interworked by mechanical means to obtain the necessary coherence” (SeilerBaldinger 1994, 5). In addition, skin /leather items and basketry are occasionally considered together with textile material, Textile Preservation Like most organic materials, textiles are subject to rapid decomposition in archaeological contexts and their preservation requires special conditions to prohibit their destruction by microorganisms (Wild 1988, 7-13; Peacock 2005; Gillis and Nosch 2007). ‘Thus, dry climate has preserved textiles by desiccation in Egypt Barber 1991, 1454 Vogelsang Eastwood 2000; Kemp and ‘Vogelsang- Eastwood 2001). Wet environments can also be favourable for the preservation of organic materials as the anaerobic conditions inhibiethe growth of microorganismsthatcause decay. Waterlogged burials throughout Europe have produced many of the surviving textiles. ‘The pH value of water or soil significantly influences conservation: plant fibres are rarely preserved in acidic environments, while animal fibres are for the most patt destroyed by basic conditions (Rast-Eicher 2003, 47). Thus, in Denmark, wool textiles have been preserved in acidic peat bogs (Hald 1980), while the more alkaline conditions of Swiss and Italian lakes have predominantly yielded fabrics made of plant fibres (Bazzanella ef al. 2003), Constant temperatures below 0°C preserve all organic material almost unaltered. The garments of the Iceman Otzi, dated by radiocarbon to 3350-3100 BC, discoveredin an Alpine glacier of Italy, survived in permafrost conditions, providing a first glimpse of Chalcolithie costume practices of Europe Gpindler ef ah 1995). In Eurasia, the frozen contents of Scythian tombs preserved fabrics almost perfectly (Rudenko 1970; Polosmak and Barkova 2005), while on Greenland, the permafrost conditions conserved the medieval garments of the carly European settlers buried there (Ostergaard 2004). Salthas preserved textiles in Austrian mines Gichler ef al 2008) and the Tarim basin in north-west China (Trever 1932; Barber 1999; Zhao and Yu 2002). Dry conditions and the presence of salt ate particularly favourable for dye preservation while wet environments usually degrade colouring agents. Textiles can also be preserved through exposure to fire, which leads to the creation Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering of carbonised remains. Plant fibres, in fact, are often more stable in a carbonised state than in their original shape, especially in wet environments (Rast-Eicher 2003, 47). Animal fibres, on the other hand, usually perish in fire Rottoli 2005, 66) In the presence of metal objects, textiles may become mineralised in metal corrosion products which form casts around fibres retaining their external morphology and size almost unaltered (Jakes and Sibley 1984; Janaway 1987; Chen ef al. 1998). The conditions conducive to mineralisation depend on pH value, oxidation potential and moisture, as well as the composition of the fibre, and on the elemental composition of the soil and metal (anaway 1987, 136-142; Gillard ef af 1994), Iron and bronze in particular favour the formation of easily legible traces. Most of these corrosion-preserved textiles originate from inhumation graves. Even when minute, such traces can provide a considerable amount of information about ancient textiles (eg, Bender- Jorgensen 1986; 1992; Rast-Bicher 2008). ‘Mineralisation can also occur in the presence of calcium in the matrix surrounding the decaying textile, whereby a cast of gypsum or calcium carbonate forms (Reifarth and Drewello 2011). In contrast to metal mineralisation, in this case dyes can survive (James ¢f al. 2009), ‘Textiles can also be preserved in the form of imprints. These are negatives of the original fabrics, created, for example, when the fabric comes in contact with clay objects or surfaces before they are fired. Some of the earliest evidence for woven fabric, in fact, survives in the shape of such imprints, as in the case of the Upper Paleolithic Czech site of Pavlov 1 (Adovasio #f a. 1996; Soffer et al, 2000b). Finally, soil discolouration or soil surface structures can indicate the presence of textiles. At Castel di Decima in Italy, for example, dark spots of an organic nature were observed at the shoulders of some skeletons, which, excavators, believe, represent the traces of bunched cloth where the fibulae held it (Zevi and Bedini 1973, 32). Meanwhile, in the Athenian Agora, soil features resembling textiles have been noted (Unruh 2007). ‘Whatever the condition of preservation, textile recovery greatly depends on excavation methodology and conservation procedures (Gillis and Nosch 2007). The micro-excavation. approach, in which entire blocks of earthIntroduction: Textile Preservation, Anabsis and Technology containing archaeological matetial are lifted and brought to the laboratory, where they are then carefully excavated by conservators using special equipment and under controlled conditions, has been especially successful in textile recovery and preservation, Their prompt consolidation, documentation and conservation, given the usually advanced state of degradation, are essential Textile Analysis, As the end product of an intricate and lengthy manufacturing process, a textile contains information about the various stages of the process and the tools used in it, ‘Decoding? textiles is thus imperative for our understanding of this process. While the methods used in textile analysis vary depending, on the state of a textile’s preservation, often requiring a combination of several analytical procedures, the basic examination of a textile can be performed by the naked eye in combination with microscopy (Fig 0.1; Walton and Eastwood 1983). The optical microscope has long been the preferred method but it can be supplemented by more advanced methods Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is usedin the identification of fibres by comparison with reference standards (Fischer 2010). Animal fibres, if well preserved, can be recognised by the scales of cuivulae on their surface; the shape, position and sequence of these scales present on the fibre surface can then be used to identify the animal species (Appleyard 1960). The identification of plant fibres is often more complicated since the distinction berween flax, nettle, hemp and some other plant species is difficult to make even in the laboratory, particularly when they are degraded (Catting and Grayson 2004). With the use of a microscope, itis also possible to observe the wear and damage of individual fibres, which can provide information about the use and function of the textile as well as the duration Of its utilisation (Wild ¢f al. 1998). Hidden structures, especially pertinent in the case of mineralised examples, can be investigated by X- rayand, recently, by computerised tomography of three-dimiensional objects (Peck and Nowak: Béck 2007), ‘The most important descriptive parameters of an archaeological textile to be recorded and the information they may provide during such analysis are summarised in Table 0.1. Many of these features are important parameters in themselves, and together with contextual data they can be used as social, cultural, geographical and/or chronological indicators. However, they are most informative when considered in combination. While basic analysis constitutes standard ‘operating procedute in textile investigation, in recent decades textile archaeology (and archaeology in general) has been enriched by many approaches that come from other isciplines. Analytical methods from the natural sciences have been adapted and used to extract new types of information from archacological material. Examples include, among others, isotopic tracing to determine ‘geographical provenance (Frei ef al. 2009a; Fig, 0.1. Investigating archaclegial ttle (Phot: M. Glia)4 Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering Parameter Daia Taformation Context seulement dat, fonecon bari sacrifice Dimensions ‘overall preieraion (comple oF Ragmentan) and use of Be exdle specific structuel elements Presenadon organic aaa and wpe of analyes that can be performed a well as conservation rineralsed strategies carbonised Colour ‘dscoloursdon avallable esoarees and technologies w obaia, apply and combine clout for natura pigrnenaton aesthec and/or functional purposes presence of destuf, Trade smicmre [weave ype ‘weaving technique and the chotces made to produce a specific texte Tors thread count specific purpose borders and selvedges ‘Yam sirucrare | spin/ewist direction, ‘plating technique and the choices made vo produce a specific yarn twist angle diamerer Raw material | fibre morphology Tocalavallabilty of resources or their exchange, selection and peeparstion of raw ‘material, properies ofthis material as well sits possible use ors irregular ‘kl or numberof weavers thar worked on the pice: evidence Tor determining faults ‘warp and weft and thus possibly forthe spe of loom used Decoton embrovlery Fonction, meaning, value of the texte appliqués cede hoes Wear Toles Tonetion, degree and duration of use folds Repair sends degree and duniion oF ws, re-use and the valve ofthe vex darns patches Constrcion | tlloring Te of the texte fa costume, the user (wale, female, child) and, sometimes, he combination of materials user's role in sociery Finishing sapping Tunetion Table 0.1, Parameters for esti analyz, 2009b), radiocarbon dating (Nockert and Possnert 2002; Mannering ef af. 2010), x-ray spectroscopy for mineralised textiles (Nowak- Bick 2010), and DNA analysis for species identification Brandt ef al. 2011), Dye and mordant identification usually requires sophisticated chemical analyses, the most advanced technique currently being high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ‘which allows us to identify, quantify and purify the individual dye components (Hofmann- de Keijzer ef al, 2005; Vanden Berghe #f al 2009), Nonetheless, positive identification of a particular dye present on a fibre is extremely difficult since the results of these analyses identify only the more stable chemical components of the dyes which may be present in many different plant species. Thus, itis often impossible to ascertain what specific plant or combination of plants was used in the dyeing process. The majority of dyes, however, were most likely obtained from locally available plants, animals and minerals. In addition to the investigations of the textiles themselves, tool studies have had 4 great impact on our understanding of textile production and the processes involved (Andersson 2003; Gleba 2008; Martensson ef al, 2009). Another methodological impact on textile research comes from the study of craftsmanship and experimental archaeology, often the combination of the two (Grémer 2005; Andersson Strand 2010; Hurcombe 2010). The results from experiments and tool studies constitute an important basis for the interpretation of the function of the various tools and for the evaluation of the kinds of textiles that could be produced at a given site. Textile Production In order to produce a textile, 2 number ofInirodsction: Textile Preservation, Anaissis and Technology operations have to be performed to transform the raw material into @ finished product. The sequence of textile production begins with the choice of raw material and continues with its transformation until a final product is obtained. Raw fibres have to be prepared, spun, ‘woven and finished. Each of these processes requires a specific set of tools and skills. Archaeological indicators of any productive activity include installations, tools, residue or ‘by-products, unfinished or defective products, saw materials as wel as the products themselves. ‘The vast majority of surviving evidence for textile production consists of tools. Occasionally, installations, such as dyeing vats can be recognised. The heaps of muricid shells remaining from purple-dye production can bbe regarded as residues or by-products of the latter process. Raw materials and unfinished or defective products are almost non-existent ‘The following section provides an overview of archaeological evidence (textiles and textile tools) for the numerous stages of textile production, forming a basis for the terminology used throughout this volume. Preparing the Fibres Fibre is a basic unit of raw material having suitable length, pliability and strength for conversion into yarns and fabrics. Before fibres can be spun and woven into cloth, the raw material has to be subjected to ceftain Preparatory treatments. Fibre preparation is essential for the good quality of the finished yarn and, ultimately, the cloth itself Due to their distinet properties, flax and wool require different procedures and tools to make them usable in textile production. During the Jong chronological period considered in this volume, two basic fibre groups, divided on the basis of their origin into plant and animal, ‘were used in textile manufacture. Plant Fibres Plant fibres are derived from various plant parts such as seed, leaf, bast and bark, and include fibtes from flax, hemp, nettle, esparto, cotton and trees such as lime/linden, oak and willow Plant fibres constitute the earliest textile ‘material used by human beings (Soffer ef a 20002), Tree-bast was more important during the Neolithic period, although it occasionally appears in the later periods (Rast-Eicher 2003, 48-50), Flax was by far the most important plant fibre in European prehistory (Fig. 0.2). Flax fibres are strong, resistant and have an excellent ability to absorb moisture (Harris 2010, 105-106). Cotton (Fig, 0.3) arsived in Europe only dusing the 1st millennium BC and remained quite rare throughout most of the petiod considered here (Barber 1991, 32). Flax preparation is time-consuming and employs variety of tools, which did not change significantly until industrialised processing was developed in modern times (Moore 1922, 82-83; Barber 1991, 13-14). Before the plant becomes overrripe, flax plants are pulled up by the roots and gathered into bundles. The later the flax is pulled, the tougher the fibres willbe. Yellow, or ripe, flax is occasionally used for utilitarian fabrics and ropes which require strength. Once dry, the stalks are rippled to remove seed capsules. Then, they must be retted in standing or running water or dew in order to rot away the pectin that holds the Ares together. The retting can take from a few days to several weeks, depending on the method used, and has to be closely controlled in order for the fibres not to be weakened or desteoyed. Using shallow water pools where 5 Fig, 0.2, Fld of flex in southern England (Photo E. Kokori)Fig, 0.3. Coton (own ‘spalina.com) ‘water is warmed by the sun can speed up the process, as a higher temperature increases the tate of decomposition. We know from Pliny the Elder (NH 19.17) that, a least during the Roman period, the advantages of warm wat ‘were known, ‘Once the stalks have dried they must be broken in order to loosen the pith from the fibres. In recent times, the process of breaking flax by foot has been utilised in some areas of northern Europe. Such a procedure would not require any tools. Thereafter, the flax is scutched with a broad wooden knife to remove the broken pith from the stalk. Finally, the fibres are hackled with a tool that has long teeth to remove the remaining pith. ‘The tools used for flax preparation were often made of wood and only a few these tools, survive in the prehistoric contexts in Europe. The few surviving tools believed to have been used for flax preparation are scutching knives and flax combs recovered from Neolithic = Bronze Age lake-dwellings in the Alpine region (Bazzanella ¢t al 2003, 138 and 236) The process of flax preparation, thus, is better known from ethnographic examples and experimental archaeology (Rast-Eicher and Thijsse 2001). Animal Fibres ‘The major animal textile fibre of antiquity Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering ‘was sheep's wool (Fig, 0.4), with the occasional use of goat hair and other, more unusual fibres, such as horse hair (cf. Zeiere, Wincott Heckett in this volume). Wool has properties that differ markedly from plant fibres, which account for its widespread use soon after its adoption during the Neolithic (Harris 2010, 107-108). Its fibres have a scaly surface, which accounts for wool’ ability to felt. They are also kinky, producing air pockets between the kinks and thus making wool an excellent insulating material. Wool fibres stretch more easily than bast fibres and hence the fabrics made of them are elastic, making it a much more suitable fibre for twill weave, which developed during the Bronze Age and became the predominant type of weave during the Iron Age in most of Europe. Unlike plant fibres, which are white- grey and are generally difficult to colour, wool comes in a variety of shades naturally and can be easily dyed a multitude of bright colours. Textile research several distinct wool qualities were used in prehistoric times, some of them simultancoushy Fibre quality studies have been useful in elucidating the development of various ancient fleece types. Michael Ryder established an evolutionary scheme for wool development based on fibre diameter measurements (Fig. 0.5; Ryder 1964; 1969; 1983). He hypothesised that, over the course of time, selective breeding nas produced increasingly finer and more uniform wool. Thus, early varieties of sheep had coats containing a higher percentage of coarser hair and kemp than fine underwool. Woolly sheep are believed to have developed already by the middle of the 4th millennium BC (Ryder 1983), ‘Wool had to be removed from the animal, which could be accomplished by plucking or shearing Plucking was an older method, used on primitive breeds of sheep whose fleece moulted. In some areas, the practice survived until the Roman period, although it had probably disappeared almost everywhere in Europe by the Ist century AD (Wild 1970, 23), ‘The practice exists to this day in the Shetland Islands, where it is known as rooing (Christansen 2004, 12-13), ‘More developed sheep breeds do not moult and theit fleece has to be cut off, a process accomplished with the help of shears ora knife. Shears appeared during the Iron Age and all of the examples known are iron (Fig, 0.6). In fact, nas demonstrated thatIntroduction: Textile Preservation, Analysis and Technology Fig, O4. Sbep flock (Stark Holle Farm). their invention is tied to the use of iron, which is more springy than bronze (Forbes 1956, 8; Barber 1991, 29), It is possible that, before the appearance of shears, knives were used for the purpose. However, since they could be utilised for a vatiety of other functions, it is impossible to prove that certain knives were used specifically to shear wool. Shearing is done in the late spring or early summer, when, the new spring wool starts growing and can easily be distinguished from the winter wool. All ancient shears found in Europe are of the same design, with two tisngular blades (knives) on a simple U-shaped spring (White 1967, 119-120). Their size ranges from 10 to 25 cm in length. The optimal size of the blade is about 15 cm (Wild 1970, 22; Alfaro Giner 1984, 41), The same type of wool shears is still used today in some areas. Since similatly designed shears were also used for other purposes in antiquity alternative functions for the ancient shears cannot thus be excluded. ‘The quality of a finished textile greatly depends on how well the fibre was prepared. ‘The wool, hence, has to be sotted, which is done by hand and is highly time-consuming. The fineness of some of the ancient textiles demonstrates that the procedure was a regular practice in ancient times. The criteria for sorting may be colour, fineness, crimp, length, strength, of textuce (Leadbeater 1976, 21-26). ‘The quality of wool greatly depends on the part of the animal from which it derives, the sides and the shoulder area being the best. Furthermore, there are differences in quality even between different animals of the same breed and between male and female animals. The quality is also affected by the age and physiological state of the animal, such as whether a ewe has lambs or if the animal is sick (Andersson 2003, 17-18). A q ‘ a ae q —iershtlihes | lk Although the wool can be spun immediately after it has been plucked or shorn from the animal, itis usually first teased by hand or combed to remove impurities. Combing also straightens and arranges the fibres and separates the long hairs from the wool. Hackles and combs with long teeth were used for the purpose (Fig. 0.7). Wool combs in ancienttimes Fig 05: (ng) Changs in fibre ameter tricone foe ection (Afr Byer 1983), Fig. 0.6. (abovs) Wool shear (Apter Wild 1988)8 Fig, 07. (op) Wool comb rcontrution based ona Bronze Age find from Caucasus (Pheto: Contre for Tele Reva) Fig, 058. (righ) Sie cocoons ina silk workshop in Ltanbas, Terkey (Photo: M. were made of wood, bone or horn. Many examples survive, but more research needs to be done on various types of excavated combs in order to assess if they were used for the purpose of wool preparation, Another process, carding, was probably not used until Roman times. Carding introduces air into the wool and removes dirt and tangles, helping to produce consistent yarn. The commonly held view that early carders were probably made with dried teasels (Dipsacus fullonun), whose prickly heads have flexible bristles with hooks, is not plausible. Rather, they may have been used for raising the nap on the surface of a textile (Goldmann 2007). ‘The prepared wool was often in the form of roving, which is rope-like in appearance. In most cases, woo! was spun unwashed, since the Janolin, naturally presentin the coat, helpsin the process. Occasionally, however, it was scoured to remove impurities, which could constitute up to 40% of the woo!'s weight (Wild 1970, 23; Morel 1978, 108). Ancient scouring agents were urine or soapwort. The wool had to be washed scoured if it was to be dyed before spinning, Sometimes this was done ‘on the hoof?, iz sheep were washed in natural bodies of moving water, such as rivers and streams, ‘which could also be “manipulated by dams and channels... creating artificial pools to facilitate Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering the procedure” (antillo Frizell 2004, 83) However, wool could also be washed after it had been removed from the animal. Natural water sources were probably used for the procedure but occasionally special installations were built. The identification of such installations in archaeological contexts is problematic, however, since similar constructions were used for other purposes. Silk, another historically important fibre, did not come into common usein Europe until Roman times (Fig, 0.8).Itwas long thought that silk was used in Europe already as early as the 6th century BC, based on the finds of Hohmichele and Hochdorf in Germany, and Athenian Kerameikos in Greece (Hundt 1969; Barber 1991, 32). The recent re-examination of these finds, however, casts doubt that the material is silk (Banck-Burgess 1999 and in this volume; Margariti et al 2010). An unusual animal fibre, byssus or sea-silk, derived from the filaments secreted by the molluse Pinna nobilis L., was also used in antiquity, although there is no direct evidence of its use before the late Roman period (Maeder 2002; Maeder ef al. 2004) Finally, a fibre derived from a mineral amphibole known as asbestos was occasionally used in antiquity (Fig, 0.9; Pionati Shams 1987, 3-11), Ithad a unique quality of withstandingIntroduction: Textile Preservation, Analysis and Technology extremely high temperatures, and was used for making funcral shrouds, napkins, lamp wicks, and fishing nets. Making a Yarn Spinning Once the fibre mass has been prepared, it can be converted into yarn through twisting and drawingout, or drafting the fibres— the process known as spinning (Fig. 0.10; Forbes 1956; Ryder 1968; Leadbeater 1976; Crockett 1977; Barber 1991, 39-78). The fibres can be spun or twisted in two directions, producing different structural effects. For convenience, yarn is described as z-twisted if it is spun clockwise or s-twisted if spun counter-clockwise (Fig, 0.11). The angle at which the fibres lie indicates, whether the yarn was spun tightly or loosely. The tightness of the thread twist may also be measured in twists per centimetre. The fineness or coarseness of the yarn is indicated by its diameter measurement (in mm), which can also provide information about the weight of the spindle used to produce it. Two or more threads may be plied together to produce thicker and/or stronger yarn (Fig.0.11). Thisis done by twisting two threads together, usually in the direction opposite to that of the oxiginal spinning, Thus, s-twisted yarn is usually Z~ plied and vice versa. Further twisting of plied threads is called cabling. The twist direction may have been culturally determined in some areas during certain periods (Bender Jorgensen 1992, 13). Spindle In order to control the fineness and evenness of the thread, the fibres must be drawn and twisted simultancousty and with the same speed. ‘The suspended or drop spindle accommodates all these requirements very efficiently. The type of spindle used in ancient Europe was a low-whor! spindle, in which the whorl was attached to the lower end of the spindle rod. ‘The alternative, high-whorl spindle was used in Egypt and parts of the Near East and may have come into use in Europe in Roman times with the immigration of eastern populations. ‘The two techniques may have overlapped in Anatolia, whére ‘middle-whot!’ spindles have been found (Barber 1991, 60-61). Asspindle isa simple rod with a hook ordent fon one end to attach the thread and to keep the yarn from slipping off the spindle shaft. Jn most cases, it was a simple indentation in the wood, but occasionally a special element was aided for the purpose, a spinning hook ‘The hookis an object made of a thin sheet of ‘metal shaped into a cone and ending in a solid hhook «. 5 cm long, which can be mounted on. ‘a wooden spindle shaft. Spindles were usually made of wood or bone and therefore they rarely survive in archaeological contexts. In addition, there are examples made of metal and other precious materials, all of which hhave been found in burial contexts. Length is ‘an important parameter in a spindle since it determines the exse of its use. Spindles ange in length from 12 to 27 cm (Ryder 1968, 79), although occasionally, examples of up to 40 em long have been found. Spindle Worl ‘The most common evidence for the use of spindles consists of the less perishable spindle whorls (Fig, 0.12). A spindle whorl provides weight and tension for spinning fibres into thread (Ryder, 1968; Crewe 1998, 5-8). A spindle whorlis asymmetrical, centrally pierced object. The vast majority of spindle whorls are made of fired clay but wooden, bone and stone whorls are also known. Whorls made of luxury material such as glass and amber have been found in burial contexts. Spindle whorls, often in large numbers, are present practically at every settlement site in Europe starting from the Neolithic period. A vatiety of whorl shapes are known; this may be due to a elationship between the shape of the whorl and the speed of spinning and the tightness of the twist. A smaller diameter will cause the whorl to rotate faster and, therefore, to produce a tighter twist than could be accomplished with a wider whorl of the same weight (Keith 1998, 509). Hence, different whorls were required for different types of yarn. Overall since these shapes do not change dramatically over time, whorls are practically impossible to date unless they come from @ datable context o¢ have a specific decorative scheme, ‘The shape of the whorl does not influence the yarn significantly. More important is the ratio of diameter to height, which affects the speed with which the spindle rotates, Whorls with a high ratio (like those with a discoid or lenticular shape) will rotate more slowly but for a longer period, while whorls with a low ratio10 will rotate fast but will soon lose theie velocity and will have to be restarted. The weight of the whorl is a significant feature and can indicate the quality, and, sometimes, the type of fibre being spun and the quality of the thread produced (Ryder 1968, 81-82; Parsons 1975; Barber 1991, 52; Grémer 2005, 109). For fine, delicate threads, small, light whorls are used during spinning (Lin 1978, 99), On the other hand, for stronger, coarser fibres or for plying, heavier whorls are needed. The recorded upper limit for the ‘weight of a whorl is 140-150 g (Liu 1978, 90; Barber 1991, 52). The smallest spindle whorls known come from the Middle East during the Islamic period, when implements as small as 0.8cm in diameter and under 1 gram of weight were used for spinning cotton (Liu 1978, 90-91). Spindle whor's fall within a certain range of weights for spinning particular types of fibre. Thus, to spin full-length flax or to ply yarns, heavy spindles weighing 100-150 g are used. On the other hand, short wool, flax tow or cotton, are spun with a light spindle. ‘The weight of the spindle used for short fine ‘woo! is about 8 g, while for the medium to heavy wool it is approximately 30 g (Ryder 1968, 81; Barber 1991, 52). By knowing the range of whorl weights at a particular site, one could infer the types of fibre and yarn being spun there. In order to make such estimates possible, itis essential that the excavators publish the weight measurements. Another important feature of a whorl is the diameter of the hole for the spindle rod. The hole must be large enough to accommodate the shaft. The expected range of the hole diameter for spindle whorls is 0.3-1 cm (Liu 1978, 97). The essential rotational parameters of spindle-whor's (shape, diameter, mass, height and hole diameter) can be condensed into the single numerical value of the moment of inertia, which enables the visual comparison of rotational properties of different spindle whorls (Verhecken 2010). Disaff During spinning, raw fibre could be held in the hand or fastened to a distaff. Short, hand-held distaffs were used for spinning short-stapled fibres, while longer ones, held under the arm or in a belt, were used for longer fibres. Distaffs were usually made of wood; even a Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering simple forked stick would have been sufficient for the task. Considerably less frequent were items made of metal, such as, bronze, iron, silver, and precious materials like glass and amber. Yet, while wooden tools rarely survive in archaeological contexts, numerous examples of objects identified as distaffs made of luxury materials have been found in burials (Gleba 2008). Such distaffs most likely functioned as status symbols. Splicing ‘An alternative technique to create yarn was splicing (Fig, 0.13). In this technique, the ends of pre-formed bundles of fax fibre, 60-90 em long, stripped from their stalks were spliced, so that the ends of the fibres would overlap in bunches and then only at considerable intervals (Barber 1991, 47; Granger-Taylor 1998; Kemp and Vogelsang-Eastwood 2001, 70-80). The ends of the bundles overlapped by a few centimetres and were twisted at the splice so that it would hold. Splicing is a technique particularly associated with Egypt and it is present in some of the earliest Egyptian linen textiles (Barber 1991, 145), but has also recently been identified in Neolithic Swiss textiles (Leuainger and Rast-Bicher 2011). It appears to have been one of the earliest yarn-making technologies used by the prehistoric inhabitants of Europe. Making a Textile ‘Once the fibres have been spun or spliced into yan, they can be woven into a rwo-dimensional structure. ‘Two classifications of textiles exist at present: one based on finished structures, ie. the way the threads interlace (Emery 1966), and another on techniques (Seiler-Baldinger 1994), A textile can be created by a variety of techniques. The fibres can be matted without forming a yarn, creating non-woven fabrics such as felts (Forbes 1956, 89-92; Barber 1991, 215-222), The earliest textile techniques were non loom-based and consisted of manipulating yarn in some way so as to create a web-like structure. These techniques are generally referred to as plaiting (Seiler-Baldinger 1994, 6). They can be made by hand or by using very simple tools such as sticks or a needle. Linking, looping and knotting produce mesh-like fabrics with a single continuous thread or element ig. 0.14). More complex techniques employ two orIntroduction: Textile Presereation, Analysis and Technology 1 Fig, 0.9. (ar ef) ‘Asbestos with muscovite (bip://ensikipedia. ony/wiki/ File Asbestos ith_russvitepe. more sets of elements, some of which can be passive. The passive system is generally called warp. The perpendicular active or movable system is called weft. Thus in twining, one of the earliest techniques, 2 passive system of threads is twined together with two or more elements of an active system (see Médard in this volume). The active elements are worked into the passive system manually. Sprang is Fig, 0.10. (f) Spinning created by twisting adjacent parallel threads sith drop spindle and Fig, 0.15; Hald 1980, 245ff; Barber 1991, ital (Drawing 122; Collingwood 1974), resulting in highly Annies Jepson). flexible and stretchable cloth, a characteristic equally useful in clothing or for other utilitarian purposes. S08 eZ az Tablet Weaving Tablet weaving is 2 common technique to make braids but was also popular for making decorative borders (Fig. 0.16; Collingwood ers! 1982; Sciler-Baldinger 1994, 73-76; Reder Knudsen 2010). Tablet weaving involves Fig 0.11. Spins ping passing threads through holes in the corners sin, Zeb Seb Of (usually) square tablets, which, when rotated (Aor Bander Jorgensen forward or back, force the threads to form 1992, 15 fig 2 different sheds. By rotating cards in different combinations, itis possible to achieve various patterns. This method is suitable for weaving narrow bands, such as belts, starting borders for the warp of a warp-wcghted toom, oc QO decorative edges added to the ground weave. Ge Fig 0.12. Sind wboris Among the surviving tools that may have been from Prego Ciitat, uilised in tablet weaving are tables, terracota 1a tb 7h ety C1 Courns of spools, metal clasps and combs as well as bone Ee spacers with pegs (see Raeder Knudsen in this volume). Tablets themselves, having been made of wood, bone or hardened leather, Fig, 0.13 Splicing of ata SS rte2 Fig. 0.14. Linking, looping and hates: eting. Fig 015. bbw) Sree age of craig sprang (arty of Exe Aad Sind. Knotless netting Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering Weave ‘A woven textile is also constructed by inter- lacing passive and active thread system atright angles. The process is generally automated (ee below). The textile is then defined in terms of its weave structure. ‘The simplest form of weaving, plain weave or tabby is produced by weft threads passing over and under alternate warps (Fig, 0.17), When the weave is balanced, ie. warp and weft have approximately even amounts of threads of the same diameter, its called a balanced tabby. ‘When one of the systems is denser, the tabby becomes warp-faced or weft-faced. In rep, one Of the systems has a considerably higher thread count, normally, a ratio of 2:1. Rep can also be termed warp-faced or weft-faced if warp and weft can be determined. If the warp and weft are paired, the resulting binding system is a basket weave; if only one system is paired, itis a half-basket weave or extended tabby. In the more complex, twill weave, weft threads pass over and under warps in a regular staggered pattern, each row being stepped to one side of the row above (Fig, 0.18). This cexeates a diagonal effect. If the weft thread passes under two and over two warp threads, it is described as a 2/2 twill. The variants include plain diagonal, warp- or wefi-chevron, broken and more complex diamond and lozenge twills. If the weft thread passes under two and over cone warp thread, the weave is called 22/1 twill (also known as three-shaft twill), and if it passes oneand over two,a 1/2twill. If no intactedgeisIntroduction: Textile Preservation, Anabysis and Technology preserved, itis often impossible to differentiate between the two. Here, chevron and diamond variants are also possible. attern-making possibilities may be further exploited by 3/1 twills and satins, which produce weft- and warp-faced effects (Fig, 0.18). Compound weaves include multiple sets of wefts and/or warps. Thus, block damask is 23/1 —1/3 twill. A samitum is a weft-faced ‘compound twill, ia which the warp threads are hidden on both sides of the fabric by the ground and patterning wefts. Satin weave on the other hand is warp-dominant and fotms 2 ‘minimum number of interlacings, resulting in a very glossy fabric. Extra wefts may be worked into the basic ‘weave to produce brocade and, hence, complex patterns. This is a weaving technique well known in Bronze Age Central European textiles (Barber 1991, 139). Weft-wrapping or soumak is another technique that superficially looks like embroidery and is also known as weft ‘wrapping or ‘snare-weave’ (Geiler-Baldinger 1994, 57). The Aying thread ox foating weft technique is another technique to create pattems (gf Gromer in this volume). Another supplementary technique used for decoration, tapestry, utilises several coloured ‘wefts, which do not pass from selvedge to selvedge but are woven into blocks of colour. Looped textiles are made when threads in one of the systems are not interlaced tightly but allowed to remain loose as protruding loops. Piled textiles, such as carpets, include fabrics of vatious weaves with extra threads inserted by knotting. Patterning, however, was not always dependent on a complex weave structure, but could be formed using yarns of different colours, spin directions (spin or shadow pattern), or thicknesses. Depending on the yarn diameter and on how densely the threads are packed in each system, the weave can be denser or more open. The thread count, that is the number of threads per 1 em in each system (threads fem), often indicates the density and fineness of a textile. ‘The presence of a border ot selvedge is very important in textile analysis (Fig, 0.19). Before weaving could begin, the warp had to bbe prepared separately from the loom or on the loom. Starting borders or heading bands are characteristic but not exclusively used for textiles woven on a warp-weighted loom. Such 1B border can be a cord, a tabby strip, or made by plaiting or tablet weaving (Forbes 1956, 192-194; Wild 1970, 63-64; Barber 1991, 116-118). Selvedges are formed by the turning of the weft on itself at the edges of the warp and can be simple or more complex. They can be reinforced with extra threads or cords, or ‘made in adifferentand more complex structure than the ground weave. The lower edge of a textile may be finished into a fringe or a cord, sewn back into the fabric, tablet-woven, or left loose. Fringes may be knotted, plated, twisted, interwoven of finished with tassels. Fig, 0.16, Tablet weasing (Courtesy of Lite Rader Keds), rep overt [lvstoyermey Fig, 0.17. Tabby draon in thre cies (Afr Walon and Eastoood 1983),4 Fig. 0.18, Tete Fig, 0.19. Storing border, sbedges and ishing borders (After Wild 1988) ‘Tablet-woven finishing border Loom ‘Weaving is accomplished on a loom, a special frame that keeps the warp system in place, while allowing the weft to be passed in between ‘warp threads. Generally, loom provides some degree of mechanisation or automation of the weaving process. Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering ‘The simplest of these devices, the back-strap loom, is atension loom, usually with the tension provided by the body of the weaver (Broudy 1979, 76-80). The warp is stretched between some stationary object such as a tree or a hook in the wall of a house and the body of the ‘weaver. The tension is created by the weaver leaning back against a belt that is attached to both ends of the cloth beam, Warp-Weighted Loom North of the Mediterranean, one of the main oom types used in prehistoric times was a warp- ‘weighted loom (Fig. 0.20; gf Crowfoot 1940; Forbes 1956, 199-202; Hoffmann 1964; Wild 1970, 61-68; Barber 1991, 91-113). The eatliest evidence for this type of loom consisting of oom weights has been found in Hungary and is dated to the late 7th millennium BC (Barber 1991, 93), The earliest representations of such loom are seven depictions carved into the Great Rock of Naquane in Val Camonica, Italy dated to the Bronze Age (gf Bazzanellain this, volume). A wasp-weighted loom is made of ‘two upright beams that stood ata slight angle to the vertical plane and a single horizontal or cloth beam, to which the warp is attached. In a warp-weighted loom, as suggested by its name, the warp is kept taut by the weights attached at the bottom to groups of threads. Since weights were most often made of stone or clay (Hoffmann 1964), they survive well in archaeological contexts and allow us to trace the presence and sometimes even location of a warp-weighted loom on sites (Fig, 0.21). Another kind of evidence for the warp- weighted loom consists of postholes, which may indicate the total width of the loom and the angle at which it was positioned with respect tothe wall. Archaeological and representational evidence suggests that the main upright portion, of this loom was probably braced at an angle against a wall or a post, an arrangement that uses gravity, with a shed bar at the bottom to separate the threads into a shed (Barber 1991, 103). A tabby weaveis created on a warp-weighted loom by dividing the warp threads in two groups by pulling every alternate thread and inserting a rod or shed bar between the two groups in such a way that one of the groups is in front of it. Such a position creates a natural or open shed through which the weft can be passed all at once. The artificial or counter shed is thenIntroduction: Textile Preservation, Analysis and Technology achieved by providing the back set of warp threads with heddles, or individual holders, usually made out of string for each individual ‘warp end thread, which are attached toaheddle bat. When the heddle baris lifted, it separates the threads in the direction opposite to the natural shed. Additional heddle bars allow multiple sheds and, hence, the mechanised ‘weaving of more complex patterns, such as twill. In a warp-weighted loom, the w started at the top, hence the weft had to be packed upwards. In order to increase the length of the cloth being woven, cither theloom could be very tall or the weaver had to become “aller. Usually, however, the height of the loom probably did not exceed human height, ie. 165-180 om, Standing on a stool or a bench would therefore be the simplest way to accomplish the task. Another way to increase the length of the cloth could have been by digging a trench under the loom, as depicted on the famous vase from Sopron, Hungary (see Gromer in this volume). Trenches linked to weaving om the warp-weighted loom have been found in central Europe (Dobiat 1990, 73 Fig. 1b, 84 Fig. 6). The most commonly used solution, however, was to make the cloth beam a roller so that the cloth could be wound on it as it ‘was being woven. Loom Weights Ie is not always easy to demonstrate that the weights found in an archaeological context were indeed used for weaving, unless they are found in rows (Wild 1970, 62; Barber 1991, 92-93). Similar objects have been shown to be used as weights for holding down roof thatching, for tying sacks, as fishnet weights, or as supports for holding a spit over fre (Wace and Thompson 1912, 43 Fig, 19; Barber 1991, 97 note 11). Another hypothesis is that they ‘were used as supports for the full spindle to facilitate the unwinding of the spun thread onto 4 spool or into a ball (Buchner and Rittman 1948, 40, Fig. 9). Ring-shaped weights are often associated with the hearth and identified as supports for cooking pots. ‘The vast majority of loom weights were made of fired clay, although stones could also be used (Hoffmann 1964), The manner in which the weights were attached to the warp is still debated. Most likely the threads were tied, not to the loom weight itself, but to an intermediary device such as a metal ring, a cord, or a bar which may have attached the loom weights to each other to keep them organised. A set of loom weightsis typically composed of 6 t0 30 implements, although it could reach 15 Fig 0.20. Warp. eihited lem and ts oan wth) nated “edb eri bad (Conte of Eva Anders Fig. 0.21. Loom megs from Poggio Civitate, Tbs 6-70 contery BC (Coty of “Athy Te.16 Margerta Gleba and Ulla Mannerng ‘weight varies depending on the weight, type of fibre, thread diameter and type of weave. ‘An alternative to a warp-weighted loom was a vertical two-bezm fom, in which the warp is stretched between two horizontal beams (Fig, 0.22), In contrast to the warp-weighted loom, ‘where the weaving proceeded downwards and the weaver usually worked standing, in the two-beam loom, the weaver sat and packed wards. Being made entirely Tne nines a hit hy Me ie ee an : Fig. 0.22. Two-beam retialkom (Drenng Amik ssn as many as 80 Barber 1991, 104), Fewerloom ‘weights would be needed if they are heavy,and more if they are light. The evidence for these numbers is provided by ethnoarchaeology and by the configuration of loom weights ‘occasionally found én sit, having fallen to the gtound when the warp to which they ‘were originally attached was destroyed or deliberately cut. Such loom weight series not only provide an idea of the number of loom ‘weights utilised in a loom but also permit the reconstruction of the exact orientation and the width of the loom, which, in turn, can be used to speculate on the size and quality of the textile being woven (7. Belanova Stolcova in this volume). The number of rows may also indicate the number of sheds, and hence the complexity of the weave. The pattern of distribution of the loom weights can also be useful in providing information about the location of textile-producing activities within the settlement. The degree of uprightness and the height of a warp-weighted loom, as well as the distribution of the weights must be considered when attempting to suggest a possible location for looms in houses. Weight and thickness are the most ‘important functional features of a loom weight (Mirtensson ef al 2009). Overall, they vary in ‘weight from less than 100 gto.2 few kilograms. ‘The number of threads attached to each of wood, this type of loom is known only through representations and is difficult to trace archeologically. Scandinavian Iron Age textiles found in bogs provide further evidence of ‘two- or multiple-beam looms as they had been created with a tubular warp (ff Mannering etal. in this volume). Horizontal Loom In 2 horizontal ground loom, che warp is stretched between the two beams which are fixed in place by pegs driven into the ground, and the weaving is accomplished seated on the ground (Fig, 0.23). The use of the horizontal ground loom in Europe has only been hypothesised on the basis of the possible Hallstatt-period depiction from Rabensburg (See Gromer in this volume; Fig. 1.24). A special kind of horizontal loom may have been used for certain types of fabtic (compound ‘weaves) in Roman times (Wild 1987). Shuttles ana Beaters During weaving, the weft thread was kept on a shuttle, which in its simplest form could have been a ball of thread or a simple stick, possibly the spindle shaft on which the yarn hed been spun (¢. Barber 1991, 107). Shuttles were most likely made of wood or bone and survive only in exceptional circumstances. The weft was bbeaten together with a special implement (Wild 1970, 65-67). The tools used to bear the weft against the already woven part of the cloth are seldom known from the archaeological record, partly because they were most often made of perishable materials. Throughout Europe, a variety of implements were utilised for this purpose, including combs and special weaving swords and knives, made of bone, wood and occasionally even of iron. Large, bone needles could also be used for the purpose.Introduction: Textile Preservation, Analysis and Technology Finishing After a textile has been created, it can be subjected to a variety of finishing processes. Linen cloth could be subjected %0 various rough treatments to make it softer or it could bbe rubbed with a special stone or glass piece to give it extra lustre (Wild 1970, 84-85), Subsequently, linen could be bleached and/or decorated in some way. Bleaching could be done naturally, by exposing cloth to the sun. Wool fabric could be subjected to fulling, ‘treatment with water and sometimes soap that produces a very dense fabric. Pulling establishments used very large basins, examples ‘of which have been discovered in Roman fulleries (fullonia’). The surface of a wool cloth could also be raised to produce a nap, which could have been accomplished with teasels (Goldmann 2007). Wool could alsoBe bleached with a special sulphur treatment. Plating might have been another type of finishing process, applied to both linen and wool. During the Roman period, both literary and archaeological evidence exist for clothes- presses (Granger-Taylor 1987, 120). While tno such sources are availabie for preceding periods, depictions of Etruscan garments in art indicate regular and often elaborate pleating of certain garments, particularly mantles, Textiles from Verucchio in Italy, dated to the 7th century BC provide the first direct evidence of such practice (see Stauffer in this volume), Sewing ‘A textile could be sewn into a garment, although the majority of ancient European textiles were used straight off the loom, that is, they were wrapped around and fixed on the body using devices such as pins and belts (but see Gleba and Krupa in this volume). In sewing, seams and hems represent the swsuctural elements of stitching, Structural sewing refers to the various ways of joining or finishing textiles. Also included in this category are repairs such as mending, darning and patching, Running, hem and overcast stitch were commonly used for sewing in the past (Fig. 0.24). Skin and leather could also be sewn to make garments (see Mannering ¢t al, Wincott Heckett in this volume). The tools used for sewing are needles, characterised by one pointed end and an eye at the other, and used to pass thread through fabrics and skin to reinforce, mend or join atticles together. Most extant needles found in ancient sites are made of bronze of iron. Metal gives strength and thinness, which are advantageous for the fine stitching of cloth and skin. In terms of size, metal needles usually do not exceed 10 cm in length. More often, however, needles were probably made of bone, a material that s less likely to survive in an archaeological context. Bone needles are often shorter and thicker than the metal ones, most likely to prevent breakage due to theit brittleness. Sewing was also used to decorate cloth by a variety of techniques. One of these is embroidery, which includes @ number Of stitches. Shells, seeds, beads and metal appliqués could also be attached to the fabric to create a decorative effect. Aspecialand rather costly ype of decoration was made with gold thread, which was crafted cither from thin gold wire or by winding very thin stips of gold (or silver) around an organic core. Gold thread could be incorporated into the textiles with different techniques. It could be simply woven in as brocade or added as an elaborate pattern in tapestry. It could also be used for embroidery, by itself to create haimnets utilising the sprang technique or to make cords and fringes by twisting several gold threads together. ‘The use of colour is probably no less ancient than the weaving of textiles themselves. In Europe, dyes were certainly used since the Bronze Age. The primary material to be dyed ‘was wool. The simplest way of imparting colour onto any material is by staining, which could be accomplished using mineral pigments or with plant extracts and does not require any special equipment. True dyeing, on the other hand, is more complicated. Dyeing can be imparted in various ways (Cardon 2007). The simplest way is by immersing the finished cloth in a dye pot which results in the entire fabric being coloured. Raw fibres or yarn can be dyed for more complex polychrome weaves or embroidery. A textile can be resist-dyed by placing it in a dye vat after parts of it have been treated with a dye-resistant substance. Finally, patterns can be painted or printed on the fabric. ‘Mineral pigments, such as ochre, were probably the frst materials used to transform18 Margarita Gleba and Ulla Mannering Fig, 0.25. Horizontal doom (Draning Annika Leper Brody 1973). Running stitch Fig. 0.24, Basie wing stitches (After 39% seudresscom) the colour of textiles. Pigments, however, are insoluble in water and do not chemically bind to the textile. As such, they cannot produce 4 long-lasting colour. Dyes, in contrast, are substances that can be chemically bound to a substrate, ie. a fibre. Almost all dyes are organic materials. Direct dyes are water- soluble and can bind chemically to the substrate itself. These dyes are usually fugitive since the binding forces are relatively weak, deteriorating with time. Vat dyes, on the other hhand, are generally water-insoluble and have to be chemically altered to a soluble and often colourless form (Lambert 1997, 73). Once the soluble form is bound to the fabric, treatment with air regenerates the original dye yielding a very stable or fast colour. ‘Most organic dyes require certain additional ingredients to make them colourfast. In some cases, only the levelling agent is required. Depending on the leveller, dyes can be classified as acidic or basic. Acids were obtained by using vvinegas (acetic acid) or by fermenting the dye plant. Basic dyes, on the other hand, were treated with ammonia or salt. Woad and indigo, for example, required reduction in an alkaline vat. Human or animal urine was often used for the purpose. Lime and potash, the latter made by leaching wood ashes, were other substances commonly utilised. Certain dyes require a mordant in addition 10 or instead of the levelling agent. Mordants are also classified as acidic or basic, and acidic mordants are used to bind with basic dyes and vice versa. Acid mordants are generally derived from tannins available from tree bark (specially chestnut and hazel) and gall. Basic mordants come from salts of metals such as iron, chromium, aluminium, copper, zinc, or tin, Thus, purple needs tin or iron, while maddet requires aluminium (Lambert 1997, 89). The mordant may be applied to the fabric before dyeing or it may be present in the dye bath. ‘These salts are often ingredients of certain clays, such as alum, caustic soda, or natron. Scraps of metal could also be used in a vat. The presence of the mordant may change the colour Of the dye and different mordants used with the same dye may produce different colours Mordant dyes are usually colourfast. Dye Sources ‘A variety of plants could have been used for dyeing (Cardon 2007). The colour blue could be obtained from woad (Lats tncoria L.) and. Asian indigo (Indigofera tincria T.), both ofIntroduction: Textile Prsersation, Anabyis and Technolgy which contain the active ingredient indigotin Indigo was probably not used in Europe until Roman times. Woad, however, was one of the earliest used dye plants in Europe. The dye was reduced in a woad vat, an anaerobic mentation of treated woad leaves assisted by the microorganism Clostridium iatdis (Padden and John 2000). Recently, indigotin has been identified in the textiles from Hallstatt dated to the Middle Bronze Age (1600-1200 BC), earliest instance of woad use urope (Hofmann-de Keijzer ef al. 2007). Reds and oranges were some of the most sought after and expensive colours. The root of dyer’s madder (Rubia tinctorum L. and other similar species like Rubia peregrina L.), native to southern Europe, was probably the earliest and most commonly used. Its active ingredients are alizarin and puspurin. It was used and even cultivated already during the Bronze Age in some areas of the eastern Mediterranean (Nosch 2004). Kermes (Coceus leis and Kermes vermilid) and lac (Coceus laccae), products of small insects growing on varieties of scrub oak, produce the most briliant reds. While kermes is common in the Mediterranean area, lac was imported from the Indian subcontinent and mostlikely reached Europe only during Roman times. An insect dye was, however, already used in some of the 6th-century BC textiles of Eberdingen-Hochdorf, Germany (Walton Rogers 1999, 241-243) Yellows could be obtained more easily and fom a larger variety of plants, such as weld or dyer’s weed (Reseda lteola L.), saffron (Crocus satis L.), Ayers greenweed (Genitta finctoria L,), safflower (Carthanus tintorius L.), and others. On the other hand, the flavones, active ingredients of yellow dyes are often less stable and are more difficult to identify in archaeological textiles. However, a large number of Early Iron Age textiles found in Danish bogs have tested positive for yellow dyes, which may have survived better in the special envionment of the bog (Vanden Berghe ef al. 2008). Among ancient dyes, in a category of its own stands Royal or Tyrian purple, the most famous dye of antiquity, obtained from a variety of marine molluses, such as Fexaplex 19 Fig 0.25. Purple stall rom to right Murex or Harapiex trancalus, Stamonita haemastoma, Bolious brandars (Courtesy Carmen Afro Gi) Fig, 0.26. Dye works in Morocco (owncepolina om).trunculus (old name Murex trunculus), Bolas brandaris (old name Murex brandari, Stramonita aemastoma (old name Purpura haemastoma), and other species (Fig, 0.25). Its active ingredient and chemical tags dibromoindigotin (Cardon 2007). Various molluscs produce different amounts of it with respect to the blue indigotin and red purpurin; hence, depending on the percentage of each species in the dye vat, the final shade could range from red to blue, purple being the most sought after colour. Purple production is usually associated with the Phoenician cities of the Levant, especially Tyre and Sidon, although the earliest archaeological evidence is found on Crete, dated to 1900-1800 BC (Cardon 2007, 441). The heaps of crushed mollusc shells throughout the Mediterranean testify to the scale of the industry in antiquity (Jensen 1961, 105-106; Barber 1991, 228-229; Alfaro 2002; Sagona 1999). Extant textiles dyed with shellfish purple are, however, very few and date predominantly to the Roman times. Due to the high value of true purple, it was frequently imitated by combining red and blue plant dyes or by using certain lichens. The earliest instance of purple dye use is currently documented in some mineralised textiles found at Qatna, Syria and dated to the Bronze Age (James ef al, 2009). In addition to the bright colours, often requiring expensive and rare dyes, a variety of shades could be obtained from plants common throughout Europe (Cardon 2007). Many trees produce tannin-bearing dyes, which are also used for the curing of hides. Thus, ‘oak and sumac can be used to dye textiles yellow, brown, or black, while pine produces brown and yellow dyes. Galls and nuts were commonly used for brown, The berries of elder (Sambucus nigra L.) produce green or black colours. Blueberries, on the other hand, create a violet, pink, or blue-grey effect. River cane can be used to dye fibre green or yellow, and nettle yellow-green or gray-green. Lichens produce brown, yellow and purple shades. Raw materials for the dyestuffs have to be ground in order to be used. Grinders, pestles, ‘mortarsand pounders constitute acategory of tools which could have been used by a dyer in order to prepare dyes by crushing or grinding the raw materials. These objects, although frequently found at archaeological sites, are Margarita Gleba and Ula Mannering rarely recognised as significant to the textile industry because they could have been utilised for other purposes, such as cooking, ‘During dyeing, relatively large vessels orvats are needed for dissolving or fermenting the colouring substance, as well as for immersing the fibres or cloth to be dyed (Fig, 0.26). In addition, the excess dye had to be extracted and salvaged somehow, especialy in the case of more expensive dyes (Barber 1991, 240). Channels, drains or sieves may be used for the purpose. Finally, areas for rinsing and open spaces for drying are needed to complete the process, neither requiring any sort of special installation Dyeing facilities, especially the large-scale ones, tended to be located on the outskirts of settlements, due to unpleasant smells produced in the process of dyeing. Large quantities of water required for rinsing also necessitated that dye-works be located near a body of water. Very little work has been carried out on the functional identification of such installations, especially in pre-Roman times. A major problem is presented by the fact that similar structures were used for washing wool and cloth, fulling, tanning and other purposes unrelated to textile manufacture (¢g, Sagona 1999). ‘This general overviewof the technical aspects of textiles demonstrates the complexity of textile production and underlines the importance of understanding the many different techniques by which they were created and decorated. Some of these techniques and characteristics are chronologically or geographically specific and can be used to trace the date or origin of an archaeological textile. Others are, as it will become clear from the following chapters, of a more generic character. Bibliography ‘Adovasio, J. M, Soffer, O. and Klima, R.B. (1996) Upper Palacolthc be technology: ntlsced woven finds from Pavlow I, Caech Republi « 26000 yeas ago Anti 10, 52653, ‘Alfaro Ges C1984) Tidy etl Pein Iii. Pibliothes Paesorin Hispana XXL. Magi Alfaro Gine, C200) buses producin de pura nel Impeio romano In M. Khanouss. Ruger and C Vismmara (ds), LAP roma Le pate Maritime hiMeitrane ecient gata emia At td XV como std, Scar, 7-10 dm 200, 681-696, SnenIntroduction: Textile Preservation, Analysis and Technology ‘Andersson, F. (2003) Toul fr Textile Production rom Bra and Hide, Birka Studies 8: Excavations in the Black Earth 1990-1995. Stockholm. Andersson Strand, E. (2010) Experimental Textile ‘Archaeology In E. Andersson Strand, M. Glebs, U. Mannering, C. Munkholt and M. Ringgsard (eds), ‘North Enrpean Spon for Archaea! Teter X, 1-3. Ancient Textiles Series Val 5. Oxford [Andersson Strand, E. and Nosch, M-L., eds (in press) us, Testes and Contexts, Investigations of Textile Production in the Browge Age Eastern Mediterranean, ‘Ancient Textiles Series Vol 12. Oxford. Appleyard). M. (1960) Guide ote denifction of Animal Fibre ined, Banck-Burgess, | (3999) Heehderf 1V; Die Testifunde sus dee pithallettichen Fistengab von Eberdinen ocho (Kees Linigsurg) und ave Grablextien our Halt und LateneatiienKulturrappen, Setar Baber, C. |W. (1991) Prhisine Texts. The Deopment of Cloth inthe Neakthic and Brnge Age. Princeton, Barber, E. JW. (1999) Tbe Mummies of Unimehi. New York. Barvanella, Mand Maye, A. (1995) La lavorazione delle fibre tess nel'Alto Garda durance eth del came In A. Pedcots (ed), Le statue tel di Ace La statuania antrpanerfe alpine nel II! milena aC: ablighament, fire ti lore, 107-124, Riva del Garda (Isento), Bazzanella, M, Mayr, A, Moser Land Rast Eicher, A eds. (2003) Textile. nrc tet dal presi eupea. Riva del Garda, Trento. Bender Jorgensen, L, (1986) Foritercke est Shand nave, Prbcorie Sandnavon Tester Copeahagen. Bender Jongensen, L. (1992) North Eurepeon Testes uti "AD 1000. Aatios. Bichler,P, Gromer, K,, Hofimann-de Keijer, R, Kern, Av and Reschreiter, H., eds. 2008) Haliatt Texte Tebnicel Analy Scenic nvectaton and Experiment on Tro Age Tes, BAR lat. 8.1351. Oxford Botgard, P. and Puybaret, M. P. 2004) Le travail de Ta laine au début de TEmpite: Tappore du modéle pompéien, Quels artisans? Quels équipements? ‘Quelle techniques? Tn C. Alfaro (ed), Parpartae Ves Ato the Ut Iterntional Sposa on Testes and Dyes in the Mediterranean Roman Waid, 8and9 November 2002, Bagg, 47-59. Valencia, Bower, B. (2010) Lice hang ancient date on fist clothes. Geneve analysis puts origin at 190,000 years ago. Siete Nes TTI), 15, Brandt, L ©, Tranekjer,L. D, Mannering, U, Ringgaard, M., Frei, K.M,, Willette E., Gleba, M-and Gilbert, MTP. 011) Chaeacterising the potential of sheep ‘wool for ancient DNA analyses, Archaeal and Anthrepopligical See 3, 209-22, Broudy E.(1979) The bonk of loam. Biter of th bondboom “fim ancient times tothe pron, Hance, Buchnes, G. and Rittman, A. (1948) Origine « pate dl ioledlcbia, Napoli Cardon,D. 2007) Natral Der Sous, Triton, Tibco ‘ard Sen Loni. Catling, D.and Grayson, (2008) ldmticaton of Vitale Fibre. London, CChen, H. I, Jakes, K. A. and Foreman, D. W. (1998) Preservation of Archaeological Textiles throwgh Fibce Mineralization, Jone of Archaeal Scie 25, 1015-1021 CChaisansen,C. A. (2008 A reanalysis of feeceevoution studies Inj Male (ed), Pia neti of Paani a Fat, NESAT Vii 11-18. Lode (tak (1983) Notes on Sal Texte Prames Pier fon Greck Vases. American Journal of rary 87, 51-56, Collingwood, P1974) The chun of ran pli on teed treads New York. Collingwood, P (1982) The Tebnigur of Ter Weaving New Yor Crewe L199 Sind Wher: A sy of frm, feton and eration in proce Bronce Ae Gp Jonseed Crocker, ©. (977) The Complete Spring Book. New "York Crowfoot, G. M. (1940) On the warp-weightd loom. “Anal af the Ents Sel at Athans 37 (1936-37), sear Debiat C1990) Der Burge bei Keinklin I. De “Auigotanen dir Jae 1982 wed 1988, Marbanger Sroden aur Vor and Frdhgeschichte 13, Hitzeroth, Emery 1. (1966) The Primary Scares of Fibrin "irae Clasiaton Washinggon DC Frscher, A. 2010) Current Examinations of Organic Remains ting Variable Pressure Scanning Elzon Microscopy VP-SEM. In E. Andesseon Stand, M Gleba, U Mannering, C: Munholt and M. Ringgtard (ci) Not Exapon Spain fr rbeeligil ees X, 37-62. Ancient Textiles Series Vol. 5. Oxford. Forbes, RJ (1956) Sin Anas Techoey. Vol. Teter, Frei, K M, Fre R, Mannering U, Gleba.M, Nosch M.- and Lyngstom, H. 2008) Provenance of ancient textles— plot smdy evaluating the Srsotope system in wok Arawmry 51), 252-216. Fre, Kr M, Stal L, Manntsing, U, Gleba, M. and Lyngstrom, H. 20096) The Hldremose Iron ‘Age texiles, Denmark an atempt to deine thet provenance applying the trendum isotope system. Jonna of Arba Sena 360), 1965-197. Gilard, RD, Hardman, SM, Thomas, R. G. and Watkinson, D. 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