PATHS TO CENTRAL AMERICAN PREHISTORY TCUSTA ETONPaths to Central American Prehistory Frederick W. Lange, Editor o UNIVERSITY PRESS OF COLORADO© 1996 by the University Press of Colorado Published by the University Press of Colorado PO. Box 849 Niwot, Colorado 80544 Tel.: (303) 530-5337 All rights reserved, Printed in the United States of America. ‘The University Press of Colorado is a cooperative publishing enterprise supported, in part, by Adams State College, Colorado State University, Fort Lewis College, Mesa State College, Metropolitan State College of Denver, University of Colorado, University of Northern Colorado, University of Southern Colorado, and Western State College of Colorado. ‘The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48—1984 ibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Paths to Central American prehistory / Frederick W. Lange, editor. Pom. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-87081-402-8 (clothbound : alk. paper) 1. Indians of Central America—Antiquities. 2. Indians of Central America—History. 3. Central America—Antiquities. I. Lange, Frederick W., 1944— F1434.P37 1996 972.8°01—de20 95-38455 PC oe) 7) a hdologisches Institut } KAAK - BONN 205/244For all the pioneers of Central American archaeologyContents Figures Tables Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Introduction, Frederick W. Lange i 2 7. 8. Lx 10. ih 12, 14, 16. ‘The Saga of an Archaeologist: A Brief Glimpse Into the Life of Wolfgang Haberland, Doris Z. Stone Settlement, Subsistence, and the Origins of Social Complexity in Greater Chiriqué: A Reappraisal of the Aguas Buenas Tradition, John W. Hoopes Stone Tools and Cultural Boundaries in Prehistoric Panama: ‘An Initial Assessment, Anthony J. Ranere and Richard G. Cooke ‘A Ceramic Sequence for the Lower Diquis Area, Costa Rica Claude F. Baudez, Nathalie Borgnino, Sophie Laligant, and Valerie Lauthelin ‘The Archacology of the Central Pacific Coast of Costa Rica Francisco Corrales Ulloa and Ifigenia Quintanilla Jiménez ‘The Bay of Salinas: Coastal Crossroads of Greater Nicoya Frederick W. Lange Luna Polychrome, Norma E. Knowlton Preliminary Research in Chontales and the Lake Managua Basin, Nicaragua, Dominique Rigat and Rafael Gonzalez Rivas ‘The Ayala Site: A Bagaces Period Site Near Granada, Nicaragua, Silvia Salgado Gonzdlez The Nicoya Shaman, Jane Stevenson Day and Alice Chiles Tillett Merchants and Metalwork in Middle America, Mark Miller Graham Prehistoric Coastal Subsistence in Northwestern Costa Rica: ? i ends, Lynette Norr Elemental Analysis of Artifacts From Honduras and Nicaragua, Paul F. Healy, Frank Asaro, Fred Stross, and Helen Michel EI Salvador and the Southeastern Frontier of Mesoamerica, Gordon R. Willey Gaps in Our Databases and Blanks in Our Syntheses: The Potential for Central American Archaeology in the Twenty-First Century, Frederick W. Lange References Contributors Index vii viii xii xiv avi xviii IS 49 79 93 119 143 177 191 221 237 253 271 285 297 305 327 369 371Chapter 1 1.1. In the field, Ometepe Island, Nicaragua 5: 1,2. Horseback survey, Ometepe Island, Nicaragua 6 1.3, Haberland’s research locations mentioned in this volume 7 1.4, Tola Trichrome: Tola variety incensario 13 Chapter 2 2.1. Aguas Buenas ceramics 16 2.2. Map of Greater Chiriqui, indicating sites mentioned in the text 19 2.3. Pedestal-based stone statue from the Barriles site, Panama 20 2.4. — Stone sphere at Palmar Sur, Costa Rica 22 2.5. Artist's reconstruction of an Aguas Buenas ceramic assemblage 24 2.6. Radiocarbon dates associated with Aguas Buenas and related 26 complexes 2.1. Chronological sequences in Greater Chiriqui 28 2.8. Distribution of Aguas Buenas settlements in the Térraba~Coto 33 Briis Valley and neighboring regions 2.9. Human imagery in Aguas Buenas vessel supports from 42 Costa Purruja on Golfito Bay, Costa Rica Chapter 3 3.1. Map of Panamé, showing the locations of sites mentioned in 55 the text 3.2. Paleoindian fluted points recovered from Madden (Alejuela) 56 Lake, Panama 3.3. Paleoindian artifacts from La Mula-West 57 3.4. _ Early Preceramic stemmed and notched points from Central 60 Panama 3.5. Barly Preceramic stemmed and notched points from La Florencia, 6/ Turrialba Valley, Costa Rica 3.6. Late Preceramic tabular wedges or chisels from the Rio Chiriqut 63 shelters, Boquete phase 3.7. Late Preceramic bifacial splitting wedges from the Rio Chiriqui 65 shelters, Talamanca phase 3.8. Unifacial stemmed points from third millennium B.P. contexts in 68 Central Panama. 3.9. Trifacially flaked points from early first millennium B.P. contexts 69 in central and western Panama Chapter 4 4.1. The Diquis Delta 80 4.2. The Greater Chiriqué 81 4.3. Partition of the surveyed area 83 4.4. Ceramics of the Camibar complex 86 viii4.5. Ceramics of the Sierpe complex 4.6. Ceramics of the Palmar complex 4.7. — Chronological sequences of Greater Chiriqui Chapter 5 1, Archaeological regions of Costa Rica 5.2. Comparative chronological sequenc: Greater Nicoya 5.3. Central Pacific region of Costa Rica: generaL distribution of archaeological sites 5.4. View of the Central Pacific from Las Mesas toward the Tivives mangrove 5.5. General view of the excavations at the La Malla site, Tivives mangrove 5.6. Structure made from shells, potsherds, and clay, La Malla site, Tivives mangrove 5.7. Pozo Azul archaeological site: locations of mounds, foundations, and cemetery areas 5.8. Mound with walls of river cobbles, Pozo Azul site 5.9. Carara archaeological site: plan of rectangular foundation 5.10, Rectangular foundation, Carara site, lower Tércoles River basin 5.11. Central Pacific region of Costa Rica: sites with Greater Nicoya ceramics . Central Pacific and Chapter 6 6.1. Map of geographical locations and sites discussed in this chapter 6.2. Chronological chart 6.3. Preceramic (?) tools from the Bay of Salinas area 6.4. Bay of Salinas site map 6.5. Bagaces period ceramics 6.6. Sapoa period ceramics 6.7. Las Marfas midden map 6.8. Detail of Las Marfas excavation, with multiple burial excavation 6.9. Groundstone celts, Las Ma 6.10. Ometepe period ceramic: 6.11. Vallejo Polychrome, Luna Polychrome, Murillo Appliqué Chapter 7 7.1, Structure of the design field in Luna Polychrome 7.2. Map of the Greater Nicoya subarea, indicating sites where Luna Ware, Luna Polychrome, or Lunoid Polychrome has been reported 7.3. Map of Ometepe Island, showing locations of Late Polychrome period sites 7.4. Artifacts recovered by Bovallius from a mound on Ometepe Island in 1883 Figures. ix 88 90 92 95 97 100 101 104 105 107 108 109 10 13 120 121 125 128 130 132 134 135 136 138 139 146 147 149 153x Figures Proposed sources of derivation of the Earth Monster motif of Luna Polychrome Elements of the three Alligator motifs in Luna Polychrome The three principal criteria for identifying Luna Polychrome in combination with major motifs. Bowls of Luna Polychrome: Luna variety Vessel forms in Luna Polychrome Modeled faces in relation to main bands on Luna Polychrome Bowls Monkey motifs ‘Types of Modeled faces in Luna Polychrome Vessels of Luna Polychrome: Abstract variety and comparison with Banda Polychrome Vessels of Luna Polychrome: Negative Red variety Vessels of Luna Polychrome: Moyogalpa variety ‘Tripod dishes of Luna Polychrome: Alta Gracia variety Vessels of El Menco Polychrome: exterior and interior Chapter 8 8.1. Location of Chontal nd Lake Managua basin projects 8.2. Population distribution in the Lake Managua basin at the time of the Spanish Conquest 8.3. Toponymy of the Lake Managua basin at the time of the Spanish Conquest 8.4. Survey zones in the Lake Managua basin 8.5. Distribution of sites in the northern part of the Lake Managua basin 8.6. Tamarindo site, Test #2, and burial urns excavated in Test #2 8.7. _ Rfo Viejo, north side of El Moucan site 8.8. Artificial mound, El Moucan site 8.9. Ceramics recovered from the El Moucan site 8.10. Distribution of sites in the southern part of the Lake Managua basin Chapter 9 9.1. Location of the Ayala site, Nicaragua 9.2. Ayala site, excavation profile, Test pit II 9.3. Polychromes of probable Honduran origin 9.4. Obsidian artifacts 9.5. Ceramics related to the Usulutén-technique group 9.6. Chavez White-on-Red: Astorga Cream variety 9.7. Rosalita Polychrome 9.8. Belo Polychrome 9.9. Belo Polychrome 9.10, Momta Polychrome 9.11. Momta Polychrome 154 156 161 162 163 166 166 169 171 171 173 174 176 178 179 179 181 182 183 184 185 186 188 193 194 200 202 208 209 210 2ur 2u 212 2139.12. Borgofia Striated 9.13. Agurcia Polychrome 9.14. Ayala Plain: Ayala unslipped variety 9.15. Ayala Plain: Ayala slipped variety Chapter 10 10.1. Map of Greater Nicoya area 10.2. Female shaman seated on Stool 10.3. Standing female shaman 10.4. Female figurine: Half woman, half jaguar 10.5. Howler monkey effigy vessel 10.6. Domed incense-burner with seated bat 10.7. Rosales zoned engraved plate with dancing shaman 10.8. Jadite ax-god bat pendant 10.9. Ceramic bowl with bat effigy 10.10. Ceramic snuffing instrument 10.11, Bone-sucking tubes Chapter 11 11.1. Map of Middle America 11.2. Mesita A, East Barrow, San Agustin, Colombia 11.3. Chirigui phase “Armadillo Ware” jars, with appliquéd frogs with flattened hindfeet in MacCurdy’s ‘metallic type” 11.4, Figure with mask and staff, from Ullumbe site, San Agustin, Colombia 11.5. Figure with mask, staff, and fan and cast-gold pin or lime spatula, Calima style, Colombia 11.6. Merchant party, Chamé-style vase, Ratinlixul, Chixoy Valley, Guatemala 11.7. So-called master and slave figure, from Barriles, Chiriqui, Panama 11.8, Fragmentary figure with conical plaited hat in the style of Barriles, from theSacred Cenote, Chichén Itz, 11.9. Support figure of the largest preserved metate from Barriles, with overlapping feline incisors, Museo del Hombre Panamefio, Panama 11.10. Merchant party, Chamé-style vase, Chixoy Valley, Guatemala ILL. Cast-gold twin figure pendant of long-nosed figures with fanlike paddles or staffs and “danglers” Chapter 12 12.1. 12.2, Map of northwestern Costa Rica, with archaeological sites indicated ‘The stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of food resources in lower Central America Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of human bone collagen from modern and archaeological populations with isotopically distinct dietary patterns Figures xi 214 215 216 ay 222 225 225 226 227 229 230 231 232 234 234 238 240 241 242 242 242 250 250 254 257 258xii Figures 12.4, Human bone collagen stable isotope values from archaeological individuals from the Santa Barbara region of California 12.5. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of human bone collagen from five archaeological sites along the coast of northwestern Costa Rica 12.6. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values of the edible portions of plants and animals from lower Central America compared to those of the prehistoric human diet in northwestern Costa Rica Chapter 13 13.1. Map of the northern Intermediate Area, detailing the location of archaeological sites and obsidian sources noted in text Chapter 14 14.1. Sites and geographical features mentioned in chapter Chapter 16 16.1. Archaeologically known, lesser known, and unknown areas of Central America 259 262 263 274 288 308Tables Chapter 3 3.1. Periods of occupation and radiocarbon dates for Panamé sites, dating from Periods I through Illa 3.2. Index of “thinness” for complete flakes from some central Panam sites 3.3. Distribution of selected lithic attributes in Cueva de los Ladrones Chapter 5 5.1. Central Pacific archaeological 5.2. Greater Nicoya ceramics in central Pacific sit Chapter 6 6.1. Bay of Salinas and Sapod River sites Chapter 7 7.1. Definition of decorative zone codes 7.2. Location of sites on Ometepe Island yielding identified specimens of Luna Polychrome 7.3. Form frequencies for Luna Polychrome varieties Chapter 9 9.1. Comparison of Ayala site sequence and other Greater Nicoya chronological sequences 9.2. Ayala site, distribution of ceramic types and varieties 9.3 Bagaces period radiocarbon dates Chapter 12 12.1, Human bone collagen stable isotope results from archaeological sites in northwestern Costa Rica Chapter 13 13.1, Sample Concordance 13.2. (a) Elemental abundances or abundance ratios by x-ray fluoresence analysis of 4 obsidian artifacts assigned to the Ixtepeque source, (b) Elemental abundances or abundance ratios by XRF of 4 obsidian artifacts assigned to the La Esperanza source, (c) Elemental abundances or abundance ratios by XRF of 2 obsidian artifacts assigned to the Giiinope source 13.3. Element abundances from neutron activation analysis of selected Nicaraguan and Honduran prismatic blades 13.4. Pattern of prismatic blade abundance xiii 52-53 64 66 98-99 114 129 145 148 164 192 196-197 198 261 275 277 278 280Foreword This volume accords to Wolfgang Haberland some well-deserved recogni- tion and represents the esteem and respect he has engendered among his peers, colleagues, and fellow scholars from Central America, Europe, and North America. Since the 1950s his contributions to our understanding of the prehistory of Central America have been marked by serious thinking and resolute confidence in the efficacy of archaeological fieldwork. Recognition of this legacy and commitment matters. Through the reconsideration of Hab- erland’s individual scholarly contributions, we ultimately examine our col- lective intellectual history. This takes nothing away from the honor bestowed on Wolfgang Haberland. In fact, it puts him precisely at the center of our reflections. At the same time it behooves us to note that the singular recognition this publication embodies is not idiosyncratic; that is, it does not represent an isolated or completely unique process. Our homage to Haberland implicitly acknowledges the long and brilliant record of German scholarship dedicated to the prehistory of the Western Hemisphere. Thirteen of the sixteen chapters in this volume evolve more or less directly form the research and publications of Haberland. As a result, a num- ber of the authors focus on the refinement or revision of cultural boundaries and local, regional, or areal chronologies. As Gordon R. Willey points out in his commentary herein, such time-consuming intellectual endeavors are a fundamental requirement for unraveling the prehistory of Central America. What is particularly satisfying to me in these chapters is the ongoing integra- tion of sequences illuminating material remains (e.g., lithics and human bone) other than ceramics. Of course, the latter are and will continue to com- mand a central analytical position in delineating culture histories. In addi- tion, a diverse range of the writings presented here derive from Haberland’s Pursuit of the “real-life” meaning of the material culture he assiduously unearthed. Particular attention to interpretations of select aspects of ideol- ogy, ritual, economy, and agricultural techniques are of specific interest. The other three chapters have different motivations. Doris Z. Stone’s bio- graphical essay provides the warmth of human detail and the wisdom of per- spective, creating focus insights on both Haberland’s personality and his intellect. As noted, Willey contributed a constructive review and commen- tary about the analytical chapters in this volume was well as an engaging order of research directions to tempt Central American prehistorians. The volume concludes with an energetic invitation by Frederick W. Lange, the editor, to “interpret the social dynamics of the prehistoric societies we are dealing with” and a review of the lacunae to be filled as we progress on this and related agendas. xivForword xv I do not intend this foreword to serve as a review of the contents; rather it is a preliminary means to frame some brief observations. As an art historian, composing a foreword for a collection of chapters almost all of which are authored by archaeologists is an intimidating but tempting undertaking—an occasion to toss another discipline’s paradigms and methodologies into the ring. ‘Although I may not share some of the technical expertise or laboratory finesse demonstrated by my colleagues in archaeology, I do share many of their concerns about the character of our research designs and the content of our explanations of Central American prehistory. I see, therefore, the heart of this volume dwelling in the continued and growing acknowledgement, regardless of discipline, that the state level of organization and all of its eco- nomic, artistic, social, and other organizational complexity is not the nece sary end productof human evolution; moreover its absence within a large and discrete region is not equivalent to that region being relegated to second- ary interest among contemporary scholars of prehistory. It is precisely the thousands of years of adaptive elasticity of indigenous Central American peoples and their proficiency in maintaining prior to the Spanish Conquest, less centralized and less complex social systems than their neighbors of the Mesoamerican north or the Andean south that warrants continued and increased scholarly attention. The explanation of this phe- nomenon and its variation in Central America can made substantial headway in., among other things, countering the mythic directionality of the evolution of human social organization. This tribute to Wolfgang Haberland continues the publication of specific research related to these issues. Importantly, the authors do not seek an isola- tionalist perspective on Central American prehistory. They readily recognize that “neighbors” tens, hundreds, or thousands of kilometers away may have had a demonstrable impact on the form or content of adaptations in this area. In a corresponding manner, the impact may well have been in the other direction (see especially Mark Miller Graham’s chapter). These are “facts” about the past that need to be verified or dispelled; they are not wholesale evaluations abut the evolutionary or adaptive success of any particular human organization. It is, indeed, a personal honor to be in some small way associated with a scholarly tribute to the eminent archaeologist Wolfgang Haberland. His pub- lications and field projects have already found their deservedly high place in the history of Central American archaeology. Equally important, his conge- niality toward his colleagues and his personal commitment to the discipline stand as examples for us. Peter S. Briggs University of Arizona Museum of ArtPreface The symposium “Weit ist der Weg: Paths Through Central American Prehis- tory,” which I organized with Doris Z. Stone, was held on Monday, 8 July 1991, at the 47th International Congress of Americanists, in New Orleans, Louisiana. What the participants knew, but what out of necessity was a secret beyond that circle, was that this symposium was in honor of Dr. Wolf- gang Haberland, a friend and pioneer in Central American research. Weit ist der Weg was the name of a popular musical film in Germany when I lived there in 1959 as a high school student. The term, in German, refers to a long path, with the implication that it is arduous. In the original context, it referred to the construction of the Brazilian capital at Brasilia and the major task of building the road to the interior. It seemed suitable for the symposium title as well, partially to hide its honorary focus, but also to emphasize the great efforts that Haberland and others have made in pioneering research in Central America. Wolfgang was a student of Franz Termer. He first went to Central America in September 1953, when the world was still reorganizing itself after the years of World War II. In a recorded interview, which his daughter Susann recently very kindly made for me, Wolfgang recounted the years spent traveling the isth- mus by bus, plane, horse, and leaky boats, dodging revolutions and estab- lishing basic chronologies and conceptual schema as he went: T got more or less an overview of the situation in El Salvador, which is very complicated. You see there was an idea that the whole republic of El Salvador was part of Mesoamerica as established by Paul Kirchhoff about ten years earlier. His frontier went down including large parts of Nicara- gua and also some parts of Costa Rica, what we today call Greater Nicoya Well, what 1 found was that there is, or was, a very sharp frontier in archaeological material different between western and eastern El Salva- dor. Western El Salvador is pure Mesoamerica, while the eastern part is something else; it isn't Greater Nicoya but it isn't Mesoamerica eith: ‘They have their own development, some influences going to and fro cer- tainly, but the ceramics change rather abruptly. The Mesoamerican poly- chromes cease to be east of the Rié Jivoa, which is the last river before the Lempa. For many of us still working in the region, this statement embodies many of the same territorial and periphery issues we are still wrestling with. As with many other early researchers, Wolfgang’s foundations are still intact—we have built upon them and expanded them but still rest on them. Tam extremely impressed by the breadth and quality of the writings in this volume. Some are highly sophisticated instrumental analyses, others are aviPreface xvii re-examinations of established concepts such as shamanism, and others are filling in many gaps that still exist in our basic chronological and settle- ment pattern knowledge of the region. Reflecting the current interest in Central America, I was particularly glad that participants came from North America, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Europe. Karen Olsen Bruhns, Paul F. Healy, Anthony J. Ranere, and Richard G. Cooke did not actually present papers at the symposium but nonetheless have joined in sharing the fruits of their intellectual labors in this volume, rounding out both geographical coverage and thematic analysis of critical contemporary issues in Central American research. On the other hand, the press of other obligations unfortunately kept Peter Briggs (University of Ari- zona) from revising his paper for publication, and illness prevented Dorie Reents-Budet (Duke University) and Virginia Fields (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) from revising theirs. For the timebeing, I briefly summarize them here: Peter Briggs gave a paper entitled “Observations on Occ cialization and Mortuary Treatment in Lower Central Americ: focused on the problems of “identifying and interpreting the occupational specializations of individuals found in mortuary contexts in archaeological sites.” He observed that though the presence of certain classes of artifacts (especially gold, shell pendants, and hard stone figurines) have often been used to identify high status, very few studies actually analyze the relation- ship between grave goods and the occupation or role of the deceased. He suggested that the grave goods represent not only occupation but also politi- cal and social roles and that degrees of specialization also are related to lev- els of cultural complexity. The paper by Dorie Reents-Budet and Virginia Fields was entitled “Early Classic Maya Jades From Costa Rica: New Inter- pretations” and focused on the interpretation of Maya glyphs carved on jade belt celts that have reportedly been found in Costa Rica. This paper was an update on earlier research on the same topic, concentrating on the question of why precolumbian Costa Ricans focused on the acquisition of Mesoamer- ican jade artifacts. Reents-Budet and Fields asked, “Why were they inter- ested in Mesoamerican jades when clearly the Costa Ricans were master jade workers in their own right and may have had fine local sources for raw jade, and why were the Early Classic Maya jade plaques the ‘jewel’ of choice?” They suggest that the main purpose of the Maya jades in Costa Rica was to enhance the prestige of local rulers. ‘These are both stimulating topics, and I hope that at some time in the future, these significant works may also be published. For the moment, the broad range of ages and nationalities of the symposium participants highlights the growing importance of research on the prehistory of Central America Frederick W, LangeAcknowledgments Doris Stone and I had three goals in organizing a symposium for the 47th International Congress of Americanists in New Orleans in 1991, for which the majority of the chapters in this volume were originally written: (1) to honor the pioneering Central American research by Dr. Wolfgang Haber- land, (2) to provide a current overview of research themes in the area, and (3) to provide a forum where younger professionals working in the area could present their data to an international audience. Many individuals and institutions combined to make the realization of these goals possible. The success of the latter goal is perhaps best exempli- fied by plans by Hoopes, Corrales, and the French team to hold a Greater Chiriqué ceramic conference in Costa Rica in the near future and the offer by E. Wyllys Andrews, director of the Middle American Research Institute (MARI) at Tulane University, to provide the Nicaraguan National Museum with a complete set of MARI publications. The French Archaeological Mis- sion in Nicaragua provided the airfare for Lic. Rafael Gonzalez of the Museo Nacional de Nicaragua to participate and also made it possible for Domin- ique Rigat to participate. Lic. Gonzélez’s living expenses in New Orleans, as well as those of Lic. Francisco Corrales of the National Museum of Costa Rica, were covered by the Center for Latin American Art and Archaeology of the Denver Art Museum. Lic. Corrales had just completed a Hubert Hum- phrey Fellowship in Museum Administration and attended the congress en route bacl to Costa Rica. All of us were delighted that Gordon Willey and Doris Stone agreed to serve as discussants for this session. We were honored to have them with us for the entire day-long session, and I am grateful to them both for their insightful comments, and their contributions to this volume. All of the participants and contributors were saddened by the great loss of our friend and colleague Doris Z. Stone on 21 October 1994 in New Orleans, Louisiana. EW.L. awitPaths to Central American PrehistoryIntroduction Weit ist der Weg: Central American Archaeology on the Eve of the Twenty-First Century FREDERICK W. LANGE The study of Central American prehistory has followed the historical trajec- tory outlined by Willey and Sabloff (1980:viI-Ix) for American archaeology in general: from the Speculative Period (1492-1840) through the Explana- tory Period (the 1960s to the present in various substages). It was during the latter half of the Classificatory-Historical Period (1940-1960) and the begin- nings of the Explanatory Period that Wolfgang Haberland made his primary contributions to Central American archaeology. His professional growth, parallel to broader developments in the profes- sion at large, is seen in comparing his publications on space-time, such as those for Costa Rica (1955), El Salvador (1960a), and Nicaragua (1966), with his other articles focused on behavior and interpretation, such as those on shaman graves in Nicaragua (1961d), the significance of the dit ribution of “Black-on-Red Painted Ware and Associated Features in Intermediate ‘Area” (1957a), the interrelationship of different early ceramic phases in Cen- tral America (1969), and a regional synthesis of Greater Chiriqui (1984a). As Doris Stone points out (Chapter 1, this volume), it is even more admira- ble that as curator of the Hamburg Museum fur Voelkerkunde und Vorge- schichte, he pursued these interests as part of professional demands that included a much wider range of world archaeology and ethnology. The number of scholars involved in Central American archaeology has grown dramatically since Haberland first went to El Salvador in 1953. One measure of this increase is seen in a recent review of the bibliographic status of Central American archaeology: Lange and Lange (n.d.:8) note that “approximately 75% of the available printed resources have appeared since [1967].” Except for Doris Stone and Gordon Willey, Haberland is alone in spanning the period from 1955 to 1992 in publications pertinent to the region. ‘Willey, who was a discussant at the New Orleans symposium and is a con- tributor to this volume, also had an early and significant impact on Central American studies as part of a distinguished career in American archaeology. Many of his New World syntheses (Willey 1955a, 1955b, 1958, 1959b, 1960, 1962, 1969, 1982) have continued to highlight the significance that additional data from this region should have in our understanding of the development of Western Hemisphere civilizations.2 Introduction In reading the various profiles in Willey’s Portraits in American Archaeol- ogy (1988), I was intrigued by his frequent references to roads not taken, especially with regard to his shift, at Alfred M. Tozzer’s insistence (Willey 1988:288), from Central America to the Maya area. Willey perhaps expresses this shift in professional trajectory most succinctly in the follow- ing passage (1988:288): Pursuant to my “Lower Central American plan”, that [ had outlined to him {Tozzer] back in 1949, 1 began to tell him about my next projected trip to Panama. This time I would edge a bit north in that country, all the while keeping in mind my eventual arrival at the Maya frontier. I noticed Tozzer’s face turning very red—or pethaps magenta would be a more accurate description—as I detailed my long-term research strategies. Then he blew up. “Gordon,” he exclaimed, “you just can’t do that! It defeats entirely the purpose of Mr, Bowditch’s intentions and his will! You just can’t continue to fool around in Panama with things like this shell mound culture of yours and neglect the Maya!” Willey (1988:289) continues: ‘This was the only real “fight” we ever had, and I am glad to say that he “won it”. A career in digging in Lower Central America would have been an honorable and useful way to contribute to New World culture history, but I am glad I switched to the Maya. Certainly, if I had continued with my original plan, I think retirement would have overtaken me about halfway through Costa Rica, on my mole-like progress toward the Maya frontier. Regardless of these sentiments and because of both the great intellectual energy and insights he brought to Maya studies and the relatively few per- sons who have worked in Central America through the years, it has been tan- talizing to consider what might have happened had all of those resources been focused on Central America rather than the Maya realm. I was pleased that Professor Willey responded positively to my request to discuss, at least briefly, the “what if ” question he himself often has hinted at. He responds (Chapter 15, this volume) that “if I had stayed with Lower Cen- tral America in 1952, would I have continued with potsherd time-space sy: tematics as the raison d’étre of my archaeological existence? One can only guess about matters like this in one’s own life, but it would be my retrospec- tive guess that my field of vision might very well have remained so limited.” This approach could be compared to the current call for a “back to basics” emphasis in education circles. When the effects of the inability to write intel- ligibly, to carry out even basic mathematical calculations, or to locate Egypt on a map of the world are compared with the extensive flights into archaeo- logical interpretation and modeling that have sometimes occurred in the absence of adequate (or any) archaeological data, Willey’s words have an equally urgent ring of credibility, We cannot answer “how” unless we control the basic data for “when” and “where.”Introduction 3 Nonetheless, developing narrow space-time systematics for individual valleys, basins, or bays holds the same risk as illuminating an urban parking lot in an otherwise dark block: we can light up isolated zones, but in doing so we also deepen the gloom in adjacent, unlit areas. We are comfortable with what we see on the parking lot, but we are perhaps less knowledgeable than we should be of what may be beyond the shadows and less inclined to explore those areas. Using what I hope is not too tortured an analogy, we can compare the lighting of the parking lot to the gradual illumination of some parts of the Central American isthmus and the relative darkening of others. As Central American archaeology evolved, initially there was a great deal of emphasis on developing basic time-space sequences, here seen as individual beams of light illuminating a number of geographically limited areas (Baudez and Coe 1962; Norweb 1964; Baudez 1967; Linares de Sapir 1968b; Lange 1971b; Sweeney 1976; Magnus 1974; Accola 1978a; Snarskis 1978; Hoopes 1984) We made significant progress in building local and regional sequen (for example, compare Willey 1958:107, fig. 9.4, and Lange and Nort, eds., 1986:fig. 2). These sequences became our well-lit parking lots. From these we expanded into our local emphases on various regional projects in Costa Rica (for the Bay of Culebra, Lange and Abel-Vidor 1980; for Arenal, Sheets, ed., 1984; and in Nicaragua and the Lake Managua basin, Rigat and Gonzalez, Chapter 8, this volume), in many cases losing sight of the sur- rounding areas. The chapters in this volume represent a balance between the filling in of space-timegaps and the development of syntheses based on the integration of already developed databases. This volume also utilizes a new nomenclature for the major cultural periods of Greater Nicoya. The earlier regional period names (Zoned Bichrome, Early Polychrome, Middle Polychrome, and Late Polychrome) were based on major changes in ceramic styles and decorative techniques. At the National Science Foundation-sponsored Cuajiniquil con- ference in May 1993, the participants decided to substitute a more culturally “neutral” regional nomenclature, and I have employed the new system in the volume where it was possible to do so.Paths to Central American Prehistory Frederick W. Lange, Editor o UNIVERSITY PRESS OF COLORADO© 1996 by the University Press of Colorado Published by the University Press of Colorado PO. Box 849 Niwot, Colorado 80544 Tel.: (303) 530-5337 All rights reserved, Printed in the United States of America. ‘The University Press of Colorado is a cooperative publishing enterprise supported, in part, by Adams State College, Colorado State University, Fort Lewis College, Mesa State College, Metropolitan State College of Denver, University of Colorado, University of Northern Colorado, University of Southern Colorado, and Western State College of Colorado. ‘The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48—1984 ibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Paths to Central American prehistory / Frederick W. Lange, editor. Pom. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-87081-402-8 (clothbound : alk. paper) 1. Indians of Central America—Antiquities. 2. Indians of Central America—History. 3. Central America—Antiquities. I. Lange, Frederick W., 1944— F1434.P37 1996 972.8°01—de20 95-38455 PC oe) 7) a hdologisches Institut } KAAK - BONN 205/244For all the pioneers of Central American archaeologyContents Figures Tables Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Introduction, Frederick W. Lange i ‘The Saga of an Archaeologist: A Brief Glimpse Into the Life of Wolfgang Haberland, Doris Z. Stone 2. Settlement, Subsistence, and the Origins of Social Complexity in Greater Chiriqué: A Reappraisal of the Aguas Buenas Tradition, John W. Hoopes 3. Stone Tools and Cultural Boundaries in Prehistoric Panam: ‘An Initial Assessment, Anthony J. Ranere and Richard G. Cooke 4, A Ceramic Sequence for the Lower Diquis Area, Costa Ri Claude F. Baudez, Nathalie Borgnino, Sophie Laligant, and Valerie Lauthelin 5. ‘The Archaeology of the Central Pacific Coast of Costa Rica Francisco Corrales Ulloa and Ifigenia Quintanilla Jiménez 6. The Bay of Salinas: Coastal Crossroads of Greater Nicoya Frederick W. Lange 7. Luna Polychrome, Norma E. Knowlton 8. Preliminary Research in Chontales and the Lake Managua Basin, Nicaragua, Dominique Rigat and Rafael Gonzdlez Rivas 9. ‘The Ayala Site: A Bagaces Period Site Near Granada, Nicaragua, Silvia Salgado Gonzdlez 10. The Nicoya Shaman, Jane Stevenson Day and Alice Chiles Tillett 11. Merchants and Metalwork in Middle America, Mark Miller Graham 12. Prehistoric Coastal Subsistence in Northwestern Costa Rica: Geographical Diversity and Chronological Trends, Lynette Norr 13. Precolumbian Obsidian Trade in the Northern Intermediate Area: Elemental Analysis of Artifacts From Honduras and Nicaragua, Paul F. Healy, Frank Asaro, Fred Stross, and Helen Michel 14, El Salvador and the Southeastern Frontier of Mesoamerica, Karen Olsen Bruhns 15. Lower Central American Archaeology: Some Comments as of 1991, Gordon R. Willey 16. Gaps in Our Databases and Blanks in Our Syntheses: The Potential for Central American Archaeology in the Twenty-First Century, Frederick W. Lange References Contributors Index vii viii xii xiv avi xviii IS 49 79 93 119 143 177 191 221 237 253 271 285 297 305 327 369 371Chapter 1 1.1. In the field, Ometepe Island, Nicaragua 5: 1,2. Horseback survey, Ometepe Island, Nicaragua 6 1.3, Haberland’s research locations mentioned in this volume 7 1.4, Tola Trichrome: Tola variety incensario 13 Chapter 2 2.1. Aguas Buenas ceramics 16 2.2. Map of Greater Chiriqui, indicating sites mentioned in the text 19 2.3. Pedestal-based stone statue from the Barriles site, Panama 20 2.4. — Stone sphere at Palmar Sur, Costa Rica 22 2.5. Artist's reconstruction of an Aguas Buenas ceramic assemblage 24 2.6. Radiocarbon dates associated with Aguas Buenas and related 26 complexes 2.1. Chronological sequences in Greater Chiriqui 28 2.8. Distribution of Aguas Buenas settlements in the Térraba~Coto 33 Briis Valley and neighboring regions 2.9. Human imagery in Aguas Buenas vessel supports from 42 Costa Purruja on Golfito Bay, Costa Rica Chapter 3 3.1. Map of Panamé, showing the locations of sites mentioned in 55 the text 3.2. Paleoindian fluted points recovered from Madden (Alejuela) 56 Lake, Panama 3.3. Paleoindian artifacts from La Mula-West 57 3.4. _ Early Preceramic stemmed and notched points from Central 60 Panama 3.5. Barly Preceramic stemmed and notched points from La Florencia, 6/ Turrialba Valley, Costa Rica 3.6. Late Preceramic tabular wedges or chisels from the Rio Chiriqut 63 shelters, Boquete phase 3.7. Late Preceramic bifacial splitting wedges from the Rio Chiriqui 65 shelters, Talamanca phase 3.8. Unifacial stemmed points from third millennium B.P. contexts in 68 Central Panama. 3.9. Trifacially flaked points from early first millennium B.P. contexts 69 in central and western Panama Chapter 4 4.1. The Diquis Delta 80 4.2. The Greater Chiriqué 81 4.3. Partition of the surveyed area 83 4.4. Ceramics of the Camibar complex 86 viii4.5. Ceramics of the Sierpe complex 4.6. Ceramics of the Palmar complex 4.7. — Chronological sequences of Greater Chiriqui Chapter 5 1, Archaeological regions of Costa Rica 5.2. Comparative chronological sequenc: Greater Nicoya 5.3. Central Pacific region of Costa Rica: generaL distribution of archaeological sites 5.4. View of the Central Pacific from Las Mesas toward the Tivives mangrove 5.5. General view of the excavations at the La Malla site, Tivives mangrove 5.6. Structure made from shells, potsherds, and clay, La Malla site, Tivives mangrove 5.7. Pozo Azul archaeological site: locations of mounds, foundations, and cemetery areas 5.8. Mound with walls of river cobbles, Pozo Azul site 5.9. Carara archaeological site: plan of rectangular foundation 5.10, Rectangular foundation, Carara site, lower Tércoles River basin 5.11. Central Pacific region of Costa Rica: sites with Greater Nicoya ceramics . Central Pacific and Chapter 6 6.1. Map of geographical locations and sites discussed in this chapter 6.2. Chronological chart 6.3. Preceramic (?) tools from the Bay of Salinas area 6.4. Bay of Salinas site map 6.5. Bagaces period ceramics 6.6. Sapoa period ceramics 6.7. Las Marfas midden map 6.8. Detail of Las Marfas excavation, with multiple burial excavation 6.9. Groundstone celts, Las Ma 6.10. Ometepe period ceramic: 6.11. Vallejo Polychrome, Luna Polychrome, Murillo Appliqué Chapter 7 7.1, Structure of the design field in Luna Polychrome 7.2. Map of the Greater Nicoya subarea, indicating sites where Luna Ware, Luna Polychrome, or Lunoid Polychrome has been reported 7.3. Map of Ometepe Island, showing locations of Late Polychrome period sites 7.4. Artifacts recovered by Bovallius from a mound on Ometepe Island in 1883 Figures. ix 88 90 92 95 97 100 101 104 105 107 108 109 10 13 120 121 125 128 130 132 134 135 136 138 139 146 147 149 153x Figures Proposed sources of derivation of the Earth Monster motif of Luna Polychrome Elements of the three Alligator motifs in Luna Polychrome The three principal criteria for identifying Luna Polychrome in combination with major motifs. Bowls of Luna Polychrome: Luna variety Vessel forms in Luna Polychrome Modeled faces in relation to main bands on Luna Polychrome Bowls Monkey motifs ‘Types of Modeled faces in Luna Polychrome Vessels of Luna Polychrome: Abstract variety and comparison with Banda Polychrome Vessels of Luna Polychrome: Negative Red variety Vessels of Luna Polychrome: Moyogalpa variety ‘Tripod dishes of Luna Polychrome: Alta Gracia variety Vessels of El Menco Polychrome: exterior and interior Chapter 8 8.1. Location of Chontal nd Lake Managua basin projects 8.2. Population distribution in the Lake Managua basin at the time of the Spanish Conquest 8.3. Toponymy of the Lake Managua basin at the time of the Spanish Conquest 8.4. Survey zones in the Lake Managua basin 8.5. Distribution of sites in the northern part of the Lake Managua basin 8.6. Tamarindo site, Test #2, and burial urns excavated in Test #2 8.7. _ Rfo Viejo, north side of El Moucan site 8.8. Artificial mound, El Moucan site 8.9. Ceramics recovered from the El Moucan site 8.10. Distribution of sites in the southern part of the Lake Managua basin Chapter 9 9.1. Location of the Ayala site, Nicaragua 9.2. Ayala site, excavation profile, Test pit II 9.3. Polychromes of probable Honduran origin 9.4. Obsidian artifacts 9.5. Ceramics related to the Usulutén-technique group 9.6. Chavez White-on-Red: Astorga Cream variety 9.7. Rosalita Polychrome 9.8. Belo Polychrome 9.9. Belo Polychrome 9.10, Momta Polychrome 9.11. Momta Polychrome 154 156 161 162 163 166 166 169 171 171 173 174 176 178 179 179 181 182 183 184 185 186 188 193 194 200 202 208 209 210 2ur 2u 212 2139.12. Borgofia Striated 9.13. Agurcia Polychrome 9.14. Ayala Plain: Ayala unslipped variety 9.15. Ayala Plain: Ayala slipped variety Chapter 10 10.1. Map of Greater Nicoya area 10.2. Female shaman seated on Stool 10.3. Standing female shaman 10.4. Female figurine: Half woman, half jaguar 10.5. Howler monkey effigy vessel 10.6. Domed incense-burner with seated bat 10.7. Rosales zoned engraved plate with dancing shaman 10.8. Jadite ax-god bat pendant 10.9. Ceramic bowl with bat effigy 10.10. Ceramic snuffing instrument 10.11, Bone-sucking tubes Chapter 11 11.1. Map of Middle America 11.2. Mesita A, East Barrow, San Agustin, Colombia 11.3. Chirigui phase “Armadillo Ware” jars, with appliquéd frogs with flattened hindfeet in MacCurdy’s ‘metallic type” 11.4, Figure with mask and staff, from Ullumbe site, San Agustin, Colombia 11.5. Figure with mask, staff, and fan and cast-gold pin or lime spatula, Calima style, Colombia 11.6. Merchant party, Chamé-style vase, Ratinlixul, Chixoy Valley, Guatemala 11.7. So-called master and slave figure, from Barriles, Chiriqui, Panama 11.8, Fragmentary figure with conical plaited hat in the style of Barriles, from theSacred Cenote, Chichén Itz, 11.9. Support figure of the largest preserved metate from Barriles, with overlapping feline incisors, Museo del Hombre Panamefio, Panama 11.10. Merchant party, Chamé-style vase, Chixoy Valley, Guatemala ILL. Cast-gold twin figure pendant of long-nosed figures with fanlike paddles or staffs and “danglers” Chapter 12 12.1. 12.2, Map of northwestern Costa Rica, with archaeological sites indicated ‘The stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of food resources in lower Central America Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of human bone collagen from modern and archaeological populations with isotopically distinct dietary patterns Figures xi 214 215 216 ay 222 225 225 226 227 229 230 231 232 234 234 238 240 241 242 242 242 250 250 254 257 258xii Figures 12.4, Human bone collagen stable isotope values from archaeological individuals from the Santa Barbara region of California 12.5. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of human bone collagen from five archaeological sites along the coast of northwestern Costa Rica 12.6. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values of the edible portions of plants and animals from lower Central America compared to those of the prehistoric human diet in northwestern Costa Rica Chapter 13 13.1. Map of the northern Intermediate Area, detailing the location of archaeological sites and obsidian sources noted in text Chapter 14 14.1. Sites and geographical features mentioned in chapter Chapter 16 16.1. Archaeologically known, lesser known, and unknown areas of Central America 259 262 263 274 288 308Tables Chapter 3 3.1. Periods of occupation and radiocarbon dates for Panamé sites, dating from Periods I through Illa 3.2. Index of “thinness” for complete flakes from some central Panam sites 3.3. Distribution of selected lithic attributes in Cueva de los Ladrones Chapter 5 5.1. Central Pacific archaeological 5.2. Greater Nicoya ceramics in central Pacific sit Chapter 6 6.1. Bay of Salinas and Sapod River sites Chapter 7 7.1. Definition of decorative zone codes 7.2. Location of sites on Ometepe Island yielding identified specimens of Luna Polychrome 7.3. Form frequencies for Luna Polychrome varieties Chapter 9 9.1. Comparison of Ayala site sequence and other Greater Nicoya chronological sequences 9.2. Ayala site, distribution of ceramic types and varieties 9.3 Bagaces period radiocarbon dates Chapter 12 12.1, Human bone collagen stable isotope results from archaeological sites in northwestern Costa Rica Chapter 13 13.1, Sample Concordance 13.2. (a) Elemental abundances or abundance ratios by x-ray fluoresence analysis of 4 obsidian artifacts assigned to the Ixtepeque source, (b) Elemental abundances or abundance ratios by XRF of 4 obsidian artifacts assigned to the La Esperanza source, (c) Elemental abundances or abundance ratios by XRF of 2 obsidian artifacts assigned to the Giiinope source 13.3. Element abundances from neutron activation analysis of selected Nicaraguan and Honduran prismatic blades 13.4. Pattern of prismatic blade abundance xiii 52-53 64 66 98-99 114 129 145 148 164 192 196-197 198 261 275 277 278 280Foreword This volume accords to Wolfgang Haberland some well-deserved recogni- tion and represents the esteem and respect he has engendered among his peers, colleagues, and fellow scholars from Central America, Europe, and North America. Since the 1950s his contributions to our understanding of the prehistory of Central America have been marked by serious thinking and resolute confidence in the efficacy of archaeological fieldwork. Recognition of this legacy and commitment matters. Through the reconsideration of Hab- erland’s individual scholarly contributions, we ultimately examine our col- lective intellectual history. This takes nothing away from the honor bestowed on Wolfgang Haberland. In fact, it puts him precisely at the center of our reflections. At the same time it behooves us to note that the singular recognition this publication embodies is not idiosyncratic; that is, it does not represent an isolated or completely unique process. Our homage to Haberland implicitly acknowledges the long and brilliant record of German scholarship dedicated to the prehistory of the Western Hemisphere. Thirteen of the sixteen chapters in this volume evolve more or less directly form the research and publications of Haberland. As a result, a num- ber of the authors focus on the refinement or revision of cultural boundaries and local, regional, or areal chronologies. As Gordon R. Willey points out in his commentary herein, such time-consuming intellectual endeavors are a fundamental requirement for unraveling the prehistory of Central America. What is particularly satisfying to me in these chapters is the ongoing integra- tion of sequences illuminating material remains (e.g., lithics and human bone) other than ceramics. Of course, the latter are and will continue to com- mand a central analytical position in delineating culture histories. In addi- tion, a diverse range of the writings presented here derive from Haberland’s Pursuit of the “real-life” meaning of the material culture he assiduously unearthed. Particular attention to interpretations of select aspects of ideol- ogy, ritual, economy, and agricultural techniques are of specific interest. The other three chapters have different motivations. Doris Z. Stone’s bio- graphical essay provides the warmth of human detail and the wisdom of per- spective, creating focus insights on both Haberland’s personality and his intellect. As noted, Willey contributed a constructive review and commen- tary about the analytical chapters in this volume was well as an engaging order of research directions to tempt Central American prehistorians. The volume concludes with an energetic invitation by Frederick W. Lange, the editor, to “interpret the social dynamics of the prehistoric societies we are dealing with” and a review of the lacunae to be filled as we progress on this and related agendas. xivForword xv I do not intend this foreword to serve as a review of the contents; rather it is a preliminary means to frame some brief observations. As an art historian, composing a foreword for a collection of chapters almost all of which are authored by archaeologists is an intimidating but tempting undertaking—an occasion to toss another discipline’s paradigms and methodologies into the ring. ‘Although I may not share some of the technical expertise or laboratory finesse demonstrated by my colleagues in archaeology, I do share many of their concerns about the character of our research designs and the content of our explanations of Central American prehistory. I see, therefore, the heart of this volume dwelling in the continued and growing acknowledgement, regardless of discipline, that the state level of organization and all of its eco- nomic, artistic, social, and other organizational complexity is not the nece sary end productof human evolution; moreover its absence within a large and discrete region is not equivalent to that region being relegated to second- ary interest among contemporary scholars of prehistory. It is precisely the thousands of years of adaptive elasticity of indigenous Central American peoples and their proficiency in maintaining prior to the Spanish Conquest, less centralized and less complex social systems than their neighbors of the Mesoamerican north or the Andean south that warrants continued and increased scholarly attention. The explanation of this phe- nomenon and its variation in Central America can made substantial headway in., among other things, countering the mythic directionality of the evolution of human social organization. This tribute to Wolfgang Haberland continues the publication of specific research related to these issues. Importantly, the authors do not seek an isola- tionalist perspective on Central American prehistory. They readily recognize that “neighbors” tens, hundreds, or thousands of kilometers away may have had a demonstrable impact on the form or content of adaptations in this area. In a corresponding manner, the impact may well have been in the other direction (see especially Mark Miller Graham’s chapter). These are “facts” about the past that need to be verified or dispelled; they are not wholesale evaluations abut the evolutionary or adaptive success of any particular human organization. It is, indeed, a personal honor to be in some small way associated with a scholarly tribute to the eminent archaeologist Wolfgang Haberland. His pub- lications and field projects have already found their deservedly high place in the history of Central American archaeology. Equally important, his conge- niality toward his colleagues and his personal commitment to the discipline stand as examples for us. Peter S. Briggs University of Arizona Museum of ArtPreface The symposium “Weit ist der Weg: Paths Through Central American Prehis- tory,” which I organized with Doris Z. Stone, was held on Monday, 8 July 1991, at the 47th International Congress of Americanists, in New Orleans, Louisiana. What the participants knew, but what out of necessity was a secret beyond that circle, was that this symposium was in honor of Dr. Wolf- gang Haberland, a friend and pioneer in Central American research. Weit ist der Weg was the name of a popular musical film in Germany when I lived there in 1959 as a high school student. The term, in German, refers to a long path, with the implication that it is arduous. In the original context, it referred to the construction of the Brazilian capital at Brasilia and the major task of building the road to the interior. It seemed suitable for the symposium title as well, partially to hide its honorary focus, but also to emphasize the great efforts that Haberland and others have made in pioneering research in Central America. Wolfgang was a student of Franz Termer. He first went to Central America in September 1953, when the world was still reorganizing itself after the years of World War II. In a recorded interview, which his daughter Susann recently very kindly made for me, Wolfgang recounted the years spent traveling the isth- mus by bus, plane, horse, and leaky boats, dodging revolutions and estab- lishing basic chronologies and conceptual schema as he went: T got more or less an overview of the situation in El Salvador, which is very complicated. You see there was an idea that the whole republic of El Salvador was part of Mesoamerica as established by Paul Kirchhoff about ten years earlier. His frontier went down including large parts of Nicara- gua and also some parts of Costa Rica, what we today call Greater Nicoya Well, what 1 found was that there is, or was, a very sharp frontier in archaeological material different between western and eastern El Salva- dor. Western El Salvador is pure Mesoamerica, while the eastern part is something else; it isn't Greater Nicoya but it isn't Mesoamerica eith: ‘They have their own development, some influences going to and fro cer- tainly, but the ceramics change rather abruptly. The Mesoamerican poly- chromes cease to be east of the Rié Jivoa, which is the last river before the Lempa. For many of us still working in the region, this statement embodies many of the same territorial and periphery issues we are still wrestling with. As with many other early researchers, Wolfgang’s foundations are still intact—we have built upon them and expanded them but still rest on them. Tam extremely impressed by the breadth and quality of the writings in this volume. Some are highly sophisticated instrumental analyses, others are aviPreface xvii re-examinations of established concepts such as shamanism, and others are filling in many gaps that still exist in our basic chronological and settle- ment pattern knowledge of the region. Reflecting the current interest in Central America, I was particularly glad that participants came from North America, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Europe. Karen Olsen Bruhns, Paul F. Healy, Anthony J. Ranere, and Richard G. Cooke did not actually present papers at the symposium but nonetheless have joined in sharing the fruits of their intellectual labors in this volume, rounding out both geographical coverage and thematic analysis of critical contemporary issues in Central American research. On the other hand, the press of other obligations unfortunately kept Peter Briggs (University of Ari- zona) from revising his paper for publication, and illness prevented Dorie Reents-Budet (Duke University) and Virginia Fields (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) from revising theirs. For the timebeing, I briefly summarize them here: Peter Briggs gave a paper entitled “Observations on Occ cialization and Mortuary Treatment in Lower Central Americ: focused on the problems of “identifying and interpreting the occupational specializations of individuals found in mortuary contexts in archaeological sites.” He observed that though the presence of certain classes of artifacts (especially gold, shell pendants, and hard stone figurines) have often been used to identify high status, very few studies actually analyze the relation- ship between grave goods and the occupation or role of the deceased. He suggested that the grave goods represent not only occupation but also politi- cal and social roles and that degrees of specialization also are related to lev- els of cultural complexity. The paper by Dorie Reents-Budet and Virginia Fields was entitled “Early Classic Maya Jades From Costa Rica: New Inter- pretations” and focused on the interpretation of Maya glyphs carved on jade belt celts that have reportedly been found in Costa Rica. This paper was an update on earlier research on the same topic, concentrating on the question of why precolumbian Costa Ricans focused on the acquisition of Mesoamer- ican jade artifacts. Reents-Budet and Fields asked, “Why were they inter- ested in Mesoamerican jades when clearly the Costa Ricans were master jade workers in their own right and may have had fine local sources for raw jade, and why were the Early Classic Maya jade plaques the ‘jewel’ of choice?” They suggest that the main purpose of the Maya jades in Costa Rica was to enhance the prestige of local rulers. ‘These are both stimulating topics, and I hope that at some time in the future, these significant works may also be published. For the moment, the broad range of ages and nationalities of the symposium participants highlights the growing importance of research on the prehistory of Central America Frederick W, LangeAcknowledgments Doris Stone and I had three goals in organizing a symposium for the 47th International Congress of Americanists in New Orleans in 1991, for which the majority of the chapters in this volume were originally written: (1) to honor the pioneering Central American research by Dr. Wolfgang Haber- land, (2) to provide a current overview of research themes in the area, and (3) to provide a forum where younger professionals working in the area could present their data to an international audience. Many individuals and institutions combined to make the realization of these goals possible. The success of the latter goal is perhaps best exempli- fied by plans by Hoopes, Corrales, and the French team to hold a Greater Chiriqué ceramic conference in Costa Rica in the near future and the offer by E. Wyllys Andrews, director of the Middle American Research Institute (MARI) at Tulane University, to provide the Nicaraguan National Museum with a complete set of MARI publications. The French Archaeological Mis- sion in Nicaragua provided the airfare for Lic. Rafael Gonzalez of the Museo Nacional de Nicaragua to participate and also made it possible for Domin- ique Rigat to participate. Lic. Gonzélez’s living expenses in New Orleans, as well as those of Lic. Francisco Corrales of the National Museum of Costa Rica, were covered by the Center for Latin American Art and Archaeology of the Denver Art Museum. Lic. Corrales had just completed a Hubert Hum- phrey Fellowship in Museum Administration and attended the congress en route bacl to Costa Rica. All of us were delighted that Gordon Willey and Doris Stone agreed to serve as discussants for this session. We were honored to have them with us for the entire day-long session, and I am grateful to them both for their insightful comments, and their contributions to this volume. All of the participants and contributors were saddened by the great loss of our friend and colleague Doris Z. Stone on 21 October 1994 in New Orleans, Louisiana. EW.L. awitPaths to Central American PrehistoryIntroduction Weit ist der Weg: Central American Archaeology on the Eve of the Twenty-First Century FREDERICK W. LANGE The study of Central American prehistory has followed the historical trajec- tory outlined by Willey and Sabloff (1980:viI-Ix) for American archaeology in general: from the Speculative Period (1492-1840) through the Explana- tory Period (the 1960s to the present in various substages). It was during the latter half of the Classificatory-Historical Period (1940-1960) and the begin- nings of the Explanatory Period that Wolfgang Haberland made his primary contributions to Central American archaeology. His professional growth, parallel to broader developments in the profes- sion at large, is seen in comparing his publications on space-time, such as those for Costa Rica (1955), El Salvador (1960a), and Nicaragua (1966), with his other articles focused on behavior and interpretation, such as those on shaman graves in Nicaragua (1961d), the significance of the dit ribution of “Black-on-Red Painted Ware and Associated Features in Intermediate ‘Area” (1957a), the interrelationship of different early ceramic phases in Cen- tral America (1969), and a regional synthesis of Greater Chiriqui (1984a). As Doris Stone points out (Chapter 1, this volume), it is even more admira- ble that as curator of the Hamburg Museum fur Voelkerkunde und Vorge- schichte, he pursued these interests as part of professional demands that included a much wider range of world archaeology and ethnology. The number of scholars involved in Central American archaeology has grown dramatically since Haberland first went to El Salvador in 1953. One measure of this increase is seen in a recent review of the bibliographic status of Central American archaeology: Lange and Lange (n.d.:8) note that “approximately 75% of the available printed resources have appeared since [1967].” Except for Doris Stone and Gordon Willey, Haberland is alone in spanning the period from 1955 to 1992 in publications pertinent to the region. ‘Willey, who was a discussant at the New Orleans symposium and is a con- tributor to this volume, also had an early and significant impact on Central American studies as part of a distinguished career in American archaeology. Many of his New World syntheses (Willey 1955a, 1955b, 1958, 1959b, 1960, 1962, 1969, 1982) have continued to highlight the significance that additional data from this region should have in our understanding of the development of Western Hemisphere civilizations.2 Introduction In reading the various profiles in Willey’s Portraits in American Archaeol- ogy (1988), I was intrigued by his frequent references to roads not taken, especially with regard to his shift, at Alfred M. Tozzer’s insistence (Willey 1988:288), from Central America to the Maya area. Willey perhaps expresses this shift in professional trajectory most succinctly in the follow- ing passage (1988:288): Pursuant to my “Lower Central American plan”, that [ had outlined to him {Tozzer] back in 1949, 1 began to tell him about my next projected trip to Panama. This time I would edge a bit north in that country, all the while keeping in mind my eventual arrival at the Maya frontier. I noticed Tozzer’s face turning very red—or pethaps magenta would be a more accurate description—as I detailed my long-term research strategies. Then he blew up. “Gordon,” he exclaimed, “you just can’t do that! It defeats entirely the purpose of Mr, Bowditch’s intentions and his will! You just can’t continue to fool around in Panama with things like this shell mound culture of yours and neglect the Maya!” Willey (1988:289) continues: ‘This was the only real “fight” we ever had, and I am glad to say that he “won it”. A career in digging in Lower Central America would have been an honorable and useful way to contribute to New World culture history, but I am glad I switched to the Maya. Certainly, if I had continued with my original plan, I think retirement would have overtaken me about halfway through Costa Rica, on my mole-like progress toward the Maya frontier. Regardless of these sentiments and because of both the great intellectual energy and insights he brought to Maya studies and the relatively few per- sons who have worked in Central America through the years, it has been tan- talizing to consider what might have happened had all of those resources been focused on Central America rather than the Maya realm. I was pleased that Professor Willey responded positively to my request to discuss, at least briefly, the “what if ” question he himself often has hinted at. He responds (Chapter 15, this volume) that “if I had stayed with Lower Cen- tral America in 1952, would I have continued with potsherd time-space sy: tematics as the raison d’étre of my archaeological existence? One can only guess about matters like this in one’s own life, but it would be my retrospec- tive guess that my field of vision might very well have remained so limited.” This approach could be compared to the current call for a “back to basics” emphasis in education circles. When the effects of the inability to write intel- ligibly, to carry out even basic mathematical calculations, or to locate Egypt on a map of the world are compared with the extensive flights into archaeo- logical interpretation and modeling that have sometimes occurred in the absence of adequate (or any) archaeological data, Willey’s words have an equally urgent ring of credibility, We cannot answer “how” unless we control the basic data for “when” and “where.”Introduction 3 Nonetheless, developing narrow space-time systematics for individual valleys, basins, or bays holds the same risk as illuminating an urban parking lot in an otherwise dark block: we can light up isolated zones, but in doing so we also deepen the gloom in adjacent, unlit areas. We are comfortable with what we see on the parking lot, but we are perhaps less knowledgeable than we should be of what may be beyond the shadows and less inclined to explore those areas. Using what I hope is not too tortured an analogy, we can compare the lighting of the parking lot to the gradual illumination of some parts of the Central American isthmus and the relative darkening of others. As Central American archaeology evolved, initially there was a great deal of emphasis on developing basic time-space sequences, here seen as individual beams of light illuminating a number of geographically limited areas (Baudez and Coe 1962; Norweb 1964; Baudez 1967; Linares de Sapir 1968b; Lange 1971b; Sweeney 1976; Magnus 1974; Accola 1978a; Snarskis 1978; Hoopes 1984) We made significant progress in building local and regional sequen (for example, compare Willey 1958:107, fig. 9.4, and Lange and Nort, eds., 1986:fig. 2). These sequences became our well-lit parking lots. From these we expanded into our local emphases on various regional projects in Costa Rica (for the Bay of Culebra, Lange and Abel-Vidor 1980; for Arenal, Sheets, ed., 1984; and in Nicaragua and the Lake Managua basin, Rigat and Gonzalez, Chapter 8, this volume), in many cases losing sight of the sur- rounding areas. The chapters in this volume represent a balance between the filling in of space-timegaps and the development of syntheses based on the integration of already developed databases. This volume also utilizes a new nomenclature for the major cultural periods of Greater Nicoya. The earlier regional period names (Zoned Bichrome, Early Polychrome, Middle Polychrome, and Late Polychrome) were based on major changes in ceramic styles and decorative techniques. At the National Science Foundation-sponsored Cuajiniquil con- ference in May 1993, the participants decided to substitute a more culturally “neutral” regional nomenclature, and I have employed the new system in the volume where it was possible to do so.1. The Saga of an Archaeologist A Brief Glimpse Into the Life of Wolfgang Haberland DORIS Z. STONE Wolfgang Haberland is one of the few living German archaeologists who was trained in the “old school.” This preparation helped develop one of his most important traits of character: the commitment to hard work and detailed study. This commitment also is seen in his belief that an archaeologist who does not do fieldwork is bound too much in theory (Figures 1.1, 1.2). Figure 1.1 In the field, Ometepe Island, Nicaragua. Haberland came from a Hamburg family that imported coffee and cacao (chocolate beans); they eventually moved to the suburbs, where Wolfgang still makes his home. At the time of World War II, however, they were involved in running movie houses. When Wolfgang was a very young boy, he was an avid reader of mythology. It is not surprising that by the time he was thirteen, he was taking advantage of the proximity of Hamburg, noted for its intellectual and artistic advantages. He became a frequent visitor to6 Doris Z. Stone Figure 1.2 Horseback survey, Ometepe Island, Nicaragua. the Museum fur Voelkerkunde, with its Near Eastern and precolumbian col- lections. During vacations, he visited it so often that he could no longer afford the cost of public transportation but walked half an hour or more to and from the museum. Wolfgang focused his attention on Mesoamerican and Near Eastern cultures, particularly the Hittites. His interest in Mesoamerica was due in part to a book concerning this collection written by Wilhelm Dansel, an employee of the museum who had to flee in 1934 because he was Jewish. With the advent of World War II, Wolfgang was drafted into the army and received a battlefield commission as a lieutenant on the eastern front, where he lost three fingers from his right hand. He was captured by the Russians at the battle of Stalingrad; to escape boredom while a prisoner of war, he taught himself Russian by reading all the works of Karl Marx. Back at home in 1947, Wolfgang matriculated at the University of Ham- burg but could not decide whether to study Near Eastern or American archae- ology. The problem solved itself. Near Eastern culture required a knowledge of Greek, which Haberland lacked and had no desire to acquire; nor was he interested in Greek sculpture, which formed the chief focus of the course at the university. Added to these negative aspects, other institutions, in particular the University of Wurzburg, specialized in this area, and as Wolfgang himself points out, it was impossible to obtain lodging in Germany in 1948. Hamburg, in contrast, lay within easy reach of home. Furthermore, the director of theThe Saga of an Archaeologist 7 Figure 1.3 Haberland’s research locations mentioned in this volume. Voelkerkunde Museum also held the post of professor of Mexican (and what is today called Mesoamerican) archaeology at Hamburg University. At the time Wolfgang enrolled at Hamburg, these positions were occupied by the eminent geographer and devotee of precolumbian cultures Franz Termer, Termer was a pioneer in the study of Central America and the Mexican Maya as well as the Aztecs (1948). He soon became Wolfgang’s mentor and trained him along the lines of his own interests. In 1952 when Haberland completed his dissertation on “Regional Distribution of Ornamental Ele- ments in the Territory of Classic Maya Culture,” Termer gave him a job in the American section at the Hamburg Museum. In 1953 Haberland, who had never been in the field, was offered a one- year contract with free board and lodging, plus twenty dollars a week for expenses, to work in El Salvador. The sponsor of this project was the Ins tuto Tropical de Investigaciones Cientificas, a joint project between the Uni- versity of San Salvador and the Hamburg Museum. To Wolfgang, who pictured this country as abundant with Maya ruins, the opportunity seemed to be manna from heaven. He later discovered his error, but the door to Cen- tral American archaeology was opened, and he began along the road to important scientific investigations. (Figure 1.3 shows the different locations in which Haberland has done fieldwork or conducted museum research.)8 Doris Z. Stone His first move was a lucky one. Termer had received a grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Inc., and had planned a field trip to Guatemala at the same time that Haberland scheduled his research in El Salvador. However, Termer was denied a visa because no peace treaty had been signed between Guatemala and Germany. This refusal resulted in Termer’s decision to accompany Haberland to El Salvador, a change that proved fortunate for the younger scholar, who totally lacked experience in the field and in Latin America. Some of the time, they worked in the western part of El Salvador; in the eastern sector of the country, they surveyed more than 100 sites. Haberland also conducted independent inves- tigations on horseback, although he published very little. This was because the man who was then subsecretary of culture, Jorge Larde y Larin, refused to release any material for study. Nevertheless, in the course of the survey, Wolfgang helped to verify what Walter Lehmann and Samuel Kirkland Lothrop had suggested before him: that the Lempa River was the cultural dividing line between western and eastern El Salvador. In other words, the west belonged to Mesoamerica, and the east (in Haberland’s own words) was “something else,”! with a rather sudden change in ceramics indicated by the lack of Mesoamerican polychromes east of the Jivoa River just before the Lempa. He also noted that the most interesting sites encountered in his survey were deeply buried in volcanic ash. At least one of these places had an undu- lating humus surface beneath the ash, a fact that at the time was puzzling. Today it is recognized as indicative of planted ridges in agricultural fields. Haberland managed to write a general report (1958) of his finds despite the subsecretary’s refusal to loan him his own potsherds for study. Among the most important results of his investigations was the discovery of clay fig- urines with articulated limbs and miniature pottery drums (1961e); these were items that bespoke the cultural diversity within this area. He also pub- lished the regional petroglyphs (1959c) and years later, after he obtained good photographs, the wall paintings from the cave of Espiritu Santo (1976b). Accompanying Termer, Haberland went to Tegucigalpa, Honduras, to visit the museum and then on to the Chontales region in central Nicaragua. He also collected pottery shards in Acoyopa. After a year of similar im gation in El Salvador, Wolfgang took a short vacation to Belize (then British Honduras), where he had the opportunity to see the circular pyramid at Lou- isville. Here, as was his custom, he gathered shards, which he took to Guate- mala for study. In comparisons with local shards, he found they could be placed in the Mamon period (900-600 B.c.). From Guatemala he returned to El Salvador. Around 1954, Termer left to work in Costa Rica and Panama. On the Atlan- tic watershed in Costa Rica, he excavated a grave on the Old Line (Linea Vieja) and became so excited with its contents that he persuaded Haberland toThe Saga of an Archaeologist 9 apply for a grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft to do fieldwork in lower Central America. The grant was awarded, and in December 1954 Wolfgang set off for Costa Rica, making a short stop in Nicaragua en route. At that time archaeological collections in Nicaragua frequently contained highly polished black pottery ocarinas shaped as animals. At first, Haberland assumed these to be false but was so constantly assured by everyone that they were legitimate that he became determined to visit Ometepe Island, their supposed place of origin. He finally induced the son of a good friend to take him, but his available time was too short for work, and he was forced to return to Managua. From there he continued south to Costa Rica, where his intentions were to excavate at Nacascolo, a large site on the Bay of Culebra, in Guanacaste Province. Three days after his arrival at Nacascolo, a revolution occurred, which forced him to go to the capital of San José. Here the German embassy for- bade his return to Guanacaste. Therefore, Haberland went to Buenos Aires, in the southern Pacific region of the country. In those days Buenos Aires was a village at the southernmost end of the General Valley, on the proposed route for the Pan-American Highway. There he excavated in some small burial mounds and found about twenty graves (Haberland 1955, 1959a). The presence of ceramics similar in appearance to well-known pottery in Chiriqué, Panamé, made Haberland decide to investigate sites on that side of the border. This in turn obliged him to return to San José and then to Panama City to obtain a permit to excavate. His next stop was in the Santa Clara Valley, Chiriqui Province, Panama. Although Haberland for the most part found badly looted graveyards, he managed to excavate at least three intact burials. Results of these excavations and of the excavation of ten more graves near Concepcién at San Miguel were published by Haberland (1957b, 1961a). The reports were the first to describe the interments themselves, not just the tomb furnishings, as his predecessors Holmes (1888) and MacCurdy (1911) had done. Continuing with his survey, Wolfgang went to Madden Lake, an impoundment created by the Panama Canal. There he examined material associated with the area, including private collections containing fluted points, which were some of the oldest stone artifacts known from the isth- mian region. He was successful in persuading the owners of these objects to allow him to publish information on them. Wolfgang was very interested in his work and had planned to remain in Panama. However, he received a letter from Franz Termer asking him to head the American Department at the Hamburg Museum, provided that he arrive by July 1, 1955. The position, which he accepted, enabled Haberland to develop a series of rotating exhibits focusing on diverse world cultures, from the Amazonian rain forests to the frigid Arctic zones. This practice broadened his knowledge, helped raise the educational value of the museum, and added to the prestige of the institution.*10 Doris Z. Stone The Central American material in Hamburg was very limited, so Haber- land concentrated on central Mexican archaeology and folklore. He believed that one subject helped to explain the other because frequently the past con- tinued to live in the folklore of the people. In the case of the Hamburg exhib- its, they began with central Mexican Middle Classic period (the earliest in the museum's collection) and continued through the latest objects of the twentieth century. It was not until July 1958 that Haberland returned to Central America. This trip was financed by the German Science Foundation and the Ibero-American Foundation; the expenses were paid by the German Science Foundation and in large part by Haberland himself. The principal reason for this venture was the meeting in San José, Costa Rica, of the 33d Interna- tional Congress of Americanists, where he delivered a paper (1959b) entitled “A Re-appraisal of Chiriquian Pottery Types.” This updated the earlier publi- cations of Holmes (1888), MacCurdy (1911), and Osgood (1935), all of which focused mostly on collections of “classical” wares from about A.D. 1200 to 1300. Haberland’s findings separated local Chiriquian traits from nonlocal ones and identified some resemblances to other regions. After the meeting, Wolfgang went once more to San Salvador in a vain attempt to have his material released from the Instituto Tropical. The former director, with whom Haberland could work and whom he respected, had died, and his place had been taken by two appointees whose interests and orientation were more political than scientific. Even a permit that Wolfgang procured from the Salvadoran parliament was not sufficient to allow his boxes to be opened for study, much less for export. The blame fell on a 1905 law forbidding any “archaeological jewels” (joyas arqueol6gicas) to leave the country, although no one could define archaeological jewel. Haberland made more surveys in territory he did not know while he waited in vain; he also excavated a little at the postclassic pyramid of San Francisco. Three months passed before “Wolfie,” as his friends call him, returned to Costa Rica, where I, as acting head of the National Museum of Costa Rica, saw to it that he received his permit to excavate. Once more he set out for Buenos Aires to continue his investiga- tions of the burial mounds, begun in 1954. Costa Rican law required any excavator to obtain permission from the owner of the property where he or she would like to work and to comply with the landowner’s wishes before touching anything. Most owners were after money, so prices were (and still are) relatively high and could not be met by Haberland.’ This was largely due to the fact that the route of the unfinished Pan-American Highway ran through a large portion of the province, causing an invasion by all types of people from the Central Plateau who sometimes even destroyed Indian pos- sessions. In other words, everyone wanted a piece of the pie, and public land rather scarce. Thus Haberland most often found himself confined to roads and their banks or to borders of public lands.The Saga of an Archaeologist 11 Haberland stayed in Buenos Aires for about a month, excavating and con- ducting a survey of the Ceiba River area and excavating some tombs near the confluence of this stream with the Rio Grande de Térraba (Haberland 1961b). These tombs were lined with stone and resembled boxes. Because of this similarity they are called “box tombs.” Alll of these were empty, imply- ing that whatever offerings were made were perishable—for example, food- stuffs, clothes, etc From Buenos Aires, Haberland continued southeast to Golfito, where he met an old friend, the German geographer Richard Weyl. Together they crossed the Golfo Dulce to the Osa Peninsula, where Haberland made more surveys and conducted some excavations (Haberland 1960c). He then went west to Dominical, which archaeologically was the gateway to the General Valley. After a short bout with illness, he again continued his routine work, from which only the preliminary reports have appeared. Returning to Panamé, Wolfgang met another old friend, an archaeology buff named Buck Turner, who lived in the Canal Zone. Turner accompanied him to Concepeién and Aguas Buenas in Chiriqui, and they made surveys, small excavations, and shard collections in both regions. Haberland once more left Panama City to investigate the Azuero Peninsula on the Pacific coast and was planning to visit the San Blas Islands when he returned to the capital. However, it was 1959, and invading Cuban revolutionaries were try- ing to convert the San Blas Indians to their cause to gain a firm footing nearer to the Panama Canal. Closed roads and the invasion prohibited any approach. Such conditions prompted Wolfie’s trip to Bogota, Colombia, to visit some colleagues and compare archaeological material. While there he also went to Medellin, where he once more made a small excavation and sur- vey. ‘August 1962 to July 1963 found Haberland on his way to Central Amer- ica again, this time with better funding. Before that, except while in San Salvador where he and his colleagues were housed at the Instituto Tropical, money was always a problem. Elsewhere he lived in very poor quarters or chose a small village or a hut in which to hang his hammock, for fear of spending funds on comfort instead of on fieldwork. This time he took along a young German student, Peter Schmidt (1966, 1968), who brought heavy equipment by boat to Nicaragua, where Haberland intended to concentrate. Meanwhile, Wolfgang made his first visit to New York to see the museums there before continuing to México to attend the 35th International Congress of Americanists. His next stop was Guatemala for the purpose of obtaining comparative material and studying Usulutén ware. Haberland was deter- mined not to abandon his Salvadoran sherds. With this in mind he left Guate- mala for the neighboring republic, once again in vain. Disappointed, Haberland lost little time in going to Nicaragua, where he planned to work with Schmidt for three months on Ometepe Island, one month on the Solentiname archipelago, and two months in Chontales, To his surprise there were so many sites on Ometepe and the fieldwork was so difficult and