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Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using pulsed laser ablation in liquid: a review

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DOI: 10.1088/1612-202X/acab57

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Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001 (15pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/1612-202X/acab57

Topical Review

Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using

pulsed laser ablation in liquid: a review
Entesar A Ganash
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

E-mail: eganash@kau.edu.sa

Received 19 August 2022

Accepted for publication 7 December 2022
Published 21 December 2022

Abstract
Pulsed laser ablation in liquid (PLAL) is an important method for synthesizing metal
nanoparticles (NPs). Recently, it has garnered increasing interest as it is simple, rapid, and
ecofriendly. Herein, PLAL is proposed as an approach to produce varied sizes of silver
nanoparticles (Ag NPs) because NP size plays a vital role in their characteristics and several
applications in the physical, chemical, biological, and medical fields. In PLAL, metal NP size
could be controlled by either adjusting the laser parameters, such as wavelength, energy,
fluence, reptation rate, ablation time, and focusing lens, or by modifying the ablation solvent
properties. Herein, PLAL is proved as an effective and simple method for fabricating Ag NPs.
This can provide guidance for synthesizing nanomaterials in diverse sizes, types, and shapes for
applications in different fields.
Keywords: silver, nanoparticles, pulsed laser ablation in liquid, size control

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction opposite of the previous one. It involves the action of gathering

Nanomaterials of maximum 100 nm size have garnered
increasing interest recently owing to their outstanding unique
features, which are differing from those of bulk materials
because of surface effect, which is a large surface-to-volume
ratio, and quantum confinement effects [1, 2]. The sizes and
shapes of nanomaterials have been the subject of many studies,
which focused on the size control and manipulation of nan-
omaterials as well as on their fabrication [3]. Nanomaterials
have a wide range of applications in different fields, including
engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine [1, 2].
Nanoparticles (NPs) have been reported to be synthes-
ized by several methods based on a top-down or bottom-up
approach, for example, chemical reduction [4], microwave [5],
molecular beam epitaxy [6], and pulsed laser deposition [7].
In the top-down approach, bulk materials are broken down
to produce nanomaterials, while the bottom-up process is the
objects like atoms and molecules [8] (figure 1). Some of
these methods are expensive and harmful materials may be
used. Additionally, impure or agglomerated NPs might be
produced [9]. The laser ablation (LA) process has received
much research attention as it includes the ablation of solid
targets placed in a gas or liquid medium using a laser beam
[10]. One of the most notable events of 1993 was the LAs
of metal in solutions, initiated by Zhang et al [11]. Pulsed
laser ablation in liquid (PLAL) or laser-assisted synthesis in
solution [11] and pulsed laser fragmentation in liquid (PLFL)
are crucial techniques for producing NPs. PLAL is performed
in the presence of ablation bulk targets in liquid, while PLFL
is performed in suspension materials in liquid [12]. Notably,
both approaches are remarkably similar in mechanism and
features. PLAL includes removing a tiny part from a solid
bulk target that is immersed in a liquid environment. In this
mechanism, a high laser beam is irradiated on a target surface,

1612-202X/23/013001+15$33.00 Printed in the UK 1 © 2022 Astro Ltd

Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
Figure 1. Schematic of nanomaterial fabrication (reproduced from [8] with permission from Elsevier, license number 5333710544776).
which causes the formation of a plasma plum associated with
shock waves or, in other words, ablated mass. This plum
expands and subsequently condenses rapidly in the liquid
environment, leading to the release and generation of NPs
from the target and liquid [5, 13–15]. NPs can be in the form
of nano-powders or colloidal solutions [10]. Figure 2 shows
the mechanism of the PLAL process.
In the LA process, the size distribution of NPs may become
wider and its ablation efficiency is low because of the probable
occurrence of post ablation accumulation of NPs or consider-
able fragmentation on the target surface [14]. However, PLAL
has several exciting advantages over other conventional meth-
ods. It is simple, fast, inexpensive, and environment-friendly
with no byproducts [2, 16]. It is excellent for resolving catalyst
poisoning [17]. Another exciting feature of this technique is
its versatility in producing different sizes, types, and shapes of
nanomaterials via either varying the laser parameters, such as
pulse interval, pulse energy (fluence), wavelength, repetition
rate, and ablation time, or involving target medium properties
and ablation liquid [5, 6, 17]. This liquid can affect reduc-
tion, oxidation, cooling, and confinement [18]. Moreover,
this technique can be used at standard pressure and room
temperature [6]. Bioimaging and biosensing applications have
2
Topical Review
garnered growing research attention for producing NPs in
liquid medium [19]. At specific laser parameters and for a
particular target, two factors play an important in producing
NPs: the transmission coefficient and the refractive index of
the solution [13]. In PLAL, the laser ray obeys two reflection
processes: one at the air-liquid interface and another at the
liquid-target interface [9].
The fabrication of metal NPs has received increasing
research attention owing to the optical, magnetic, electronic,
and chemical properties of the NPs, which depend on their
size [17, 20]. Among the metal NPs, silver nanoparticles (Ag
NPs) have distinctive surface plasmon resonance (SPR) energy
that is far from the interband transition energy. SPR has a
commanding influence on the absorption spectra of metals
[20]. Virtually, the optical spectra are composed of strong and
weak absorption spectra. The strong one results from plas-
mon transitions at ∼398–413 nm (visible light) and char-
acterizes the absorption spectrum of metal, while the weak
absorption occurs because of interband transitions between the
5sp conduction band and the 4d band in the ∼200–250 nm
range (ultraviolet (UV) light) [14, 21, 22]. The SPR band
appears when the conduction electrons of metal absorb the
incident electromagnetic radiation on the nanometal surface.
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001 Topical Review

Figure 2. Schematics of the pulsed laser ablation in liquid (PLAL) procedure. Reprinted from [6], published by AIP Advances, an
open-access paper licensed under a creative commons attribution (CC BY) license.

Figure 3. Schematic of the surface plasmon resonance. Reprinted from [24] published by MDPI, an open-access paper licensed under a
creative commons attribution (CC BY) license.

Because of the motion of these electrons, a dipole emerges
and oscillates with the frequency of exciting light as long as
the wavelength of that light exceeds the size of nanometal
particles (figure 3). The SPR is detected when the conduction
electrons and the incident light frequencies are synchronized
[1, 13]. The plasmon resonance profile is affected by some
factors such as the size, shape, composition, crystallinity,
optical constants, and aggregation state of NPs [3, 13, 21]. As
the particle size decreases, the SPR peak position shifts toward
a shorter wavelength (blue shift) and vice versa [3, 16, 17, 20].
Meanwhile, the SPR intensity increases by increasing the
number of NPs [17]. The aggregation of NPs causes the
broadening of the SPR spectrum [22], while a good dispersion
of these particles leads to a narrow spectrum [3]. Moreover,
because different shapes of NPs could be produced, includ-
ing spheres, triangles, and rods, SPR shows distinct absorp-
tion spectrum profiles for each shape [3, 21]. Relying on
the symmetry of NPs, irregularly shaped Ag NPs can show

3
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
more than one SPR band [23]. The single peak represents
the spherical shape of Ag NPs at ∼400 nm [20]. Therefore,
many investigations use the SPR spectrum as a perfect way
to monitor particle size by determining the position peak in
the SPR absorption spectrum [13]. SPR has also been used to
observe the adsorption of particle surfaces; therefore, NPs can
be exploited as sensors [21].
The strong SPR produced by Ag NPs may be a res-
ult of the highest reflectivity of the Ag surface compared
to other metals [25]. In addition, Ag NPs are particularly
effective in scattering and absorbing light beams. Further-
more, they are characterized by excellent thermal and elec-
trical conductivity; catalytic activity; antibacterial, viral, and
fungal activities; chemical and thermal stability; low volatil-
ity and toxicity to human cells; and surface-enhanced Raman
scattering [1, 5, 13]. As a result of these fantastic properties,
Ag NPs have become applicable in various applications such
as cancer, burn treatments, diabetic medicine, drug delivery,
dental materials, medical imaging, antibacterial implants, and
catheters [1, 5, 17, 26]. In addition, they can be exploited
and used in catalysis, cooling systems, food storage, filters,
water treatment, optical biosensors, electrochemical sensors,
textile fabrics, and cosmetics [1, 5, 17, 26]. Ag NPs are
also used in electronic circuits, paste, inks, and adhesives
owing to their excellent conductivity [5]. The nominal size
and great surface area of Ag NPs lead to substantial biolo-
gical activity against bacteria or other microorganisms as well
as catalytic action [1, 13]. Several techniques have been used
to characterize the physical and chemical properties of Ag
NPs, such as UV–Vis spectrometer, x-ray diffraction spec-
troscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, dynamic light
scattering, scanning electron microscopy, transmission elec-
tron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectro-
scopy and photoluminescence.
Herein, we focus on the PLAL technique. This work is
designed to determine the effect of some factors relating to
laser parameters and the liquid environment in the PLAL
method, which significantly produces Ag NPs in different
sizes and shapes.
2. Factors affecting PLAL
2.1. Effect of the liquid environment
Investigating the effects of the liquid environment includes dif-
ferent liquid parameters such as the type of liquid medium,
concentration, and layer thickness. In this section, we review
several works that focused on the liquid effect.
Mafuné et al [27] focused a second-harmonic neodymium-
doped yttrium aluminum garnet (532 nm Nd:YAG laser on a
Ag plate (>99.99%)) immersed in different concentrations of
a sodium dodecyl sulfate, C12 H25 SO4 Na, (SDS) aqueous solu-
tion (0.003, 0.01, and 0.05 M) to synthesize stable Ag NPs at
10 Hz repetition rate with 90 mJ pulse−1 output power. The
results revealed that when the SDS concentration increases,
the mean size of Ag NPs decreases. In other words, the average
diameters of Ag NPs were 16.2 nm for 0.003 M, 14.9 nm for
4
Topical Review
0.01 M, and 11.7 nm for 0.05 M. In addition, the authors used
dodecanethiol solution (CH3 (CH2 )11 SH) in heptane to pro-
duce Ag NPs. They measured average diameters of 5–30 nm.
A smaller amount of Ag NPs was produced in this solu-
tion compared to that in the SDS solution. Tsuji et al [18]
used the stabilizing agent polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as a
liquid environment in several concentrations to create Ag NPs
using pulsed LA. They applied the fundamental Nd:YAG laser
(1064 nm) at 12 mJ pulse−1 , 8 ns pulse duration, and 10 Hz
repetition rate for 10 min to ablate the Ag plate. They found
that an increase in the PVP concentration leads to a rise in
the formation efficiency of NPs and reduces their mean size
without lowering their size dispersions. Afterward, the fabric-
ated Ag colloids were irradiated with the secondary Nd:YAG
laser at 355 nm wavelength at 12 mJ pulse−1 for 10 min.
Due to the laser-induced fragmentation, the mean size of Ag
NPs was decreased, thereby influencing the size dispersions.
In addition, they observed the formation efficiency of NPs,
and their stability was amended in comparison with the NPs
generated in a water environment. Al-Azawi et al [14] ana-
lyzed the ablation on a pure Ag target in deionized water
(DIW) by 1064 nm laser pulses of 8 ns duration. Moreover,
they studied the influence of water-layer thickness above a tar-
get on ablation efficiency. A linear incremental relationship
between the water-layer thickness and efficiency was observed
until 14 mm thickness was reached. Beyond this thickness, the
efficiency decreased because of the increasing plasma prop-
erties at high layer thicknesses. They also demonstrated the
role of post-ablation laser wavelength (1064 and 535 nm)
in decreasing the mean particle size from 15.1 to 4.3 nm.
Applying the pulsed Nd:YAG laser (1064 nm wavelength and
1 Hz frequency rate) to irradiate the Ag target (99.998%)
in PVP, DIW, and ethanol solvents yielded almost spher-
ical Ag NPs with diameters of 16.63, 22.88, and 26.44 nm,
respectively [28]. They also found that the highest ablation
efficiency was observed in DIW, followed by the PVP solu-
tion. In fact, the suspensions of NPs were the most stable in the
PVP liquid as compared with those in DIW, as reported pre-
viously by [18] but unstable in ethanol. Thus, PVP is the best
stabilizer.
Moreover, Nikov et al [5] illustrated the effect of the abla-
tion medium on the characteristics of colloidal Ag NPs pro-
duced using LAs. The two wavelengths were used: 1064 and
532 nm of Nd:YAG laser system with fluence values of 12.7
and 6.3 J cm−2 at these wavelengths, respectively, to irradi-
ate the Ag plate placed in three diverse ablation liquid media
(chloroform (CHCl3 ), toluene (C7 H8 ), and ethanol (C2 H6 O)).
The pulse width and repetition rate were set to be 17 ns and
10 Hz, respectively, and the ablation time was 7 min. Gener-
ally, reducing the wavelength from 1064 to 532 nm increased
the NP sizes in ethanol and chloroform liquids; however, this
was not observed in the toluene liquid. To illustrate, using
1064 nm wavelength, the average sizes of the produced Ag
NPs were 3.2 nm for chloroform, 4.7 nm for toluene, and
20.2 nm for ethanol. Meanwhile, using 532 nm wavelength,
they were 43.1 nm for chloroform, 1.4 nm for toluene, and
45.6 nm for ethanol. Virtually, the nature of the ablation liquid
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
medium also plays a vital role in NP features. The relationship
between wavelength and NP sizes in both chloroform and eth-
anol liquids was significantly observed. Clearly, toluene liquid
reduced the Ag NP size up to 5 nm. In addition, the SPR
peak appeared with both wavelengths in ethanol liquid. Con-
versely, the SPR peak disappeared in the toluene and chloro-
form liquids. The absence of an SPR peak may result from
the existing carbon matrix around Ag NPs, as reported by
Nikov et al [5]. In all these ablation media, the selected area
electron diffraction patterns show hexagonal and cubic phases
of Ag NPs. Another group [13] experimentally investigated
the effect of using different carrier media on the morphology,
structure, and size of Ag NPs prepared via PLAL using a
1064 nm Nd:YAG laser. The carrier media, namely, double-
distilled water (DDW), ethanol, and acetone, were tested at the
same laser fluence (424.4 J cm−2 ). They found free oxidization
and precipitation in ethanol and acetone liquids. Moreover,
there was an increase in the Ag NP size but a low produc-
tion of NPs. The average sizes of the produced Ag NPs were
17.7, 13.4, and 11.8 nm for ethanol, acetone, and DDW,
respectively. When DDW was used as an ablation medium,
the highest efficiency of the LAs process was observed. This
observation confirms the results of a previous study [28]. The
SPR peak appeared in all liquids. Ag NPs were also fabricated
by ablating a Ag plate for 5 min using a 532 nm Nd:YAG laser
at 10 ns pulse width and 97.4 µJ pulse energy [3]. Hamad used
ice water as an ablation medium for the first time. He found
that the average size of semispherical Ag NPs was reduced
to 16 nm compared with that of Ag NPs produced in DIW
(31 nm) under the same experimental conditions, meaning that
the size was reduced approximately to half. In another work,
Ag NPs were produced by ablating the Ag plate (99.99%) with
a femtosecond pulsed laser. The ablation process was con-
ducting using an 800 nm Ti:sapphire femtosecond laser with
40 fs pulse duration, 1 mJ power, and 1 KHz repetition rate.
The results showed the morphological properties of the syn-
thesized Ag NPs in two solvent types: inorganic (DDW and
DIW) and organic liquids (tetrahydrofuran and dimethylform-
amide). Absorption peaks were observed sequentially at 402,
400, 397, and 398 nm. The direct optical energy bands were
3.97, 3.82, 3.86, and 3.88 eV for these solvents, respectively.
In addition, tremendous potential ablation efficiency, stabil-
ity, and antibacterial activity of Ag NPs produced in DIW
were observed compared with those generated in other liquid
media [29]. Recently, the synthesis of Ag NPs using a 800 nm
Ti:sapphire laser with 1 W average power and 80 MHz repe-
tition rate was performed [30]. The laser beam was focused
on Ag targets immersed in two types of liquid mixtures: mis-
cible (acetone + DDW) and immiscible (toluene + DDW).
The mean sizes of produced Ag NPs were 4.5, 16, and 5 nm
for acetone, DDW, and acetone + DDW, respectively. The use
of immiscible liquids created Ag NPs trapped in the graphitic
medium. As a result of different cavitation bubble dynamics
in various media (here, polar/polar and polar/nonpolar), the
authors explained their results based on the Rayleigh–Plesset
equation. Figures 4 and 5 show the TEM images of Ag NPs in
both cases.
5
Topical Review
2.2. Effect of ablation time
Numerous studies have attempted to explain the role of abla-
tion time in the size and shape of fabricated Ag NPs. For
instance, pure Ag target ablation in pure water was carried
out using a 532 nm Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with 10 ns
pulse duration, 10 Hz repetition rate, and 340 mJ pulse−1 high
energy, generating small Ag NPs with 2–5 nm sizes [31]. It
was concluded that this ablation was strongly related to differ-
ent factors such as focusing conditions, laser power, and abla-
tion time. This section focuses on ablation time as a significant
parameter in more detail.
Hajiesmaeilbaigi et al [20] studied the effect of irradiation
time at a fixed laser fluence and spot size. Ag NPs were fab-
ricated by the ablation of a Ag plate (>99.99%) submerged in
ultrapure water and irradiated with a 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser
at 5 Hz repetition rate and 20 ns duration width. Ablation time
was increased experimentally from 5 to 20 min with a step of
5 min. Based on their results, this parameter had a noticeable
effect on the ablation process. As the ablation time increased,
the absorption gained and shifted toward a smaller wavelength.
They elucidated that many particles are produced through the
incident laser hitting the Ag target by the self-absorption pro-
cedure. The resulting Ag NPs were stable and had ∼8.5 nm
mean diameter. Moreover, to examine the influence of expos-
ure time and decrease the mean diameter, Ag NPs were ablated
using palm oil as an ablation medium using a 1064 nm pulsed
Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with 10 Hz repetition frequency,
5 ns pulse interval, and 360 mJ pulse−1 power at various
exposure times (5, 10, 15, and 30 min), followed by fragment-
ing the ablated colloid solution by a combination of 1064 and
532 nm wavelengths. Interestingly, increasing the exposure
time led to increased ablation efficiency and absorption peaks,
shifting from 413 nm at 5 min to 403 nm at 30 min. This shift
to a lower wavelength indicates a reduction in Ag NP size, as
stated by Mie theory. The size of Ag NPs was up to 2 nm [32].
The same group [10] applied identical conditions for preparing
Ag NPs using virgin coconut oil as an ablation liquid at abla-
tion times of 15, 30, and 45 min. The measured particle sizes of
Ag NPs were 6.33, 5.18, and 4.84 nm, respectively. They con-
cluded that virgin coconut oil is an appropriate ablation envir-
onment to control Ag NP size and prevent agglomeration. In
addition, their results showed that due to more fragmentation
over a long time, Ag NP sizes became smaller. Another exper-
imental work on the effect of irradiation time on synthesized
Ag NPs was conducted by Norsyuhada and collaborators [33].
They used 1064 nm Nd:YAG pulsed laser irradiation at 75 mJ
laser energy and 40 mm focal point distance at varying laser
exposure times of 1–5 min. Similar results were obtained, i.e. a
clear dependence of absorption intensity on exposure time and
the colloid solution color of Ag NPs became deeper yellow
with time. In another work, Qayyum et al [34] fabricated Ag
NPs via a 1064 nm focused pulse laser on a pure Ag plate
immersed in double-distilled ultrapure water at 10 Hz repeti-
tion rate and 6 ns pulse width. They investigated the influence
of increasing the exposure time on Ag NPs by choosing 10,
20, and 30 min at a fixed pulse energy of 20 mJ. They found
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
Figure 4. TEM images of Ag NPs prepared in (a) acetone, (b) DDW, and (c) acetone-DDW mixture; (d) UV–Vis absorption spectra of Ag
NPs in the three cases (reproduced from [30] with permission from Elsevier, license number 5333 691 123 385).
that the absorption peak intensity relies on time; however,
no remarkable shift in its position and width was noticed.
Thus, there was no Ag NP aggregation and growth in these
NP concentrations without changing their average sizes. This
agrees with the study mentioned above [33]. The spherical Ag
NPs had a mean diameter of 50.4 nm. They also proved that
the prepared surfactant-free Ag NPs could degrade methylene
blue and methyl orange dyes, which means that these Ag NPs
have great catalytic activity. Moreover, these can be used to
enhance the signal of Raman spectroscopy. Recently, Ganash
and Altuwirqi [12] studied the effects of ablation time (15,
30, 45, 105, and 120 min) on Ag NPs produced via a chem-
ical reduction approach and PLFL method, simultaneously for
the first time. They found that at 120 min, the Ag NP size
reduced to less than 10 nm. Later, in 2021, Samir et al [35]
also demonstrated the sizes of Ag NPs prepared by focusing a
532 nm Nd:YAG laser on a silver target submerged in DIW at
6
Topical Review
100 mJ energy and 5, 15, 20, and 30 min irradiation times, as
shown in figure 6. They concluded that the size reduces with
increasing ablation time.
2.3. Effect of laser type and wavelength
The type of laser and laser wavelength are other crucial factors.
The laser types include continuous and pulse lasers. Some
papers focused on these factors to explain their role in fabric-
ated NPs. For example, Tsuji et al investigated the depend-
ence of particle size on wavelength. They applied Nd:YAG
laser with three different wavelengths: 1064, 532, and 355 nm
at 36 J cm−2 fluence and 12 mJ pulse−1 laser power for
producing AgNPs by PLAL. An ablation time was 30 min
and DIW was used as ablation liquid [22]. They observed
that at 1064, 532, and 355 nm wavelengths, the average dia-
meters of Ag NPs produced in the study were 29, 26, and
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
Figure 5. TEM images of Ag NPs prepared in (a) toluene, (b) toluene-DDW interface (0.7:0.3), and (c) toluene-DDW mixture (0.3:0.7);
(d) UV–Vis absorption spectra of Ag NPs (reproduced from [30] with permission from Elsevier, license number 5333691123385).
12 nm, respectively. This means that reducing the wavelength
from 1064 to 355 nm decreased the NP size. However, their
spherical shape did not change, and their aggregation rose, as
presented in figure 7, in addition to the SPR peaks for these
three wavelengths. Moreover, ablation efficiency was reduced
when reducing the laser wavelength because of increased self-
absorption at a short wavelength. In other words, the self-
absorption efficiency is more significant at a lower wavelength
than at a higher wavelength. As mentioned above, Nikov
et al [5] used the fundamental wavelength (1064 nm) and the
second-harmonic (532 nm) Nd:YAG laser system with flu-
ences of 12.7 and 6.3 J cm−2 at these wavelengths, respect-
ively in several ablation liquid media to illustrate the effect
of wavelength on the characteristics of colloidal Ag NPs pro-
duced by LAs. The pulse interval was 17 ns, while the expos-
ure time was 7 min with 10 Hz repetition frequency. They
found that the size of prepared Ag NPs and their size dis-
tribution rely on laser wavelength. As they detected, the NP
7
Topical Review
sizes increased when the wavelength decreased for chloroform
and ethanol media but not for the toluene medium. Their res-
ults were inconsistent with a previous study [22] because both
studies used different laser fluences for the ablation process,
whereas Tsuji et al [22] used the same great laser fluence for
all laser wavelengths. However, similar observations on abla-
tion efficiency should be noted in both papers. The ablation
efficiency with 1064 nm was also higher than that with 532 nm.
A comparison of the role of a natural laser in the form-
ation of Ag NPs by LAs in DIW was done by Rafique and
co-workers [16]. They used two laser patterns to synthes-
ize Ag NPs: the first was a 1064 nm pulsed Nd:YAG laser
with 10 ns pulse duration and 10 mJ energy. The second
was a 535 nm continuous diode laser with 10 W power.
They found that the average size of Ag NPs obtained using
a continuous laser (∼20 nm) exceeds that obtained using a
pulsed laser (∼9 nm). However, their concentrations were
less when using a continuous laser. In addition, an enhanced
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
Figure 6. (a) UV–Vis absorption spectra and (b) TEM images of fabricated Ag NPs at various ablation times (reproduced from [35] with
permission from Elsevier, license number 5333820006524).
thermal conductivity of 27% was measured for the pulsed
laser, better than the 16% measured for the continuous laser,
in agreement with previous works [36, 37].
2.4. Effect of laser energy and its fluence
Norsyuhada et al [33] experimented with 1064 nm pulsed
Nd:YAG laser irradiation to study the effect of three differ-
ent laser parameters, namely, laser energy, target distance, and
irradiance time, on the synthesized Ag NPs. In their exper-
iments, two parameters were kept constant while the third
one was varied to demonstrate its vital role. In the first part,
they put the Ag target in DIW at 40 mm from the focal point
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Topical Review
and applied five different laser energy values (75, 191, 199,
303, and 311 mJ) for 5 min. They found an increase in line
intensity (this means higher concentration of NPs) due to a
rise in energy. In addition, they observed that the color changes
gradually from bright yellow at minimum energy to dark yel-
low at high energy. This indicated a change in the NP sizes.
The mean diameters of the produced NPs were ∼11.5 nm at
75 mJ and 23.3 nm at 311 mJ.
Furthermore, Qayyum et al [38] used a first-harmonic
1064 nm Nd:YAG laser with 6 ns pulse duration and10 Hz
repetition rate to fabricate Ag NPs by PLAL. They focused
this laser on a silver disk immersed in ultrapure DDW. At
40 mJ laser energy, their results showed the spherical shape of
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
Figure 7. (a) UV–Vis absorption spectra and (b) TEM images of Ag NPs prepared by three different wavelengths (reproduced from [22]
with permission from Elsevier, license number 5333700976285).
Ag NPs in the diameter range of 20–100 nm, with an average
diameter of 50 nm. The SPR peak was displayed in the absorp-
tion spectra of Ag colloidal solution. They also concluded that
the atomic line intensity of laser-induced breakdown spectro-
scopy (LIBS) signals from soda-lime glass and copper tar-
gets increased when Ag NPs were deposited on these target
surfaces. This signal enhancement indicates better ablation
efficiency. They also found that the enhancement factor was
reduced by increasing the laser fluence. Hence, Ag NPs can
be used to improve LIBS signals. In 2020, the same group
[34] extended their work to apply identical conditions for pre-
paring surfactant-free Ag NPs. Nevertheless, herein, the laser
energy was changed from 10 to 50 mJ. According to their
studies, the intensity increased, and the yellow color of the
colloidal solution turned darker as the energy increased from
9
Topical Review
10 to 40 mJ; thus, an increase in Ag NP concentration was
observed. However, with increasing the energy to 50 mJ, the
spectral intensity started to decrease because of the appear-
ance of the secondary plasma at the air-water interface, so most
energy was used at that interface.
Later, Samir et al [35] studied the impact of changing
laser energies on Ag NPs generated using LAs. They used
a 532 nm Nd:YAG laser to ablate the Ag bulk immersed
in DIW for 30 min at laser energies of 25, 35, 60, and
100 mJ. They found the Ag NP size reducing from 15 to
7.5 nm and the SPR peaks moving toward short wavelengths
gradually with increasing energy. Their results are shown in
figure 8.
Furthermore, Dorranian et al prepared Ag nanostructures
using LAs in DIW using a 1064 nm Nd:YAG laser at 10 Hz
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
Figure 8. (a) UV–Vis absorption spectra and (b) TEM images of fabricated Ag NPs at different energies (reproduced from [35] with
permission from Elsevier, license number 5333820277756).
repetition rate and 7 ns duration [17] with several fluences of 1,
1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 J cm−2 . Their results showed that the size of
Ag NPs decreased with increasing laser fluence, attributable to
the existence of a secondary interaction between ablated NPs
and laser pulses. The size of prepared Ag NPs was ∼6–12 nm.
In the same year, Solati et al [21] also presented their work
on the role of laser fluence in the produced Ag NP size. They
used two Q-switched pulsed Nd:YAG lasers, namely, 1064 and
532 nm, with a 10 Hz repetition rate and 7 ns pulse width. They
irradiated the Ag target placed in acetone liquid for 4 min to
fabricate Ag NPs. They found that for 1064 nm, the size of
Ag NPs increased with increasing laser fluence, in disagree-
ment with the previous work [17]. However, this result was
not observed for 532 nm owing to self-absorption. Moreover,
the mean diameter of the produced Ag NPs by 532 nm was
10
Topical Review
less than that generated by 1064 nm. This is consistent with
the observations by Tsuji et al [22].
In 2017, Moura et al [13] experimentally investigated
the influence of different laser fluences on the morphology,
structure, and size of Ag NPs prepared via PLAL using a
1064 nm Nd:YAG laser with laser fluences of 4244.0, 3183.3,
and 2122.2 J cm−2 in DDW with SDS as a liquid abla-
tion medium. They concluded that with increasing laser flu-
ence, the sizes of these NPs became small, and their con-
centration became less. This result was explained by the
ablated NPs absorbed by laser light (i.e. interabsorption). This
result also supports the earlier observation by Dorranian
et al [17].
Table 1 summaries different studies that used PLAL with
different experimental conditions.
 Table 1. Experimental conditions for the Ag NPs synthesis using the PLAL technique.

Laser type and Laser energy– Reptation Pulse width Ablation time Extraction Shape, average
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001

wavelength (nm) power-fluence rate (Hz) (ns) Liquid medium (min) Focal length (mm) methods size (nm) Reference
−2
Nd:YAG laser 0.1 W–0.02 J cm 10 6 Origanum 15, 30, 45, 105, Convex Lens (50) UV–Vis, XRD, Sphere <10 [12]
(532) majorana and 120 DLS, and TEM
extract solution
Nd:YAG laser 0.1 W–0.08 J cm−2 1 10 Spinicia — — UV–Vis, XRD, Sphere <10 [39]
(532) oleracea extract SEM, and TEM
solution
Nd:YAG laser 0.3 mJ pulse−1 – 2 × 104 35 DDW, acetone, 11 Fused quartz lens UV–Vis, STEM, Sphere 11.8, 13.4, [13]
(1064) 6 W–4244.0 J cm−2 and ethanol (160) TEM, and SAED and 17.7
6.0, 4.5 and DDW+ 11.8, 7.4, and 18.9
3.0 W–4244.0, surfactant SDS
3183.3 and liquid

11
2122.2 J cm−2
Nd:YAG laser 75, 191, 199, 303 and 6 8 DIW 5 100 UV–Vis and Sphere 11.5–23.3 [33]
(1064) 311 mJ– HRTEM
0.057 J mm−2
75 mJ 1,2,3, and 5 11.8, 7.4, and 18.9
Nd:YAG laser 12.7 and 6.3 J cm−2 10 17 Chloroform, 7 — UV–Vis, TEM and Sphere 3.2, 4.7, [5]
(1064 and 532) toluene, and SAED and 20.2
ethanol
Nd:YAG laser 40 mJ pulse−1 – 10 6 DDW 10 Double convex UV–Vis, SEM and Sphere 50.4 [38]
(1064) 12.7 J cm−2 lens (700) EDX
Nd:YAG laser 10–50 mJ 10 6 DDW 10 Double convex UV–Vis, SEM and Sphere 50.4 [34]
(1064) lens (700) EDX
20 mJ 10–30
(Continued.)
Topical Review
 Table 1. (Continued.)

Laser type and Laser energy– Reptation Pulse width Ablation time Extraction Shape, average
wavelength (nm) power-fluence rate (Hz) (ns) Liquid medium (min) Focal length (mm) methods size (nm) Reference

Nd:YAG laser 340 mJ pulse−1 10 10 Pure water 5 25 UV–Vis, and TEM Sphere 4.2 [31]
(532)
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001

Nd:YAG laser 10–100 mJ. 10 7 ethanol — Spherical convex UV–Vis, SEM and Sphere ≈10 [26]
(1064 and 532) lens (75) TEM
Nd:YAG laser 12 mJ pulse−1 – — <10 DDW 30 Quartz lens (100) TEM Sphere 29–12 [22]
(1064 532 or 355) 36 J cm−2
Nd:YAG laser 70 mJ pulse−1 5 20 DIW and — Non-focused UV–Vis, and TEM Sphere 8.5 [20]
(1064) redistilled
ultrapure water
50, 70 and
80 mJ pulse−1
Nd:YAG laser 10 mJ and 10 W — 10 DIW 120 — UV–Vis, XRD, Sphere 9 and 20 [16]
(1064) and diode AFM, and FTIR
laser (535)

12
Nd:YAG laser 14, 18, and 22 J cm−2 10 7 Acetone 4 80 UV–Vis, TEM, Sphere [21]
(1064 and 532) and DLS ≈12.99–32.24
Nd:YAG laser 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 10 7 DW — Convex lens (80) UV–Vis, TEM, Sphere 6–12 [17]
(1064) 3 J cm−2 SEM, DLS, PL
and XRD
Nd:YAG laser 50 mJ 10 7 DW 780 Convex lens (30) UV–Vis and XRD Sphere ≈10 [40]
(1064)
Nd:YAG laser 15 J cm−2 1 8 PVP, DIW and 15 100 UV–Vis and TEM Sphere [28]
(1064) ethanol 16.36–26.44
Nd:YAG laser 15 J cm−2 1 8 DIW 4 100 UV–Vis and TEM Sphere 15.1–4.3 [14]
(1064)
Nd:YAG laser 97.4 µJ–9.74 W 100 × 103 10 DIW and ice 5 — UV–Vis, TEM, Semi- sphere 30 [3]
(532) water and DLS and 16
Nd:YAG laser 12 mJ pulse−1 10 8 PVP 10 100 UV–Vis and TEM 10–18 <5 [18]
(1064 then 532)
Nd:YAG laser 3, 2.5, 2, 1.5, and 10 7 DW — Convex lens (80) UV–Vis, NIR, Sphere< 3 [25]
(1064) 1 J cm−2 DLS, TEM, XRD,
and PL
(Continued.)
Topical Review
 Table 1. (Continued.)

Laser type and Laser energy– Reptation Pulse width Ablation time Extraction Shape, average
wavelength (nm) power-fluence rate (Hz) (ns) Liquid medium (min) Focal length (mm) methods size (nm) Reference

KrF excimer laser 168 mJ 5, 10, and 15 30 DIW — 5 × 10−4 UV–Vis and TEM Sphere [41]
(248) 27.95–35.52
Nd:YAG laser 75 mJ 10 7 PVP — Convex lens (100) UV–Vis, XRD, Sphere 17 [42]
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001

(1064) FTIR, FE-SEM,

EDX, and PL
Ti: Sapphire fs 1 mJ 1000 4×10−5 DDW, DIW, 15 Convex lens (100) UV–Vis, XRD, Semi- sphere and [29]
laser (800) THF and DMF SEM, and TEM Sphere <4
Nd:YAG laser 360 mJ pulse−1 – 10 5 Palm oil 5, 10, 15, and 30 250 UV–Vis and TEM Sphere 2–2.5 [32]
(1064) 162 J cm−2
Nd:YAG laser 360 mJ pulse−1 – 10 5 Virgin coconut 15, 30, and 45 250 UV–Vis and TEM Sphere <5 [10]
(1064) 162 J cm−2 oil
Nd:YAG laser 360 mJ pulse−1 – 10 5 Castor oil 10 250 UV–Vis, TEM, Sphere ≈5 [43]
(1064) 162 J cm−2 and FTIR
Nd:YAG laser — 10 10 Ethanol, DIW, 5 — UV–Vis and TEM Sphere 22, 13, and [44]
(1064) and acetone 5
Nd:YAG laser 360 mJ pulse−1 10 30 Chitosan, 30 250 UV–Vis, TEM, Sphere 10.5, 22.08 [45]

13
(532) ethylene glycol, and FTIR and 27.41
and DW
Nd:YAG laser 100 mJ 10 10 DW 5, 10, 15, 20, UV–Vis and TEM <10 nm [35]
(532) and 30
25, 35, 60 and 100 mJ 30
Nd:YAG laser 100 mJ–4 J cm−2 and 25 and 25 × 10−15 10 DIW and LiCl — — UV–Vis, TEM, <10 nm [46]
(1064) 15 mJ–0.7 J cm−2 solution and Zeta-potential
Nd:YAG laser 113 mJ 7 10 Urea choline — — UV–Vis and TEM Sphere ≈4.5 [47]
(1064) chloride
deep-eutectic
solvent
Nd:YAG laser 800 mJ pulse−1 1 10 Spinicia 10 — UV–Vis, XRD, Sphere <10 [39]
(532) oleracea extract SEM, and TEM
solution
Nd:YAG laser 90 mJ pulse−1 10 — Aqueous — 250 UV–Vis and TEM Sphere 16.2 14.9, [27]
(532) solution of SDS and 11.7
(0.003, 0.01,
and 0.05 M)
40, 55, and 70 W 0.01 M 7.9, 10.7, and 12.8
Topical Review
Laser Phys. Lett. 20 (2023) 013001
3. Conclusions
It has been demonstrated that the PLAL method can produce
Ag NPs. It is a promising technique to generate the specific
properties of NPs. It allows the fabrication of Ag NPs with
definite characterization of size and morphology by varying
either the laser parameters, such as wavelength, energy, flu-
ence, repetition rate, and ablation time, or the liquid medium.
The size of NPs, a crucial factor in various applications of tech-
nology and sciences, can be controlled via the PLAL tech-
nique. Therefore, this method is ecofriendly and valuable in
creating the required size of NPs in liquids for a specific
application. We believe that PLAL can considerably reduce
the size of NPs, which is required for several applications.
Acknowledgments
The author is incredibly grateful to Professor Reem Altuwirqi,
King Abdulaziz University, for her continuous support and
encouragement toward the successful execution of the present
review.
Declarations
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
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