Unit 1 : What do you mean by sampling distribution?
What do you mean by sampling distribution?Why this Explain how sample size affects the margin of error with
Central Limit Theorem : The central limit theorem states that
whenever a random sample of size n is taken from any distribution
with mean and variance, then the sample mean will be approximately
normally distributed with mean and variance. The larger the value of
the sample size, the better the approximation to the normal.
Consider x1, x2, x3,……,xn are independent and
identically distributed with mean μ and finite variance σ2, then any
random variable Zn as,
Then the distribution function of Zn converges to the standard normal
distribution function as n increases without any bound.
Since xi are random independent variables, so Ui are also independent.
This implies,
ln(mu(t))=n ln (1 + x)=n(x –x22 + x33− ……..)
Multiply each term by n, and as n → ∞, all terms but the first go to
zero.
Which is the moment generating function for a standard normal
random variable.
Example: The record of weights of the female population follows a
normal distribution. Its mean and standard deviation are 65 kg and 14
kg, respectively. If a researcher considers the records of 50 females,
then what would be the standard deviation of the chosen sample?
Solution:
Mean of the population μ = 65 kg
Standard deviation of the population = 14 kg
sample size n = 50
Standard deviation is given by
= 14/√50
=14/7.071  probability of occurrence of an event is ‘π’, then the
= 1.97
Explain the statement “ The central limit theorem forms the basis
of inferential statistics ” : The central limit theorem states that,
given a sufficiently large sample size from a population with a finite
level of variance, the mean of all samples from the same population
will be approximately normally distributed. This result holds
regardless of the shape of the distribution of the population from
which the samples are drawn.
In inferential statistics, we are often interested in estimating the
value of a population parameter (such as the mean) based on a sample
from the population. The central limit theorem tells us that, as long as
the sample size is large enough, the distribution of the sample mean
will be approximately normal, which means we can use normal
distribution-based methods to make inferences about the population
parameter.
For example, if we want to estimate the mean income of a certain
population, we can take a sample of incomes from that population,
calculate the mean of the sample, and use the central limit theorem to
construct a confidence interval around that mean. This interval will
give us a range of values that we can be confident contains the true
mean of the population, based on the normal distribution of the sample
mean.
So the central limit theorem forms the basis of inferential statistics
because it provides a way to use the sample mean to make inferences
about the population mean, by assuming that the sample mean is
approximately normally distributed.
study is important in statistics? A sampling distribution is
the distribution of a statistic (such as the mean) computed
from a sample of a population. It describes how the statistic
is likely to vary across different samples from the same
population.
Studying the sampling distribution of a statistic
is important in statistics because it allows us to understand
the behavior of the statistic and to make inferences about the
population based on samples from the population. For
example, if we know the sampling distribution of the mean
of a certain population, we can use this information to
construct confidence intervals around the sample mean,
which can be used to make inferences about the population
mean.
The sampling distribution of a statistic is often approximated
using the central limit theorem, which states that, given a
sufficiently large sample size, the distribution of the statistic
will be approximately normal, regardless of the shape of the
distribution of the population. This allows us to use normal
distribution-based methods to make inferences about the
population based on samples from the population.
Studying the sampling distribution of a statistic
is also important in hypothesis testing, where we use the
sampling distribution to determine the likelihood of
observing a particular sample statistic if a certain hypothesis
about the population is true.
The Sampling Distribution of the Mean is the mean of the
population from where the items are sampled. If the
population distribution is normal, then the sampling
distribution of the mean is likely to be normal for the
samples of all sizes.Following are the main properties of the
sampling distribution of the mean:
1.Its mean is equal to the population mean, thus,
(?
X͞  =sample mean and ?p Population mean) 2.The
population standard deviation divided by the square root of
the sample size is equal to the standard deviation of the
sampling distribution of the mean, thus:
(σ = population
standard deviation, n = sample size) 3.The sampling
distribution of the mean is normally distributed. This means,
the distribution of sample means for a large sample size is
normally distributed irrespective of the shape of the
universe, but provided the population standard deviation (σ)
is finite. Generally, the sample size 30 or more is considered
large for the statistical purposes. If the population is normal,
then the distribution of sample means will be normal,
irrespective of the sample size.
The Sampling Distribution of Proportion measures the
proportion of success, i.e. a chance of occurrence of certain
events, by dividing the number of successes i.e. chances by
the sample size ’n’. Thus, the sample proportion is defined
as p = x/n.
The sampling distribution of proportion obeys the binomial
probability law if the random sample of ‘n’ is obtained with
replacement. Such as, if the population is infinite and the
probability of non-occurrence of the event is (1-π).  Now
consider all the possible sample size ‘n’ drawn from the
population and estimate the proportion ‘p’ of success for
each. Then the mean (?p) and the standard deviation (σp) of
the sampling distribution of proportion can be obtained as:
?p = mean of proportion
π = population proportion which is defined as π = X/N,
where X is the number of elements that possess a certain
characteristic and N is the total number of items in the
population.
σp = standard error of proportion that measures the success
(chance) variations of sample proportions from sample to
sample
n= sample size, If the sample size is large (n≥30), then the
sampling distribution of proportion is likely to be normally
distributed.
The following formula is used when population is finite, and
the sampling is made without the replacement:
examples : The margin of error is a measure of the
precision of an estimate. It is the amount by which an
estimate may differ from the true value of the parameter
being estimated. The margin of error is usually calculated as
a function of the sample size, the standard deviation of the
sample, and the desired level of confidence.
As the sample size increases, the margin of
error decreases. This is because a larger sample size provides
more information about the population, which leads to a
more precise estimate of the population parameter. For
example, consider a survey that aims to estimate the
proportion of a population that supports a particular
candidate in an election. The survey is conducted by
randomly sampling 1000 people from the population. The
sample shows that 55% of the people support the candidate.
The margin of error for this estimate can be calculated as
follows: Margin
of error = 1.96 * √(0.55 * 0.45 / 1000) = 0.04 This
means that we can be 95% confident that the true proportion
of people in the population who support the candidate is
somewhere between 51% and 59%. Now consider the
same survey, but with a sample size of 100 people instead of
1000. The sample shows that 52% of the people support the
candidate. The margin of error for this estimate is now:
Margin of error = 1.96 * √(0.52 * 0.48 / 100) = 0.14
This means that we can be 95% confident that
the true proportion of people in the population who support
the candidate is somewhere between 38% and 66%.
As you can see, the margin of error is larger
when the sample size is smaller. This means that the
estimate is less precise when the sample size is smaller.
Explain different criteria of good estimator :There are
several criteria that can be used to evaluate the quality of an
estimator, including:
Unbiasedness: An unbiased estimator is one that has a mean
that is equal to the true value of the parameter being
estimated. An estimator that is biased consistently over- or
under-estimates the true value of the parameter.
Efficiency: An efficient estimator is one that has a small
variance, meaning it is less prone to producing extreme or
improbable estimates.
Consistency: A consistent estimator is one that becomes
increasingly accurate as the sample size increases.
Sufficiency: A sufficient estimator is one that makes use of
all of the information in the sample in order to produce the
estimate.
Robustness: A robust estimator is one that is not sensitive to
small deviations from the assumptions that were made in
deriving the estimator.
Range: The range of an estimator is the set of values that the
estimator can take on. An estimator with a narrow range is
preferred because it is less likely to produce extreme or
implausible estimates.
Interval estimator: An interval estimator is one that provides
a range of values within which the true value of the
parameter is likely to lie. An interval estimator that is narrow
and accurate is preferred. Point
estimator: A point estimator is one that provides a single
estimate of the value of the parameter. A point estimator that
is accurate and has a small variance is preferred.
Unit 3:
Parametric Tests Non-Parametric Tests
Lower statistical power. Greater statistical power.
Applied to normal or Applied to categorical
interval variables. variables.
Used for large samples. Used for small samples.
Its data distribution is The form of data
normal. distribution is not known.
Don’t make many
Make a lot of assumptions.
assumptions.
Demand a higher condition Require a lower validity
of validity. condition.
Less chance of errors. Higher probability of errors.
The calculation is The calculation is less
complicated. complicated.
Hypotheses are based on
The hypotheses are based
ranges, median, and data
on numerical data.
frequency.

What do you mean by non parametric test? write down
advantages of non parametric test over parametric test:
Nonparametric tests are statistical tests that do not assume a particular
shape or distribution for the data. They are generally less powerful
than parametric tests, which do make assumptions about the data, but
they are more flexible and can be applied to a wider range of data sets.
There are several advantages of nonparametric tests over
parametric tests:
1.Nonparametric tests do not require assumptions about the underlying
distribution of the data, which makes them more robust and less
sensitive to deviations from these assumptions.
2.Nonparametric tests are generally easier to understand and interpret,
as they do not rely on complex statistical models or assumptions.
3.Nonparametric tests can be applied to data that are not normally
distributed, or to data that are ordinal (ranked) rather than continuous.
4.Nonparametric tests can be used when the sample size is small, as
they do not require large sample sizes to be effective.
5.Nonparametric tests are less sensitive to the presence of outliers or
extreme values in the data.
6.Nonparametric tests can be used when the data are collected in a way
that does not allow for calculation of means and standard deviations
(e.g., if the data are categorical rather than continuous).
Discuss assumptions of non parametric test :
There are generally fewer assumptions associated with nonparametric
tests than with parametric tests. However, there are still some
assumptions that are commonly made in nonparametric tests:
Independence: The observations in the sample should be independent
of one another.
Random sampling: The sample should be drawn randomly from the
population.
Equal sample sizes: Nonparametric tests often assume that the sample
sizes in each group being compared are equal. When the sample sizes
are not equal, the results of the test may not be reliable.
Normality: Some nonparametric tests assume that the underlying
distribution of the data is normal, even though they do not make this
assumption explicitly. This is because they are based on the normal
distribution in some way (e.g., the Wilcoxon rank sum test is based on
the normal distribution of the ranks of the observations).
Symmetry: Some nonparametric tests assume that the distribution of
the data is symmetrical. This assumption may be violated if the data
are heavily skewed.
Equal variances: Some nonparametric tests assume that the variances
of the groups being compared are equal. When the variances are not
equal, the results of the test may not be reliable.
It is important to carefully consider these assumptions when choosing
and applying a nonparametric test, as violations of these assumptions
can affect the reliability of the test results.
Write down steps of non parametric test :
The steps of a nonparametric test are generally similar to those of a
parametric test, with some key differences:
Define the research question and null hypothesis: As with any
statistical test, it is important to start by defining the research question
and the corresponding null hypothesis that you are testing.
Select the appropriate nonparametric test: Based on the research
question and the nature of the data, choose the appropriate
nonparametric test.
Check the assumptions of the nonparametric test: Make sure that the
assumptions of the nonparametric test are satisfied by the data. This
may include checking for independence, random sampling, equal
sample sizes, normality, symmetry, and equal variances, depending on
the specific test being used.
Calculate the test statistic: Use the formula for the chosen
nonparametric test to calculate the test statistic.
Determine the p-value: Use the test statistic to determine the p-value,
which is the probability of observing a result as extreme or more
extreme than the one observed, given that the null hypothesis is true.
Interpret the results: Compare the p-value to the chosen significance
level (usually 0.05). If the p-value is less than the significance level,
the null hypothesis can be rejected and the alternative hypothesis can
be accepted. If the p-value is greater than the significance level, the
null hypothesis cannot be rejected.
Advantages and disadvantages of non parametric test :
Nonparametric tests are statistical tests that do not assume a specific di
stribution for the data. Here are some advantages and disadvantages of
nonparametric tests:
Advantages:
1.Nonparametric tests do not require assumptions about the underlying
distribution of the data, so they can be used with a variety of data types.
2.They are often more robust than parametric tests, meaning they can s
till be reliable even if the assumptions of the parametric test are not me
t.
Disadvantages:
1.Nonparametric tests may have lower statistical power than parametri
c tests, meaning they may be less able to detect differences between gr
oups.
2.Nonparametric tests usually have a fewer number of statistical tests a
vailable, so there may be less flexibility in analyzing the data.
3.The interpretation of nonparametric tests can be more difficult than p
arametric tests because the results are not presented in terms of the fa
miliar normal distribution.
What is binomial test? why is it used?
The binomial test is a statistical test used to determine wheth
er the probability of success in a binary outcome (such as a
"success" or "failure") is different from a hypothesized valu
e. It is based on the binomial distribution, which describes th
e probability of a specific number of successes in a fixed nu
mber of trials, given a probability of success on each trial.
The binomial test is often used in situations where there are t
wo possible outcomes (e.g., "success" or "failure") and the p
robability of success is known or can be estimated. For exam
ple, the binomial test might be used to determine whether the
probability of winning a game is different from 50%, or to d
etermine whether the probability of a product defect is differ
ent from a certain value.
Method of binomial test :
To conduct a binomial test, the following steps are typically
followed:
Define the research question and null hypothesis: As with
any statistical test, it is important to start by defining the
research question and the corresponding null hypothesis that
you are testing.
Determine the hypothesized probability of success:
Determine the hypothesized probability of success that is
being tested against.
Collect the data: Collect data on the number of successes
and failures in a fixed number of trials.
Calculate the test statistic: Use the formula for the binomial
test to calculate the test statistic.
Determine the p-value: Use the test statistic to determine the
p-value, which is the probability of observing a result as
extreme or more extreme than the one observed, given that
the null hypothesis is true.
Interpret the results: Compare the p-value to the chosen
significance level (usually 0.05). If the p-value is less than
the significance level, the null hypothesis can be rejected
and the alternative hypothesis can be accepted. If the p-value
is greater than the significance level, the null hypothesis
cannot be rejected.
Discuss process of kolmogorov smirnov process.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test is a nonparametric
statistical test used to determine whether two samples come
from the same population. It is often used when the
assumptions for parametric tests are not met, such as when
the data is not normally distributed.
To perform the K-S test, follow these steps:
1.Calculate the sample size for each group.
2.Calculate the cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) for
each sample. The CDF is a function that describes the
probability that a random 3.variable will be less than or
equal to a certain value.
4.Calculate the maximum absolute difference between the
two CDFs. This is known as the K-S statistic.
5.Use a table or computer software to determine the p-value
for the K-S statistic.
6.Compare the p-value to the alpha level (typically 0.05) to
determine whether the samples come from the same
population.
The K-S test is a powerful tool for comparing two samples,
but it is sensitive to sample size. When the sample sizes are
small, the test may not have enough power to detect a
difference between the samples. In this case, it may be
necessary to use a different statistical test or to increase the
sample size.
What do you mean by median test ? Describe procedure
of median test.
The median test is a nonparametric statistical test used to
determine whether two samples come from populations with
a common median. It is often used when the assumptions for
parametric tests are not met, such as when the data is not
normally distributed.
To perform the median test, follow these steps:
1.Determine the sample size for each group.
2.Rank the combined data from lowest to highest value.
3.Determine the median value for each group by selecting
the value at the middle position of the ranked data for that
group.
4.Calculate the difference between the two medians.
5.Use a table or computer software to determine the p-value
for the difference between the medians.
6.Compare the p-value to the alpha level (typically 0.05) to
determine whether the difference between the medians is
statistically significant.
It is important to note that the median test can only be used
to compare the medians of two groups, not the means. If you
want to compare the means of two groups, you will need to
use a different statistical test.
Describe the function and procedure of chi square test
for goodness of fit. The chi-square test for goodness of fit is
a statistical test used to determine whether a sample comes
from a population with a specific distribution. It is often
used to test whether a sample is consistent with a hypothesis
about the population distribution.
To perform the chi-square test for goodness of fit, follow
these steps:
1.Determine the sample size and the number of categories or
bins in the data.
2.Calculate the expected frequency for each category or bin
based on the hypothesized population distribution.
3.Calculate the observed frequency for each category or bin
based on the sample data.
4.Calculate the chi-square statistic using the formula:
chi-square = sum((observed frequency - expected
frequency)^2 / expected frequency)
5.Use a table or computer software to determine the p-value
for the chi-square statistic.
6.Compare the p-value to the alpha level (typically 0.05) to
determine whether the sample comes from a population with
the hypothesized distribution.
It is important to note that the chi-square test for goodness of
fit assumes that the sample is a random and representative
sample from the population. If the sample is not
representative, the test may not be accurate. Additionally,
the chi-square test is sensitive to sample size, and may not be
powerful when the sample size is small. In these cases, it
may be necessary to use a different statistical test or to
increase the sample size.
Discuss the rationale and method of chi square test for
independence of attributes.
The chi-square test for independence of attributes is a
statistical test used to determine whether there is a
relationship between two categorical variables. It is often
used to test whether there is an association between the two
variables, or whether one variable is independent of the
other.
To perform the chi-square test for independence of
attributes, follow these steps:
1.Determine the sample size and the number of categories or
bins in each variable.
2.Construct a contingency table that shows the frequency of
each combination of categories or bins in the two variables.
3.Calculate the expected frequency for each combination of
categories or bins based on the assumption of independence
between the two variables.
4.Calculate the observed frequency for each combination of
categories or bins based on the sample data.
5.Calculate the chi-square statistic using the formula:
chi-square = sum((observed frequency - expected
frequency)^2 / expected frequency)
6.Use a table or computer software to determine the p-value
for the chi-square statistic.
7.Compare the p-value to the alpha level (typically 0.05) to
determine whether there is a relationship between the two
variables.
The chi-square test for independence of attributes is a
powerful tool for testing relationships between categorical
variables, but it is sensitive to sample size. When the sample
size is small, the test may not have enough power to detect a
relationship between the variables. In this case, it may be
necessary to use a different statistical test or to increase the
sample size. It is also important to note that the chi-square
test assumes that the sample is a random and representative
sample from the population. If the sample is not
representative, the test may not be accurate.
Differentiate between chi-square test and KS test for
uniformity.  The Chi Square test is used to test whether the
distribution of nominal variables is same or not as well as for
other distribution matches and on the other hand the Kolmogorov
Smirnov (K-S) test is only used to test to the goodness of fit for a
continuous data.
Kolmogorov Smirnov (K-S) test compares the continuous cdf,
F(X), of the uniform distribution to the empirical cdf, SN(x), of
the sample of N observations. By definitionv,
If the sample from the random-number generator is R1,
R2,......,RN, then the empirical cdf, SN(X), is defined by
As
N becomes larger, SN(X) should become a better approximation
to F(X), provided that the null hypothesis is true. The
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is based on the largest absolute
deviation or difference between F(x) and SN(X) over the range of
the random variable. I.e. it is based on the statistic
The chi-square test uses the sample statistic
Where Oi is the observed number in the ith class, Ei is the
expected number in the ith class, and n is the number of classes.
For the uniform distribution, Ei ist the expected number in each
class is given by: Ei = N/n, N is the total number of observation.

Describe the function and procedure of mann whitney u test:
The Mann-Whitney U test, also known as the Mann-Whitney-
Wilcoxon (MWW) test or the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, is a
nonparametric statistical test used to determine whether two
independent samples come from the same population. It is often used
when the assumptions for parametric tests are not met, such as when
the data is not normally distributed or the variances of the two groups
are not equal.
To perform the Mann-Whitney U test, follow these steps:
1.Determine the sample size for each group.
2.Combine the data from both groups and rank the values from lowest
to highest.
3.Calculate the sum of the ranks for each group. These values are
known as the U statistics.
4.Use a table or computer software to determine the p-value for the U
statistics.
5.Compare the p-value to the alpha level (typically 0.05) to determine
whether the samples come from the same population.
The Mann-Whitney U test is a powerful tool for comparing two
samples, but it is sensitive to sample size. When the sample sizes are
small, the test may not have enough power to detect a difference
between the samples. In this case, it may be necessary to use a
different statistical test or to increase the sample size.
What is willcoxon matched pair signed rank test ? why is it
superior to sign test? The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test is
a nonparametric statistical hypothesis test used to compare two related
samples. It is similar to the paired t-test, but is more robust and easier
to compute. The test is based on the ranks of the differences between
the pairs of observations, rather than the differences themselves.
The Wilcoxon test is superior to the sign test in several ways. First, the
Wilcoxon test takes into account the magnitude of the differences
between the pairs, while the sign test only looks at whether the
differences are positive or negative. This means that the Wilcoxon test
is more sensitive to differences between the pairs and is less likely to
produce a Type II error (failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is
actually false).
Second, the Wilcoxon test has more statistical power than the sign test,
which means that it is more likely to detect a difference between the
pairs when one exists. This is especially important when the sample
size is small.
Finally, the Wilcoxon test is more robust to departures from the
assumptions of the paired t-test (such as normality of the differences),
making it a more reliable test in practical situations.
Discuss the rationale and method of willcoxon matched pair signed
rank test. The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test is used to
compare two related samples, where each individual in one sample is
matched with an individual in the other sample. The test is based on
the ranks of the differences between the pairs of observations, rather
than the differences themselves.
The rationale for using the Wilcoxon test is that it is a nonparametric
test, which means that it makes no assumptions about the underlying
distribution of the data. This is especially useful when the data are not
normally distributed or when the sample size is small.
To conduct the Wilcoxon test, the following steps are typically
followed:
1.Calculate the difference between each pair of observations.
2.Determine the sign (positive or negative) of each difference.
3.Rank the differences, with ties ranked in the middle.
4.Calculate the sum of the ranks for the positive differences (W+) and
the sum of the ranks for the negative differences (W-).
5.Calculate the test statistic, which is the smaller of W+ and W-.
6.Compare the test statistic to the critical value from a table of the
Wilcoxon signed-rank test, or use a software package to calculate the
p-value.
7.If the p-value is less than the chosen level of significance (usually
0.05), then the null hypothesis can be rejected and it can be concluded
that there is a significant difference between the two samples.
What do you mean by Friedman two way ANOVA test?Describe p
rocess of the test. The Friedman two-way analysis of variance (ANO
VA) is a nonparametric statistical test that is used to compare the mean
ranks of three or more groups on a single dependent variable. It is an e
xtension of the Friedman test, which is used to compare the mean rank
s of two groups.
The Friedman two-way ANOVA test is used when the independent var
iable is a within-subjects (repeated measures) factor and the dependent
variable is a continuous or ordinal variable. It is used to determine whe
ther there are significant differences between the groups in the depend
ent variable.
To conduct the Friedman two-way ANOVA test, you would first need
to collect data from a sample of subjects for each group. The data shou
ld be collected in a way that allows you to determine the mean ranks f
or each group.
Next, you would need to calculate the mean ranks for each group and c
ompare them using a statistical test. This can be done using a chi-squar
e test or a Kruskal-Wallis test.
If the results of the statistical test are significant, you would then need
to conduct post-hoc tests to determine which pairs of groups are signifi
cantly different from each other. This can be done using the Nemenyi t
est or the Conover test.
It's important to note that the Friedman two-way ANOVA test should
only be used when the assumptions of the test are met. These assumpti
ons include normality of the residuals and homogeneity of variance. If
these assumptions are not met, it may be necessary to use a different st
atistical test.
What do you mean by multiple correlation? Write down
Discuss the function and procedure for Kruskals Wallis
the relationship between multiple correlation coefficient
H test. The Kruskal-Wallis H test is a nonparametric statisti
and simple correlation coefficient.
cal hypothesis test used to compare the median of three or m
Multiple correlation refers to the correlation between
ore independent samples. It is similar to the one-way analysi
multiple predictor variables and a single outcome variable. It
s of variance (ANOVA), but is more robust and easier to co
can be represented by the multiple correlation coefficient,
mpute. The test is based on the ranks of the observations wit
which is a measure of the strength and direction of the
hin each group, rather than the observations themselves.
relationship between the predictor variables and the outcome
The Kruskal-Wallis H test is used to test the null hypothesis
variable.
that the medians of all groups are equal. If the p-value is less
The multiple correlation coefficient is similar to the simple
than the chosen level of significance (usually 0.05), then the
correlation coefficient, which measures the correlation
null hypothesis can be rejected and it can be concluded that t
between two variables. However, the multiple correlation
here is a significant difference between at least two of the gr
coefficient takes into account the relationships between
oups.
multiple predictor variables and the outcome variable,
To conduct the Kruskal-Wallis H test, the following steps ar
whereas the simple correlation coefficient only measures the
e typically followed:
relationship between two variables.
1.Rank all of the observations from all of the groups together.
In general, the multiple correlation coefficient will be a
2.Calculate the sum of the ranks for each group (Ri).
stronger measure of the relationship between the predictor
3.Calculate the test statistic, which is the sum of the squared
variables and the outcome variable than any of the individual
ranks for each group divided by the number of observations i
simple correlation coefficients between the predictor
n the group (Hi).
variables and the outcome variable. This is because the
4.Calculate the p-value using the test statistic and the numbe
multiple correlation coefficient takes into account the
r of groups and observations.
relationships between all of the predictor variables and the
5.Compare the p-value to the chosen level of significance.
outcome variable, whereas the simple correlation coefficient
only considers the relationship between two variables.
Differentiate between Kruskals Wallis one way ANOVA
Write down the properties of multiple correlation
test and Friedman two way ANOVA test.
coefficient
The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Multiple correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that
test and the Friedman two-way ANOVA test are both
quantifies the strength of the relationship between multiple
nonparametric statistical tests that are used to compare the
predictor variables and a single criterion variable. Here are
mean ranks of multiple groups on a single dependent
some properties of multiple correlation coefficient:
variable. However, there are a few key differences between
Range: The multiple correlation coefficient has a range of -1
these two tests:
to 1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, 0
The number of groups: The Kruskal-Wallis test is used to
indicates no correlation, and 1 indicates a perfect positive
compare the mean ranks of two or more groups, while the
correlation.
Friedman test is used to compare the mean ranks of three or
Interpretation: A multiple correlation coefficient of 0.7, for
more groups.
example, indicates that the predictor variables are able to
The type of independent variable: The Kruskal-Wallis test
explain 70% of the variance in the criterion variable.
is used when the independent variable is a between-subjects
Statistical significance: The multiple correlation coefficient
factor (i.e., each subject is only in one group), while the
can be tested for statistical significance to determine whether
Friedman test is used when the independent variable is a
the relationship between the predictor variables and the
within-subjects (repeated measures) factor (i.e., each subject
criterion variable is likely to be due to chance or whether it
is in multiple groups).
is a real relationship.
The type of dependent variable: Both the Kruskal-Wallis
Sensitivity: The multiple correlation coefficient is sensitive
test and the Friedman test can be used with continuous or
to the presence of outliers in the data.
ordinal dependent variables.
Multicollinearity: The multiple correlation coefficient can
Post-hoc tests: If the results of the Kruskal-Wallis test are
be affected by multicollinearity, which is the presence of
significant, you can use the Mann-Whitney U test to
strong correlations between predictor variables. In such
determine which pairs of groups are significantly different
cases, it may be difficult to interpret the individual
from each other. If the results of the Friedman test are
contributions of the predictor variables to the criterion
significant, you can use the Nemenyi test or the Conover test
variable.
to determine which pairs of groups are significantly
Linearity: The multiple correlation coefficient assumes a
different.
linear relationship between the predictor variables and the
Unit 4 :
criterion variable. If the relationship is non-linear, the
What do mean by partial correlation? Write down the
multiple correlation coefficient may not accurately represent
relationship between partial and simple correlation
the strength of the relationship.
coefficients.
Differentiate between multiple and partial correlation
Partial correlation is a statistical measure that quantifies the
coefficient.
strength of the relationship between two variables while
Multiple correlation coefficient is a measure of the strength
controlling for (or partialing out) the effects of one or more
and direction of the relationship between multiple predictor
other variables. It can be used to determine whether the
variables and a single outcome variable. It takes into account
relationship between two variables is independent of the
the relationships between all of the predictor variables and
relationships between each of those variables and one or
the outcome variable.
more other variables.
On the other hand, partial correlation coefficient is a
Simple correlation, on the other hand, is a measure of the
measure of the strength and direction of the relationship
strength of the relationship between two variables without
between two variables, while controlling for the effects of
controlling for any other variables.
one or more other variables. It is used to identify the unique
The relationship between partial and simple correlation
contribution of each predictor variable to the prediction of
coefficients is that partial correlation allows you to control
the outcome variable, while controlling for the effects of the
for the effects of other variables on the relationship between
other predictor variables.
two variables, while simple correlation does not. This can be
For example, consider three predictor variables X1, X2, and
useful when you want to understand the unique relationship
X3, and an outcome variable Y. The multiple correlation
between two variables, rather than the relationship that is
coefficient would measure the relationship between X1, X2,
influenced by other variables.
and X3, and Y, taking into account the relationships between
all of the predictor variables and the outcome variable. The
What do you mean by multiple correlation? Write down
partial correlation coefficient between X1 and Y, controlling
the relationship between multiple correlation coefficient
for X2 and X3, would measure the relationship between X1
and simple correlation coefficient.
and Y while controlling for the effects of X2 and X3 on the
Multiple correlation refers to the correlation between
relationship. This allows us to identify the unique
multiple predictor variables and a single outcome variable. It
contribution of X1 to the prediction of Y, while controlling
can be represented by the multiple correlation coefficient,
for the effects of X2 and X3.
which is a measure of the strength and direction of the
What is multiple regression? Write down the method of
relationship between the predictor variables and the outcome
variable. obtaining regression line
The multiple correlation coefficient is similar to the simple Multiple regression is a statistical technique used to predict
correlation coefficient, which measures the correlation the value of a criterion or dependent variable based on the
between two variables. However, the multiple correlation values of two or more predictor or independent variables. It
coefficient takes into account the relationships between is used to model the relationship between multiple
multiple predictor variables and the outcome variable, predictor variables and a single criterion variable.
whereas the simple correlation coefficient only measures the Multiple regression analysis involves the following steps:
relationship between two variables. 1.Collect data on the predictor variables and the criterion
In general, the multiple correlation coefficient will be a variable.
stronger measure of the relationship between the predictor 2.Determine the regression model that best fits the data.
variables and the outcome variable than any of the individual 3.Estimate the regression coefficients for the predictor
simple correlation coefficients between the predictor variables.
variables and the outcome variable. This is because the 4.Test the significance of the regression coefficients.
multiple correlation coefficient takes into account the 5.Use the regression equation to predict the value of the
relationships between all of the predictor variables and the
criterion variable for given values of the predictor variables.
outcome variable, whereas the simple correlation coefficient
The regression equation for a multiple regression model is:
only considers the relationship between two variables.
y = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + ... + bn*xn
where y is the criterion variable, b0 is the intercept term,
and b1, b2, ..., bn are the regression coefficients for the
predictor variables x1, x2, ..., xn, respectively.
Describe the function and procedure of mann whitney u test:
The Mann-Whitney U test, also known as the Mann-Whitney-
Wilcoxon (MWW) test or the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, is a
nonparametric statistical test used to determine whether two
independent samples come from the same population. It is often used
when the assumptions for parametric tests are not met, such as when
the data is not normally distributed or the variances of the two groups
are not equal.
To perform the Mann-Whitney U test, follow these steps:
1.Determine the sample size for each group.
2.Combine the data from both groups and rank the values from lowest
to highest.
3.Calculate the sum of the ranks for each group. These values are
known as the U statistics.
4.Use a table or computer software to determine the p-value for the U
statistics.
5.Compare the p-value to the alpha level (typically 0.05) to determine
whether the samples come from the same population.
The Mann-Whitney U test is a powerful tool for comparing two
samples, but it is sensitive to sample size. When the sample sizes are
small, the test may not have enough power to detect a difference
between the samples. In this case, it may be necessary to use a
different statistical test or to increase the sample size.
What is willcoxon matched pair signed rank test ? why is it
superior to sign test? The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test is
a nonparametric statistical hypothesis test used to compare two related
samples. It is similar to the paired t-test, but is more robust and easier
to compute. The test is based on the ranks of the differences between
the pairs of observations, rather than the differences themselves.
The Wilcoxon test is superior to the sign test in several ways. First, the
Wilcoxon test takes into account the magnitude of the differences
between the pairs, while the sign test only looks at whether the
differences are positive or negative. This means that the Wilcoxon test
is more sensitive to differences between the pairs and is less likely to
produce a Type II error (failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is
actually false).
Second, the Wilcoxon test has more statistical power than the sign test,
which means that it is more likely to detect a difference between the
pairs when one exists. This is especially important when the sample
size is small.
Finally, the Wilcoxon test is more robust to departures from the
assumptions of the paired t-test (such as normality of the differences),
making it a more reliable test in practical situations.
Discuss the rationale and method of willcoxon matched pair signed
rank test. The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test is used to
compare two related samples, where each individual in one sample is
matched with an individual in the other sample. The test is based on
the ranks of the differences between the pairs of observations, rather
than the differences themselves.
The rationale for using the Wilcoxon test is that it is a nonparametric
test, which means that it makes no assumptions about the underlying
distribution of the data. This is especially useful when the data are not
normally distributed or when the sample size is small.
To conduct the Wilcoxon test, the following steps are typically
followed:
1.Calculate the difference between each pair of observations.
2.Determine the sign (positive or negative) of each difference.
3.Rank the differences, with ties ranked in the middle.
4.Calculate the sum of the ranks for the positive differences (W+) and
the sum of the ranks for the negative differences (W-).
5.Calculate the test statistic, which is the smaller of W+ and W-.
6.Compare the test statistic to the critical value from a table of the
Wilcoxon signed-rank test, or use a software package to calculate the
p-value.
7.If the p-value is less than the chosen level of significance (usually
0.05), then the null hypothesis can be rejected and it can be concluded
that there is a significant difference between the two samples.
What do you mean by Friedman two way ANOVA test?Describe p
rocess of the test. The Friedman two-way analysis of variance (ANO
VA) is a nonparametric statistical test that is used to compare the mean
ranks of three or more groups on a single dependent variable. It is an e
xtension of the Friedman test, which is used to compare the mean rank
s of two groups.
The Friedman two-way ANOVA test is used when the independent var
iable is a within-subjects (repeated measures) factor and the dependent
variable is a continuous or ordinal variable. It is used to determine whe
ther there are significant differences between the groups in the depend
ent variable.
To conduct the Friedman two-way ANOVA test, you would first need
to collect data from a sample of subjects for each group. The data shou
ld be collected in a way that allows you to determine the mean ranks f
or each group.
Next, you would need to calculate the mean ranks for each group and c
ompare them using a statistical test. This can be done using a chi-squar
e test or a Kruskal-Wallis test.
If the results of the statistical test are significant, you would then need
to conduct post-hoc tests to determine which pairs of groups are signifi
cantly different from each other. This can be done using the Nemenyi t
est or the Conover test.
It's important to note that the Friedman two-way ANOVA test should
only be used when the assumptions of the test are met. These assumpti
ons include normality of the residuals and homogeneity of variance. If
these assumptions are not met, it may be necessary to use a different st
atistical test.
Discuss the function and procedure for Kruskals Wallis
H test. The Kruskal-Wallis H test is a nonparametric statisti
cal hypothesis test used to compare the median of three or m
ore independent samples. It is similar to the one-way analysi
s of variance (ANOVA), but is more robust and easier to co
mpute. The test is based on the ranks of the observations wit
hin each group, rather than the observations themselves.
The Kruskal-Wallis H test is used to test the null hypothesis
that the medians of all groups are equal. If the p-value is less
than the chosen level of significance (usually 0.05), then the
null hypothesis can be rejected and it can be concluded that t
here is a significant difference between at least two of the gr
oups.
To conduct the Kruskal-Wallis H test, the following steps ar
e typically followed:
1.Rank all of the observations from all of the groups together.
2.Calculate the sum of the ranks for each group (Ri).
3.Calculate the test statistic, which is the sum of the squared
ranks for each group divided by the number of observations i
n the group (Hi).
4.Calculate the p-value using the test statistic and the numbe
r of groups and observations.
5.Compare the p-value to the chosen level of significance.
Differentiate between Kruskals Wallis one way ANOVA
test and Friedman two way ANOVA test.
The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
test and the Friedman two-way ANOVA test are both
nonparametric statistical tests that are used to compare the
mean ranks of multiple groups on a single dependent
variable. However, there are a few key differences between
these two tests:
The number of groups: The Kruskal-Wallis test is used to
compare the mean ranks of two or more groups, while the
Friedman test is used to compare the mean ranks of three or
more groups.
The type of independent variable: The Kruskal-Wallis test
is used when the independent variable is a between-subjects
factor (i.e., each subject is only in one group), while the
Friedman test is used when the independent variable is a
within-subjects (repeated measures) factor (i.e., each subject
is in multiple groups).
The type of dependent variable: Both the Kruskal-Wallis
test and the Friedman test can be used with continuous or
ordinal dependent variables.
Post-hoc tests: If the results of the Kruskal-Wallis test are
significant, you can use the Mann-Whitney U test to
determine which pairs of groups are significantly different
from each other. If the results of the Friedman test are
significant, you can use the Nemenyi test or the Conover test
to determine which pairs of groups are significantly
different.
Unit 4 :
What do mean by partial correlation? Write down the
relationship between partial and simple correlation
coefficients.
Partial correlation is a statistical measure that quantifies the
strength of the relationship between two variables while
controlling for (or partialing out) the effects of one or more
other variables. It can be used to determine whether the
relationship between two variables is independent of the
relationships between each of those variables and one or
more other variables.
Simple correlation, on the other hand, is a measure of the
strength of the relationship between two variables without
controlling for any other variables.
The relationship between partial and simple correlation
coefficients is that partial correlation allows you to control
for the effects of other variables on the relationship between
two variables, while simple correlation does not. This can be
useful when you want to understand the unique relationship
between two variables, rather than the relationship that is
influenced by other variables.
What do you mean by multiple correlation? Write down
the relationship between multiple correlation coefficient
and simple correlation coefficient.
Multiple correlation refers to the correlation between
multiple predictor variables and a single outcome variable. It
can be represented by the multiple correlation coefficient,
which is a measure of the strength and direction of the
relationship between the predictor variables and the outcome
variable.
The multiple correlation coefficient is similar to the simple
correlation coefficient, which measures the correlation
between two variables. However, the multiple correlation
coefficient takes into account the relationships between
multiple predictor variables and the outcome variable,
whereas the simple correlation coefficient only measures the
relationship between two variables.
In general, the multiple correlation coefficient will be a
stronger measure of the relationship between the predictor
variables and the outcome variable than any of the individual
simple correlation coefficients between the predictor
variables and the outcome variable. This is because the
multiple correlation coefficient takes into account the
relationships between all of the predictor variables and the
outcome variable, whereas the simple correlation coefficient
only considers the relationship between two variables.
What do you mean by multiple correlation? Write down
the relationship between multiple correlation coefficient
and simple correlation coefficient.
Multiple correlation refers to the correlation between
multiple predictor variables and a single outcome variable. It
can be represented by the multiple correlation coefficient,
which is a measure of the strength and direction of the
relationship between the predictor variables and the outcome
variable.
The multiple correlation coefficient is similar to the simple
correlation coefficient, which measures the correlation
between two variables. However, the multiple correlation
coefficient takes into account the relationships between
multiple predictor variables and the outcome variable,
whereas the simple correlation coefficient only measures the
relationship between two variables.
In general, the multiple correlation coefficient will be a
stronger measure of the relationship between the predictor
variables and the outcome variable than any of the individual
simple correlation coefficients between the predictor
variables and the outcome variable. This is because the
multiple correlation coefficient takes into account the
relationships between all of the predictor variables and the
outcome variable, whereas the simple correlation coefficient
only considers the relationship between two variables.
Write down the properties of multiple correlation
coefficient
Multiple correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that
quantifies the strength of the relationship between multiple
predictor variables and a single criterion variable. Here are
some properties of multiple correlation coefficient:
Range: The multiple correlation coefficient has a range of -1
to 1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, 0
indicates no correlation, and 1 indicates a perfect positive
correlation.
Interpretation: A multiple correlation coefficient of 0.7, for
example, indicates that the predictor variables are able to
explain 70% of the variance in the criterion variable.
Statistical significance: The multiple correlation coefficient
can be tested for statistical significance to determine whether
the relationship between the predictor variables and the
criterion variable is likely to be due to chance or whether it
is a real relationship.
Sensitivity: The multiple correlation coefficient is sensitive
to the presence of outliers in the data.
Multicollinearity: The multiple correlation coefficient can
be affected by multicollinearity, which is the presence of
strong correlations between predictor variables. In such
cases, it may be difficult to interpret the individual
contributions of the predictor variables to the criterion
variable.
Linearity: The multiple correlation coefficient assumes a
linear relationship between the predictor variables and the
criterion variable. If the relationship is non-linear, the
multiple correlation coefficient may not accurately represent
the strength of the relationship.
Differentiate between multiple and partial correlation
coefficient.
Multiple correlation coefficient is a measure of the strength
and direction of the relationship between multiple predictor
variables and a single outcome variable. It takes into account
the relationships between all of the predictor variables and
the outcome variable.
On the other hand, partial correlation coefficient is a
measure of the strength and direction of the relationship
between two variables, while controlling for the effects of
one or more other variables. It is used to identify the unique
contribution of each predictor variable to the prediction of
the outcome variable, while controlling for the effects of the
other predictor variables.
For example, consider three predictor variables X1, X2, and
X3, and an outcome variable Y. The multiple correlation
coefficient would measure the relationship between X1, X2,
and X3, and Y, taking into account the relationships between
all of the predictor variables and the outcome variable. The
partial correlation coefficient between X1 and Y, controlling
for X2 and X3, would measure the relationship between X1
and Y while controlling for the effects of X2 and X3 on the
relationship. This allows us to identify the unique
contribution of X1 to the prediction of Y, while controlling
for the effects of X2 and X3.
What is multiple regression? Write down the method of
obtaining regression line
Multiple regression is a statistical technique used to predict
the value of a criterion or dependent variable based on the
values of two or more predictor or independent variables. It
is used to model the relationship between multiple
predictor variables and a single criterion variable.
Multiple regression analysis involves the following steps:
1.Collect data on the predictor variables and the criterion
variable.
2.Determine the regression model that best fits the data.
3.Estimate the regression coefficients for the predictor
variables.
4.Test the significance of the regression coefficients.
5.Use the regression equation to predict the value of the
criterion variable for given values of the predictor variables.
The regression equation for a multiple regression model is:
y = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + ... + bn*xn
where y is the criterion variable, b0 is the intercept term,
and b1, b2, ..., bn are the regression coefficients for the
predictor variables x1, x2, ..., xn, respectively.
What are underlying assumptions of linear regression model?
Linear regression is a statistical method used to model the linear
relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables. There are several underlying assumptions of the
linear regression model:
Linearity: There is a linear relationship between the dependent
variable and the independent variables.
Independence of errors: The errors (residuals) of the model are
independent of each other.
Homoscedasticity: The errors have constant variance
(homoscedasticity).
Normality of errors: The errors are normally distributed.
Absence of multicollinearity: There is no multicollinearity among the
independent variables.
It is important to check whether these assumptions are met before
fitting a linear regression model to the data, as violating these
assumptions can lead to incorrect model estimates and predictions.

What do you mean by standard error of estimate? Write down the

role of it in regression analysis.
The standard error of estimate is a measure of the variability of the
predicted values around the true value of the criterion variable. It is an
estimate of the standard deviation of the error or difference between
the observed values of the criterion variable and the predicted values.
The standard error of estimate plays an important role in regression
analysis because it helps to determine the accuracy of the predictions
made by the regression model. A low standard error of estimate
indicates that the predicted values are close to the true values, while a
high standard error of estimate indicates that the predicted values are
far from the true values.
The standard error of estimate is also used to construct confidence
intervals around the predicted values. This allows researchers to
estimate the range of values within which the true value of the
criterion variable is likely to fall with a certain level of confidence.
The standard error of estimate can be used to compare the performance
of different regression models and to choose the model that provides
the best prediction accuracy. It can also be used to test the statistical
significance of the regression coefficients and to determine whether
the predictor variables have a significant effect on the criterion
variable.

What do you mean by coefficient of determination? How is it

different from correlation coefficient?
The coefficient of determination, also known as the R-squared or the
squared correlation coefficient, is a measure of the strength of the
relationship between a predictor variable and a criterion variable. It is
a statistical measure that indicates the proportion of the variance in the
criterion variable that is explained by the predictor variable.
The coefficient of determination is calculated as the square of the
Pearson correlation coefficient, which is a measure of the strength and
direction of the linear relationship between two variables. The Pearson
correlation coefficient can range from -1 to 1, where -1 indicates a
strong negative relationship, 0 indicates no relationship, and 1
indicates a strong positive relationship.
The coefficient of determination can range from 0 to 1, where 0
indicates that the predictor variable does not explain any of the
variance in the criterion variable, and 1 indicates that the predictor
variable explains all of the variance in the criterion variable.
The coefficient of determination is different from the Pearson
correlation coefficient in that it represents the proportion of variance
explained, rather than the strength and direction of the relationship. It
is a useful measure of the fit of the regression model because it
provides a single value that summarizes the overall goodness of fit of
the model.