Unit 3
is the process of Line clipping is a method of reducing a line to fit within a
What is Window Port ? :Window port is the world
coordinate area to display. A window is a graphical control
element. It consists of a visual area containing some of the
Graphical User Interface (GUI). Furthermore, there is a frame
by a window decoration. Therefore, this window port is a
window that defines a rectangular area in world coordinates.  procedure for this algorithm is as follows:
Furthermore, it is possible to define the window size. It can be
larger, smaller or the same size depending on whether to
display all data or only a part of data.
What is View Port? : A view port is a part of the computer
screen. In other words, it is an area on a device to map the
object. Therefore, it is the region according to the device
coordinates. It is possible to describe the viewport by
rendering device-specific coordinates. For example, it denotes
the pixels of screen coordinates to render. Depending on the
requirement, it is possible to display the entire display device
or to display only a portion. Furthermore, viewing transform or
window to view port mapping is the process of mapping the
part of the world coordinate scene to device coordinate sense.
Likewise, it is possible to map the objects in the world
coordinates to the view port.
Viewport transformation : “ The mapping of a port of a
world co-ordinate scene to a device co-ordinates is referred to
as viewing transformation.” Sometimes , the 2D viewing
transformation is simply referred to as the window – to –
viewport transformation or the windowing transformation.
• Fig. given below illustrates the mapping of a picture
selections that falls within a rectangular window onto a
designated rectangular viewpoint.
Fig. A viewing transformation using standard rectangles for
the window and viewpoint.
Diff between window port & view port :
Homogeneous coordinates are a way of representing points in
space using a coordinate system with an extra dimension. In a
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, we represent a
point using three coordinates (x, y, z). In homogeneous
coordinates, we represent the same point using four
coordinates (x, y, z, w), where w is a scaling factor.
Why homogenous coordinate are used for transformation
computation in computer graphics? :Homogeneous
coordinates are used for transformations in computer graphics
because they allow for the representation of translation (as
well as rotation and scaling) using matrix multiplication. This
can be convenient because matrix multiplication is easy to
implement and can be performed efficiently on modern
computers. In homogeneous coordinates, a point in 2D space is
represented by a 3-element vector of the form [x, y, w], and a
point in 3D space is represented by a 4-element vector of the
form [x, y, z, w]. The w element is known as the homogeneous
coordinate and it is used to encode the translation information.
By setting the value of w to a non-zero number, it is possible
to represent a translation as a simple scaling operation, which
can then be performed using matrix multiplication.One
advantage of using homogeneous coordinates is that they
allow for the representation of all affine transformations
(which include translation, rotation, scaling, and shearing)
using a single matrix. This can simplify the process of
composing multiple transformations, as it is only necessary to
multiply the matrices representing the individual
transformations to obtain the matrix representing the
composite transformation.
Window to Viewport Transformation 
transforming 2D world-coordinate objects to device coordinates.
Objects inside the world or clipping window are mapped to the
viewport which is the area on the screen where world coordinates
are mapped to be displayed.
Mathematical Calculation of Window to Viewport:  outcode that indicates it is outside the clip window, the line is
It may be possible that the size of the Viewport is much smaller
or greater than the Window. In these cases, we have to increase or
decrease the size of the Window according to the Viewport and
for this, we need some mathematical calculations.
(xw, yw): A point on Window
(xv, yv): Corresponding point on Viewport
We have to calculate the point (xv, yv)
Now the relative position of the object in Window and Viewport
are same.
For x coordinate, For y coordinate,
So, after calculating for x and y coordinate, we get
Where sx is the scaling factor of x coordinate and sy is the scaling
factor of y coordinate
Matrix Representation of the above three steps of
Transformation:
Step1:Translate
window to origin 1
          Tx=-Xwmin Ty=-Ywmin
Step2:Scaling of the window to match its size to the viewport
          Sx=(Xymax-Xvmin)/(Xwmax-Xwmin)
          Sy=(Yvmax-Yvmin)/(Ywmax-Ywmin)
Step3:Again translate viewport to its correct position on screen.
          Tx=Xvmin
          Ty=Yvmin
Above three steps can be represented in matrix form:
          VT=T * S * T1 T
= Translate window to the origin
S=Scaling of the window to viewport size
T1=Translating viewport on screen.
Viewing Transformation= T * S * T1
Application :
1.The window to viewport transformation is a technique used in
computer graphics to map coordinates from one coordinate
system to another. The transformation is usually used to map
coordinates from a logical coordinate system (also known as a
"window") to a physical coordinate system (also known as a
"viewport").
2.One way to perform the transformation is to use a
transformation matrix. The transformation matrix is a 3x3 matrix
that defines how the coordinates in the window are mapped to
the coordinates in the viewport.
specific window or viewport. It is often used in computer
graphics to ensure that a line is drawn only within the bounds of
the screen or other display area.
There are several algorithms for performing line clipping, but
the most common is the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm. The
1.Divide the screen into nine regions, or "octants," using a pair
of perpendicular lines called the "clip window."
2.Assign a unique binary code, called an "outcode," to each
point on the line based on which octant it lies in.
3.Test whether the line is trivially accepted or rejected based on
the outcodes of the two endpoints. If either endpoint has an
rejected. If both outcodes are zero, the line is accepted.
4.If the line is not trivially accepted or rejected, find the
intersection points of the line with each side of the clip window.
5.Replace the original endpoints of the line with the intersection
points found in step 4, if necessary. 6.Repeat the outcode test
with the modified line. If the modified line is accepted, it is
drawn on the screen. If it is rejected, it is not drawn.
Requirement for line clipping algoritm:
There are several requirements for a line clipping algorithm.
Here are a few:
1.The algorithm should be able to clip a line against a
rectangular clipping window.
2.The algorithm should be able to handle lines that are partially
inside and partially outside the clipping window.
3.The algorithm should be able to handle lines that are
completely outside the clipping window.
4.The algorithm should be able to handle horizontal, vertical,
and diagonal lines.
5.The algorithm should be able to handle lines with positive and
negative slopes.
Polygon Clipping:
Sutherland-Hodgman Polygon Clipping Algorithm:
The Sutherland Hodgman algorithm is used for clipping
polygons. In this algorithm, all the
vertices of the polygon are clipped against each edge of the
clipping window.
First the polygon is clipped against the left edge of the clipping
window to get new vertices
of the polygon. These new vertices are used to clip the polygon
against right edge, top edge,
bottom edge, of the clipping window.
To find new sequence of vertices four cases are considered.
Point Clipping : Assuming that the clip window is a rectangle
in standard position, we save a point P=(x, y) for display if the
following inequalities are satisfied:
xwmin ≤ x ≤ xwmax
ywmin ≤ y ≤ ywmax
Where the edges of the clip window (xwmin, xwmax, ywmin,
ywmax) can be either the world- coordinate window boundaries
or viewport boundaries. If any one of these four inequalities is
not satisfied, the point is clipped.
Algorithm: 1.
Get the minimum and maximum coordinates of the viewing
plane.
2. Get the coordinates for a point.
3. Check whether given input lies between minimum and
maximum coordinates of viewing plane.
4. If yes display the point which lies inside the region otherwise
discard it.
Liang-Barsky Line Clipping Algorithm : This algorithm is
considered to be the faster parametric line-clipping algorithm.
The following concepts are used in this clipping:
1. The parametric equation of the line.
2. The inequalities describing the range of the clipping
window which is used to determine the intersection between
the line and the clip window.
The parametric equation of a line can be given by,
x = x1 + u∆x
y = y1 + u∆y, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
Where, ∆x = x2 − x1 & ∆y = y2 − y1
Then, writing the point-clipping conditions in the parametric
form: xwmin ≤ x1 + u∆x ≤ xwmax
ywmin ≤ y1 + u∆y ≤ ywmax
The above four inequalities can be expressed as,
upk ≤ qk where, k = 1, 2, 3, 4 (corresponds to the left, right,
bottom, and top boundaries, respectively).
The parameters p & q are defined as,
p1 = −∆x , q1 = x1 − xwmin (Left Boundary)
p2 = ∆x , q2 = xwmax − x1 (Right Boundary)
p3 = −∆y , q3 = y1 − ywmin (Bottom Boundary)
p4 = ∆y , q4 = ywmax − y1 (Top Boundary)
When the line is parallel to a view window boundary, the p
value for the boundary is zero.
When pk < 0, as u increase line goes from the outside to inside
(entering).
When pk > 0, line goes from the inside to outside (existing).
When pk = 0 & qk < 0 then line is trivially invisible because it
is outside view window.
When pk = 0 & qk > 0 then line is inside the corresponding
window boundary.
Using the following conditions, the position of line can be
determined:
Parameters u1 & u2 can be calculated that define the part of
line that lies within the clip rectangle. When,
If u1 > u2, the line is completely outside the clip window and
it can be rejected. Otherwise, the endpoints of the clipped line
are calculated from the two values of parameter u.
Clipping
: The process of discarding those parts of a picture which are
outside of a specified region or window is called clipping. The
procedure using which we can identify whether the portions
of the graphics object is within or outside a specified region or
space is called clipping
algorithm.
Applications of clipping:
- Extracting part of a defined scene for viewing
- Identifying visible surfaces in three-dimensional views
- Antialiasing line segments or object boundaries
- Creating objects using solid-modeling procedures
- Displaying a multi-window environment
- Drawing and painting operations that allow parts of a picture
to be selected for copying,
moving, erasing, or duplicating.
Unit 4 Projection - Projection is any method of mapping three
Parallel Projection Perspective Projection dimensional (3D) objects into two dimensional (2D) view plane
(screen). In general, projection transforms a N-dimension points
Parallel projection Perspective projection represents to N-1 dimensions.
represents the object in a the object in three dimensional way.- Two types of projection:
different way like telescope.
a) Parallel projection: In parallel projection, coordinate positions
In parallel projection, these In perspective projection, objects are transformed to view plane along parallel line.
effects are not created. that are far away appear smaller,
- A parallel projection preserves relative proportion of objects so
and objects that are near appear
bigger. that accurate views of various sides of an object are obtained
but doesn’t give realistic representation of the 3D objects.
The distance of the object The distance of the object from the - Can be used for exact measurement so parallel lines remain
from the center of projection center of projection is finite.
is infinite.
Parallel projection can give Perspective projection cannot give
the accurate view of object. the accurate view of object.
The lines of parallel The lines of perspective projection
projection are parallel. are not parallel.
parallel.
Fig: Parallel projection of an object to the view plane
Projector in parallel Projector in perspective projection Parallel projection : On the basis of angle made by projection
projection is parallel. is not parallel.
line with view plane, there are two types of parallel projection.
i. Orthographic parallel projection
Two types of parallel Three types of perspective
projection : projection: ii. Oblique parallel projection
1.Orthographic, 1.one point perspective, i. Orthographic parallel projection
2.Oblique 2.Two point perspective, - When the projection lines are perpendicular to view plane, the
3. Three point perspective, projection is orthographic parallel projection.
It does not form realistic It forms a realistic view of object.
view of object.
2D transformations refer to operations that manipulate the
position, size, and orientation of objects in a two-dimensional
space, such as scaling, rotating, and translating. These
transformations can be useful for a variety of applications, Here, after projection of P(x, y, z) on XY-plane we get P′(x′, y′)
including image processing, computer graphics, and user where, x′ = x, y′ = y & z=0
interface design.There are several types of 2D transformations In homogenous coordinate form,
that are commonly used:
Translation : Translation involves moving an object from one
position to another by a certain distance in the x and y directions.
Scaling: Scaling changes the size of an object by a scaling factor.
Rotation: Rotation rotates an object around a point by a certain
angle. ii. Oblique parallel projection -
Shearing: Shearing skews an object by a certain angle in the x or Here, projection lines make certain angle to view plane. -
y direction.
Oblique projection is specified with two angle ‘α’ & ‘φ’ where
These transformations can be combined to create more complex
transformations. They can also be represented using matrices, ‘α’ is the angle made by projection line with view plane line (L)
which can make it easier to apply multiple transformations to an which is formed by joining oblique projected point P′(xp, yp)
object at once. and orthogonal projected point P′′(x, y) on point (x, y) on view
plane & ‘φ’ is the angle between ‘L’ & horizontal direction of
3D transformations refer to operations that manipulate the view plane.
position, size, and orientation of objects in a three-dimensional
space, such as scaling, rotating, and translating. These
transformations can be useful for a variety of applications,
including computer graphics, engineering design, and scientific
visualization.There are several types of 3D transformations that
are commonly used:
Translation: Translation involves moving an object from one
position to another by a certain distance in the x, y, and z
directions.
Scaling: Scaling changes the size of an object by a scaling factor.
Rotation: Rotation rotates an object around a point by a certain
angle.
Shearing: Shearing skews an object by a certain angle in the x, y,
or z direction.
Projection : Projection maps a 3D object onto a 2D plane, which
can be useful for creating 2D views of a 3D scene.
These transformations can be combined to create more complex
transformations. They can also be represented using matrices,
which can make it easier to apply multiple transformations to an
object at once.
2D shearing is a geometric transformation that distorts the shape b) Perspective projection: In perspective projection, objects
of an object by slanting its copy along one or both axes. It is often positions are transformed to the view plane along lines that
used in computer graphics to give the illusion of three- converge to point behind view plane.
dimensionality and can be represented by a 2x2 matrix.
- A perspective projection produces realistic views but does not
The matrix for 2D shearing along the x-axis is given by:
preserve relative proportions. Projections of distance objects
[1 sx]
[0 1] from view plane are smaller than the projections of objects of
where sx is the shear factor along the x-axis. the same size that are closer to the projection place.
The matrix for 2D shearing along the y-axis is given by:
[1 0]
[sy 1]
where sy is the shear factor along the y-axis.
To apply shearing to an object, you can multiply the
transformation matrix by the object's matrix of coordinates. For
example, if you have a triangle with vertices at (0,0), (1,0), and
(0,1), and you want to apply shearing along the x-axis with a
shear factor of 0.5, the resulting vertices would be (0,0), (1.5,0),
and (0,1). Fig: Perspective projection of an object to the view plane
Derive relation for three dimensional translation and rotation :
In 3D space, translation and rotation can be represented using
matrices. A translation matrix is a 3x3 matrix that represents a
translation by a certain distance in the x, y, and z directions. The
translation matrix for a translation by (dx, dy, dz) is given by:
A rotation matrix is a 3x3 matrix that represents a rotation
around a point by a certain angle. There are several different
types of rotation matrices that can be used, depending on the
axis of rotation and the direction of the rotation.
For example, the rotation matrix for a rotation around the x-axis
by an angle theta is given by:
The rotation matrix for a rotation around the y-axis by an angle
theta is given by:
The rotation matrix for a rotation around the z-axis by an angle
theta is given by:
These matrices can be combined to perform multiple
translations and rotations in sequence. For example, to translate
an object by (dx, dy, dz) and then rotate it around the x-axis by
an angle theta, you can multiply the translation matrix and the
rotation matrix to obtain the combined transformation matrix:
This
combined matrix can then be applied to any point in 3D space to
perform both the translation and the rotation in one step.
3D translation: In computer graphics, 3D translation refers to the
process of moving an object in 3D space by a specified distance
along a given axis or direction. This can be represented
mathematically using a 3D translation matrix, which is defined as
follows:
[x'] [1 0 0 Tx] [x]
[y'] = [0 1 0 Ty] * [y]
[z'] [0 0 1 Tz] [z]
[w'] [0 0 0 1] [w]
Where (x, y, z) are the original coordinates of the point, (x', y', z')
are the new coordinates of the point after translation, and (Tx, Ty,
Tz) are the translation distances along the x, y, and z axes,
respectively. The value w is a homogenous coordinate and is
typically set to 1.
In practical applications, 3D translation is used extensively in
computer graphics and computer games to move objects within a
3D environment. It is also used in 3D modeling and visualization
software, as well as in virtual and augmented reality applications.
2D mirror :A 2D mirror is a flat surface that reflects a 2D image
of an object. In computer graphics, this can be represented
mathematically using a 2D reflection matrix, which is defined as
follows:
[x'] [1 0] [x]
[y'] = [0 -1] * [y]
Where (x, y) are the original coordinates of the point, and (x', y')
are the reflected coordinates of the point.
In practical applications, 2D reflection is used in computer
graphics and image processing to create a mirrored version of an
image or to flip an image horizontally or vertically. It is also used
in user interface design to create symmetry and balance.
To reflect an image about a line other than the x- or y-axis, a 2D
rotation matrix can be combined with the reflection matrix. For
example, to reflect an image about the line y = x, the following
matrix could be used:
[x'] [0 1] [x]
[y'] = [1 0] * [y]
This matrix rotates the image by 90 degrees counterclockwise
and then reflects it about the y-axis.
Describe 3d windows to viewport transformation with matrix Unit 8
representation for each step.
Three-dimensional window to viewport transformation involves
transforming three-dimensional coordinates from the window Define realism in human perception : Realism in human
perception refers to the idea that our perceptions of the world
coordinates system to the viewport coordinates system. This can
be done using a series of matrix transformations. around us accurately represent the true nature of the objects and
Scaling: The first step is to scale the three-dimensional events that we are perceiving. This means that when we see, hear,
coordinates to fit within the dimensions of the touch, taste, or smell something, our brain is accurately
1.viewport. This can be done using a scaling matrix of the form: interpreting the sensory information it receives and constructing
[sx 0 0 0] an accurate representation of the object or event in question.
[0 sy 0 0] Realism in perception is often contrasted with other philosophical
[0 0 sz 0] perspectives, such as idealism, which posits that our perceptions
[0 0 0 1] do not accurately reflect the true nature of the world, and that our
where (sx, sy, sz) are the scaling factors in the x, y, and z
experiences are shaped by our thoughts and beliefs.
dimensions, respectively.
2.Translation: The next step is to translate the scaled coordinates
so that the origin of the window coordinates system maps to the Significance difference between rendering and image synthesis in
origin of the viewport coordinates system. This can be done using creating computer generated 3d image:
a translation matrix of the form: Rendering and image synthesis are two closely related techniques
[1 0 0 tx] that are used to generate computer-generated 3D images.
[0 1 0 ty] However, there are some key differences between the two:
[0 0 1 tz] 1.Rendering refers to the process of taking a 3D scene and creating
[0 0 0 1]
a 2D image from it, using algorithms to simulate the way light
where (tx, ty, tz) are the translation factors in the x, y, and z
dimensions, respectively. interacts with the objects and surfaces in the scene. Image
3.Rotation: The final step is to rotate the transformed coordinates synthesis, on the other hand, refers to the process of generating a
to align the axes of the window and viewport coordinates systems. 2D image from scratch using computer algorithms, without the
This can be done using a rotation matrix of the form: need for a pre-existing 3D scene.
[cos(theta) -sin(theta) 0 0] 2.Rendering is typically done using specialized software that is
[sin(theta) cos(theta) 0 0] designed specifically for this purpose, such as 3D rendering
[0 0 1 0]
applications like 3ds Max, Maya, or Blender. Image synthesis, on
[0 0 0 1]
where theta is the angle of rotation. the other hand, can be done using a wide range of software tools
These three transformations can be combined into a single matrix and techniques, including drawing and painting programs,
by performing the scaling transformation first, followed by the generative art tools, and more.
translation transformation, and finally the rotation transformation. 3.Rendering is usually focused on creating photorealistic images
This can be done using matrix multiplication. that look as realistic as possible, while image synthesis can be used
to create a wide range of styles and visual effects, from
3D viewing refers to the process of representing three-
photorealistic to highly stylized and abstract.
dimensional objects on a two-dimensional display, such as a
Overall, rendering and image synthesis are
computer screen or a printed page. There are several ways to
both important techniques for creating computer-generated 3D
achieve this, including:
Orthographic projection: This method represents a 3D object as a images, and they can be used together or separately depending on
2D image by projecting its vertices onto a plane perpendicular to the needs of a particular project.
the line of sight. It is often used for technical drawings and
Flat shading Gouraud shading Phong shading
computer-aided design (CAD) applications.
Perspective projection: This method represents a 3D object as it Computes Computes Applies
would appear to the human eye, with objects farther away illumination once illumination illumination at
appearing smaller than those that are closer. It is often used in per polygon and atvertices and every point of
computer graphics and photography to create the illusion of depth apply it to whole interpolates. polygon surface.
and distance. polygon.
Parallel projection: This method represents a 3D object as a 2D Creates Interpolates colors Interpolates normal
image by projecting its vertices onto a plane parallel to the line of discontinuous along edges and instead of colors.
sight. It is often used for architectural drawings and maps. incolor. scan line.
To view a 3D object on a 2D display,
Problems of Mach Handles Mach Removes Mach
you can use a 3D graphics software package that allows you to bands. bands problem bands completely.
rotate, scale, and translate the object as needed. You can also use a found in flat
3D viewer, which is a software tool that allows you to view 3D shading.
models on your computer
Low cost. Not so expensive. More expensive
than gouraud
How can you represent 3d viewing? :
shading.
There are several ways to represent 3D viewing, each with their
Requires very less Required moderate Requires complex
own equation and practical applications. Here are a few common
processing and is processing time. processing and is
techniques: fast in time. slower but is more
Perspective projection: This is a way of simulating the way that
efficient as
objects appear to the human eye, with objects that are farther away compared to other
appearing smaller than those that are closer. The equation for shading methods.
perspective projection is:
x' = x / (z + d) Lighting equation Lighting equation Lighting equation
y' = y / (z + d) used once per used at each vertex. used at each pixel.
Where x, y, and z are the 3D coordinates of the object, d is the polygon.
distance of the viewer from the projection plane, and x' and y' are
the 2D coordinates of the projected image. Define intensity attenuation : Intensity attenuation refers to the
Orthographic projection: This is a way of projecting 3D objects decrease in intensity or strength of a signal, light, or energy source
onto a 2D plane without any perspective distortion. It is often used over distance. This can occur due to various factors, including
for technical drawings and computer-aided design (CAD) absorption, scattering, and interference.
applications. The equation for orthographic projection is: In the context of lighting, intensity attenuation refers to
x' = x the way that the intensity of a light source decreases as it travels
y' = y through space. This is often modeled using an attenuation function,
which describes the rate at which the intensity of the light decreases
Where x, y, and z are the 3D coordinates of the object, and x' and
over distance. The attenuation function can be used to calculate the
y' are the 2D coordinates of the projected image.
intensity of the light at any given distance from the source.
Isometric projection: This is a way of representing 3D objects in Intensity attenuation is an important concept in many
2D space with a combination of orthographic and perspective fields, including optics, computer graphics, and physics. It is often
projection. It is often used in video games and other interactive 3D taken into account when designing lighting systems, calculating the
applications. The equation for isometric projection is: range and effectiveness of sensors, and more.
x' = x - y
y' = (x + y) / sqrt(2) - z
Where x, y, and z are the 3D coordinates of the object, and x' and
y' are the 2D coordinates of the projected image.
These are just a few examples of the ways that 3D viewing can be
represented. There are many other techniques, each with their own
equation and practical applications.
Polygon Rendering Method
Constant intensity shading method b)
Gouraud shading method (Intensity Interpolation) c)
Phong shading mehod (Normal vector interpolation)
Constant Intensity Shading (Flat Shading)Method -A
fast and simple method for rendering an object with polygon
surfaces is constant intensity shading.
- In this method, a single intensity is calculated for each polygon
and the intensity is applied to all the points of surface of polygon.
Hence, all the points over the surface of the polygon are
displayed with same intensity value.
Constant shading is useful for quickly displaying the general
appearance of a curved surfaces. This approach is valid if:
a. Light source is at infinity (N. L is constant on polygon).
b. Viewer is at infinity (V. R is constant on polygon).
Object is polyhedron and is not an approximation of an object
with a curved surface.
b) Gouraud shading method
- Developed by Henri Gouraud.
It renders the polygon surface by linearly interpolating intensity
values across the surface.
Intensity values for each polygon are matched with the values of
adjacent polygon along the common edge, thus eliminating the
intensity discontinuities that occur in flat shading.
Steps: 1. Determine the average unit normal vector at each vertex
of polygon.
2. Apply illumination model at each vertex to calculate the vertex
intensity.
3. Linearly interpolate the vertex intensities over the projected
area of polygon .
c) Phong shading method
- Developed by Phong Bui Tuong.
- It renders the polygon surface by linearly interpolating normal
vector across the surface.
Steps: 1. Determine the average unit normal vector at each vertex
of polygon.
2. Linearly interpolate the vertex normal over the projected area
of the polygon.
3. Apply illumination model at position along each scan line to
calculate pixel intensities using interpolated normal vectors.
a) What is quadric surface? How can we detect shadow in computer graphics?
A quadric surface is a type of mathematical surface that can be
defined using a quadratic equation. Quadric surfaces are defined
a) by the equation:
ax^2 + by^2 + cz^2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz +
d=0
where a, b, c, etc. are constants. Quadric surfaces include well-
known shapes such as spheres, cylinders, cones, and ellipsoids.
In computer graphics, quadric surfaces are often used to
represent 3D shapes and objects. They are relatively simple to
model and can be easily manipulated using mathematical
- transformations, making them a popular choice for use in 3D
graphics applications.
Difference between diffuse and specular reflection:
c.
Why is shading required in computer graphics? Shading
- is an important aspect of computer graphics because it helps to
create the illusion of three-dimensionality and realism in a
- scene. When an object is shaded correctly, it appears to have
volume and to be affected by the lighting in the scene, which
helps the viewer to perceive the object as a physical, three-
dimensional entity. Shading is
achieved in computer graphics by simulating the way that light
interacts with the surface of an object. This can be done using
a variety of techniques, such as diffuse shading, specular
shading, and ambient occlusion. By applying these techniques,
a rendering engine can create the appearance of shadows,
highlights, and other surface details that help to make an
object look more realistic. In addition
to adding realism to a scene, shading is also used to convey
information about the surface properties of an object. For
example, a shiny, metallic surface will reflect light differently
than a matte, rubber surface, and shading can be used to
communicate this to the viewer. Shading is also used to create
visual interest and to direct the viewer's attention to certain
parts of a scene.
Blobby objects are three-dimensional shapes that are made up
of a large number of interconnected, spherical or blob-like
elements. These elements, also known as "blobs," are typically
interconnected by a network of structural elements, such as
springs or beams, and can move and deform as a unit.
Blobby objects are often used in computer graphics
to simulate soft bodies, such as jello, skin, or cloth. They can
also be used to simulate rigid bodies with complex shapes, such
as rocks or plants.
Blobby objects are typically simulated using
techniques from physics and computer science, such as mass-
spring systems or finite element analysis. They can be rendered
using a variety of techniques, including ray tracing or
rasterization.
Basic illumination models:
1. Ambient Illumination :
Assume you are standing on a road, facing a building with glass
exterior and sun rays are falling on that building reflecting back
from it and the falling on the object under observation. This
would be Ambient Illumination. In simple words, Ambient
Illumination is the one where source of light is indirect.The
reflected intensity Iamb of any point on the surface is:
2. Diffuse Reflection :
Diffuse reflection occurs on the surfaces which are rough or
grainy. In this reflection the brightness of a point depends upon
the angle made by the light source and the surface.
The reflected intensity Idiff of a point on the surface is:
3. Specular Reflection :
When light falls on any shiny or glossy surface most of it is
reflected back, such reflection is known as Specular Reflection.
Phong Model is an empirical model for Specular Reflection
which provides us with the formula for calculation the reflected
intensity Ispec:
UNIT-6
What is the method to recognize boundary point and interior
point in solid modeling?
In solid modeling, a boundary point is a point on the surface of a
3D object, while an interior point is a point inside the volume of
the object. One method for recognizing boundary points and
interior points is to use a BSP (binary space partitioning) tree, as
I described in my previous response. Another method is to use a
CSG (constructive solid geometry) tree, which represents a 3D
object as a combination of simpler objects using Boolean
operations (such as union, intersection, and difference).To
determine whether a point is a boundary point or an interior
point using a CSG tree, we can evaluate the point against the tree
using the Boolean operations. For example, if the tree represents
a sphere, we can check whether the point is inside the sphere by
evaluating the point against the sphere's equation. If the point is
inside the sphere, it is an interior point; if it is on the surface of
the sphere, it is a boundary point. There are also other methods
for recognizing boundary points and interior points in solid
modeling, such as using a voxel grid or a distance field. These
methods can be more efficient in certain cases, but they may not
always provide as much detail or accuracy as BSP trees or CSG
trees. In solid modeling, a BSP (binary space partitioning) tree is
a data structure that is used to represent a 3D object by
recursively dividing the object's space into convex sets. Each
node in the tree represents a convex subspace, and the children
of the node represent the subspaces that are obtained by
partitioning the convex set using a plane.
Describe how BSP recursively subdivided a space into
convex sets.
To construct a BSP tree, we start with the entire space and select
a plane to partition the space. The plane divides the space into
two convex sets, which become the children of the root node in
the BSP tree. We then recursively apply this process to each of
the children, until we reach a leaf node (a node with no
children).For example, consider a cube with vertices at (0,0,0),
(1,0,0), (1,1,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1), (1,0,1), (1,1,1), and (0,1,1). To
construct a BSP tree for this cube, we could choose the plane z =
0.5 as the root node, which would partition the space into two
convex sets: one above the plane (z > 0.5) and one below the
plane (z < 0.5). The above set would contain the top four
vertices of the cube, and the below set would contain the bottom
four vertices. We could then choose additional planes to
partition each of these convex sets further, until we reach leaf
nodes that represent the individual polygons of the cube. This
process is repeated until the entire space has been partitioned
into a hierarchy of convex sets, which can then be used to
efficiently determine the location of a point relative to the 3D
object (for example, to determine whether the point is an interior
point or a boundary point).
What do you mean by solid modeling?
Solid modeling is the representation of 3D objects in a computer,
with a focus on the object's geometric properties and the
relationships between its parts. Solid models are typically used
for engineering and design applications, where it is important to
accurately represent the size, shape, and properties of an object.
In solid modeling, 3D objects are represented as a set of
geometric primitives (such as points, lines, and curves) and more
complex shapes that are constructed from these primitives. The
geometric primitives and shapes are used to represent the
boundary of the object, as well as any internal features or details.
Solid models can be created and edited using specialized
software tools, such as computer-aided design (CAD) systems.
They can also be used to generate 2D drawings, animations, and
simulations of the object, as well as to perform analyses of the
object's properties (such as stress and strain).
Describe how a polygon can be represented using BSP tree
with example.
A polygon can be represented using a BSP (binary space
partitioning) tree by creating a leaf node in the tree that
represents the polygon. In a BSP tree, each node represents a
convex subspace of the 3D space, and the children of the node
represent the subspaces that are obtained by partitioning the
convex set using a plane. The leaf nodes in the tree represent a
single convex set, which can be either a single polygon or a
group of coplanar polygons. To represent a polygon using a BSP
tree, we can create a leaf node in the tree that represents the
polygon and assign the vertices of the polygon to the leaf node
as its "points." The leaf node can also store other information
about the polygon, such as its normal vector, color, and texture
coordinates. For example, consider a triangle with vertices at
(0,0,0), (1,0,0), and (0,1,0). To represent this triangle using a
BSP tree, we could create a leaf node in the tree and assign the
three vertices to the node as its points. The leaf node might look
something like this:
Leaf node:
- Points: (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (0,1,0)
- Normal vector: (0,0,1)
- Color: red
- Texture coordinates: (0,0), (1,0), (0,1)
We can then use the BSP tree to perform operations on the
polygon, such as rendering, collision detection, or hidden surface
removal.
Describe the architecture of raster scan display.
A raster scan display is a type of display that produces an image by
scanning a beam of electrons across a phosphorescent screen, row
by row from top to bottom. The electrons cause the phosphors on
the screen to emit light, creating a pattern of illuminated pixels that
forms the image. The architecture of a raster scan display typically
consists of the following components:
1. CRT (cathode ray tube): The CRT is a vacuum tube that contains
an electron gun at one end and a phosphorescent screen at the other
end. The electron gun generates a beam of electrons that is focused
onto the screen by a set of electron optics.
2. Electron optics: The electron optics consists of a set of
electromagnets and lenses that shape and direct the beam of
electrons onto the screen. The electron optics can be used to move
the beam horizontally and vertically across the screen, as well as to
change the size and intensity of the beam.
3. Phosphorescent screen: The phosphorescent screen is coated
with a layer of phosphors that emit light when struck by the beam
of electrons. The screen is divided into a grid of pixels, and the
intensity of each pixel is controlled by the intensity of the electron
beam.
4. Video controller: The video controller is a hardware device that
controls the movement of the electron beam across the screen. It
receives input from the computer and generates the appropriate
signals to move the beam to the desired position on the screen.
5. Frame buffer: The frame buffer is a memory location where the
image to be displayed is stored. It consists of a grid of pixels, with
each pixel represented by a set of bits that specify its color and
intensity. The video controller reads the pixel values from the
frame buffer and uses them to control the intensity of the electron
beam.
6. Power supply: The power supply provides the voltage and
current needed to operate the CRT, the electron optics, and the
video controller.
Raster scan displays are commonly used in computer monitors,
televisions, and other electronic devices that display images. They
are also known as raster graphics displays or raster-scan displays.
Explain the process for solid modeling with example.
Solid modeling is the representation of 3D objects in a computer,
with a focus on the object's geometric properties and the
relationships between its parts. Here is an example of the process
for solid modeling an object:
- Determine the requirements and constraints of the object. This
might include the size, shape, materials, and intended use of the
object, as well as any design specifications or standards that must
be followed.
- Choose a suitable solid modeling technique and software tool.
There are various techniques and tools available for solid modeling,
such as boundary representation (B-rep), constructive solid
geometry (CSG), and voxel-based modeling. The choice of
technique and tool will depend on the requirements and constraints
of the object, as well as the user's preferences and skills.
- Create a 3D model of the object using the chosen technique and
tool. This might involve building the model from scratch using
geometric primitives and construction features, or it might involve
modifying an existing model or importing data from another
source.
- Validate and optimize the model. This might involve checking the
model for errors or inconsistencies, as well as making any
necessary adjustments to the model to meet the requirements and
constraints. It might also involve performing simulations or
analyses to verify the object's behavior or performance under
different conditions.
- Use the model for the intended purpose. This might involve
generating 2D drawings, animations, or simulations of the object,
as well as manufacturing or testing the object in the real world.
For example, consider a model of a plastic toy car. The
requirements and constraints of the model might include the size of
the car (to fit within certain dimensions), the materials used (to be
safe for children), and the intended use (to be played with by
children). The solid modeling technique chosen might be boundary
representation (B-rep), and the software tool used might be a
computer-aided design (CAD) system. The modeler might create
the model by starting with basic geometric shapes (such as a cube
for the body and cylinders for the wheels) and using construction
features (such as extrusion and fillet) to add details and complexity
to the model. The modeler might then validate and optimize the
model by checking for errors and making any necessary
adjustments, such as making sure the wheels are the right size and
properly attached to the body. Finally, the model might be used to
generate 2D manufacturing drawings, animations of the car in
action, or simulations of the car's performance.
Explain about sweep, octree, and boundary representations for
solid modeling.
Sweep, octree, and boundary representations are three different
techniques that can be used for solid modeling, which is the
representation of 3D objects in a computer.
1. Sweep representation: A sweep representation of a 3D object is
created by sweeping a 2D cross-section (also known as a "profile")
along a path in 3D space. The profile is repeatedly deformed and
translated as it is swept along the path, creating a 3D shape. Sweep
representations are useful for modeling objects with a high degree of
symmetry, such as cylinders, cones, and tori.
2. Octree representation: An octree is a data structure that represents a
3D space by recursively dividing it into smaller octants (eight
subspaces) until the desired level of detail is achieved. Octrees are
commonly used for spatial indexing and collision detection, as they
allow for efficient searches and comparisons of 3D objects.
3. Boundary representation (B-rep): A boundary representation (B-
rep) of a 3D object is a representation that encodes the surface of the
object as a set of polygons, along with information about the topology
(connectivity) of the polygons. B-reps are useful for modeling objects
with complex topologies and for performing operations such as
Boolean operations (union, intersection, difference) and surface
smoothing.
Each of these techniques has its own strengths and weaknesses, and
the appropriate technique to use will depend on the specific
requirements of the modeling task.
UNIT 7
List any two disadvantages of BSP tree method in visible surface
detection.
One disadvantage of using BSP trees for visible surface detection is
that they can be complex to construct, especially for large and
complex scenes. This can be time-consuming and may require
significant preprocessing before the scene can be rendered. Another
disadvantage of BSP trees is that they can be inefficient for scenes
with many polygons. This is because the tree must be traversed for
every pixel on the screen, which can be slow if the tree is large, or the
scene has a high polygon count. This can make BSP trees less
suitable for real-time rendering applications where high frame rates
are important.
Make a comparison between Painter's algorithm and A- Buffer
algorithm.
Painter's algorithm is a technique for rendering 3D graphics that
orders and paints the polygons in a scene based on their depth relative
to the viewer. This algorithm is simple to implement and works well
for scenes with a small number of polygons, but it can be inefficient
for scenes with many polygons because it has to recalculate the depth
of each polygon for every pixel on the screen. The A-Buffer
algorithm is an improvement on Painter's algorithm that addresses
this issue by storing the depth values of each pixel in a buffer,
allowing the algorithm to quickly determine which polygons are
visible at each pixel without having to recalculate the depth values.
This makes the A-Buffer algorithm more efficient for scenes with
many polygons, but it requires more memory and may be more
complex to implement.
In summary, Painter's algorithm is simple to implement and works
well for small scenes, but it can be inefficient for large scenes. The A-
Buffer algorithm is more efficient for large scenes, but it requires
more memory and may be more complex to implement.
What are the object space and image space method of hidden
surface removal?
In computer graphics, hidden surface removal is the process of
determining which surfaces of 3D objects are visible in the final
image, and which are occluded by other objects. There are several
different methods that can be used to perform hidden surface
removal, including object space methods and image space methods.
1. Object space methods: Object space methods perform hidden
surface removal by analyzing the 3D geometry of the objects in the
scene. These methods can be more accurate than image space
methods, but they can also be more computationally expensive, as
they require the 3D coordinates of each vertex in the scene to be
transformed into screen space. Some examples of object space
methods include:
- BSP trees (binary space partitioning): BSP trees are data structures
that recursively divide a 3D space into convex sets, using planes as
the dividing surfaces. BSP trees can be used to efficiently determine
the visibility of objects and surfaces in the scene by traversing the tree
and comparing the positions of the objects relative to the dividing
planes.
- Depth sorting: Depth sorting is a method that involves sorting the
objects in the scene by their distance from the viewer and rendering
them in back-to-front order. This ensures that objects that are closer
to the viewer are drawn on top of objects that are further away,
effectively hiding the occluded surfaces.
2. Image space methods: Image space methods perform hidden
surface removal by analyzing the 2D image pixels that are produced
by the rendering process. These methods are typically faster than
object space methods, as they only require the 2D image data to be
analyzed, rather than the 3D geometry of the objects. However, they
can be less accurate, as they may produce artifacts or other visual
errors due to the projection of the 3D objects onto the 2D image
plane. Some examples of image space methods include:
- Painters’ algorithm: The Painters algorithm is a method that
involves rendering the objects in the scene in back-to-front order,
based on their depth. This ensures that objects that are closer to the
viewer are drawn on top of objects that are further away, effectively
hiding the occluded surfaces.
- Z-buffering: Z-buffering is a method that involves maintaining a
depth buffer (also known as a Z-buffer) that stores the depth value of
each pixel in the image. As each object is rendered, its depth values
are compared to the values in the depth buffer, and only the pixels
with the smallest (
Explain the scan line algorithm for removing hidden surfaces. Explain which algorithm is better for hidden surface removal.
The scan line algorithm is a technique for removing hidden The Z-buffer is the most widely used method for solving the hidden
surfaces in 3D graphics that works by scanning the image from surface problem. Z-buffer algorithm: This algorithm maintains a
top to bottom, one row at a time. For each scan line, the algorithm buffer (a 2D array) that stores the depth value of each pixel on the
processes the polygons that intersect that line, determining which screen. As the scene is rendered, it compares the depth of incoming
polygons are visible and which are occluded by other polygons. pixels with the value stored in the buffer and only draws the closest
The algorithm keeps a list of active polygons for each scan line, surface. It has the following major advantages over other hidden
which are the polygons that intersect that line and are currently surface removal algorithms:
being drawn. As the scan line is processed, the algorithm updates No sorting is required. Models can be rendered in any order.
the active polygon list by adding any new polygons that intersect No geometric intersection calculations are required. The algorithm
the line and removing any polygons that have been completely produces the correct output even for intersecting or overlapping
processed. To determine which polygons are visible, the triangles.
algorithm compares the depths of the polygons at each pixel and The algorithm is very simple to implement.
only draws the polygon with the smallest depth value. This
ensures that polygons closer to the viewer are drawn over Explain in detail about plain equation method.
polygons that are farther away, eliminating hidden surfaces. The plain equation method is a technique for performing visible
The scan line algorithm is relatively simple to implement and can surface detection (hidden surface removal) in 3D graphics. It works
be efficient for scenes with a moderate number of polygons, but it by representing each polygon in a scene as a plane in 3D space, using
may not be suitable for very large or complex scenes. the equation of a plane to describe the orientation and position of the
polygon. To determine which polygons are visible, the algorithm
Explain the scan line algorithm for removing hidden surfaces. compares the depths of the polygons at each pixel and only draws the
The scan line algorithm is a technique for removing hidden polygon with the smallest depth value. This ensures that polygons
surfaces in 3D graphics that works by scanning the image from closer to the viewer are drawn over polygons that are farther away,
top to bottom, one row at a time. For each scan line, the algorithm eliminating hidden surfaces. The equation of a plane in 3D space is
processes the polygons that intersect that line, determining which typically represented as:
polygons are visible and which are occluded by other polygons. Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
The algorithm keeps a list of active polygons for each scan line, where (A, B, C) is a vector normal to the plane and D is a constant
which are the polygons that intersect that line and are currently that determines the position of the plane. To determine the visibility
being drawn. As the scan line is processed, the algorithm updates of a polygon, the plain equation method calculates the equation of the
the active polygon list by adding any new polygons that intersect plane for each polygon in the scene and then uses this equation to
the line and removing any polygons that have been completely determine the depth of the polygon at each pixel. The depth of the
processed. To determine which polygons are visible, the polygon at a particular pixel is calculated by substituting the
algorithm compares the depths of the polygons at each pixel and coordinates of the pixel into the equation of the plane and solving for
only draws the polygon with the smallest depth value. This the value of z. One advantage of the plain equation method is that it is
ensures that polygons closer to the viewer are drawn over relatively simple to implement and can be efficient for scenes with a
polygons that are farther away, eliminating hidden surfaces. moderate number of polygons. However, it may not be suitable for
The scan line algorithm is relatively simple to implement and can very large or complex scenes because it can be computationally
be efficient for scenes with a moderate number of polygons, but it expensive to calculate the equation of a plane for each polygon in the
may not be suitable for very large or complex scenes. scene.
Explain the Z-buffer algorithm for removing hidden faces? Explain in detail about depth buffer method.
The Z-buffer algorithm, also known as the depth buffer The depth buffer method, also known as the Z-buffer algorithm, is a
algorithm, is a technique for removing hidden surfaces in 3D technique for performing visible surface detection (hidden surface
graphics. It works by maintaining a buffer (a 2D array) that stores removal) in 3D graphics. It works by maintaining a buffer (a 2D
the depth value (the Z value) of each pixel on the screen. As the array) that stores the depth value (the Z value) of each pixel on the
3D scene is rendered, the Z-buffer algorithm compares the depth screen. As the 3D scene is rendered, the depth buffer algorithm
of each incoming pixel with the value stored in the buffer for that compares the depth of each incoming pixel with the value stored in
pixel. If the incoming pixel is closer to the viewer (has a smaller the buffer for that pixel. If the incoming pixel is closer to the viewer
Z value), it is drawn, and the Z-buffer value is updated. If the (has a smaller Z value), it is drawn, and the buffer value is updated. If
incoming pixel is farther away (has a larger Z value), it is the incoming pixel is farther away (has a larger Z value), it is
discarded, and the buffer value is left unchanged. This process discarded, and the buffer value is left unchanged. This process
ensures that only the closest surface is drawn at each pixel, ensures that only the closest surface is drawn at each pixel,
eliminating hidden surfaces. The Z-buffer algorithm is relatively eliminating hidden surfaces. The depth buffer algorithm is relatively
simple to implement and can be efficient for scenes with a simple to implement and can be efficient for scenes with a moderate
moderate number of polygons, but it can be memory-intensive number of polygons, but it can be memory-intensive and may not be
and may not be suitable for very large or complex scenes. suitable for very large or complex scenes. To implement the depth
buffer algorithm, the following steps are typically followed:
Define the algorithms for visible surface detection. - Initialize the depth buffer with a large value for all pixels.
Visible surface detection, also known as hidden surface removal - For each polygon in the scene:
or hidden surface determination, is the process of identifying - Transform the vertices of the polygon to screen space using the
which surfaces in a 3D scene are visible to the viewer and which projection matrix.
are occluded by other surfaces. There are several algorithms that - Rasterize the polygon by iterating over the pixels that it covers and
can be used to perform visible surface detection, including: calculating the depth value for each pixel.
Painter's algorithm: This algorithm orders and paints the polygons - Compare the depth value of each pixel with the value stored in the
in a scene based on their depth relative to the viewer. It is simple depth buffer. If the depth value is smaller, update the buffer value and
to implement but can be inefficient for scenes with many draw the pixel.
polygons. - Repeat the process for all polygons in the scene.
A-Buffer algorithm: This algorithm is an improvement on The depth buffer method is widely used in 3D graphics and has the
Painter's algorithm that stores the depth values of each pixel in a advantage of being relatively simple to implement and efficient for
buffer, allowing the algorithm to quickly determine which scenes with a moderate number of polygons. However, it may not be
polygons are visible at each pixel without having to recalculate suitable for very large or complex scenes because it can be memory-
the depth values. intensive and may not scale well.
BSP trees: This algorithm uses a binary search tree data structure
to represent the polygons in a scene. The tree is traversed to Justify that depth buffer method is better than plane equation
determine which polygons are visible at each pixel. method.
Scan line algorithm: This algorithm processes the image from top There are a few reasons why the depth buffer method may be a good
to bottom, one row at a time, and maintains a list of active choice in some cases:
polygons for each scan line. It compares the depths of the Efficiency: The depth buffer method can be more efficient than the
polygons at each pixel to determine which is visible. plane equation method for scenes with many polygons. This is
Z-buffer algorithm: This algorithm maintains a buffer (a 2D because the depth buffer method only needs to calculate the depth
array) that stores the depth value of each pixel on the screen. As value for each pixel once, whereas the plane equation method must
the scene is rendered, it compares the depth of incoming pixels calculate the depth of each polygon at every pixel.
with the value stored in the buffer and only draws the closest Simplicity: The depth buffer method is relatively simple to implement
surface. compared to the plane equation method. It only requires a single
buffer to store the depth values of the pixels, whereas the plane
equation method requires the calculation of the equation of a plane for
each polygon in the scene.
Memory usage: The depth buffer method can be more memory-
efficient than the plane equation method because it only requires a
single buffer to store the depth values of the pixels, whereas the plane
equation method may require additional data structures to store the
equations of the planes.
Overall, the depth buffer method is a widely used and effective
technique for hidden surface removal in 3D graphics. However, the
choice of algorithm will depend on the specific requirements of the
application and the trade-offs between efficiency, simplicity, and
memory usage.
Explain the area subdivision method for visible surface
detection.
The area subdivision method is a technique used in computer
graphics to determine which surfaces of a 3D model are visible
from a given viewpoint. It works by dividing the screen into
smaller areas, or subregions, and then determining which
surfaces in the 3D model intersect each subregion. There are
several different algorithms that can be used to implement the
area subdivision method, but they all follow a similar process:
- Divide the screen into a grid of subregions.
- For each subregion, determine the set of surfaces in the 3D
model that intersect it. This is often done by performing a ray
casting operation from the viewpoint to the subregion.
- Sort the intersecting surfaces by their distance from the
viewpoint. This is necessary because surfaces that are closer to
the viewpoint should occlude (obscure) surfaces that are further
away.
-Starting with the closest surface, check whether it is visible
from the viewpoint. If it is, add it to the set of visible surfaces. If
it is not, skip it and move on to the next surface.
One advantage of the area subdivision method is that it is
relatively simple and easy to implement. However, it can be
computationally expensive, especially if the screen is divided
into many subregions. As a result, it is not typically used in real-
time graphics applications where performance is critical.
Explain the visible surface detection with an algorithm.
Visible surface detection, also known as hidden surface removal
or occlusion culling, is the process of identifying which surfaces
in a 3D scene are visible from a given point of view, and which
are occluded (hidden) by other objects. This is an important
optimization technique used in 3D computer graphics to reduce
the workload on the rendering pipeline by only rendering the
visible surfaces, rather than all surfaces in the scene. There are
several algorithms that can be used to perform visible surface
detection, including the painter’s algorithm, the Z-buffer
algorithm, and the BSP tree algorithm. Each of these algorithms
has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the appropriate
algorithm to use will depend on the specific needs of the
application. In general, visible surface detection algorithms work
by traversing the scene from the point of view of the observer,
and determining which objects are in front of or behind other
objects. This is typically done by comparing the depth (z-value)
of the surfaces at each pixel, and deciding which surface is
visible based on its depth relative to other surfaces at the same
pixel. Once the visible surfaces have been identified, they can be
rendered to produce the final image. One common algorithm
used for visible surface detection is the Z-buffer algorithm. This
algorithm works by maintaining a depth buffer, also known as a
Z-buffer, which stores the depth (z-value) of the nearest surface
at each pixel of the screen. As the scene is traversed and
rendered, the Z-buffer is updated with the depth of the surface
being drawn at each pixel. If the depth of the surface being
drawn is greater than the depth stored in the z-buffer at that
pixel, the surface is occluded by another object and is not drawn.
If the depth of the surface being drawn is less than or equal to
the depth in the z-buffer, the surface is drawn and the depth in
the z-buffer is updated.
Here is an outline of the steps involved in the z-buffer algorithm:
1. Initialize the z-buffer to a large value for all pixels.
2. For each surface in the scene:
-Transform the surface vertices from world space to screen
. space using the view and projection matrices.
-Rasterize the surface into screen space, generating a list of
. fragments (pixels) to be drawn.
3. For each fragment:
-Read the depth stored in the z-buffer at the fragment's screen
. space coordinates.
-If the fragment depth is less than or equal to the value in the
. z-buffer, draw the fragment and update the value in the z- . .
buffer.
-If the fragment depth is greater than the value in the z-buffer,
. do not draw the fragment.
What is the task of polygon table? Why we must remove
hidden surface? Explain with any one methodology?
A polygon table is a data structure used to store the geometry of
a 3D scene, specifically the list of polygons (triangles or other n-
sided shapes) that make up the surfaces of the objects in the
scene. The polygon table is an important input to the rendering
pipeline, as it provides the raw geometry data that is used to
generate the final image of the scene.
Removing hidden surfaces, also known as visible surface
detection or occlusion culling, is an optimization technique used
in 3D graphics to improve performance by only rendering the
visible surfaces of a scene, rather than all surfaces. This is
important because rendering every surface in a scene can be
computationally expensive, especially in complex scenes with
many polygons. By only rendering the visible surfaces, the
workload on the rendering pipeline can be significantly reduced,
improving performance, and allowing for higher frame rates or
more detailed graphics.
One methodology for removing hidden surfaces is the painter's
algorithm, which works by sorting the polygons in the scene
from back to front, based on their distance from the viewer. The
polygons are then drawn in this order, with later-drawn polygons
occluding earlier-drawn polygons. This works because polygons
that are closer to the viewer will occlude polygons that are
farther away, so by drawing the farther away polygons first and
the closer polygons last, the hidden surfaces will be
automatically removed.
What is the role of ray tracing in visible surface detection?
Explain how scan line algorithm is used for back face
detection.
Ray tracing is a rendering technique that can be used to generate
high-quality images by simulating the way light travels through a
3D scene. In ray tracing, rays are traced from the eye (viewpoint)
through each pixel in the image plane, and the color of the pixel
is determined by the color of the surface that the ray intersects.
Ray tracing can be used for visible surface detection by casting
rays from the eye into the scene and determining which surface is
visible at each pixel. This can be done by intersecting the ray
with the surfaces in the scene and selecting the intersection point
with the smallest distance from the eye as the visible surface.
Scan line algorithms are another method used for visible surface
detection. These algorithms work by rasterizing the scene into a
2D image plane, like the way a raster graphics display works. As
each scan line (row of pixels) is drawn, the visible surfaces are
identified and drawn to the screen.
Scan line algorithms can also be used for back face detection,
which is the process of identifying which surfaces in a 3D model
are facing away from the viewer. This is typically done by
calculating the surface normal at each vertex of the polygon and
comparing it to the view direction (vector from the vertex to the
viewer). If the dot product of these two vectors is negative, the
surface is facing away from the viewer and is considered a back
face. Back faces are usually not drawn, as they are occluded by
the front faces of the model.
What is the significance of vanishing points in perspective
Projection?
Vanishing points are important in perspective projection because
they help to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on a
two-dimensional surface. In a perspective projection, the lines of
perspective converge at one or more vanishing points, which are
typically located at the edges of the image. These converging
lines give the impression of distance and depth, making the image
appear more realistic. Vanishing points are typically used in
drawings and paintings to create the illusion of depth and
distance, and they are also used in computer graphics and
photography to achieve the same effect. By using vanishing
points, an artist or photographer can create a more realistic and
believable image, with objects in the foreground appearing larger
and closer, and objects in the background appearing smaller and
farther away.
Explain how Z- Buffer algorithm is used for visible surface
detection.
The Z-buffer algorithm, also known as the depth buffer
algorithm, is a method used in computer graphics for visible
surface detection. It works by maintaining a buffer in memory
that stores the depth (Z-value) of each pixel on the screen. As the
graphics pipeline processes each object in the scene, it writes the
object's depth information to the Z-buffer. When the pipeline is
finished, the Z-buffer contains the depth of every pixel on the
screen. To construct the final image, the graphics system reads
the Z-buffer and selects the pixel with the smallest depth value at
each screen position. This ensures that objects that are closer to
the viewer occlude (obscure) objects that are farther away,
creating the correct illusion of depth and visibility. The Z-buffer
algorithm is a simple and efficient way to solve the visibility
problem, and it is widely used in computer graphics systems. It
can be implemented in hardware or software, and it is used in a
variety of applications, including 3D graphics, computer-aided
design (CAD), and video games.
Explain boundary representations techniques to represent the
3D object with suitable example.
Boundary representation (B-rep) is a technique used to represent
the geometric shape of a three-dimensional (3D) object. In a B-
rep model, the object is represented as a set of surfaces that
enclose a volume. These surfaces are typically defined by a set of
curves or lines, called "edges," that lie on the surface of the
object. There are several different ways to represent the edges in
a B-rep model, including:
- Polygon meshes: In this representation, the object is divided
into a series of interconnected triangles or other simple polygons.
Each polygon has a set of vertices that define its shape, and the
edges are defined by the connections between these vertices.
- NURBS surfaces: A non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS)
surface is a mathematical model that can be used to represent
smooth, curved surfaces. A NURBS surface is defined by a set of
control points and a set of weights that control the shape of the
surface. The edges of the surface are defined by the boundaries of
the control points.
- Implicit surfaces: An implicit surface is defined by a
mathematical equation that describes the shape of the surface.
The edges of the surface are the points where the equation
changes value.
An example of a 3D object that could be represented using a B-
rep model is a car. A car could be represented using a polygon
mesh, with each panel of the car's body represented as a separate
polygon. Alternatively, the car's body could be represented using
NURBS surfaces, with the edges of the surface defined by the
boundaries of the control points. The wheels of the car could be
represented using implicit surfaces, with the edges defined by the
points where the equation changes value.
What is the advantage of real time rendering over offline
rendering?
Real-time rendering refers to the process of generating an image
or animation that can be displayed in real-time, typically at a
frame rate of 30 or more frames per second. Offline rendering, on
the other hand, is the process of generating an image or animation
that is not intended to be displayed in real-time. One of the main
advantages of real-time rendering is that it allows the user to
interact with the rendered image or animation in real-time. This is
useful in applications such as video games, where the user needs
to be able to respond to events in the game in a timely manner.
Real-time rendering also allows the user to see the results of their
actions immediately, which can be helpful for tasks such as 3D
modeling and design. Another advantage of real-time rendering is
that it tends to be more efficient than offline rendering, since it
does not require the same level of processing power or time. This
makes it more suitable for use on devices with limited resources,
such as mobile phones or tablets.
Discuss the limitation of Z-Buffer algorithm.
The Z-buffer algorithm is a widely used method for visible
surface detection in computer graphics. It works by maintaining a
buffer in memory that stores the depth (Z-value) of each pixel on
the screen and selecting the pixel with the smallest depth value at
each screen position to construct the final image.
However, the Z-buffer algorithm has several limitations that can
affect its accuracy and performance. Some of these limitations
include:
- Z-fighting: This occurs when two or more polygons are very
close to each other in depth, and their Z-values are nearly the
same. In this case, the Z-buffer may not be able to accurately
determine which polygon is in front, resulting in flickering or
other visual artifacts.
- Limited precision: The Z-buffer uses a fixed-precision
representation for depth values, which can lead to errors when
rendering objects that are very large or very far away. This can
result in artifacts such as holes or gaps in the image.
- Fragmentation: When an object is occluded by another object,
the Z-buffer may leave gaps or holes in the image, since it only
stores depth information for visible pixels. This can lead to a
fragmented appearance in the final image.
- Overdraw: When an object is rendered, the Z-buffer must
update the depth value for every pixel covered by the object. This
can lead to a significant amount of overdraw, where the same
pixel is written to multiple times, which can be inefficient and
reduce performance.
Despite these limitations, the Z-buffer algorithm is still widely
used in computer graphics due to its simplicity and efficiency.
UNIT 9
List some significances of virtual reality.
Virtual reality (VR) has a number of significant applications and
potential benefits, including:
- Entertainment: VR technology is being used to create
immersive, interactive experiences for gaming, movies, and other
forms of entertainment.
- Education and training: VR can be used to create realistic
simulations for training in a variety of fields, including medicine,
military, and aviation.
- Therapy: VR is being used to treat a variety of mental health
conditions, including phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), and anxiety.
- Product design: VR allows designers to create and test
prototypes of new products in a virtual environment, saving time
and resources.
- Tourism: VR can be used to give people a virtual taste of a
destination before they travel, or to provide immersive
experiences for people who are unable to travel due to physical or
financial constraints.
- Socialization: VR technology is being used to enable people to
socialize and communicate in virtual environments, even when
they are physically separated.
- Physical therapy: VR can be used to help people recover from
injuries or surgeries by allowing them to perform exercises in a
virtual environment under the supervision of a therapist.
Differentiate between virtual reality and augmented reality
with example.
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation of a
three-dimensional environment that can be interacted with in a
seemingly real or physical way. In VR, users wear a headset that
blocks out the real world and transports them into a completely
artificial one. For example, VR can be used to create immersive
video games or to simulate training environments for pilots or
surgeons.
Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that overlays digital
information on top of the real world. Unlike VR, users do not
need to wear a headset to experience AR. Instead, they use
devices such as smartphones or tablets to view the enhanced
reality. An example of AR is the mobile game Pokémon Go, in
which players use their phones to see and catch virtual creatures
that appear in the real world. Other examples of AR include
furniture shopping apps that allow users to see how a piece of
furniture would look in their home before they buy it, and
interactive museum exhibits that enhance the physical exhibits
with digital information.
Demonstrate how a polygon can be created using OpenGL.
In OpenGL, a polygon can be created by specifying the vertices
(or corners) of the polygon and then rendering it to the screen.
Here is some example code in C++ that demonstrates how to
create a simple triangle using OpenGL:
#include <GL/gl.h>
void drawTriangle()
{
glBegin(GL_TRIANGLES);
glVertex3f(0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f);
glVertex3f(-1.0f, -1.0f, 0.0f);
glVertex3f(1.0f, -1.0f, 0.0f);
glEnd();
}
This code will create a triangle with the vertices (0,1,0), (-1,-1,0),
and (1,-1,0) and render it to the screen. The glBegin() function
tells OpenGL to start rendering a primitive (in this case, a
triangle) and the glEnd() function tells OpenGL to stop rendering
the primitive. The glVertex3f() function specifies a vertex at the
given (x,y,z) coordinates.To create a more complex polygon, you
would simply specify more vertices between the glBegin() and
glEnd() calls. For example, to create a quadrilateral, you could
use GL_QUADS as the primitive type and specify four vertices.
Explain the following term with practical applications.
a) Rotation
b) Computer Animation
a) Rotation is the act of turning an object around a specific point,
called the pivot point. Rotation can be specified in terms of an
angle of rotation and an axis of rotation. Rotation is a common
transformation that is used in many fields, including computer
graphics, robotics, and engineering.
Some practical applications of rotation in computer graphics
include:
- Rotating an object in a 3D modeling software to view it from
different angles
- Rotating a character's arm in a video game to simulate
movement
- Rotating a camera in a virtual reality environment to change the
perspective of the user
b) Computer animation is the use of computers to create the
illusion of movement and change in static images. It is a
technique that is used to create movies, television shows, video
games, and other forms of media.
There are several different types of computer animation,
including:
- 2D animation: This involves creating static images and then
sequentially displaying them at a high frame rate to create the
illusion of movement.
- 3D animation: This involves creating a digital model of an
object or character and then animating it by specifying how the
object should move and change over time.
Motion graphics: This involves creating animated graphics and
text for use in commercials, movies, and other types of media.
Some practical applications of computer animation include:
- Creating special effects for movies and television shows
- Creating realistic simulations for training or design purposes
- Creating interactive experiences for video games and virtual
reality environments
- Creating animated graphics for use in commercials and other
forms of media.
What are the key issues prevalent in producing a Virtual
reality scene?
There are several key issues that are commonly encountered
when producing a virtual reality (VR) scene. These include:
- Performance: VR scenes can be resource-intensive, and it is
important to ensure that the scene runs smoothly on the target
hardware. This can require optimizing the scene for performance,
including minimizing the number of polygons, using efficient
rendering techniques, and minimizing the use of expensive
effects such as shadows and reflections.
- Interactivity: In a VR scene, the user is able to interact with the
environment in real-time. This can be challenging to implement,
as the scene must respond to the user's actions in a believable and
consistent way.
- User comfort: VR scenes can sometimes cause discomfort or
motion sickness in users, especially if the scene involves rapid
movement or disorienting effects. It is important to consider the
user's comfort when designing a VR scene.
- Immersion: A key goal of VR is to create a sense of immersion
for the user. This can be challenging, as the user is aware that
they are in a simulated environment. To increase immersion, it is
important to create a believable and consistent virtual world, with
realistic physics and believable character and object behavior.
- Accessibility: It is important to consider the needs of users with
disabilities when designing a VR scene. This can include
ensuring that the scene is compatible with assistive technologies
such as screen readers and designing controls that are accessible
to users with limited mobility.
Explain different hardware and software used for VR
purpose.
There is a wide range of hardware and software that can be
used to create and experience virtual reality (VR) scenes.
Hardware used in VR includes:
- VR headsets: These are specialized devices that a user
wears on their head to immerse them in a virtual
environment. VR headsets can range from simple
smartphone-based systems to more complex, high-end
systems with advanced tracking and display technology.
- VR controllers: These are devices that a user holds in their
hands to interact with the virtual environment. VR
controllers can range from simple handheld controllers to
more complex devices with motion tracking and haptic
feedback.
- Tracking systems: Some VR systems use tracking
technology to allow the user to move around in the virtual
environment. This can be achieved through the use of
cameras, lasers, or other sensors that track the user's
movements.
Software used in VR includes:
- VR development platforms: These are software tools that
are used to create VR experiences. Examples include Unity,
Unreal Engine, and CryEngine.
- VR content creation tools: These are software tools that
are used to create 3D models, textures, and other assets that
are used in VR scenes. Examples include 3D modeling
software such as Blender and Maya, and texture creation
software such as Substance Designer.
- VR content playback software: These are software tools
that are used to play back VR experiences on the user's
device. Examples include the Steam VR platform and the
Oculus Rift software.
- VR content distribution platforms: These are online
platforms that are used to distribute VR content to users.
Examples include the Oculus Store and Steam.
Explain the virtual reality and its applications in the
computer graphics.
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation of a
three-dimensional environment that can be interacted with
in a seemingly real or physical way. In VR, users wear a
headset that blocks out the real world and transports them
into a completely artificial one. Virtual reality has a number
of applications in computer graphics, including:
- Gaming: VR technology is being used to create immersive
video game experiences. Players can use VR headsets and
controllers to interact with the virtual environment in a
realistic way.
- Product design: VR allows designers to create and test
prototypes of new products in a virtual environment, saving
time and resources.
- Education and training: VR can be used to create realistic
simulations for training in a variety of fields, including
medicine, military, and aviation.
- Therapy: VR is being used to treat a variety of mental
health conditions, including phobias, post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), and anxiety.
- Socialization: VR technology is being used to enable
people to socialize and communicate in virtual
environments, even when they are physically separated.
- Physical therapy: VR can be used to help people recover
from injuries or surgeries by allowing them to perform
exercises in a virtual environment under the supervision of
a therapist.
- Entertainment: VR technology is being used to create
immersive, interactive experiences for movies, theme parks,
and other forms of entertainment.
What do you mean by virtual Reality and animation?
Explain.
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation of a
three-dimensional environment that can be interacted with
in a seemingly real or physical way. In VR, users wear a
headset that blocks out the real world and transports them
into a completely artificial one. VR technology is used to
create immersive, interactive experiences for gaming,
entertainment, education, and other applications.
Animation is the process of creating the illusion of
movement and change by displaying a series of static
images or frames in rapid succession. In the context of
computer graphics, animation refers to the use of computers
to create and control the movement of digital objects or
characters. Virtual reality and animation are often used
together to create interactive, immersive experiences. For
example, in a VR video game, the game engine uses
animation to control the movement of the characters and
objects in the game world, while the VR headset allows the
player to experience the game world in a seemingly real
way. Similarly, in a VR training simulation, animation is
used to create realistic scenarios and interactions, while the
VR headset allows the user to feel like they are part of the
simulation.
Explain the scan line algorithms with example.
Scan line algorithms are algorithms that are used to fill the interior of a
closed polygon in a 2D graphics rendering system. These algorithms
work by scanning the image from top to bottom, one row at a time, and
determining which pixels fall inside the polygon. The pixels that fall
inside the polygon are then filled with the desired color.
One example of a scan line algorithm is the scan line fill algorithm.
This algorithm works by first sorting the edges of the polygon from left
to right. It then scans each row of the image from left to right, and for
each pixel, it determines whether the pixel is inside or outside the
polygon by checking whether the number of intersections of the pixel
with the polygon's edges is even or odd. If the number of intersections
is odd, the pixel is inside the polygon and is filled with the desired
color.
Here is an example of how the scan line fill algorithm might be
implemented in pseudocode:
for each row in the image:
initialize a list of edges that intersect the row
sort the list of edges by x coordinate
initialize a color flag to "outside"
for each pixel in the row:
if the pixel is intersected by an edge:
toggle the color flag
if the color flag is "inside":
color the pixel
This pseudocode demonstrates the basic steps involved in using the
scan line fill algorithm to fill a polygon. The algorithm first loops
through each row of the image, and then for each row, it determines
which edges intersect the row and sorts them by x coordinate. It then
scans the row from left to right, toggling a color flag each time the
pixel is intersected by an edge. If the color flag is set to "inside", the
pixel is filled with the desired color.
Explain the basic steps for computer animation and its application
in computer science.
Computer animation is the use of computers to create the illusion of
movement and change in static images. It is a technique that is used to
create movies, television shows, video games, and other forms of
media. The basic steps for creating computer animation are:
- Planning: The first step in creating computer animation is to plan out
the story and characters, as well as the overall look and feel of the
animation. This may involve creating detailed storyboards or concept
art.
- Modeling: The next step is to create digital models of the characters,
objects, and environments that will be used in the animation. This is
typically done using 3D modeling software such as Blender or Maya.
- Texturing: After the models have been created, they are usually given
textures to give them a more realistic appearance. This can be done
using texture mapping techniques or with the use of specialized
software such as Substance Designer.
- Rigging: The next step is to set up the skeletons and control systems
that will be used to animate the characters and objects. This is known
as rigging, and it involves creating a hierarchy of bones and control
points that can be used to move the objects in a realistic way.
- Animation: Once the models and rigs are in place, the actual
animation can begin. This involves specifying how the characters and
objects should move and change over time, using techniques such as
keyframing and motion capture.
- Rendering: The final step is to render the animation, which involves
calculating how the scene should look at each frame and generating a
final image or series of images. This is typically done using specialized
rendering software such as Arnold or V-Ray.
Computer animation has a number of applications in computer science,
including:
- Creating movies and television shows
- Creating video games and interactive experiences
- Creating special effects for movies and television
- Creating realistic simulations for training or design purposes
- Creating animated graphics for use in commercials and other forms of
media.
What is virtual reality? Explain the importance of virtual reality
and its application.
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation of a three-
dimensional environment that can be interacted with in a seemingly
real or physical way. In VR, users wear a headset that blocks out the
real world and transports them into a completely artificial one. VR
technology is used to create immersive, interactive experiences for
gaming, entertainment, education, and other applications.
The importance of virtual reality lies in its ability to create realistic and
immersive experiences that can engage the user in a way that is not
possible with traditional media. VR can be used to transport users to
completely artificial worlds, or to enhance the real world with digital
information. There are a number of applications for virtual reality,
including:
- Gaming: VR technology is being used to create immersive video
game experiences. Players can use VR headsets and controllers to
interact with the virtual environment in a realistic way.
Product design: VR allows designers to create and test prototypes of
new products in a virtual environment, saving time and resources.
- Education and training: VR can be used to create realistic simulations
for training in a variety of fields, including medicine, military, and
aviation.
- Therapy: VR is being used to treat a variety of mental health
conditions, including phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
and anxiety.
- Socialization: VR technology is being used to enable people to
socialize and communicate in virtual environments, even when they are
physically separated.
How virtual realities differ with our real world? Describe
some components of VR system.
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation of a
three-dimensional environment that can be interacted with in
a seemingly real or physical way. While VR can be very
immersive and realistic, it differs from the real world in a
number of ways:
- VR is simulated: The virtual environments and objects in
VR are created by computers, rather than being real physical
entities. As a result, they may not behave in exactly the same
way as real-world objects.
- VR is limited: The virtual environments and objects in VR
are limited by the capabilities of the hardware and software
that is being used to create them. This can result in limitations
on the realism and interactivity of the VR experience.
- VR is controlled: In VR, the user is typically limited to
interacting with the environment in ways that are
predetermined by the creators of the VR experience. This is in
contrast to the real world, where the user has more freedom to
act and explore.
There are several components that are typically found in a VR
system, including:
- VR headset: A device that the user wears on their head to
immerse them in the virtual environment. VR headsets can
range from simple smartphone-based systems to more
complex, high-end systems with advanced tracking and
display technology.
- VR controllers: Devices that the user holds in their hands to
interact with the virtual environment. VR controllers can
range from simple handheld controllers to more complex
devices with motion tracking and haptic feedback.
- Tracking system: Some VR systems use tracking technology
to allow the user to move around in the virtual environment.
UNIT 1
What is a computer graphics? Explain in detail about the
application of computer graphics.
Computer graphics is the field of computer science that deals
with generating images, animations, and visual effects using
computers. It involves using computers to process and
manipulate visual data, and to display the results on various
output devices such as monitors, printers, and projectors.
There are many applications of computer graphics, some of
which include:
- 2D and 3D modeling: Computer graphics can be used to
create detailed models of objects, characters, and
environments in two or three dimensions. These models can
be used in a variety of contexts, such as animation, games,
architecture, and product design.
- Visualization and simulation: Computer graphics can be
used to create visualizations of data, such as scientific
simulations, medical imaging, and weather forecasting. It can
also be used to create simulations of complex systems, such
as military training, air traffic control, and industrial design.
Image and video processing: Computer graphics can be used
to edit and enhance digital images and videos, such as to
remove blemishes, adjust colors and contrast, and add special
effects.
- User interfaces: Computer graphics is used to create the
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that people use to interact
with computers and other devices.
- Multimedia content creation: Computer graphics is used to
create a wide range of multimedia content, such as movies,
TV shows, commercials, and music videos.
- Printing and publishing: Computer graphics is used in the
printing and publishing industry to create high-quality
graphics for books, magazines, and other printed materials.
Education and training: Computer graphics is used to create
educational and training materials, such as simulations,
virtual reality environments, and interactive tutorials.
What is a raster scan display system? Draw its block diagram
and explain it in detail.
A raster scan display system is a type of display technology that
generates an image by displaying a series of horizontal scan lines
on a screen. The image is created by rapidly scanning the screen
from top to bottom and left to right, with each scan line consisting
of a series of pixels that are turned on or off to create the desired
image.Here is a block diagram of a raster scan display system:
- Video controller: The video controller is responsible for
generating the control signals that control the display of the image.
It receives input from the computer and converts it into a format
that can be displayed on the screen.
- Video RAM (VRAM): The video RAM (VRAM) is a type of
memory that is used to store the pixel data for the image. The video
controller reads the pixel data from the VRAM and sends it to the
video display unit (VDU).
- Video display unit (VDU): The video display unit (VDU) is the
hardware that is responsible for displaying the image on the screen.
It receives the pixel data from the video controller and uses it to
control the intensity of the pixels on the screen.
- Screen: The screen is the output device that displays the image. It
consists of a matrix of pixels that can be turned on or off to create
the desired image.
In a raster scan display system, the video controller generates a
series of horizontal scan lines, starting at the top of the screen and
moving down to the bottom. As each scan line is displayed, the
video controller reads the pixel data for that scan line from the
VRAM and sends it to the VDU, which uses it to control the
intensity of the pixels on the screen. The process is repeated for
each scan line, until the entire image has been displayed.
Explain the random scan display system with its advantages
and disadvantages.
A random scan display system is a type of display technology that
generates an image by displaying a series of dots or lines on a
screen, rather than a series of horizontal scan lines like in a raster
scan display system. The image is created by rapidly scanning the
screen and turning on or off the pixels at the desired locations to
create the desired image.
Advantages of a random scan display system:
- Better image quality: Because a random scan display system only
has to draw the pixels that are needed to create the image, it can
produce higher quality images with less visual artifacts than a raster
scan display system.
- More efficient use of bandwidth: A random scan display system
only has to transmit the data for the pixels that are being displayed,
rather than transmitting data for all of the pixels on the screen like
in a raster scan display system. This makes it more efficient to use
when transmitting the image data over a network or other
communication channels.
- Lower power consumption: Because a random scan display
system only has to draw the pixels that are needed to create the
image, it uses less power than a raster scan display system, which
has to draw all of the pixels on the screen.
Disadvantages of a random scan display system:
- Limited to line drawings and simple graphics: A random scan
display system is not well-suited for displaying complex images or
photographs, as it can only display a limited number of dots or lines
on the screen.
- Limited to static images: A random scan display system is not
well-suited for displaying moving images or video, as it can only
display a static image at a time.
- More expensive: A random scan display system is typically more
expensive to manufacture than a raster scan display system due to
the more complex hardware required.
Calculate the total memory required to store a 10-minute video
in a SVGA system with 24 bit true color and 25 fps. In a SVGA
system with 24-bit true color, each pixel requires 24 bits of data
to store its color value.
If the video has a frame rate of 25 frames per second, there are 25 *
60 = <<25*60=1500>>1500 frames in a 10-minute video.
If the video has a resolution of 800x600 pixels, there are a total of
800 * 600 = <<800*600=480000>>480,000 pixels per frame.
The total amount of memory required to store a 10-minute video in
a SVGA system with 24-bit true color and 25 fps is therefore 1500
* 480,000 * 24 bits =
<<150048000024=20736000000>>20736000000 bits.
This is equivalent to 20736000000 / 8 bits per byte = 2073600000
bytes, or around 2.07 GB.
What is the random scan system? Explain the operation of
random scan with architecture.
A random scan system is a type of display technology that
generates an image by displaying a series of dots or lines on a
screen, rather than a series of horizontal scan lines like in a
raster scan display system. The image is created by rapidly
scanning the screen and turning on or off the pixels at the
desired locations to create the desired image.
Here is the architecture of a random scan display system:
- Computer: The computer is the input device that generates the
data for the image to be displayed.
- Display processor: The display processor is responsible for
generating the control signals that control the display of the
image. It receives input from the computer and converts it into
a format that can be displayed on the screen.
- Display memory: The display memory is a type of memory
that is used to store the pixel data for the image. The display
processor reads the pixel data from the display memory and
sends it to the display refresh processor.
- Display refresh processor: The display refresh processor is
responsible for generating the control signals that control the
scanning of the screen. It receives the pixel data from the
display processor and uses it to control the intensity of the
pixels on the screen.
- Screen: The screen is the output device that displays the
image. It consists of a matrix of pixels that can be turned on or
off to create the desired image.
In a random scan display system, the display processor
generates the control signals that control the display of the
image. It receives the pixel data from the computer and stores it
in the display memory. The display refresh processor then
reads the pixel data from the display memory and uses it to
control the intensity of the pixels on the screen as it scans the
screen. The process is repeated until the entire image has been
displayed.
Differentiate between vector and raster graphics.
Vector graphics and raster graphics are two different types of
graphics file formats that are used to store and display digital
images. Here are the main differences between the two:
- Resolution independence: Vector graphics are resolution-
independent, which means that they can be scaled to any size
without losing quality. Raster graphics, on the other hand, are
resolution-dependent, which means that the quality of the
image will degrade if it is scaled up or down.
- File size: Vector graphics are generally smaller in file size
than raster graphics, because they do not need to store pixel
data for the image. Raster graphics, on the other hand, need to
store pixel data for the image, which can result in larger file
sizes.
- File format: Vector graphics are typically stored in file
formats such as SVG, EPS, and AI. Raster graphics are
typically stored in file formats such as JPG, PNG, and BMP.
- Image types: Vector graphics are well-suited for displaying
simple graphics and text, and are often used for logos, icons,
and other simple images. Raster graphics are well-suited for
displaying photographs and other complex images, and are
often used for things like digital images, web graphics, and
print media.
- Editing: Vector graphics can be edited more easily than raster
graphics because they are made up of individual shapes that
can be modified and resized independently. Raster graphics, on
the other hand, are made up of a grid of pixels, and any changes
to the image will affect all the pixels in the grid.
Consider a raster scan system having 12 inch by 10 inch
screen with resolution of 100 pixels per inch in each
direction. If the display controller of this system refreshes
the screen at the rate of 50 frames per second, how many
pixels could be accessed per second and what is the access
time per second and what is the access time pre pixels of the
system?
In a raster scan system with a screen size of 12 inches by 10
inches and a resolution of 100 pixels per inch in each direction,
the screen has a total of 12 * 100 = <<12100=1200>>1200
pixels in the horizontal direction and 10 * 100 =
<<10100=1000>>1000 pixels in the vertical direction.
The total number of pixels on the screen is therefore 1200 *
1000 = <<1200*1000=1200000>>1,200,000 pixels.
If the display controller refreshes the screen at a rate of 50
frames per second, it can access 1,200,000 pixels per second.
The access time per second is therefore 1 / 50 =
<<1/50=0.02>>0.02 seconds.
The access time per pixel is therefore 0.02 / 1,200,000 =
<<0.02/1200000=1.6666666666667e-06>>1.6666666666667e-
06 seconds.
Define the following terms
a) Video controller
b) 3D viewing
c) Raster graphics
d) List priority
a) Video controller: A video controller is a hardware device
that is responsible for generating the control signals that
control the display of an image on a screen. It receives input
from a computer and converts it into a format that can be
displayed on the screen.
b) 3D viewing: 3D viewing refers to the process of displaying
and viewing three-dimensional (3D) images or animations on a
two-dimensional (2D) screen. 3D viewing can be achieved
using various technologies, such as 3D glasses, head-mounted
displays, and autostereoscopic displays.
c) Raster graphics: Raster graphics are digital images that are
made up of a grid of pixels, with each pixel representing a
specific color or shade. Raster graphics are resolution-
dependent, which means that the quality of the image will
degrade if it is scaled up or down.
d) List priority: List priority refers to the order in which
items in a list are ranked or prioritized. In computer
programming, list priority is often used to determine which
tasks or processes should be given priority and which should
be delayed or deferred.
Consider 256-pixel X 256 scan lines image with 24-bit true
color. If 10 minutes video is required to capture, calculate
the total memory required? Why is intensity assignment
required? In a 24-bit true color system, each pixel requires
24 bits of data to store its color value.
If the image has a resolution of 256 pixels by 256 scan lines, it
has a total of 256 * 256 = <<256*256=65536>>65,536 pixels.
If the video has a frame rate of 25 frames per second, there are
25 * 60 = <<25*60=1500>>1500 frames in a 10-minute video.
The total amount of memory required to store a 10-minute
video of a 256x256 image with 24-bit true color is therefore
1500 * 65,536 * 24 bits = 20736000000 bits.
This is equivalent to 20736000000 / 8 bits per byte =
2073600000 bytes, or around 2.07 GB.
Intensity assignment is required in a display system to
determine the intensity of the pixels on the screen. In a raster
scan display system, the intensity of each pixel is controlled by
the video controller, which generates the control signals that
determine the intensity of the pixels. In a random scan display
system, the intensity of each pixel is controlled by the display
refresh processor, which uses the pixel data from the display
memory to control the intensity of the pixels as it scans the
screen.
Consider 1024 pixels X 1024 scan lines image with 24-bit
true color. If 10 minutes video is required to capture,
calculate the total memory required? How can you
incorporate shadow in the computer graphics? In a 24-bit
true color system, each pixel requires 24 bits of data to
store its color value.
If the image has a resolution of 1024 pixels by 1024 scan lines,
it has a total of 1024 * 1024 =
<<1024*1024=1048576>>1,048,576 pixels.
If the video has a frame rate of 25 frames per second, there are
25 * 60 = <<25*60=1500>>1500 frames in a 10-minute video.
The total amount of memory required to store a 10-minute
video of a 1024x1024 image with 24-bit true color is therefore
1500 * 1,048,576 * 24 bits = 3,716608000000 bits.
This is equivalent to 3,716608000000 / 8 bits per byte =
46457600000 bytes, or around 4.65 GB.
To incorporate shadow in computer graphics, you can use
various techniques such as shadow mapping, ray tracing, and
ambient occlusion. Shadow mapping involves rendering the
scene from the perspective of a light source and using the
resulting depth map to determine which parts of the scene are
in shadow. Ray tracing involves simulating the path of light
rays through a scene and using the resulting data to determine
the shadows and reflections in the scene. Ambient occlusion
involves calculating the amount of light that is blocked by
objects in a scene and using this information to create more
realistic shadows and reflections.
Unit 2 Bresanhams line algorithm Case II: m > 1
This algorithm is used for scan converting a line. It was
Difference between DDA line algorithm and bresanhams li developed by Bresenham. It is an efficient method because it
ne algorithm involves only integer addition, subtractions, and multiplication
DDA Line Algorithm Bresenham line operations. These operations can be performed very rapidly so
Algorithm lines can be generated quickly.
DDA stands for Digital While it has no full form. Advantage:
Differential Analyzer. 1. It involves only integer arithmetic, so it is simple.
DDA algorithm is less While it is more efficient 2. It avoids the generation of duplicate points.
efficient than Bresenham than DDA algorithm. 3. It can be implemented using hardware because it does not use
line algorithm. multiplication and division. Let (xk, yk) is pixel at k
The calculation speed of While the calculation speed Disadvantage: th
DDA algorithm is less than of Bresenham line 1. This algorithm is meant for basic line drawing only Initializing step then next point to plot may be either (xk, yk + 1) or (xk +1,
Bresenham line algorithm. algorithm is faster than is not a part of Bresenham's line algorithm. So to draw smooth yk + 1).
DDA algorithm. lines, you should want to look into a different algorithm. Let d1 & d2 be the separation of pixel position (xk, yk + 1) and
DDA algorithm is costlier While Bresenham line (xk + 1, yk + 1) from the actual line path.
than Bresenham line algorithm is cheaper than
Case I: 0 < m < 1 y = mx + b
algorithm. DDA algorithm.
DDA algorithm has less While it has more precision The actual value of x is given by;
precision or accuracy. or accuracy. x = (y − b)/m
In DDA algorithm, the While in this, the Then at sampling point (yk + 1)
complexity of calculation complexity of calculation x = (yk + 1 − b)/m
is more complex. is simple. From figure,
d1 = (x − xk =yk+1−b)/m− xk =(yk+1−b−mxk)/m
In DDA algorithm, While in this, optimization
d2 = (xk + 1) − x = (xk + 1) −(yk+1−b)/m=
optimization is not is provided.
(mxk+m−yk−1+b)/m
provided.
Now, d1 − d2 =(2yk−2mxk−2b−m+2)/m
Let us define a decision parameter Pk for the kth step by
DDA Algorithm :
DDA stands for Digital Differential Analyzer. It is an Let (xk, yk) is pixel at kth step then next point to plot may be
Pk = ∆y(d1 − d2)
incremental method of scan conversion of line. In this method either (xk + 1, yk) or (xk + 1, yk + 1).
∆y > 0 Therefore, Pk < 0 if d1 < d2
calculation is performed at each step but by using results of Let d1 & d2 be the separation of pixel position (xk + 1, yk)
Pk ≥ 0 if d1 ≥ d2
previous steps. and (xk + 1, yk + 1) from the actual line path.
Advantage: y = mx + b
1. It is a faster method than method of using direct Then at sampling point (xk + 1)
use of line equation. y = m(xk + 1) + b
2. This method does not use multiplication theorem.
3. It allows us to detect the change in the value of x From figure,
and y ,so plotting of same point twice is not d1 = y − yk = m(xk + 1) + b − yk
possible. d2 = (yk + 1) − y = (yk + 1) − m(xk + 1) − b
Now, d1 − d2 = 2m(xk + 1) − (yk + 1) − yk + 2b = 2m(xk + 1) −
Disadvantage: 2yk + 2b − 1
1. It involves floating point additions rounding off is Let us define a decision parameter Pk for the kth step by
done. Accumulations of round off error cause Pk = ∆x(d1 − d2)
accumulation of error. ∆x > 0 Therefore, Pk < 0 if d1 < d2
2. Rounding off operations and floating point Pk ≥ 0 if d1 > d2
operations consumes a lot of time.
3. It is more suitable for generating line using the ∴ Pk = ∆x(d1 − d2) = ∆x{2∆y/∆x(xk + 1) − 2yk + 2b − 1} = 2∆y.
software. But it is less suited for hardware xk − 2∆x. yk + c ......(i)
implementation
Where the constant c =2∆y + ∆x(2b − 1). Therefore, initial decision parameter,
It is a scan conversion line algorithm based on calculating eith Now, for next step; P0 = 2∆xy0 − 2∆yx0 + c
er ∆x or ∆y using equation Pk+1 = 2∆y. xk+1 − 2∆x. yk+1 + c ........(ii) = 2∆xy0 − 2∆yx0 + 2(1 − b)∆x − ∆y
m= From (i) & (ii) = 2∆xy0 − 2∆yx0 + 2∆x − 2b∆x − ∆y
∆y ∴ Pk+1 − Pk = 2∆y(xk+1 − xk) − 2∆x(yk+1 − yk) = 2∆xy0 − 2∆yx0 + 2∆x − 2(y0 − mx0)∆x − ∆y
∆x ∴ Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y − 2∆x(yk+1 − yk) [Since, xk+1 = xk + 1] = 2∆xy0 − 2∆yx0 + 2∆x − 2(y0 −(∆y/∆x)x0)∆x − ∆y
The equation of the line is given as; Where, yk+1 − yk= 0 or 1 P0 = 2∆x − ∆y
y = mx + b ..............(i) If Pk < 0, Bresenham’s Complete algorithm:
m = (y2 − y1)/(x2 − x1) ................ (ii) yk+1 = yk so Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y 1. Input the two end points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2)
For any interval ∆x , corresponding interval is given by ∆y = If Pk ≥ 0, 2. Compute dx= |x2 –x1| and dy = |y2 –y1|
m∆x. yk+1 = yk + 1 so Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y − 2∆x 3. If x2 – x1 < 0 and y2 –y1 > 0 or x2-x1>0 and y2 – y1 < 0.
If m <= 1, and start point is left endpoint then ∆x = 1 and Therefore, initial decision parameter, Then set a = -1, else a = 1
yk+1 = yk + m P0 = 2∆y. x0 − 2∆x. y0 + c [from (i)] 4. If dy < dx then,
If m <= 1, and start point is right endpoint, then ∆x = −1 and =2∆yx0 − 2∆xy0 +2∆y + ∆x(2b − 1) i. If x1>x2 then, t = x1 ; x1 = x2 ; x2= t
yk+1 = yk − m =2∆yx0 − 2∆xy0 +2∆y + 2b∆x − ∆x t = y1 ; y1 = y2 ; y2 = t
If m > 1, and start point is left endpoint, then ∆y = 1 and =2∆yx0 − 2∆xy0 +2∆y + 2(y0 −(∆y/∆x)x0)∆x − ∆x ii. Find initial decision parameter P = 2dy - dx
xk+1 = xk +1/m =2∆yx0 − 2∆xy0 +2∆y + 2∆xy0 − 2∆yx0 − ∆x iii. Plot the first pixel (x1, y1)
If m > 1, and start point is right endpoint, then ∆y = −1 and =2∆y − ∆x iv. Repeat the following till |x1| < |x2|
xk+1 = xk −1/m a. If P< 0 then,
P0 = 2∆y − ∆x P = P+ 2dy
Else, P = P+ 2dy – 2dx
Algorithm y = y1+a
1. Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in (x0, y b. Increase x1 by 1 i.e x1 = x1+1
0). c. Plot (x1,y1)
2. Load (x0, y0) into the frame buffer i.e. plot the first point. 5. Else |m|>1
3. Calculate constants ∆x, ∆y, 2∆y and 2∆y-2∆x and obtain the st i. Check if (y1>y2) then,
arting value for the t = x1; x1 = x2 ; x2 = t
decision parameter as t = y1 , y1 = y2 ; y2 = t.
P0 = 2∆y − ∆x ii. Find initial decision parameters. P = 2dx – dy
DDA Algorithm: 4. At each xk, along the line, starting at k=0, perform the followin iii. Plot the first point (x1,y1)
Step1: Start Algorithm g tests: iv. Repeat the following till y1 < y2
Step2: Declare x1,y1,x2,y2,dx,dy,x,y as integer variables. If Pk < 0, then next point to plot is (xk + 1, yk) and a. If P< 0 then , P = P+2dx.
Step3: Enter value of x1,y1,x2,y2. Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y Else, P = P+ 2dx-2dy
Step4: Calculate dx = x2-x1 Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk + 1, yk + 1) and x1 = x1 +a
Step5: Calculate dy = y2-y1 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y − 2∆x b. Increase y1 by 1. i.e y1 = y1+1
Step6: If ABS (dx) > ABS (dy) c. Plot (x1,y1)
            Then step = abs (dx) 5. Repeat step 4 ∆x times. Advantages of Bresenham’s line algorithm (BLA) over
            Else [Note: For m>1, just interchange the role of x & y] DDA:
Step7: xinc=dx/step - In DDA algorithm each successive point is computed in
            yinc=dy/step floating point, so it required
            assign x = x1 more time and memory space. While in BLA each successive
            assign y = y1 point is calculated in
Step8: Set pixel (x, y) integer value or whole number. So it requires less time and less
Step9: x = x + xinc memory
            y = y + yinc - In DDA, since the calculated point value is floating point
            Set pixels (Round (x), Round (y)) number, it should be rounded at
Step10: Repeat step 9 until x = x2 the end of calculation but in BLA it does not need to round, so
Step11: End Algorithm there is no accumulation
of rounding error.
- Due to rounding error, the line drawn by DDA algorithm is not
accurate, while in BLA
Scan conversion algorithm :
It is a process of representing graphics objects a collection of
pixels. The graphics objects are continuous. The pixels used
are discrete. Each pixel can have either on or off state.
The circuitry of the video display device of the computer is
capable of converting binary values (0, 1) into a pixel on and
pixel off information. 0 is represented by pixel off. 1 is
represented using pixel on. Using this ability graphics
computer represent picture having discrete dots.
Any model of graphics can be reproduced with a dense matrix
of dots or points. Most human beings think graphics objects as
points, lines, circles, ellipses. For generating graphical object,
many algorithms have been developed.
Advantage of developing algorithms for scan conversion
1. Algorithms can generate graphics objects at a
faster rate.
2. Using algorithms memory can be used efficiently.
3. Algorithms can develop a higher level of
graphical objects.
Scan conversion of a point
- Scan conversion of a point requires the two data that are pixe
l position and color for
display.
- In C, a point be scan converted using function putpixel() defi
ned in library.
Header file is
<graphics.h>
putpixel(x, y, color)
Here, x & y represent pixel position on 2D display.
Scan Conversion of line
Say y = mx + b be the equation of line with end point (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) then,
m=
y2−y1
x2−x1
∴m=
∆y
∆x ................... (i)
Here, m represents the slope of line path where by ∆x & ∆y gi
ves the deflection needed
towards horizontal and vertical direction to get new pixel from
current pixel position.
- Slope of line also describes the nature and characteristics of li
ne that is going to display.
Midpoint Circle Algorithm
The mid-point circle drawing algorithm is an algorithm used to
determine the points needed for rasterizing a circle.  ach pixel (x, y), compute the distance d from the center of the elli
 We use the mid-point algorithm to calculate all the perimeter
points of the circle in the first octant and then print them along
with their mirror points in the other octants. This will work
because a circle is symmetric about its centre.
 
Assume that we have just plotted point (xk, yk).
The next point is a choice between (xk+1, yk) and
(xk+1, yk-1). We would like to choose the point that is
nearest to the actual circle.Let us define a circle function as f(x,
y) = x2 + y2 − r2 = { n 3D modeling since they create a "frame" for 3D structures. For
Polygon Table
In this method, a polygon surface is specified with a set of vertex
co-ordinates and associated
attributes. Polygon data tables can be organized into two groups:
geometrical and attribute
tables.
Geometric tables: It contain vertex coordinates and parameters
to identify the spatial
orientation of polygon surfaces
Attribute table: It gives attribute information for an object
(Degree of transparency, surface
reflectivity etc.).
Geometric data consists of three tables:
(i) Vertex table: It stores co-ordinate values for each vertex of
Algorithm the object.
1. Input radius ‘r’ and circle center (xc, yc) and obtain the first p (ii) Edge table: It stores the edge information of polygon.
oint on the circumference ofa circle centered on origin as (iii) Surface table: It stores the number of surfaces present in the
polygon.
(x0, y0) = (0, r)
2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as
p0 =5/4− r
3. At each xk position, starting at k=0, perform the following test:
If pk < 0, the next point on circle is (xk + 1, yk) and
pk+1 = pk + 2xk+1 + 1
Otherwise, the next point on circle is (xk + 1, yk − 1) and
pk+1 = pk + 2xk+1 + 1 − 2yk+1
4. Determine the symmetry point in other seven octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular pat
h centered on (xc, yc) and
plot the co-ordinate values,
x = x + xc
, y = y + yc
6. Repeat step 3 through 5 until x ≥ y.
write a procedure to fill the interior of a given elipse with a sp
ecified pattern
To fill the interior of an ellipse with a specified pattern, you can u
se the following procedure:
Define the ellipse by its center coordinates (x0, y0) and its two se
mi-axis lengths (a, b).
Iterate through the pixels in the bounding box of the ellipse. For e
The object can be displayed efficiently by using data from tables
pse using the formula: and processing them for surface rendering and visible surface
determination.
d = ((x-x0)^2)/(a^2) + ((y-y0)^2)/(b^2) Polygon Meshes
A polygon mesh is collection of edges, vertices and polygons
If d <= 1, then the pixel (x, y) is inside the ellipse and should be fi connected such that each edge is shared by at most two polygons.
lled with the specified pattern. An edge connects two vertices and a polygon is a closed
sequence of edges. An edge can be shared by two polygons and a
Repeat this process for all pixels in the bounding box of the ellips vertex is shared by at least two edges.This method can be used to
e. represent a broad class of solids/surfaces in graphics. A polygon
mesh can be rendered using hidden surface removal algorithms.
Unit 5 The polygon mesh can be represented by three ways-
What is the purpose of wireframe representation? Describe a  Explicit representation
bout boundary and space partitioning.  Pointers to a vertex list
Ans: A wireframe is a three-dimensional model that only includes  Pointers to an edge list
vertices and lines. It does not contain surfaces, textures, or lightin In Explicit representation, each polygon is represented by a list of
g like a 3D mesh. Instead, a wireframe model is a 3D image com vertex co-ordinates.
prised of only "wires" that represent three-dimensional shapes.
Wireframes provide the most basic representation of a three-dime P = ((x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), ... ... . . , (xn, yn, zn))
nsional scene or object. They are often used as the starting point i In Pointers to a vertex list, each vertex is stored just once, in
example, a 3D graphic designer can create a model from scratch b
vertex list
V = (v1, v2, ... ... .... , vn)
y simply defining points (vertices) and connecting them with line E.g. A polygon made up of vertices 3, 5, 7, 10 in vertex list be
s (paths). Once the shape is created, surfaces or textures can be ad represented as P1 = {3,5,7,10}
ded to make the model appear more realistic. Objects are represen
ted as a collection of surfaces. 3D object representation is divided
into two categories.
Boundary Representations B-reps - It describes a 3D object as
a set of surfaces that separates the object interior from the environ
ment.
Space-partitioning representations It is used to describe interio
r properties, by partitioning the spatial region containing an objec
t into a set of small, non-overlapping, contiguous solids usually c
ubes.
The most commonly used boundary representation for a 3D graph
ics object is a set of surface polygons that enclose the object interi
or. Many graphics system use this method. Set of polygons are st
ored for object description. This simplifies and speeds up the surf
ace rendering and display of object since all surfaces can be descr
ibed with linear equations.
The polygon surfaces are common in design and solid-modeling a sweep representation is a way to represent a two-dimensional
pplications, since their wireframe display can be done quickly to shape or image as a sequence of points that are generated by
give general indication of surface structure. Then realistic scenes scanning the shape or image from left to right, starting at the top.
are produced by interpolating shading patterns across polygon sur This sequence of points is known as a sweep.
face to illuminate. Sweep representations can be used to efficiently store and
manipulate shapes or images that have a large number of points,
or that have a complex shape. They can also be used to perform
operations on the shape or image, such as translation, rotation,
scaling, or other transformations.
One common use of sweep representations is in computer
graphics, where they can be used to represent and render shapes
or images on a display screen. They can also be used in image
processing, pattern recognition, and other applications where it is
necessary to work with two-dimensional shapes or images.
Clipping:
When we have to display a large portion of the picture, then not
only scaling & translation is necessary, the visible part of picture
is also identified. This process is not easy. Certain parts of the
image are inside, while others are partially inside. The lines or
elements which are partially visible will be omitted.
For deciding the visible and invisible portion, a particular process
called clipping is used. Clipping determines each element into the
visible and invisible portion. Visible portion is selected. An
invisible portion is discarded.
Applications of clipping:
1. It will extract part we desire.
2. For identifying the visible and invisible area in the
3D object.
3. For creating objects using solid modeling.
4. For drawing operations.
Cubic spline
- It is used to set up path for object motions or to provide a
representation for an existing
object or drawings.
- Compared to higher-order polynomials, cubic splines requires
less calculation and
memory and they are more stable. Compared to lower-order
polynomials, cubic splines
are more flexible for modeling arbitrary curve shapes.
- Cubic interpolation spline is obtained by fitting the input points
with a piecewise cubic
polynomial curve that passes through every control points.
Suppose we have n+1 control points having co-ordinates
Pk = (xk, yk, zk) K = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ... ... . , n
Bezier Curve Properties of B-Spline curve
Bezier curve is developed by the French engineer Pierre Bezier for a) The polynomial curve has d − 1 degree.
the design of Renault b) For (n+1) control points, the curve is described with (n+1) blen
automobile bodies. ding function.
- It is an approximating spline widely used in various CAD system. c) Each blending function Bk,d is defined over ‘d’ sub-interval of
- Bezier curve is generated under the control of points known as c the total range of ‘u’,
ontrol points. starting at knot value uk.
General Bezier curve for (n+1) control point, denoted as pk = (xk, d) The sum of B-spline basis functions for any parameter value is
1
yk, zk) with ‘k’ varying
∑Bk,d(u) = 1
from 0 to n is given by
e) Each basis function is positive or zero for all parameter value.
f) The range of parameter ‘u’ is divided into (n+d) sub interval by
(n+d+1) values
specified in knot vector.
g) Each section of spline curve is influenced by ‘d’ control point.
h) Any one control point can affect the shape of at most ‘d’ curve
sections.
i) The maximum order of curve is equal to the number of vertices
of defining polygon.
j) The curve generally follows the shape of defining polygon.
k) The degree of B-spline polynomial is independent on the numb
er of vertices of
defining polygon.
periodic b-spline curve vs non periodic b-spline curve
A B-spline curve is a piecewise defined polynomial curve that is
represented by a set of control points. A periodic B-spline curve
is a curve that is defined in such a way that the curve forms a
closed loop. This means that the curve starts and ends at the same
point and passes through all of the control points.
On the other hand, a non-periodic B-spline curve is a curve that is
defined by a set of control points, but it does not form a closed
loop. This means that the curve starts at one point and ends at
another point, and it may or may not pass through all of the
control points.

algorithm of generating curve in computer graphics

A parametric cubic polynomial that is to be fitted between each p
air of control points have 1. Define the starting point and end point of the curve.
following equations: 2. Determine the type of curve to be generated (e.g.
x(u) = axu3 + bxu2 + cxu + dx Bezier, B-spline, etc.).
Properties of Bezier curve: 3. If using a parametric curve, define the parameters
y(u) = ayu3 + byu2 + cyu + dy a) The basis functions are real.
z(u) = azu3 + bzu2 + czu + dz and corresponding control points.
b) The Bezier curve always passes through first and last control 4. If using a non-parametric curve, define the control
We need to determine the values of the four coefficients a, b, c, a point i.e. p(0) =
nd d in the polynomial points and weights.
p0 & p(1) = pn. 5. Calculate the curve using the defined equations for
representation for each of the n curve section. We do this by setti c) The degree of polynomial representing Bezier curve is one less
ng enough boundary the chosen type of curve.
than the number of 6. Plot the curve points on the graphics canvas.
conditions at the “joints” between curve sections we can obtain n control points.
umerical values for all the 7. Repeat the process for any additional curves desired.
d) The Bezier curve always follows convex hull formed by control 8. Render the final image with the plotted curve(s).
coefficients. points.
- Cubic splines are more flexible for modeling arbitrary curve sha e) The Bezier curve always lies inside the polygon formed by
pes. discuss strength and weakness of human visual system
control points. The human visual system is incredibly complex and
f) Bezier blending functions are positive and sum is equal to 1. sophisticated, with various strengths and weaknesses that
∑ BEZk,n(u) = 1 contribute to our overall ability to perceive and interpret the
3D object representation is divided into two categories. • g) The direction of the tangent vector at the end points is same like
Boundary Representations (B-reps) − • It describes a 3D object as vector determined by world around us.
a set of surfaces that separates the object interior from the One of the major strengths of the human visual system is its
first and last segment. ability to process and interpret visual information quickly and
environment. • B-spline Curve
Space–partitioning representations − • It is used to describe efficiently. Our brains are capable of processing vast amounts of
B-spline curve is a set of piecewise polynomial segments that visual data in a short period of time, allowing us to quickly
interior properties, by partitioning the spatial region containing an passes close to a set of control
object into a set of small, non-overlapping, contiguous solids identify patterns, shapes, and objects in our environment. This
points. ability is especially useful for tasks such as driving, where we
(usually cubes). It has two advantage over Bezier curve: need to quickly and accurately process visual information in order
a) The degree of B-spline polynomial can be set independently of to navigate safely.
Three-Dimensional Viewing Viewing in 3D involves the the number of control
following considerations: - We can view an object from any Another strength of the visual system is its ability to perceive
points. depth and distance. Our brains are able to interpret cues such as
spatial position, eg. In front of an object, Behind the object, In the b) It allows local control over the shape of a spline curve.
middle of a group of objects, Inside an object, etc. - 3D size, perspective, and parallax in order to understand the relative
descriptions of objects must be projected onto the flat viewing distance and position of objects in our environment. This allows
surface of the output device. - The clipping boundaries enclose a us to judge the distance of objects and navigate through space
volume of space. with ease.
3D viewing pipelining : However, the human visual system also has several weaknesses
that can impact our ability to perceive and interpret visual
information accurately. One of these weaknesses is our limited
ability to see in low light conditions. Our eyes are not particularly
sensitive to light, meaning that we struggle to see in dimly lit
environments or at night. This can make tasks such as driving at
night more difficult and potentially dangerous.
Another weakness of the human visual system is our limited
PARAMETRIC CUBIC CURVE ability to perceive color. While we are able to perceive a wide
Polylines and polygons: range of colors, our color perception is not as accurate or
-Large amounts of data to achieve good accuracy. sensitive as that of some other animals. This can make it difficult
- Interactive manipulation of the data is tedious. for us to distinguish between subtle differences in color,
Higher-order curves: especially in poor lighting conditions.
-More compact (use less storage). Overall, the human visual system is incredibly complex and
-Easier to manipulate interactively. sophisticated, with a range of strengths and weaknesses that
Possible representations of curves: explicit, implicit, and paramet contribute to our ability to perceive and interpret the world
ric around us. While we have a number of strengths, such as our
There are Three Types of Parametric Cubic Curves. ability to process visual information quickly and perceive depth
Hermite Curves: and distance, we also have some weaknesses, such as our limited
Defined by two endpoints and two endpoint tangent vectors (used ability to see in low light conditions and our limited color
1st order) perception.
Bézier Curves:
Defined by two endpoints and two control points which control th
e endpoint' tangent vectors
Splines:
Defined by four control points
Fractals are mathematical structures that are self-similar, meaning
that they contain smaller copies of themselves at various scales. In
computer graphics, fractals are used to generate complex and intric
ate patterns that are difficult to create using traditional techniques.
Fractals are often used in computer graphics to create realistic land
scapes, such as mountains, valleys, and coastlines. They can also b
e used to generate abstract patterns and shapes, such as those foun
d in psychedelic art.Fractals are generated using algorithms that re
peat a process over and over, each time adjusting the parameters sl
ightly to create a more complex structure. This process is called ite
ration, and the resulting structure is called a fractal.
why polygon description is consider as standard graphics obje
ct
Polygons are considered standard graphics objects because they ar
e a fundamental building block for creating more complex graphic
s. They can be easily manipulated and transformed using standard
graphics algorithms and techniques, making them an essential tool
for creating various types of graphics.
Additionally, polygons can be used to represent a wide range of re
al-world objects, such as buildings, cars, and terrain. They can be a
ccurately and efficiently represented in a computer graphics syste
m, making them a popular choice for creating realistic graphics in
many applications.
Overall, the versatility and efficiency of polygons make them a ke
y component of standard graphics systems, and they continue to be
widely used in various fields such as computer graphics, game dev
elopment, and scientific visualization.
UNIT 9
Open Gl :
OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) is a cross-platform, hardware-
accelerated, language-independent, industrial standard API for
producing 3D graphics. It is used to draw complex 3D graphics,
such as 3D games, simulations, and scientific visualizations, and
is supported by many operating systems, including Windows,
macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS.
OpenGL is implemented as a graphics library, which is usually
packaged with the graphics drivers of a particular graphics card.
Applications that use OpenGL call functions in the library to
specify the objects and operations needed to produce interactive
3D graphics. The graphics library then communicates with the
graphics hardware to execute the requested operations.
OpenGL is widely used in the development of computer games,
visual simulations, and other interactive 3D applications. It is an
essential tool for many computer graphics professionals and is
an important skill for anyone interested in working in the field
of computer graphics.
Creating polygons in open GL
In open gl , polygons are typicaly drawn by filling in all the pixel
s enclosed within the boundary but we can also drawn them as ou
tlined polygon or simply point at the vertices .
To create a polygon in OpenGL, you can use the following comm
and:
glBegin(GL_POLYGON);
This command tells OpenGL to begin drawing a polygon. You ca
n then specify the vertices of the polygon using the glVertex*() c
ommands, such as glVertex2f() or glVertex3f().
For example, to create a triangle, you can use the following code:
glBegin(GL_POLYGON);
glVertex2f(0.0, 0.0);
glVertex2f(1.0, 0.0);
glVertex2f(0.5, 1.0);
glEnd();
This will create a triangle with vertices at (0.0, 0.0), (1.0, 0.0), an
d (0.5, 1.0). You can also specify the color and other attributes of
the polygon using the glColor*() and gl*() commands.
Once you have finished drawing the polygon, you can use the glE
nd() command to tell OpenGL to stop drawing the polygon.
Creating Pixels in open GL
To create a pixel in OpenGL, you can use the glBegin() and glEn
d() functions to define a drawing mode and the glVertex2i() funct
ion to specify the position of the pixel. For example:

importance of polygon table in computer graphics glBegin(GL_POINTS);

Polygon tables are important in computer graphics because they glVertex2i(x, y);
allow for the creation and manipulation of 3D objects. A polygon glEnd();
table is a list of vertices, edges, and faces that make up a 3D
object. These vertices and edges are connected to form polygons, Where x and y are the coordinates of the pixel. You can also set t
which are the basic building blocks of 3D objects.Using a polygon he color of the pixel using the glColor3f() or glColor4f() function
table, a computer can render 3D objects in a scene by filling in the before calling glVertex2i()
polygons with colors or textures. This allows for the creation of
realistic and detailed 3D graphics in video games, movies, and
other visual media.Additionally, polygon tables allow for the
manipulation of 3D objects through rotation, scaling, and
translation. This allows for the creation of dynamic and interactive
3D graphics, such as character animations and
simulations.Overall, polygon tables play a crucial role in the
creation and manipulation of 3D objects in computer graphics.
Without them, it would be difficult to create realistic and dynamic
3D graphics.

set up a procedure for establishing polygon table for any input

set of data point defining an object
-Gather the input data points defining the object. These should be
coordinates in a 2D plane.
-Determine the number of sides of the polygon based on the numb
er of input data points. A polygon with n sides will have n data poi
nts.
-Create a table with columns for the x and y coordinates of each da
ta point, as well as a column for the side number.
-Begin filling in the table with the data points in the order they wer
e given.
-Assign a side number to each data point, starting with 1 and incre
asing sequentially.
-Check that the last data point is connected to the first data point to
ensure that the polygon is closed. If necessary, add a row to the tab
le with the coordinates of the first data point as the final side of the
polygon.
-Check the orientation of the polygon. If the vertices are listed in a
clockwise direction, the polygon is concave. If the vertices are list
ed in a counterclockwise direction, the polygon is convex.
-Save the completed table for future reference.
Color model in open Gl :
OpenGL uses the additive RGB color model, which works with
just the three primary colors: red, green, and blue. Many colors
can be created by mixing these primary colors together in
various proportions. For example, red and green together create
yellow, red and blue together create magenta, and blue and
green together create cyan. Add red, green, and blue together
and you get white .
This model works differently than the subtractive paint model
you might have learned about in school: in the subtractive paint
model, adding blue and yellow makes green, and adding a bunch
of colors together creates a dark brown or black. This is because
paint does not emit light; it absorbs it. The more colors of paint
we use, the more light is absorbed and the darker the paint
appears.
Creating lines in open GL
in open gl , the term line refers to a line segment. There are easy
way to soecify or connected series of lines segment or even clos
ed segment with open gl . we can specify lines with different wi
dth and lines that are stipped in various way dotted , dashed .
To create lines in Open GL, you can use the glBegin() function a
nd specify GL_LINES as the primitive type. Then, you can use t
he glVertex2f() function to specify the coordinates of the two en
dpoints of the line. Finally, you can use the glEnd() function to
mark the end of the line drawing.

For example:

glBegin(GL_LINES);
glVertex2f(0.0, 0.0);
glVertex2f(1.0, 1.0);
glEnd();

This will create a line that starts at (0.0, 0.0) and ends at (1.0, 1.
0). You can use the glLineWidth() function to set the width of th
e line, and the glColor() function to set the color of the line.