"Justified, true belief":

Fact, Opinion, Evidence

 Q. 1. What is Knowledge?

“No amount of experimentation can ever

prove me right; a single experiment can
prove me wrong.”
- Einstein
Q. 2. List as many Ways of Knowing
as you can
Q. 3. What are the Limitations of
each Way of Knowing you listed?
Akiyoshi’s Illusion Pages: <http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/index-e.html>
“Opinion has caused more trouble
on this little earth than plagues or
earthquakes.”

- Voltaire
Q. 4. What is an Opinion?

Q. 5. What is a Belief?

Q. 6. What is Faith?
Q. 7. What constitutes Evidence?

Identify facts, evidence, and opinions in this

article:

<https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-how-electoral-bond
s-work-why-criticism-7856583/>
 The Grammar of (Un) Certainty:
How to Phrase Fact and Opinion

MODAL VERBS are used to indicate degrees of factuality, and

degrees of certainty, which in turn indicates to what extent the
information being presented is factual, and to what extent it is an
interpretation of facts - i.e. opinion, belief, faith. (Refer to this page:
<https://grammar.collinsdictionary.com/easy-learning/what-is-a-modal-verb-in-english> for
more)

Core modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, shall, would, should,
must
Semi-modals: dare, need, ought to, used to
Other verbs with modal meanings: have (got) to, be going to, be able to
 Match the animal with the attitude s/he’s expressing

Monkey: I can climb any tree

Lion: Could someone bring me a deer
for me, please?
Bear: May find some honey here
Snake: You shouldn't step on my tail.
Tortoise: Can I take my coat off?
Bear: Don't. It’s very cold.
Snake Possibility

Tortoise Ability

Lion Permission

Monkey Advice

Bear Request
 The Grammar of (Un) Certainty
“Modals are weird verbs, syntactically defective in that they don’t inflect like regular verbs, and
their very presence essentially messes up simple, direct statements by introducing very confused
human feelings of uncertainty, possibility, obligation, permission, and ability into the mix.

Compare a sentence like “she’s the murderer” to “she must be the murderer” or “she might be the
murderer.” The first is an ordinary declarative, that could be true or false but sounds objective. In
the second and third, the speaker suddenly breaks the fourth wall and intrudes into the statement
with their own uncertain beliefs (such as “I’ve deduced from other evidence she’s the murderer”
or “I think it’s likely she’s the murderer”), even though the content hasn’t really changed. The
presence of modal verbs such as “must” and “might” suddenly injects the speaker and their
imperfect judgements into an objective statement, adding a certain kind of nuance, making them
seemingly weaker and more tentative, opening it up for further questions. It makes it clearer that
what seemed at first to be an objective statement is in fact from the point of view of the speaker.”
<https://daily.jstor.org/the-hidden-life-of-modal-verbs/>
 The Grammar of (Un) Certainty
“Scientific and academic writing often contains quite a lot of linguistic hedging… Declaratives
without modals (or other linguistic hedges such as “I think,” “possibly,” etc.) have this
straightforward objective power, even if the content is untrue. Compare sentences like “criminals
have invaded our neighborhoods” vs. “the devastating floods that may have resulted in hundreds
of deaths could have been due to climate change.” The presence of modals introduces nuance and
opens up discussion…. Despite this, researchers have noted that scientific and academic writing
often contains quite a lot of linguistic hedging, such as the use of modal verbs, in the very
environment that seems to call for powerful conviction and clarity.

Crucially, modals and other hedges and indirect speech are commonly used by all of us to indicate
a kind of cooperative politeness.... Scientists increasingly understand, perhaps in a way that the
public doesn’t yet, that using hedging language is often necessary to conscientiously convey more
accurate degrees of certainty…it is exactly this careful and nuanced language of science that we
should value and seek to understand.” <https://daily.jstor.org/the-hidden-life-of-modal-verbs/>
Q. 8. What is Logic?
Paraphrase the following:
“Logic may be defined as the science of reasoning. However, this is not to suggest that logic is an
empirical (i.e., experimental or observational) science like physics, biology, or psychology. Rather,
logic is a non-empirical science like mathematics. Also, in saying that logic is the science of
reasoning, we do not mean that it is concerned with the actual mental (or physical) process
employed by a thinking being when it is reasoning. The investigation of the actual reasoning
process falls more appropriately within the province of psychology, neurophysiology, or
cybernetics. Even if these empirical disciplines were considerably more advanced than they
presently are, the most they could disclose is the exact process that goes on in a being's head when
he or she (or it) is reasoning. They could not, however, tell us whether the being is reasoning
correctly or incorrectly. Distinguishing correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning is the task of
logic. <https://courses.umass.edu/phil110-gmh/text/c01_3-99.pdf>
Q. 8. What is a Fallacy? List as many
Logical Fallacies as you can

<https://docs.google.com/document/d/11q33FIMtKZSGa2F5FF4japa91MGlj6XhBYh--jY-MHA/edit?usp=sharing>
Q. 9. Formulate an argument:

(a) What is Truth?

(b) What do you Know?
 Q. 10. Whom do you Trust?
“If you don't read the newspaper,
you are uninformed; if you do read
the newspaper, you are
misinformed.”
-Mark Twain
Logic Games: <https://www.csun.edu/science/software/games.html>