Introduction to Psychology (Finals Period

Mikaela Gabrielle H. Malinis - 1P5 Four steps in inducing Hypnosi

1. Subject is told by hypnotists to focus on

Unit 5: Hypnosis and Drug
command
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✧･ﾟ: *✧･ﾟ:* Hypnosis✧･ﾟ: *✧･ﾟ:* 2. Subject is told by hypnotist to relax and feel
tired (entering a state of relaxation
Hypnosis is a state of consciousness in which a
3. Subject is told by the hypnotist to “let go” and
person is especially susceptible to suggestions
accept suggestion
(commands)
4. Subject is told by hypnotist to use imaginatio
The ability to be hypnotised may lie in the way
the brain function
Stages of Hypnosi
• Areas associated with decision making and
attention seem to be more active and 1. Light Tranc
connected for highly hypnotisable peopl
• Using induction methods, the client will go
“Hypnotic susceptibility test” is a series of through a state of relaxatio
ordered suggestion that tests the degree to which
• Hypnotic Induction = a way/procedure
a person is a good hypnotic participant
where the hypnotist will ask the client to
🔑 Other Key Words/Terms to Remembe relax and be calm so that they can move
from waking consciousness to an altered
1. State of Trance = altered stat
state of consciousness (increasing the
2. Suggestibility = being readily in uence susceptibility and suggestibility

3. Susceptible = easily affected emotionall 2. Medium Tranc

4. Suggestions = The commands the hypnotists • Client experienced a heightened and

asks the clients to d deeper state of relaxation and becomes
more suggestible to command

• This is the stage where the hypnotist could

start to command the clien

• The hypnotist could also use the client’s

imaginatio

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 3. Deep Tranc Regress people to some “past life

• Client is in a deepened state of relaxation • There is no scienti c evidence for past-life

wherein he/she is totally immersed to regressio
accept suggestion

Theories of Hypnosi
What Hypnosis CAN d
1. Hypnosis as Dissociation: The Hidden
Create amnesia for whatever happens during the Observer (Ernest Hilgard
hypnotic session, at least for a brief tim
Dissociation = Divided state of consciousnes
• Can treat phobia and trauma of the clien Dissociate = To break a connection with
Relieve pain by allowing a person to remove somethin
conscious attention from pai
• Like in the study of millers and bowers,
Alter sensory perception participants imagined being at the beach
that allowed them to dissociate from the
• Smell, hearing, vision, time sense, and the
pain of the ice wate
ability to see visual illusions can all be
affected by hypnosi For Ernest, hypnosis worked only on the
immediate conscious mind of a person, while a
Help people to relax in situations that normally
part of that person’s mind remained aware of all
would cause them stress
that was going on

There is a hidden part of the mind that is very

much aware of the hypnotic participant’s

What Hypnosis CANNOT d activities and sensations

Give people superhuman strengt Hypnosis produces a state of dissociation, a

divided state of awareness
Reliably enhance memor
So a part of your mind is still conscious while
Regress people back to childhoo
others are “altered
• Although people may act like children,
Stage hypnosis = making use of people’s
they do and say things children would not
willingness to believe something ordinary is
sa
extraordinary
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 2. Hypnosis as Social Role-playing: Social- The pathway between the ventral tegmental area
Cognitive explanatio and the nucleus accumbens (the mesolimbic
pathway) is most likely the site for the rewarding
This theory basically argues that people who are
effects of natural rewards and drug rewards
“hypnotized” are not in an altered state but are
merely playing the role expected of them in the • Natural rewards exampl
situation
- Eatin
The participants may believe that they are really
- Drinkin
hypnotised. So pwedeng Hindi sila aware na role
playing lang - Se

• Drug rewards exampl

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✧･ﾟ: *✧･ﾟ:* Psychoactive Drugs✧･ﾟ: *✧･ﾟ:* - Euphori

- Pleasur
Psychoactive Drugs are chemical substances that
alter thinking, perception, and memory

DEPENDEC

The Brain’s Reward Pathwa Drugs has the potential to create either physical
or psychological dependenc

• Both could lead to a life long pattern of

abus

• Risk of taking in increasingly larger dose

• Can lead to drug overdos

Drug overdose does not only happen with illegal
drug

A pleasure centre has been discovered in the Types of Dependenc

“Mesocorticolimbic Dopamine System
1. Physical Dependence
Dopamine = pleasure hormone/neurotransmitte
The body becomes unable to function normally
The cells in this system communicate via the without the dru
neurotransmitter dopamin

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 Having a lack of dosage from the addictive drug
may lead a person to experience withdrawal
which are physical symptoms that include the
following
• Nause
• Pai
• Tremor
• Crankines
• High blood pressur
The mesolimbic system of the brain, when
activated by an addictive drug, causes the release
of dopamine and intense pleasure.
The brain will try to adapt to the large amount of
dopamine by decreasing the number of synaptic
receptors for dopamine
This the will encourage age user to increase
dosage the next time he/she uses to get the same
pleasure response because of the reduced
number of receptors. This is called “Drug
Tolerance”
Drug Tolerance = the decrease of the response
to a drug over repeated uses, leading to the need
for higher doses of drug to achieve the same
effect
n
2. Psychological Dependence
The belief that the drug is needed to continue a
feeling of emotional or psychological well-
being
Physically, there might be no signs or symptoms
of dependence (withdrawal), but people will
continue to use it because they THINK they
need it
The rewarding properties of using the drug
causes the dependency
Not all drugs produce physical dependence,
ANY drug can become a focus of psychological
dependence
Because there is no withdrawal to go through or
recover from, psychological dependency can last
foreve
STIMULANTS (“uppers”
Stimulants are drugs that increase levels of
functioning temporarily in the nervous syste
Stimulants speed up the N
Mas alert ka/ mas awar
Stimulants don’t give people extra energy,
instead they will cause people to use up
whatever energy reserves they do have
When energy reserves are used/exhausted, a
“crash” is inevitable and may lead to drug
toleranc
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 Types of stimulant Produces a sense of arousal as it raises blood

pressure and accelerates the hear
1. Amphetamine
Providing a rush of sugar in the bloodstream by
Synthesised in laboratories rather than being
stimulating the release of adrenalin in addition to
found in natur
raising dopamine levels in the brain’s reward
• Benzedrin pathwa

• Metherdrine (methemphetamine Even e-cigarettes are harmfu

- Sometimes used to treat ADH

• Dexedrin 4. Caffein

Caffeine is a natural substance and mild

2. Cocain stimulant found in coffee, tea, energy drinks,

chocolate, etc
Cocaine is a natural drug found in coca plant
leaves Helps maintain alertness (keep people awake

Produces feelings of euphoria, energy, power, Increase effectiveness of some pain relievers

and pleasur which is why it is often added to some pain

reliever
Cocaine users don’t usually go through
withdrawal Coffee does not help induce sobriet

Rather, they experience the “crash” as the brain • Sobriety = ability to stay sober; a serious
is the part of the body that develops the craving state of min
because of chemical changes caused by the dru Modest amounts = 2 cups per da

Highly dangerou Studies have found that coffee consumption is

May cause convulsions and deat associated with lowered risk of type 2 diabetes
and lower risk of death overal

3. Nicotin

Nicotine is the stimulant found in tobacc

A mild but toxic stimulan

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 DEPRESSANT Alcohol is a depressant that gives the illusion of

stimulatio
Depressants are drugs that DECREASE/SLOW
the functioning of the nervous syste Alcohol indirectly stimulate the release of the
neurotransmitter “GABA”, which is the brain’s
They usually make you calm and “composed
major depressan

• More GABA = more depressed or brain

Types of depressant functions slows down mor

1. Major and Minor Tranquilizer

•
Barbiturates (major tranquilizer or sleeping pills
with strong depressant effect) are drugs that have
a sedative effect (sleep-inducing

• Overdose can lead to death due to

breathing and heart actions being stoppe

Benzodiazepines (minor tranquilizers with mild

depressant effect) are drugs that is used to lower
anxiety and reduce stres

• “Rohypnol” = an example of
benzodiazepines which is famously known
as the “date rape” dru

Narcotic Depressant famil

2. Alcoho 3. Opiate

The most commonly used and abused depressan For less confusion: narcotics are also known as

Alcohol is the chemical resulting from opioids. Opiates is a subset of the opioid

fermentation or distillation of various kinds of Opiates are a type of depressant that suppress the
vegetable matte sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating

Depresses a person’s natural inhibition or you the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for

become more expressiv endorphins which are called the “opioid

• Inhibitions = social rule

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 receptors”, the neurotransmitters that naturally HALLUCINOGEN

deaden pain sensation
Hallucinogens cause the brain to alter its
Interactions with alcohol and other depressants interpretation of sensations and can produce
could be deadl sensory distortions (similar to Synesthesia

All opiates are a derivative of “opium” (plant Causes false messages and alter perception of
based substance reality (hallucinations

4. Opiu The Manufactured High (laboratory

Derived from the opium popp 1. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD

Pain-relieving and euphoria-inducin One of the most potent hallucinogen

Mimics the effects of endorphin A tiny drop can already achieve a “high

When it wears off, severe symptoms of Synthesised from a grain fungus called ergo
withdrawal could be experience
Person could have ashback—spontaneous
hallucinations— even years after taking the dru

5. Morphin Chronic users can develop hallucinogen

persisting perception disorder (HPPD), an
Was created by dissolving opium in an acid and
irreversible condition in which hallucinations
then neutralising the acid with ammoni
and altered perceptions of reality can occur
Used to treat severe pai repeatedly accompanied by depression and
physical discomfort

6. Heroi

A derivative of morphin 2. Phenylcyclohexyl Piperideine or Pnecyclidine

(PCP
More powerfully addictive than morphin
Useful only in veterinary medicine as a
tranquilize
7. Opiod

Synthetically created drugs that act like opiate

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 Depending on the dosage, it can be a Unit 6: Motivatio

hallucinogen, stimulant, depressant, or an ————————————
analgesic dru ᕙ( ͯ ³ ͯ)ᕗ M o t i v a t i o n ᕙ( ͯ ³ ͯ)ᕗ
Causes people to feel no warning signal of pai
Motivation is the process by which activities are
started, directed, and continued so that physical

3. 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine or psychological needs or wants are met

(MDMA) also known as ecstas Types of Motivatio

Stimulatory hallucinogens are drugs that produce 1. Extrinsic Motivatio

a mixture of psychomotor stimulant and
To do something because there is something
hallucinogenic effect
(external from you) in retur
Causes the release of large amounts of serotoni
A performs an action because it leads to an
Euphoric, energised, and increased emotional outcome that is separate to the perso
warmth towards other
Extrinsic = Externa
Severe dehydratio

2. Intrinsic Motivatio
The NONmanufactured High (natural
To do something because it gives personal
1. Marijuan achievement or satisfactio

Comes from the leaves and owers of the hemp Doing it because of the act itsel
plant called “cannabis sativa
Intrinsic = Interna
Tetrahydrocannabinol = active ingredient in
marijuan
Approaches to Understand Motivatio
Mild hallucinoge
1. Instincts and the evolutionary approac

Instincts = the biologically determined and

innate patterns of behaviour that exists in both
people and animals

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 Instinct approaches could describe human Goal of the theory: Homeostasi

behaviour however, they could not explain why
• The tendency of the body to maintain a
such behaviour happens
steady state; balanc
Important takeaway of this approach = some
human behaviour is controlled by hereditary
factors

2. Drive-reduction theor ————————————

ᕙ( ͯ ³ ͯ)ᕗ Theories of Motivation ᕙ( ͯ ³ ͯ)ᕗ
Key Words

1. Need = a requirement of some material that is David McClelland’s Three Motivational Need

essential for survival of the organis Need for Af liation = The need for friendly

2. Drive = the tension our body experiences that social interactions and relationships with others.

needs to be reduced in order to ful l the nee • People high in this need seek to be liked by
other
• Example: hunge
• They are also usually held in high regard
of those around them which also means
The drive-reduction theory assumes behaviour
they are good team player
arises from internal drives to push the organism
to satisfy the physiological needs and reduce Need for Power = The need to have control or

tension and arousal in uence over other

• Power = control over other

Types of Drive • People high in this need would want to

have in uence over others and make an
1. Primary drives = need of the body for survival
impact on other people
(immediate need
• They want their ides to be the one used
2. Acquired (secondary) drive = drives that are
regardless of its success or failur
learned through experience or conditionin
• Status and prestige is importan
• Example: money and social approva
*manipulato

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 Need for Achievement = a need that involves a Dweck believes that constructive criticism when
strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not linked with praise of effort and the use of
only realistic but also challenging one strategies, will be a better in uence on the
child’s self-esteem and willingness to challenge
• People who are high in this need usually
themselves than endless praise that become
look for careers and hobbies that allow
meaningless when given indiscriminately
them to evaluate themselves
• Instead of saying “you’re right, how smart
• High achievers seek feedback of their
you are
performanc
• Say: “you are really thinking hard” o

Carol Dwecks’ Self Theory of Motivation

• “That was a clever way to think about this
problem
Belief in control over one’s life leads to more
attempts to achieve (growth
Arousal and Incentives Approache
Belief in little control over what happens may
lead to learned helplessness ( xed) Human motivation can be explained by “the
need for stimulation
People who assume that they have control over
what happens in their lives are considered to Stimulus motive = one that appears to be
INTERNAL in locus of control unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation

People who feel that their lives are controlled by • Curiosit

powerful others, luck, or fate are considered to
• Playin
be EXTERNAL in locus of contro
• Explorin
On the other hand, we can also explain
motivation through the rewards and incentive

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 Arousal Theory and Behavio Incentive Theory of Motivatio

Individuals perform tasks best at an optimal
level of cognitive arousal, often a somewhat
moderate level
In turn, individuals may be motivated to engage
in behaviours that are stimulating and at other
times pursue less-stimulating circumstance
Incentives are things that attract or lure people
into actio
Incentive approaches are theories of motivation
in which behavior is explained as a response to
the external stimulus and it's rewarding
properties

By itself, it cannot explain motivatio

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need

The level of arousal varies per perso

Sensation seeker = people who needs a high

level of arousa

• Needs more complex and varied sensory According to Maslow, self-actualisation is the
experienc
point that is SELDOM reached—at which
• The need does not always have to involve people have satis ed the lower needs and
dange achieved their FULL HUMAN POTENTIA

Sensation seeking may be related to For a person to achieve self-actualisation,

temperament and the presence of other people or primary and fundamental needs must be met and
peer pressur ful lled rst

The only need higher than self-actualisation is

“transcendence”, a search for spiritual meaning
beyond one’s immediate self

Temporary self-actualisation = peak experience

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 For Maslow, the process of growth and self- (っ˘‫˘ڡ‬ς) H U N G E R (っ˘‫˘ڡ‬ς)

actualisation is the striving to make peak
What motivates you to eat
experiences happen again and again

Self-determination Theory (SDT)

The self-determination theory has three basic

needs that are necessary to successful
developmen

Self-determination theory is a theory of human

motivation in which social context of an action
in uences the type of motivation existing for the
Role of the Hypothalamu
action
Ventromedial Hypothalamus = stops the
Similar to the rst theory
organism from eating when the glucose levels go
The three need u

1. Autonom • Damage to this area = won’t stop eatin

The feeling of being in control to direct one’s Lateral Hypothalamus = The onset of eating
actio when insulin levels go u

• Damage to this area = stop eating to a

point of starvatio
2. Competenc
Hormone
Gaining mastery of a task or skill to help achieve
one’s goa Insulin = secreted by the pancreas to control the
levels of fats, proteins and carbohydrates in the
body by REDUCING the level of glucose in the
3. Relatednes bloodstrea

Having a sense of belongingness and attachmen Glucagon = secreted also by the pancreas to
control the level of fats, protein, and
carbohydrates in the body by INCREASING the
level of glucose in the bloodstrea
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 Leptin = when released into the bloodstream, Use of food as a comfort device or as an escape
signals the hypothalamus that the body has had from unpleasantnes
enough food and reduces the appetite while
Food Reward (want or need?
increasing the feeling of being ful
Motivational = need of foo
Ghrelin = the “hunger” hormone that acts on the
vagus nerve and pancreatic beta cells to inhibit Hedonistic/want = eating food because gusto mo

insulin release lan

Hormone Important facts to Remembe

Insulin reduces the level of glucose in the Obesit

bloodstream that causes a feeling of MORE Hereditar

HUNGER because of the drop in blood sugar
Hormone
level
Overeatin
Food rich in CARBOHYDRATES cause the
insulin level to spike even more because of the Stres
large glucose released by the foo Metabolis
HIGH Blood sugar lead to MORE INSULI

LOW Blood sugar INCREASES appetit

This is why diets promote low-carb intak

Weight set point = level of weight that the body

tries to maintai

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) = rate at which the

body burns energy when the organism is restin

Social Components of Hunge

Social cues for when meals are to be eate

Cultural customs and food preference

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 Unit 7: Emotions ˖◛⁺!♡

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( ˘ ³˘) ┬┴┬┴┤ᵒᵏ (･_├┬┴┬┴

Emotion is the “feeling” aspect of consciousness,

characterised by a certain physical arousal, a
certain behaviour that reveals the emotion to the
outside world, and an inner awareness of
The “Low Road” and “High Road
feelings.
When we are exposed to an emotion-provoking
stimulus, the neural signals travel by two
Three Elements of Emotio pathways to the amygdal

Physiology of Emotion (brain processing

• Physiological differentiation among Low Road (mabilis ang pag-react

emotions is possibl
• The pathway underneath the cortex and is
• The amygdala plays an important role in a FASTER and SIMPLER path, allowing
emotion processing and expressio for quick and immediate responses to
stimulu

The Behavior of Emotion: Emotional • Sometimes before we are consciously

expression aware of the nature of the stimulu

• Facial expressions of primary emotions are

universa High Road (inisip mo pa

• Display rules are learned ways of
controlling displays of emotion in social
settings
Subjective experience: Labelling emotion
• Uses cortical pathways and is SLOWER
and MORE COMPLEX, but it allows us to
recognise the threat and, when needed,
take more conscious control of our
emotional response

• How we label emotion

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 Facial Expressions of Emotio

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Universa ( ˘ ³˘) Early Theories of Emotion ˖◛⁺!♡

• Ange James-Lange Theory of Emotion = a stimulus

• Fea leads to bodily arousal rst which is then
interpreted as an emotio
• Disgus
• Physiological reaction leads to the
• Happines
labelling of an emotion
• Surpris

• Sadnes
Although the situations that cause these
emotions may differ from culture to culture, the
expression of particular emotions remains Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion = a stimulus
strikingly the same leads to activity in the brain, which then sends
signals (ANS) to arouse the body and interpret
The subject experience = we display emotions
the emotion at the SAME TIM
appropriate to the settin
• Physiological reaction and the emotion are
assumed to occur at the same tim
Common Sense Theory of Emotio

A stimulus leads to an emotion of fear, which

Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion = a
then leads to bodily arousal through the
stimulus leads causes arousal and a facial
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS
expression. The facial expression then provides
feedback to the brain about the emotion. The

Facial feedback Hypothesi brain then interprets the emotion and may also
intensify i
Changing your own facial expression can change
the way you feel

It also has an impact to the people around us

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 ———————————— Lazaru’s Cognitive-Mediational Theory = A

( ˘ ³˘) Cognitive Theories of Emotion ˖◛⁺!♡
Cognitive Arousal Theory (two-factor theory) =
theory of emotion in which both the physical
arousal and the labelling of that arousal based on
cues from the environment must occur before the
emotion is experience
• Schnachter and Singer’s theory is similar
to James-Lange but adds the element of
COGNITIVE LABELLING of the arousal
stimulus causes an immediate appraisal. The
cognitive appraisal results in an emotional
response, which is then followed by the
appropriate bodily respons
• The stimulus must be interpreted
(appraised) by a person in order to result in
a physical response and an emotional
reactio
• Evaluating the stimulu

• A stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and

the labelling, which leads to the experience
and labelling of the emotional reaction

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