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Radiocarbon dating and colour patterns of Late Roman to Early Medieval

leather shoes and sandals from Egypt

Conference Paper · January 2013

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Antoine De Moor, Radiocarbon dating and colour patterns of Late Roman
Mark Van Strydonck,
Mathieu Boudin, to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt
Ina Vanden Berghe,
Dominique Bénazeth and
Cäcilia Fluck*

Shoes have been worn since very many thou-

* We are most grateful to Mieke van Raemdonck
(Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels)
and Regula Schorta (Abegg-Stiftung, Riggisberg)
for their support.
1 Connolly/Cannon 1999, 309–313.
2 De Moor/Verhecken-Lammens/Verhecken 2008,
104.
3 Montembault 2000, 82–83.
4 Livingstone 2011, 134–145.
5 Nauerth 2011, 147–153; Huber 2011, 154–161.
6 Paetz gen. Schieck 2011, 162–180.
7 Russo 2008, 439–470.
8 Smalley 2012, 97–135.
9 Van Strydonck/Nelson/Crombe e.a. 1999, 433–448.
sands of years. The oldest radiocarbon dated
sandals made of sagebrush bark were found in
central Oregon (usa). These 6 sandals proved
to be between c. 8,500 and 7,300 years bc.1
The oldest leather shoe found in the Caucasus
was about 5,500 years old. The oldest 14C dated
Egyptian sandal from Katoen Natie (inv 1476-
03) probably made from date palm had a calen-
dar age (95.4% probability) between 1970 and
1760 bc.2
Up to now, there are no radiocarbon
dates for leather shoes and sandals from the
late Roman to the early medieval period.
Even in the precious catalogue of shoes
and sandals from the Musée du Louvre most
types are dated between ad 130 and the 12th
century ad.3
In our last proceedings five articles
were dealing with footwear from the Roman,
‘Coptic’ and early Islamic periods. Twenty eight
leather sandals and 6 leather shoes from Kellis,
a Roman period village in the Dakhleh oasis
were studied by R. Livingstone.4 The sandals
were dated in an archaeological context to the
2nd and 4th centuries ad, the shoes to the 1st–
2nd century ad. Several shoes and sandals from
Qarara were studied by Nauerth and Huber.5
The sandals examined by Huber were
archaeologically dated to the 4th–5th centu-
ries ad.
A selection of late Roman shoes from
Akhmim in the former Gabriel von Max col-
lection of the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museum Mann­
heim were studied by A. Paetz gen. Schieck.6
Several shoes and sandals from Anti­
noupolis have been published, again with no
precise datings.7 A study on dating of a large
collection of leather Coptic footwear – mostly
shoes – of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
London was also recently published. A typolog-
ical approach on the construction and decora-
tions of the footwear provided limited results.8
In collaboration with Katoen Natie (10),
the Musée du Louvre, département des an-
tiquités égyptiennes (7), the Royal Museums
of Art and History in Brussels (rmah) (3) and
the Abegg Stiftung in Riggisberg (1) 11 leather
shoes and 10 leather sandals from the late
Roman to the early medieval period in Egypt
were radiocarbon dated (tables 1–2).9

Textile technique and radiocarbon dating 164

 Table 1 Radiocarbon dates of 11 shoes. In decreasing years bp

Collection Years bp Cal. years (95.4 %) Lab. number

Louvre 1700 ± 25 ad 250–410 KIA-29170

Inv. E 12564

© Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo G. Poncet.

Louvre 1615 ± 35 ad 340–370 (2.5%)

Inv. E 12364 ad 380–540 (92.9%) KIA-24823

© Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo G. Poncet.

Katoen Natie 1560 ± 30 ad 420–600 KIA-24023

Inv. 864-02

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

165 Textile technique and radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt
Collection Years bp Cal. years (95.4 %) Lab. number

Katoen Natie 1555 ± 30 ad 420–600 KIA-24025

Inv. 864-17

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Louvre 1550 ± 25 ad 420–570 KIA-47787

Inv. E 32044

© Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo G. Poncet.

Louvre 1540 ± 35 ad 420–600 KIA-42350

Inv. AF 12175

© Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo G. Poncet.

Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt Textile technique and radiocarbon dating 166
 Collection Years bp Cal. years (95.4 %) Lab. number

Abegg-Stiftung 1505 ± 45 ad 436–521 (25.6%)

Inv. 2.2.82 ad 527–640 (69.8%) ETH-31615

© Abegg-Stiftung, Riggisberg; photo C. von Viràg 2003.

RMAH Brussels 1505 ± 30 ad 430–490 (11.0%)

Inv. E 5319 ad 530–640 (84.4%) KIA-37900

© Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels.

RMAH Brussels 1500 ± 25 ad 460–490 (1.9%)

Inv. E 5317 ad 530–640 (93.5%) KIA-39408

© Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels.

Katoen Natie 1490 ± 25 ad 535–635 KIA-43344

Inv. 2089

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

167 Textile technique and radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt
Collection Years bp Cal. years (95.4 %) Lab. number

RMAH Brussels 1350 ± 25 ad 640–710 (91.2%)

Inv. E 5318 ad 740–770 (4.2%) KIA-39409

© Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels.

Table 2 Radiocarbon dates of 10 sandals. In decreasing years bp

Collection Years bp Cal. years (95.4 %) Lab. number

Katoen Natie 1655 ± 30 ad 260–280 (5.5%)

Inv. 864-01a ad 320–470 (88.2%)
ad 500–530 (1.7%) KIA-24828

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Katoen Natie 1580 ± 30 ad 410–560 KIA-24028

Inv. 857-01a

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt Textile technique and radiocarbon dating 168
 Collection Years bp Cal. years (95.4 %) Lab. number

Katoen Natie 1495 ± 20 ad 535–620 KIA-36449

Inv. 1734a

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Katoen Natie 1495 ± 25 ad 530–640 KIA-39818

Inv. 1885

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Katoen Natie 1485 ± 30 ad 530–650 KIA-24024

Inv. 885-14a

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Louvre 1470 ± 30 ad 540–650 KIA-24825

Inv. E 11879a

© Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo G. Poncet.

169 Textile technique and radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt
Collection Years bp Cal. years (95.4 %) Lab. number

Louvre 1385 ± 30 ad 600–690 KIA-24824

Inv. E 12360

© Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo G. Poncet.

Louvre 1350 ± 30 ad 640–720 (86.9%)

Inv. E 11879b ad 740–770 (8.5%) KIA-24829

© Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo G. Poncet.

Katoen Natie 1285 ± 35 ad 650–810 KIA-34149

Inv. 1608b

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Katoen Natie 1225 ± 25 ad 690–750 (23.3%)

Inv. 1608a ad 760–890 (72.1%) KIA 34150

© Katoen Natie, Antwerp; photo H. Maertens.

Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt Textile technique and radiocarbon dating 170
All analyses and graphs were performed by 11 21 Shoes & Sandals

the radiocarbon and the textile laboratories 21 shoes & sandals

from the Royal institute of Cultural Heritage in

0.75
0,75

Brussels. The 14C measurements were made in

the Leibniz-Labor für Altersbestimmung und

probability
Probability
0.5
Isotopenforschung in Kiel, Germany.
0,5

Tables 1 and 2 show the results of the

14C analyses for each piece. The years bp – the 0.251
0,25

conventional radiocarbon age – means before

present i. e. before 1950, the start of the radio- 00
0
0 100
100 200
200 300
300 400
400
340 483
340 483
500
500 600
600 700
700
625 800
800
800
800
900cal
900 ad 1000
1000
625

carbon dating.
Cal AD

The estimated age uncertainty of this

radiocarbon age is given as one standard devia- 11

11 shoes & 10 sandals

11 Shoes & 10 Sandals

tion, often plus/minus 25 years. This radiocar-

bon age however must be calibrated in order to 0.75
0,75

obtain the calendar ages. This calibration curve

relies on the accurate measurement of dendro-
probability
Probability

0.5
0,5

chronologically absolutely dated tree rings.10

Int. sum
Int. sum
Sandals
Shoes

0.25
0,25

Graph 1 shows the sum probability and inte-

grated probability distribution of the 21 shoes
and sandals.
00
0
0 100
100 200
200 300
300 400
400 500
500 600
600 700
700 800
800 900
900 cal ad
364
364 554 667
554 667 841
841 Cal AD

The interquartile range (iqr) of the Shoes

Sandals
314
314 462
462 578 671
578 671

Int. sum
shoes and sandals is between 483 and 625 ad.11 Int.sum

The 90% probability range is between ad 340

and 800. The iqr, which takes into account the
middle 50%, excluding the early and late dates
is a very stable parameter and can be consid-
ered as the flourishing period of these shoes
and sandals. The 90% probability range was
used instead of the usual 95% probability range
because the latter overestimates the period by
a few decades.12
The sum-probability shows an impor-
tant ‘dip’ around ad 640. One could interpret
this as a period of disuse of the dated types of
shoes and sandals. More appropriate however
is to explain this phenomenon by a change
in the slope of the calibration curve in that
period. It has to be noted that a density dia-
gram – e.g. graphs 1 and 2 – gives an estimation
of the duration of a certain phenomenon, but
is useless in revealing the fine structure of that
dated period.
In order to find out whether there was
a difference in age between the shoes and the
sandals the sum probability and the integrated
probability of the 11 shoes and 10 sandals were
calculated (graph 2).
Graph 2 shows the sum probability and inte-
grated probability distribution of 11 shoes and
10 sandals.
The iqr of the 11 shoes is between ad
462 and 578, the iqr of the 10 sandals between
ad 554 and 667.
The 90% probability range of the
11 shoes is between ad 314 and 671, the 90%
probability range of the sandals is between
ad 364 and 841.
The iqr shows a slight overlapping, the
90% probability range an important overlap-
ping. Although the shoes show a tendency
to be slightly older than the sandals, there is
surely no significant difference between the
age of the shoes and the sandals. These datings
also show that in the early Islamic period, the
same type of footwear, especially sandals were
worn as in the pre-Islamic time.13
10 Bronk Ramsay 1995, 425–430; Stuiver/Reimer/
Bard e.a. 1998, 1041–1083.
11 Aitchison/Ottoway/Scott 1990, 125–140.
12 Van Strydonck 2007, 112–114.
13 .
Helmecke 2011, 122–133

171 Textile technique and radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt

14 De Moor/Verhecken-Lammens/Verhecken 2008,
154–155.
15 Identification by sem-edx analysis.
Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt
The presence of dyes was investigated from
two polychrome shoes and three sandals from
the Katoen Natie Collection (table 3).
In all samples, high amounts of ellagic
acid are found indicative for the tannin treat-
ment of the leather. Dyeing was obtained by
the use of organic dyes or either by the crea-
tion of iron-tannin complexes as in the case of
the black colours.
Both shoes 864-02 and 864-17, 14C dated
(95.4% probability) between ad 420 and 600,
have a reddish brown decoration at the border
dyed with the roots of madder (Rubia tincto-
rum L.), while Indian lac dye (Kerria lacca Kerr)
was applied in the deep red coloured flap of
shoe 864-17. Madder was also used to obtain
the red of the central decoration square and
rosette of respectively sandals 864-01a, 14C
dated (95.4% probability) between ad 260 and
530, and 857-01a, 14C dated (95.4% probabil-
ity) between ad 410 and 560. It was detected
in the black straps of both sandals as well. No
organic dyes were found on the upper side
of the brown/red sole from sandal 857-01a,
while element composition indicates the use of
sodium, magnesium, aluminum and iron sul-
phates, possibly referring to mineral alum.
No dyes were found on the upper side
of the brown/red sole from sandal 857-01a,
though element composition indicated the
presence of iron, most probably as a result of
mordanting with alum on the leather. The lack
of organic dye might be caused by heavy deg-
radation of that part of the sole.
The deep black colour encountered in
some of the shoes and sandals is the reaction
between tannin present in the leather, and
iron, most probably deriving from the use of
red bole, a red clay based on aluminum and
iron silicates. This was evidenced by the analy-
sis of both the surface of shoe 864-02 and the
sole surface of sandal 885-14a.
Shoe 864-17, 14C dated (95.4% probabil-
ity) between ad 420 and 600 was particulary
interesting as to the decoration and the early
application of Indian lac – much earlier than
the use on textiles – providing the shoe was
made in Egypt.14 This shoe also shows a deco-
ration on the upper part. On a spiral-shaped
strip of leather a mixture of gold and silver was
applied on a red bole.15
Textile technique and radiocarbon dating 172
Table 3: Dye composition of two polychrome shoes and three sandals from
the Katoen Natie Collection. Organic dyes analysis with hplc-dad; element analysis with sem-edx.

Collection Description of sample Dye source Detected

organic compounds Element analysis

Shoes

Katoen Natie black leather surface ellagic acid Si, O, K, Ca, Al, Na
Inv. 864-02 and Fe
red/brown border strip madder alizarin, purpurin, n.a.
lucidin, rubiadin
and ellagic acid

Katoen Natie black leather surface
Inv. 864-17 red/brown border strip madder

red surface decoration Indian lac ellagic acid n.a.

alizarin, purpurin n.a.
and ellagic acid
laccaic acid A, n.a.
laccaic acid E, lac. eq.
and ellagic acid

Sandals

Katoen Natie black strap madder alizarin, purpurin and n.a.
ellagic acid
Inv. 864-01a red/brown square madder alizarin, purpurin, n.a.
anthragallol, rubiadin,
xanthopurpurin
and ellagic acid

Katoen Natie black strap madder alizarin and ellagic acid n.a.
Inv. 857-01a red/brown rosette madder alizarin, purpurin, n.a.
anthragallol, rubiadin
and ellagic acid
brown/red upperside ellagic acid O, Na, K, Ca, Mg,
of sole S, P, Si, Al and Fe

Katoen Natie black leather ellagic acid Si, O, K, Ca, Al, Na

Inv. 885-14a sole surface and Fe

173 Textile technique and radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating of Late Roman to Early Medieval leather shoes and sandals from Egypt

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