CHAPTER ~ V ~ Social

Stratification, Mobility &

Control
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 A. Social Stratification
1) Introduction of the Concept
Social stratification is the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their
relative power, property, and prestige. It applies to both nations and to people within a
nation, society, or other group. Although they may differ as to which system of social
stratification they employ, all societies stratify their members. In addition, gender is a basis
for stratifying people in every society of the world. The four major systems of social
stratification are slavery, caste, estate, and class.
Slavery is defined as a form of social stratification in which some people own other people. It
has been common in world history with references to slavery being made in the Old
Testament, the Koran, and Roman and Greek history. Slavery was usually based on debt, as
a punishment for a crime, or a matter of war. Racism was not associated with slavery until
southern plantation owners developed a new ideology to justify their enslavement of
Africans in the seventeenth century.
Today, slavery is known to be practiced in the Sudan, Mauritania, Niger and the Ivory Coast.
The enslavement of children for work in sex is a problem in Africa, Asia, and South America.
The caste system is a form of social stratification based on ascribed status that follows an
individual throughout his or her life. India provides the best example of a caste system.
Based on religion, India’s caste system has existed for almost three thousand years. Although
the Indian government formally abolished the caste system in 1949, it still remains a
respected aspect of Indian tradition and is strictly followed by a significant portion of the
population.
In the class system, social stratification is based on the possession of money or material
possessions. A major characteristic of the class system is that it allows social mobility, or
movement up and down the class ladder. Another method by which all societies stratify
their members is by gender. Cutting across all systems of stratification, these gender
divisions universally favor males over females.
Karl Marx and Max Weber disagreed on the meaning of social class in industrialized
societies. According to Marx, people’s relationship to the means of production is the sole
factor in determining their social class. They either belong to the bourgeoisie (those who
owned the means of production) or the proletariat (those who work for the owners).
According to Weber, Marx’s typology is too limiting because social class, as well as people’s
social class standing, consists of three interrelated components: property, prestige, and
power. Although all sociologists agree that social stratification is universal, they disagree as
to why it is universal.
The functionalist view of social stratification, developed by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore, concludes that stratification is inevitable because society must make certain that its
positions are filled; ensure that the most qualified people fill the most important positions;
and finally, to motivate the most qualified individuals to fill the most important positions,
society must offer them the greatest reward to fill the most important positions.
Melvin Tumin identified three problems with the functionalist view:
 first, how does one determine which positions are more important than others?
 Second, to what degree are societies really meritocracies (promoting people on the
basis of their achievements)?
 Third, if social stratification is so functional, why is it dysfunctional for so many?
Conflict theorists contend that conflict, not function, is the basis of social stratification. Italian
sociologist Gaetano Mosca argued that in every society groups compete for power. The
groups that gain power use that power to manipulate, control, and exploit the groups
“beneath them.” Members of the ruling elite in every society develop ideologies that justify
their society’s social stratification system. By dominating their society’s major social
institutions and, thereby, controlling information and ideas, members of the ruling elite are
able to socialize other group members into accepting their “proper places” in the social
order.
Marx believed the elite maintained their position at the top of the stratification system by
seducing the oppressed into believing their welfare depended on keeping society stable.
Gerhard Lenski suggested the key to understanding stratification is based on the
accumulation of surplus. Depending on the political climate and resources available to those
in power and those who are ruled, the stratification system is maintained by various means.
These means include controlling ideas, information, criticism, and technology, and the use of
force. The use of force is the least efficient. Stratification is universal, although the methods
for stratification vary from culture to culture.
Social stratification is one of the outcomes of the continuous occurring of social processes.
Every society is segmented in to different hierarchies. In virtually all societies, some people
are regarded as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either
within the society as a whole or in a certain situations.
Social stratification is the segmentation of society into different hierarchical arrangement or
strata. It refers to the differences and inequalities in the socioeconomic life of people in a
given society. It represents the ranking of individuals or social positions and statuses in the
social structure. The term is borrowed from geology where it is used to explain the
hierarchical arrangement of rocks and mineral in the earth’s surface.
Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social
stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic
tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.
You may remember the word “stratification” from geology class. The distinct vertical layers
found in rock, called stratification, are a good way to visualize social structure. Society’s
layers are made of people, and society’s resources are distributed unevenly throughout the
layers. The people who have more resources represent the top layer of the social structure of
stratification. Other groups of people, with progressively fewer and fewer resources,
represent the lower layers of our society.
In the United States, people like to believe everyone has an equal chance at success. To a
certain extent, Aaron illustrates the belief that hard work and talent—not prejudicial
treatment or societal values—determine social rank. This emphasis on self-effort perpetuates
the belief that people control their own social standing.
However, sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes
inequalities apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists
are interested in larger social patterns. Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but
about systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like. No
individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for social inequalities. The structure of society affects
a person’s social standing. Although individuals may support or fight inequalities, social
stratification is created and supported by society as a whole.
To conclude Social differentiation is a universal characteristic because the division of some
functions is necessary in a society. Some of these are biological but most of these are socially
fixed. in every society, individuals are different in terms of profession, material possession,
honor, prestige, authority, beliefs and other characteristics. This difference of individuals
provides a mechanism of dividing into different classes which is called stratification.
According to sociologists, this study is very important because it seriously affects the
institutional relations and social interaction. Stratification is the product of social inequality
and is a relatively permanent position of the society, is transmitted from one race to another,
limits the chances of progress. Its ways are different in different societies and are changeable
with social changes and sometimes this stratification becomes a cause of revolution.
b) Importance of Studying Social Stratification
The study of social stratification is particularly important for sociologists. Some of the
reasons for this may include (Giddens, 1995):
 Analysis of understanding type of people: To investigate the class membership of
individuals in society with the aim of understanding the type of life people live. That
is, knowing what type of life individuals in a given social group or stratum live is
very important for sociological analysis
 To explore the bases for the assignment of individuals into various hierarchies of the
social structure. What are the bases for stratifying individuals into a specific stratum?
 To understand the relationship between individuals assigned into different
hierarchies. What kind of interaction and relationship exist between individuals
located into different strata?
 To investigate the relationship between individuals or groups belonging to the same
hierarchy. What kinds of relationship exist between people in the same stratum?
 To understand what type of social system givesriseto what or which types of
hierarchies. That is, the type of social stratification varies across cultures, times and
types of social systems.
c) Definitions of social stratification
 Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in
more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”
 Lundberg: “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among
people that are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”.
 CH. Persell :“Social stratification is the fairly permanent making of position in a
society in terms of unequal power, prestige or privileges. “He further says that "The
unequal opportunities or rewards are for people in different social positions."
 RT. Schaefer :Stratification, a structure ranking of entire groups of people that
perpetuate unequal economic rewards and powers in a society.
 Ian Robertson: Social stratification is the structured inequality of entire categories of
people, who have different access to social rewards as a result of their status in social
hierarchy."
 Augburn and Nimkoff: “Social stratification is a class division of society of
permanent group position which is admitted by the superior or inferior individual of
a society.
 Gilbert: Social stratification is group division of a society and there is difference of
superiority or inferiority among the individual."
 Williams: Social Stratification refers to “The ranking of individuals on a scale of
superiority-inferiority-equality, according to some commonly accepted basis of
valuation.
 Raymond W. Murray: Social stratification is horizontal division of society into
“higher” and “lower” social units.”
 Melvin M Tumin: “Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any social group or
society into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property,
social evaluation and psychic gratification”.
 According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the functional
necessity of the social system.
 Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in
environmental conditions.
 According to Karl Mrax, social factors are responsible for the emergence of different
social strata, i.e. social stratification.
 Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be found
in the conquest of one group by another.
 According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is created
whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers.
 According to Daherndorf: Stratification is always a rank order in terms of prestige
and not esteem which can be thought of independently of their individual
incumbents.
 Melvin defines that social stratification refers to arrangements of any social group or
society into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property,
social evaluation and psychic gratification.
 Hogan says that stratification is relatively permanent ranking of statues and roles in a
social system (ranging from small group to a society) in terms of differential
privileges, prestige, influence and power is called social stratification.
d) Origin of Stratification
The people in different societies have different ranks and high and low. The distribution of
people of a society in groups on the basis of their status is called social stratification. This
distribution may be on the basis of occupation, caste, education, source of income, prestige
and political power. Social stratification differs from society to society. It is classification of
people within a society.

Theoretical perspective Major Assumptions

 Functionalism:  Stratification is necessary to induce people with
special intelligence, knowledge, and skills to
enter the most important occupations. For this
reason, stratification is necessary and inevitable.
 Conflict:  Stratification results from lack of opportunity
and from discrimination and prejudice against
the poor, women, and people of color. It is
neither necessary nor inevitable.
 Symbolic  Stratification affects people’s beliefs, lifestyles,
interactionism: daily interaction, and conceptions of themselves.
Sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes
inequalities apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists
are interested in larger social patterns. Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but
about systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like. No
individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for social inequalities. A person’s social standing is
affected by the structure of society.
 Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also lead to stratification.
 Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing.
Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of
socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.
 Social stratification is a system in which groups of people are divided into layers
according to their relative property, power, and prestige. It is important to emphasize
that social stratification does not refer to individuals. It is a way of ranking large
groups of people into a hierarchy according to their relative privilege
e) Determinants of Social Stratification
According to Max Weber
 Economic resources: The size of landholdings in rural areas belongs to upper
classes. While the tenants, blacksmiths, cobblers, barbers belong to the lower class.
 Occupation: Landowners, industrialists, businessmen, high government officials,
corporate officials belong to the upper class. Servicemen, small businessmen, whose
income equals to their expenditures, are the middle class. Manual workers, carpenters,
blacksmiths, washer men all constitute the lower class.
  Prestige: Respect of an individual in society is related to the level of prestige that he
enjoys.
Prestige includes nobility, harmlessness, participating in social welfare projects,
helping the needy etc.
 Power: Power gains one respect. In Pakistan, following characteristics could be
important: Outspoken in public, educated, well off in financial resources, interest in
solving people’s problems, active, religious oriented etc.
 Cast:  Caste system in Pakistan is an important element in social stratification. Some
castes are considered high, some are low.
 Education:  Education like all other societies in the world, defines social status in
Pakistan too. Educated people are better rated and respected socially owing to their
occupations, professions and status while illiterate people always belong to lower
class.
f) Characteristics of Social Stratification
On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social
stratification may have the following characteristics.
 Social stratification is universal: There is no society on this world which is free from
stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It
is a worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized
groups are stratified.”
 Stratification is social: It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s
superiority and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often
contribute as the basis on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education,
property, power, experience, character, personality etc. are found to be more
important than biological qualities. Hence, stratification is social by nature.
 It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small
wondering bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the
rich and poor, humble and powerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya
even emphasis was given to political, social and economic inequalities.
 It is in diverse forms: The forms of stratification are not uniform in all the societies. In
the modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In
India a special type of stratification in the form of caste is found. In Hindu society, the
ancient Aryas were divided into four varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided into freemen and slaves and the ancient
Romans were divided into the patricians and the plebeians. So every society, past or
present, big or small is characterized by diverged forms of social stratification.
 Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important
consequences one is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not
only affects the “life- chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”.
The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in every
society. It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental health, opportunities
for education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and divorce etc.
Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status. Life-styles
include such matters like the residential areas in every community which have gradations of
prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress, the kinds of
books, TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may be viewed as a sub-
culture in which one stratum differs from another within the frame work of a commonly
shared over-all culture.
g) Functions of Social Stratification
 Encourages hard work
 Ensures circulations of elites (when too much respect is given to people based on
status or position, people tend to get it again and again). People start competition
which is called circulations of elites
 Serves as an economic function (ensure rational use of available talent
 Prevents waste of resources
 Stabilizes and reinforces the attitude and skills
 Helps to pursue different professions and jobs
 Social control

E. Socialization
1) Understanding Socialization
Culture and Socialization; formal and non-formal socialization, transmission of culture,
cultural relativism. Sub-cultures.
 Young and Mack: the process of introducing the individual into social word is called
socialization. In common sense, socialization is a lifelong training for the adjustment
of one’s life in society. The process of socialization is process of learning norms, roles,
techniques and other social patterns.
 Peter says that socialization is process of transmission of culture, the process whereby
man learns the rules and practices of social groups
 Horton and Hunt said that socialization is the process whereby one internalizes the
norms of groups among whom one lives so that a unique “self” emerges.
a) Factors in Development of Personality
 Biological inheritance: The nature-nurture debate
 Physical environment: The climate & geographic conditions
 Culture: Components of culture
 Group experience: Birds of a feather flock together
  Unique experience: Siblings have different personalities
 Religion, education, politics: values, beliefs, philosophy, learning of knowledge and
skills
 Society: society in ourselves
b) Types of Socialization
 Primary socialization
 Anticipatory socialization
 Developmental socialization
 Re-socialization
c) Source and Agencies of Socialization
The family, Neighbors, Religion, Economics, Politics, Education, Peers or age mates, Social
institutions, Literature and mass media of communication, The community, Media,
Folkways, Mores, Customs, Clubs, Associations, Networks
d) Function of Socialization
 Man from biological being to social being
 Development of the personality
 Helps to become disciplined
 Helps to enact different roles
 Provides knowledge and skills
 Helps to develop right aspirations of life
 Contributes to the stability of social order
 Helps to reduce social distance
 Provides scope for bright future
 Helps the transformation of culture
b) Formal and Non-Formal Socialization
Formal socialization is learning skills, values, and norms with planned and organized
experiences such as in school. Informal socialization is learning without an institution or
formal procedure.
 Formal education – Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally
recognized credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree, and is
often guided and recognized by government at some level. Teachers are usually
trained as professionals in some way.
 Non-formal learning – Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or may
not be guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led by a
qualified teacher or by a leader with more experience. Though it doesn’t result in a
formal degree or diploma, non-formal education is highly enriching and builds an
individual’s skills and capacities. Continuing education courses are an example for
adults. Girl guides and boy scouts are an example for children. It is often considered
more engaging, as the learner’s interest is a driving force behind their participation.
  Informal learning – No formal curriculum and no credits earned. The teacher is
simply someone with more experience such as a parent, grandparent or a friend. A
father teaching his child to play catch or a babysitter teaching a child their ABC’s is an
example of informal education.
These may be overly simplified explanations. There are times when the lines between each
type of learning get blurred, as well. It isn’t always as cut and dries as it seems, but these
definitions give you a general idea of each type of learning
c) Stages of Socialization
 Oral Stage
 Anal Stage
 Genital (Oedipal) Stage
 Latency Stage
 Adolescence Stage.
Erikson (1950) believes that personality continues to be molded throughout the entire
lifespan from birth to death. This period has been divided into eight stages by him. Each
stage has its characteristic features marked and affected by emotional crisis, particular
culture of the person and his interaction with the society of which he is a part.
e) Oral Stage
This stage expands from zero to one-and-a-half years. During this period mouth is the
sensitive zone of the body and the main source of joy and pleasure for the child. How the
infant is being cared for by the mother makes the infant trust or mistrusts the world
(represented by mother) around him. If his wants are frequently satisfied, he develops trust
and believes that the world will take care of him. In case of frequent dissatisfaction, mistrust
develops leading the infant to believe that the people around him cannot be believed, relied
on, and that he is going to lose most of what he wants. After the first six months (sucking
period), the remaining one year (biting period) is fairly difficult for the child and mother
because of eruption of teeth and weaning. If properly handled, infant’s trust gets reinforced
and he develops an in-built and lifelong spring of optimism and hope.
Broken Family: Persons, who had an unpleasant (abandoned, unloved and uncared)
babyhood, are likely to find parenthood as burdensome and may express dependent,
helpless, abusive behavior, and angry outbursts i.e., oral character. To such people,
caseworker is like parents, who helps the client to verbalize his anger and distrust and later
provides emotional support and protective services.
f) Anal Stage
Towards the end of biting period of oral stage, the child is able to walk, talk, and eat on his
own. He can retain or release something that he has. This is true of bowel and bladder
function also. He can either retain or release his bowel and bladder contents. Now, the child
no more depends upon the mouth zone for pleasure. He now derives pleasure from bowel
and bladder (anal zone) functioning, which entails anxiety because of toilet training by
parents. Child is taught where to pass urine and where to go for defecation etc. In this
training of bladder and bowel control, child may develop autonomy, or shame and doubt.
The task of anal is to develop autonomy. If the parents are supportive without being
overprotective and if the child is allowed to function with some independence, he gains
some confidence in his autonomy probably by the age of three and prefers love over hate,
cooperation over willfulness, and self-expression over suppression.
Autonomy, thus, overbalances shame and doubt and leads to development of confidence
that he can control his functions, and also, to some extent, the people around him. Contrary
to this, the child may feel angry, foolish and ashamed if parents criticize his faces and over-
control his bowel and bladder functioning during the training for toilet. Observations of
sanskaras convey acceptance to the child and help the parents to train them in appropriate
manner. The children (with more mistrust and doubt in their share),when adults may need
help in accepting failures and imperfection as an inherent part of one’s life. By accepting the
client as he is, the caseworker can reduce his feeling of self-hatred and perfectionism. Over-
demanding adults or those who express temper tantrums when asked to assume
responsibility may need to be helped to control their impulsive acts. They should be
rewarded when they exhibit controls, and one should reinforce their autonomy and
independence when exercised. Autonomy and independence are totally different from
impulsive acts as these involve rationality and not emotionality.
g) Genital (Oedipal) Stage
The task for this period is to develop and strengthen initiative, failing which the child
develops a strong feeling of guilt. This period extends from 3rd to 6th years of life, i.e., pre-
school period. He is now capable of initiating activity, both intellectual as well as motor on
his own. How far this initiative is reinforced depends upon how much physical freedom is
given to the child and how far his curiosity is satisfied. If he is led to feel bad about his
behavior or his interests, he may grow with a sense of guilt about his self-initiated activities.
Erikson (1950) opines that the child takes first initiative at home when he/she expresses
passionate interest in his/her parent of opposite sex. The parents ultimately disappoint
him/her. They should try to help the child to identify with the same sex parent, e.g., the girl
should be encouraged to identify with mother and the son with the father. In addition to
this initiative, the child also attempts to wrest a place for self in the race of siblings for
parent’s affection. He sees the difference between what he wants and what he is asked to do.
This culminates into a clear-cut division between the child’s set of expanded desires and the
parental set of restrictions. He gradually “turns these values (restrictions, i.e., don’ts) into
self-punishment”.
Slowly and gradually, he extracts more initiative from the conflict and grows happily if his
initiative gets proper and adequate reinforcement. The caseworker encourages the clients
burdened with guilt feelings to take initiative in family as well as in other situations, and
works with his social environment to strengthen his capacity to take initiative.
h) Latency Stage
This stage covers the period from 6 to 11 years, i.e., school age. The child can reason out
rationally and can use the tools that adults use. The sexual interests and curiosity (common
in genital period) get suppressed till puberty. If encouraged and given opportunity, he gains
confidence in his ability to perform and use adult materials. This leads to feeling of industry
in him. When unable to use adult materials, he develops inferiority feelings. Such children
may develop problems with peers. They need to be encouraged to interact with classmates
and be less dependent upon others. If the child has mastered the task of genital period
(initiative in place of guilt) he will be able to master the tasks of latency (industry in place of
inferiority) also provided he is encouraged to undertake and helped to execute the
responsibilities entrusted to him.
i) Adolescence Stage
This period, regarded as a period of turmoil, usually starts at 12-13 years and can extend up
to 18-19 years. The adolescents, during this transitional process from childhood to maturity,
behave something like an adult and sometimes like a child. Parents too show their
ambivalence to accept them in their new role of an adult in-the-making. This stage exhibits
all the psycho-social characteristics of earlier period and only towards the end, all these get
resolved into a new set of role (identity) for the adolescent. In order to develop a personal
identity, he becomes fan of some hero, starts following certain ideologies, and tries his luck
with opposite sex.
Indecision and confusion are not uncommon in this stage. Identification with a wrong person
shall create problems for him. The task of this age is to develop identity, i.e., values,
strengths, skills, various roles, limitations, etc., failing which his identity gets diffused and he
fails to know how to behave in different situations. He needs to be helped to deal with the
physiological, emotional pressures along-with pressures from parents, peers, etc. Group
work is more helpful with problem-adolescents. When showing confusion about their role,
they can be helped to emulate the group leader or identify with group worker. Parents can
handle adolescents properly if educated adequately about the needs and problems of this
age.
Similarly, tasks for young adulthood, adulthood and old age are intimacy vs. isolation,
generatively vs. stagnation, and ego-integrity vs. despair. These psycho-analytical concepts
are helpful in understanding behavior of the individuals. Apart from these, there are some
other tasks described by some other scholars for each stage which according to them are to
be achieved for a normal human development.