MODERN RESERVCOIR ENGINEERING-

A Simulation Approach

HENRY B. CRICHLOW
School of Perraleum nnd Geological Eugineering
Uhfersity of Oklahoma

Prentice-Hall, Inc.
New Jersey 07632
Englewood Cliffs,

.
 Contentis

FRFFACE, xii

INTRODUCTION:
THE AGE OF StMULATION, 1

1.1 Iniroductt .
7he Necessii for Snialating, 2
The Modelig Apprnteh, 3
Reservoir Sinuiatici, 4
1.2 Growth of Simulation, 5
The Maierial Balance Fquatian, 6
Analog Resistance-Capacitance Networks, 7
The Electrelytic Model, 8
The Potentiomeiric AModel, 10
Numerical Models, 11
1.3 Purpose of Reser voir Simulation, 12
Planning of Storuge Reyuirements, 16
Single-Well Studies. 17
1.4 Henefits of Simulaton. /8
References, 19
Bibliography. 19
viii Centent

2 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
CONCEPTS IN SIMULATION, 27

2.1 Introduction. 21
Darcy's Law--The Concept of Permeability, 21
The Flow Potential, 23
Renl G FowRrnl Gus Porentiul, 28
Concepts in Steady and Unsteady Flow, 29
2.2 Fluid Types, 33
2.3 Flow in Porous Media. 34
References, 39
Bibliography, 39

FORMULATION ODF
RESERVOIR SIMULATION EQUATIONS., 43

3.1 Introduction. 43
3.2 Derivations of Equations, 45
Single-Phase Flow, 47
3.3 Derivation of Multiphase Flow Equations, 50
Expansion in Radial Form1, 52
3.4 Multicomponent Systems, 57
Sources and Sinks, 62
Solution Outline, 63
References, 63
Bibliugraphy, 64

4 SETTING UP THE FINITE-DIFFERENCE MODEL, 67

4.1 Introduction, 67
Discretization Process, 68
Finite Diferences, 69
First Derivative, 69
Second Derivative, 70
Sunmary, 70
4.2 Finite-Difference Scheines-Concept of Explicit and
Implicit Forms, 71
Introduction, 71
Explicit Formulation, 72
Implicit Formulation, 74
Crank-Nicholson Scheme, 77
torterts

4.3 CGrid Detiniti 7s

Irregular Giriuts, 70
4.4 Stability Criteria. 70
l'on Neunmann Analvsis (Fourier Analysis). O
Matrix NMethods, 83
4.5 Case Study: Evplieit and Implicit Concepts,
Work Problems, 9
Retvrences, *
Bibliography. 04

SOLUTION OF THE SIMULATOR EQUATIONS, 97

5. The Solution Process, 97
5.2 Implicit Pressure-Explieit Saturation (IMPES) Method, 98
Introduction, 98
Finite-Difercnce Analog, 100
5.3 Implicit Pressure-Implicit Saturation (Simultancous Solution)
Method, 105
5.4 Upstream and Downstream Relative Permeabilities, /09
Extrapolated Relative Permeability Values, 115
References, 117
Bibliogtaphy, 118

SOLVING THE MATRIX

OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS, 121
6.1 Introduction. 121
6.2 Concepts in Simultancous Lincar Equations, 122
Direct Processes, 123
Iterative Processes, 130
6.3 lterative Methods in Simulation
Practice, 131
Alternating-Direction Implicit Procedure (A DIP), 131
Iterative Alternating-Direction
Selection Implicit Procedures, 135
of Acceleratlon Parameters, 138
Point Relaxation, 141
Line Relaxation, 143
Selection of Overrelaxation Parameler, 144
Strongly Implicit Procedure, 147
lteration Parumeter a, 150
 Coneuts

10
64 Dircct Methods in Simulntion Practice,
Opimal Reordering, 151
Matrix Techniques, 154
Sparse
S Comparative Analysis, 156
Refcrences, 157
Ribliopraphy. 158

DATA PREPARATION, 160

7 Introduction: "Getting it all topether." 160

7.2 Fluid Data, 161
npui Form, 162
1.3 Rock Data, T66
Sources of Perr veability Dila, 16
Sources af Porosity Data, 190
Sources of Formation Thlckness Data, 191
Sources of Formation Elevations Data, 192
Sources of Rock Compressibility Data, 195
Sources of Relative Permeability Data, 195
Sources of Formation Fluid Saturations Dala, 202
Sources of Capillary Pressure Data. 202
7.4 Production Data, 203
7.5 Flow Rate Data, 204
7.6 Case Study: Simulation of a Gas Reservoir, 206
Problems, 213
References, 214
Bibliography, 215

8 MAKING A SIMULATION STUDY, 220

220
8.1 Mechanics of Simulation Run, Data, 221
Automatic MonitorinR of Input
Aluiniaining the Input File, 222
Restart Procedures, 223
Reasons for Restart, 224
.2 Simulator Flowchart, 226
8.3 Selection of the Model, 237
The Selection Process, 237
 Cpntents

HISTORY MATCHING, 248

L
9.1 Introduction, 248
History-Matching Parameters, 249
249
ofHistory AMatching.
Mechonics
Rock Data, 250
9.2 Modifications Using
Modifications
Fluid Saturations, 255
Using
9.3 256
Moditications Using Fluid Data,
9.4 Data, 256
9.5 Modifications Involving Rclative Permeability
Cominunicating Areas,
259
9.6 Presence of 260
Automatic History-Matching Methods,
9.7
Simulation of
9.8 Case Study:
a Secondary
Recoivery Project, 265
References, 271
Bibliography, 271

SIMULATOR, 273
10 THE WELL IN THE

10.1 Introduction, 273

275
Development of Productim Term,
10.2 Explicit Productioni, 277
Implicit Production, 279
Rate qr, 280
Specification of Total Producing
Multicell Wells, 281
10.3 Generalized Development for
Selection of Run Paramcters,
286
10.4
Time Step Selection, 286
Flow Rate Selection, 289
Reservoir, 291
10.5 Migration of Fluids Within the
Determingtion of Migration, 291
Monitoring of Migration, 292
Controlling Migration, 293
10.6 Flood Pattern-Swept Area, 294
Fractional Flow Equation, 294
Contouring the Front Location, 296
Selection of New Locations, 296
10.7 Case Study: Two-Phase Production
from a Layered System, 298
References, 304
Bibliography, 304
 aiv relace

ow concepts and datu preparation, could well omit sevoral ohaptors; the
staff engineer in the field office would not be overly excited by the mathe
matical analysis of stability, so he can skip this area. The following
diagram
gives the prospective reader some clue as to where his interests may be in the
chapicis hat lic ahcad. In the final analysis, only thc sludent recally knows
his needs, and he can omit many sections within several chapters without
any loss of continuity. 1 Introduction
'Tacticing Developer Simulation Neophyte Student
The Age of Simulation
Engincer of Models Practitioner Practitioncr Engineer

Chapters 2

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The dictionary defines simulate as simply "to give an appearance of." To tlhe
engineer or analyst, simulation involves the utilization of a model to obtain
HENRY B. CRiCHLow is a process or mecha-
some insight into the behavior of a physical process. It

nism by which a particular problem can be studied in varying depths of detail

10 obtain answers or to confirm hypotheses. Simulation has long been recug
nized in many applied science disciplines as the final resort; as Wagner
aptly says: "When all else fails, .. . simulate." In operations research, exten-
sive use has been made of simulaticn studies; some examples are:

Transportation model networks

2. Stock market performance
3. Telephone system design
4. Supermarket checkout counters

Becuuse of the widesprcad necd in some of these areas, special-purpose

languageshave been developed to meet the particular demands for simu-
lation.
Simulation, however, involves lot more than just the design and use of a
a

be it an oil reservoir system or a network

good model to analyze a process,
switching problem. The word simularion conjures up different things to dif-
ferent concept of simulation borders on the incredible:
people. Some people's
the simulator isa black box of unknowns which miraculously produces results
that are in some way sacred, numbers that are infallible to all their significant
 SEC. 1.1 I Introduvetion
Pue No- 3
CH.1 Inroducon The Age of Simuitien

legal, and environmental

interaction of the economic, regulatory, such
digits. This the blue-sky approach to simulation. More realistically, simu
is aware of the decisions. All these forces acting together have produced them
of his
lation is a process wherein the engineer integrates sever al factors to produce impacts useful analysis must necessarily
incorporate
decisions. a complex pattern that any simulation process
information on the basis of which managers can make intelligent lends itself to some
He begins by selecting the best vehicle for this project, that being the best all. Such built-in complexity naturally can be
examined
various parameters on the solution
effect of
model. Added to this is his expertise, his knowledge of the quality of data, whereby the be relived several
rather critically. It is as though
the whole process has to
and in particvlar the data sourees: he then produces a finished product in the before t is put iato practice.
times in a simulation mode
form of recommcndations and conclusions which are usable within the realm
of manapreriai activity. Ai all points along the way the cnginecr is on top of
the situation. Nothing the simulation process does can improve the quality The Modeling Approach
more than
of his work, but it can oertainly give him a into the interrela-
great insight human mind has difficulty in considering
Someone once said, "The decision-making
tionships of the processes which are occurring in his project. same time in makinga
decision." The
10 to 20 factors at the
The growth in computer systems has been a necessary precursor to the in developing and producing
a petroleum

development of simulation. Engineers have long recognized the guiding prin- problem faced by the engineer These variables may
involves several hundred variables.
resource of any size but they do exist.
ciples for most of the physical phenomena they study, but the tools to solve not e quantified or cataloged
in an easily definable form,

these problems were lacking. As the computer evolved, simulation has ex on the producing
characteristics, compietion
panded with it, almot like the inner portion of two expanding concentric The engineer thus has to decide characteristics for each
locations. and operating
At times st seems that the simulation needs would the techniques, pump sizes, we'l time horizon which
waves
outrun compu well, and all this informatior.
has to be determined over a
have uscd the
tational resources: however, in these two dynamic areas there always seems Good engincers and managers
to be an operating medium. The engineer could always produce elifectively involves continual change. those
and in many cases they have prospered;
intuitive approach in the past, that
with what he had available. No doubt as computer technology continues to brilliant or whose "logical"
deductions lacked
to the limit in whose intuition was not as to add
create, the engineer will be right in step to push its usefulness not being heard from today.
In order
apphying hrs expertise to the solution of ever-increasing problems. subtle quality, "insight," are we need a dis-
some structure to the manager's or engineer's methodology,
determine the relevant factors and their
us to
ciplined technique which allows Furthermore, this technique should
The Necessity for Simuleting solution.
interrelationships to a given mears for
The ciassical approach to solving a problem has been :o formulate the prob allow us to implement decisions
effectiely and provide some
as we go
our sysims and objectüves
em an hen try to make as many simplilying assumptions as possible to updating, modifying, and reuc.ining combizes all these attributr.
most neariy
produce a new problem which is manageable. What happens if even aftcr all along. The modeling approach
in a very pedestrian way they are
rather intractable? Models are basically of two types;
these samplutyang assumptions the problem still remains touch and the ones you cannot.
The former are
The individual could solve it in two ways at this point. First,he
can define Simply the ones you can models.
latter nathematical
the probiem as having no solution, somewhat like the alchemists of old did physical models, the
knew
when they developed the phlogiston theory of burning. They the theory
was wrong, but they still gave it a name. Giving the difficulty a name does no 1. Physical models are essentia!ly
scaled-down reproductions of the origi
and the like, or models con
more to solve it than leaving it alone in the first place. As
second alter- nal, as cvidenced in pilot plants, prototypes,
a structed to duplicate a process
which is physically similar to the original
native, be can attempt a solution with the best available technical help and
at
although it may operate
under a different set of physical laws. The best
an answer which is satisfactory to
some point
come to him. The knowledge*
that this is not the full answer would in no way detract from him utilizing the example of this is the potentiometric
model used to predict reservoir flow by
between fow in porous media
results. There are very few cases in nature where answer is capitalizing on the one-to-one correspondence
no
better than an
appronimate one. The point is clear that analytical tools become less effective and the low of ions in an
electric potential ieid.
are systems of mathematical equations
describ-
as problems begin to increase in complexity, In the petroleum engineering
2. Mathematical models In
thee process under investigation. petroleum
discipline, complexity in physical processes is more the rule than the excep- ing the physical behavior of complicated partial dif
tion. The engineer today is required not only to determine the best perfor- reservoir work, these equations are generally very
be rather casy cquations system in other
mance based on physical behavior of the syetem, but to become inoreasingly forential oquations, but they could
 stC 12/Growth af 5iamletien
to th
fields. BecA Use of the sizr and the
complexity of these mathematical medeis. narrower sense the term reservoir simulation reders only
systems. In a
it can and
a
computer is requred to solve the system. within the reservoir, but in a larger sense
hydrodynamics of fow which incudes the reser.
oftcn docs refer to the total petroleum system
Throughout ths book the word model refers to mathematical model and more
and any interreiated significant activity.
The basic
sUsed interchanpcahiy voir, the surface facilities,
with ximulotor o simulotio difierentiai cquaiions which govern the
The 1echnique of marhematcal Aow model consists of the pariual
modeling and the role pla yed by tie flow of all fhuid phases in the reservoir medium. Incorporatcd
enpineercan be vualized br the blork dizgram shown in Tig 11. Thc cenital
unsteady-state
needed to solve these equations. Th
into the model are all the aigorithms
which impiement the
PUTER EWVTRONMEWT simulator is then a collection of computer programs
ENGFNI mathematical model on a particular digital
machine. The origin of the simu-
whole are shown in Fig. 1.2.
lator and the synthesis into a coherent
S1ULATD
RM SEVO1 srsT

AULIARY EQuATIONS
Figure 1.1: Methematical ruodeling.
tos is the simulater: its iomulation and
backeround in mathematics development require substantial
and the applied sciences. The
PANT AL 01 FERENT IAL
touATIGNS

requires oniy good enginecring skills and common sense. As of it, however,
use

hgure, thcre is a feedback loop in mathematical indicated by the

modeling. The simulator MUMERICAL sSCMENES
operates in a
computer cuvironment (to use the term rather
everything else operates in an engincering loosely), and
aput provided by the engincer: this is
setting. The process begins with the
processed by the simulator and the
output is obtained A1 thrs po1nt the information AL CORITHS
is analyzed for the
of previous
changes on tthe operating characteristics, and if modifications effects
are
necded, they are aade and the
process repeated. As the engineer cycles CoMPUTER PaOSRANIN6
through this loop, nis nput, by virtue of his
the results, and as naose expertise, continuously upgrades
and hetter information
becomes available as timne
passes, he can produce an cfhcient and
his process. reasonably accurate predictive
tool for StMULATOR
The engineer usinE proven technology in trying to make decisions
is

quantitatively and optimize hs projects. Modeling Flgure 1.2: The origin of the
APPL ICAT1ONS
expanded, improved, and become more techniques ioday have simulator.
that the engineer or scientist who applications-oriented to such
degree a
has not begun to utilize these methods
find himse!f trying to communicate may
with his peers across an
chasm. The siress toduy for economic ever-widening 1.2 GROWTH OF SIMULATION
all decisions with technical justification and the need to "back up"
The growth in reservoir simulation has proceeded parallel to the upsurge
in
support inexorably pushes him 1o the use of
modeling stsategy. lechnology over the last 30 years. The engineer has strived at all times to use
of petroleum
the best tools available to him to understand the mechanics
Reservoir Simulation reservoirs and petroleum production and to apply these to the efficient opera
tion of reservoirs. Today the use of simulation has made the computer
as
The area of reservoir simulation
applies the concepts and
iechniques of calculator 20 years apo.
much an everyday tool as the slide rule and desk
were
mathematical modeling to the analysis of the behavior of peiroleum reservoir used to simu
In the following pages we shall explore sone of the techniques
 GH. 1 / introduction: The Age of Simulation SEC. 1.2/ Growth of Sinuletion

fields. Becnuse of the size and the complexity of thesc mathematical models, th:
the term reser voir simulation refers only to
systems. In a narrower sense
it can and
a
computer is requred to solve the system. but in larger sense
hydrodynamics of flow within the reservoir,
a
the reser-
more oftcn does reser to
the total petroleum system which includes
Throughout this book the word model refers to mathematical model and The basic
is voir, the surface facilities, and any interrelated significant activity.
used interchangeably with simulator or simuloation.
The technique of mathematical modeling and the role fiow model consists of the partial diffcrential equations which govern the
played by the unsteady-state flow of all fuid phases in the reservoir medium. Incorporatcd
engineer can be visualized by the block diagram shown in Fig. I.1. The central
solve these equations. The
into the model are all the algorithms needed to
which impiement the
coWPUTER ENVI RONMENT simulator is then a collection of computer programs
ENGINE ER
mathematical model on a particular digital machine. The origin of the simu-
lator and the synthesis into a coherent whole are
shown in Fig. 1.2.
SIULATOR oUTPUT
RESERVOIR SYSTEM

ODIFY ANALYZE .
AUXILIARY EQUATIONS

Figure 1.1: Mathematical snodeling.

ox is the simulator: its iormulation and PARTIAL 01FFERENT IAL
EQUATI1ONS
development require substantial
background in mathematics and the applied sciences. The use of it, however,
requires only good engineering skills and common sense. As indicated by the
figure, there is a feed back loop in mathematical modeling. The simulator NUMERICAL SCHEMES
operates in acomputer environment (to use the term rather loosely), and
everything else operates in an engincering setting. The process begins with the
input provided by the engineer; this is processed by the simulator and the ALGORI THNS
output is obtained. At this point the information is
of previous changes on the
analyzed for the effects
operating characteristics, and if modifications are
needed, they are made and the process repeated. As the COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
engineer cycles
through this loop, his input, by virtue of his expertise, continuously
the results, and as niore and better upgrades
information becomes available as time
passes, he can produce an eficient and
reasonably accurate predictive tool for sIMULATOR
his process.
The engineer is using proven
technology in trying to make decisions Figure 1.2: The origin of the
quantitatively and optimize his projects. Modeling techniques today have simulator.
APPLICAT IONS
expanded, improved, and become more applications-oriented to such a degree
that the engineer or scientist who has not
begun to utilize these methods may
find himself trying to communicate with his 1.2 GROWTH OF SIMULATION
peers across an ever-widening
chasm. The stress loday for economic
justiication and the need to "back up" to the upsurge in
all decisions with technical
support inexorably pushes him 1o the use of The growth in reservoir simulation has proceeded parallel
over the last 30 years. The engineer has
strived at all times to use
modeling strategy. technology
mechanics of petroleum
the best tools available to him to understand the
reservoirs and petroleum production and to apply these to the effñcient opera
Reservoir Simulation
tion of reservoirs. Today the use of simulation has made the computer
as
The area of reservoir simulation
applies the concepts and techniques of much an everyday tool as the slide rule and desk calculator were 20 years ago.
mathematical modeling to the analysis of the behavior of
petroleum reservoir In the following pages we shall explore sofne of the techniques used to simu-
 SEC. 1.2 Growth of Simulatio
CH, 1 Introduction: The Age of Simulation
dra«backs:
serious
involves the following rather
material balance approach
late reservoir performance during its growth and indicate how the weaknesses with
in cach of these methods were resolved by the new methods. Some of
these
for variation of fuid and rock properties
1. There is no allowance
methods are still because
being used stíll are economically justifiable and
they reservoir.
location wíthin the are over

technically correct. A notable example is the materíal balance equation. 2. The dynamic effects of fuid
movement within the system

looked.
The Material Ealance Equation in the
these drawbacks
reservoir analysis evolved a s
In 1936 Schilthuis | developed a conservation equation for a hydrocarbon Further developments in involved the u
next approach
were resolved. The
material balance equation
reservoir. This equation is derived by considering the whole reservoír to be a of resistance-capacitance networks.
homogenous tank of uniform rock and fuid properties. The mass balance
was made by accounting for all quantities which may enter or leave the reser
voir over a period of time. The materíal lance equation is sometimes Analog Resistance-Capacitance Networks
electrical analyzers.
referred to as the zero-dimensional simulator since there are no
any direction within the system. The saturations and pressures are distributed
changes in networks, usually called
Analog resistance-capacitance electrical fiow znd fuid flow in a reservoir to
between
continuously throughout the tank, and any changes in pressures are insta.ta employ the similarity reservoir. By analyzing the
basis of the develop a n electrical analog of the petroleum
neously felt throughout the system. Figure 1.3 illustrates the with time under diferent operating
material balance equation. The complete equation is shown below: variation of the electrical parameters
behavior of the reservoir can
be computed using suitable
conditions, the be secn from
analogY between the two systems can
conversion factors. The
NJB, BAR, -

R,) +
W,- MB, 8) +gC +5,C) AP the following two equations:
Fluid Flow:
+B,B,)+W, + W, + G8, (1.1)
Bg
EXPAMDABLE vOLUME TAMK
(1.2
9-V

INFLOA: :EFFLUX
Currert Flow

Figure 1.3: Material balance equation. (1.3)

The ieft-hand side represents the production of oil, gas, and water, while the iiCe
right-hand síde refers to the expansion of the rock and luids in place and
shown in Table 1.1.
influx and injection terms. By various algebraic manipulations the basic The correspondence in parameters is
cquation can be reordered to solve for any of the following parameters: The R-C network is usually a two-dimensional grid of the reservoir a
shown in the example in Figs. 1.4, 1.5,
and 1.6, where the Woodbine Basin
1. Oil in place reservoir is modeled by the use of anR-C network. Equations (1.2), and (1.3)
2. Water influx indicate the one-to-one correspondence between the following:
3. Gas cap size and gas in place
4. Oil productien 4

The material balance approach has been solved either graphically or com- RL
(1.4)
putationally-more recently the material balance equation has been analyzed
P E
as a straight line by Odeh and Havlena*-but the basic premise behind the
 fage GH.1 Inttdetion: Te Aye of Simulatian StC 1.2 I Growth of binulation

TABLE 1.
Coreepondence Between Fluid end tleotrical Syatenus
E4 F4
Huid System Electrical Syslem

Unts Tlenm Uits

Pressure psi (P) Volag Volts (E)

Production/njoctuon B/D (q) Current Hamps (i)
Fuid Capacitance B/psi Capacitance ufarads
(storage)
Trananissibility Darcy-ft. Conductivity Mhos
Ckkl) P
C Real Time months Model Time Seconds C-6

F-7

Figure 1.5: Subdivision of arva around East Tenas field.

G-5
INJECTION POINT
A
E-6 - CAST TEXAS
+

Flgure 1.4: Subdivision of Wood

bine Basin.

The resistances in the given network are calculated from the existing rook 1.6: Resistor network.
Pigure
permeability in the given sector of the field. The electrical parameters mea-
sured are voltage and current as the capacitances are varied in the cireuits. models are based on analog the be-
of fluid fronts with the reservoir. These in
and Darcy's law for flow a porous
tween Ohm's law for flow in a
conductor
and the boundaries
The Electrolytic Model medium. 1f the sources and sinks in a fuid fow proces
model can be made,
of the medium are adequately defined, then steady-state
a
Steady-state electrolytic models have been developed by several investiga
the potential distribu-
usually on blotting paper or agar gelatin, analyze
to
tors-eg, Botset", Wyckoff, Muskat-in an effort to analyze the movement
 11
CH. 1 Introduction: The Age of Simulation SEC. 1.2 / Growth of Simulation

tion. The model is scaled geometrically except that the vertical scale is
exag- location of the flood front by calculating the distance traveled along every
gerated. A voltage is applied at well locations (in this case, copper electrodes) streamline emanating from a point source. The locus of all points
from a
and the movement of the front traced by the illustrated
progress of colored copper given source at a specified time gives the location of that front, as
ammoniumions which move away from the negative electrode to the positive in Fig. 1.8.
clectrode. The medium is impregnated with zinc ammonium ions which are
colorless. The copper ions move at right angles to the
isopotential lines set
up by the potential field. Figure 1.7 illustrates the growth of a displacement
PRODUCER

pattern in a given mode.

POTENTIA
LINES
STREAH LINE
PRODUCER PROOUCER

INJECTUR TNUECOR
INJECTOR
PRODUCER PROOUCER
FRONT LOCATION

Figure 1.8: Potentiometric model.

All the models so far described suffer from several restrictions or weak
nesses. The biggest problem was the fact that each reservoir had its own
INJECTOR INJECTOR Figure 1.7: Electrolytic model. unique model which had to be built literally "from the ground up" every time.
The custom-building was expensive for large models and lacked adaptability.
The Potentiometric Mode/s odifications of the completed model were difficult to make and entailed
physically reworking the circuits or the systems. There was also an inherent
Tie potentiometric model is a steady-state model that uses a container sculp
problem in the components of the system circuits caused by faulty equipment.
ur:d to conforra to the boundaries and permeability-thickness products oi These include leakages in condensers, metcr malfunctions, .nd other similar
the recervoir under study. The wells are icpresented by copper electrodes problems. Finally, the R-C networks could be so large tnat rhey occugied
placed within the medium, which consists of an electrolyte like potassium rooms at a time, and the engineer literally had to walk through the
model to
chloride. The production and injection rates are modeled by using alternating with this size does provide
adjust resistors and capacitors. Working a model
currents (to prevent electrolysis) of given magnitudes. The óbjective of the certain insurmountable problems.
potentiometric model is to determine the steady-state potential distribution
in the model. Since this distribution is analogous to the pressure distribution
in a reservoir, the streamlines can be determined by plotting a set of points Numerical Models
Numerical models utilize digital machines to solve the mathematical equa-
at right angles to these isopotential lines.
In practice the isopotential lines were determined using a movable probe tions which govern the behavior of the fluids in porous media. They provide
controlled by a servomechanism. When a position was found along a given a generalized approach using a gridded format which can accomodate any
isopotential, the location and direction of the streamline vector was imme reservoir description just by a reordering of the indices of the grids. The
diately plotted by a pair of points which were permanently fixed at right numerical models originated in the middle 1950s with Peaceman and Rach-
point where almost every
ford and have evolved extremely rapidly to the simulated.
angles to the potential points on the probe head. Thus, at the end of a run the can be The procedure
conceivable reservoir behavior pattern
potential distribution and the streamline distribution were found simulta- the reservoir into blocks and performing mass
involved consists of discretizing
neously. and energy balances on all these blocks simultaneously. This gridding cells
of
obtained, the engineer had to calculate the
Once the streamlines were
 CH.1Introduction: The Ago of Simulation SEC. 1.3 I Pupose ol Resorvoir Simulation

allows realistic representation of rock and fuid propertics wlhich

a more
vary in any manner. A typical grid is shown in Fig. 1.9.
can
08JECTIVESs of SIMULATION

WELLS -RESERVOIR LIMIT

PRODUCT10N ECONOMIC FLUIO NOVEMERT

|ORIGINAL 01L IN RESERYOIR
INPLACE SCHEDULES| PARAMETERRS

SINGLE WELL OPTIMIZATION OF

GAS STORAGE
STUDIES PETROLEUM SYSTENS

Figure 1:10: Objectives of simulation.

WELL LOCATIONS

IsOPACH LINES
Figure 1.9: Grid of reservoir.

1.3 PURPOSE OF RESERVOIR SIMULATION

Figure 1.11: Oil in place in total reservo
The simulator produces a lot of
output data, and the engineer should be able
1o analyze this data to oblain the
results he needs. The simulation program
cun be used to study a reservoir
containing a single well, a group of wells, or
several we!ls interacting as a complex. Simulators have also become
quite
popular as educatíonal tools where the mechanics of fluid flow in porous PRODUCING
media can be examined. As an HOR12ONs
engincering tool the broad objectives of
simulation are shown in Fig. 1.10. WELLS .
The original oil in place is an important and
necessary objective in anY
study; this quantity is usually required as a reservoir total-e.g., Fig. 1.11.
In the case of multiple-zoned reservoirs the
of a given horizon or zone may be needed.
productivity and oil in place I
of zones be as shown in Fig. 1.12 can
Modeling the reservoir a series
as
produce this information and allow
the engineer to schedule
production and completion operations for these Figure 1.12: Oil in place in horizon
or zone.
zones more effectively.
At other times there may be several leases or
units contributing to the the basic data required include
total reservoir. The appropriate In developing a cash flow for a project,
oil-in-place figure is essential in planning an income generated, expenses, and capital
investments over the planning hori-

cquitable unitization program, and the simulation study allows a breakdown zon. The income-generating parameters
are the oil and gas production that
of oil in place by leases or units with very Jittle additional work. available on a per-well basis,
simulator. These
are essential outputs of the
are
14 GH.1 Introduction: The Age of Simuletion SEC. 1.3 Purpose of Reserveir Simulation

by lease (Fig. 1.13), or by reservoir total. The typical result is shown in Fig. size. The typical
units, water supply, water-treatment or gas-processing plant
1.14. results are shown in Fig. 1.16.
At As the engineer obtains the production and injection data he can developP
thesame time that the production rates are determined, the flowing From
bottom hole pressures on the wells are available. These flowing bottom hole the necessary parameters required to formulate his economic analysis.
pressures are used to plan the installation of downhole or surface lift equip- indicators such as
the cash flow streanm, he can determine any of his economic
ment. Figure 1.15 illustrates the behavior of several production wells. of the project under
payout time, profitability ratio, and present worth value
1.17 and 1.18,s
In secondary
a
recovery project, be it water injection or gas injection, the study. This type indicated
of analysis, graphically in Figs.
engineer needs to know the volumes of material injected and the injection
pressures. These parameters are needed to design the size of the injection
WATER

INDIVIOUAL
LEASE

.TIME
Figure 1.16: Injeetlon rates and preseures.

Figure 1:3: Oll in place by leäsë. PATU#IT

()|
IN¥ESTMENT
O1L
REVENUE 11ME
GAS

WATER
Figure 1.17: Cash fnw. Figure 1.18: Payovt time.

TIME
the basis for comparing the merits of various operational schemes. The
Figure 1.14:-Production schedules. sensitivity of the various parameters to modifications in the way the rescrvoir
is operated allows a certain amount of slack in the decision process, since the
actual implementation of the project may differ somewhat from that recom-
mended by the study.
In engineering larger reservoirs or reservoirs which are common to
several operators, it is possible that during the life of the project significant
quantities of fluid will move large distances from one lease to another. Since
the reservoir sand is continuous, it is obvious that there will be movement
based on pressure gradients regardless of what subjective boundarics are
placed on the surface. The migration of fluids as illustrated in Fig. 1.19 can
TIME
be monitored and the location of wells and the required production rates
Figure 113: Flowing bottom bole pressures. seleeted to eontrol migration.
 17
0
CH. Introduction: The Age of Simulation
Src. 1 3 I Purpose of Reservoir Sinuletion
the overall
withdrawn during the hcating scason (Fig. 1.22). In designing
storage facilities the cngineer
must be able to determine withdrawal rates
and the effect of seasonal fluctuations and
replenishment rates, makeup gas,
The typical configuration is
scheduling on the performancc of the facilities. effects cf inter
shown in 1.23. When seservoir behavior is simulated the
Fig.
LASt
LEASE

Hgure 1.19: Migretion across

loase lines.
PIPELINE CITT
In addition to moaitoring migration pattems of the fuids in the reservoir,
C the simulator enables the determination of sweep-out patterns around
the
the
injectors as indicated in Fig. 1.20. Once the flood fronts
are located
movable oil in the unswept areas can be calculated and the location of new
in ad- Figure 1.22: Siorage system.
roducers determined to maximize the total recovery. This process,
dition t locating new produccrs, also indicates the optimal drilling sequer.ces,
(i.e, numoer of wells dilled in each period, as shown in Fig. 1.21.) the con
ersion sequence from production to injection, and the optimal water-oil ratio
OEANO
a which wells are shut-in or converted to injectors.

PRODUCT ION AKIU

-PRODUCERS

Figure 1.23: Delivesab1lity and mekeup requiremens

-IRJECTORS
UNSMEPT ference of well behavior can be included, and a more realistic analysis can be
made of the process variables, thereby leading to better predictions. In ad
analyse» of the effects of variations in the predicted climatic
dition, sensitivity
Figure 1.20: Swoep-out patterns. factors can be died.

Single-Well Studies

The ability to design anoptimum completion program is essential for the

proper exploitation of a
reservoir. In some operations it is not feasible to
carry out a full-blown reservoir simulation study, and a single-well study
ideally employed to obtain parameters that allow the
en-
(Fig. I.24) can be
gineer to determine the following8
Figure 1.21: Drilling sequences.

I. Critical low rates required prevent coning of gas or water

Planning of Storege Requlrements 2. Maximum efficient rates to ensure optimum well response
intervals and fracture penetration on well pro-
In gas storage systems the delivers gas to an
engineer underground storage 3. Effects ofperforation
reservoir from the remote producing areas during the off-season. This gas s ductivity (Fig. 1.25)
 CH. 1 Introduction: The Age of Simulation CH.1 Bibliography
18 their
without undue difficulty to predict
examine such systems the
engineer can
which in reality was not
designed into
behavior. One benefit of simulation the presence
by-product is
process at the start
but has evolved as a fruitful and
between companies and regulatory bodies
CONING now ot a c o m m o n ground commonality is the
GAS r e s o u r c e s . This
. other agencies which deal with petroleum
to determine reser
that all these groups are now using simulators can be
PERFORATIo knowledge
4 . between two opposing groups
voir performance, and the differences calculation procedure
narrowed down to the data used
rather than to the
WATER Figure 1.24: Single-well study. and if need be
do not differ by very much,
itself. The calculation procedures a third-
can be used in which
the data can be run by
a standardized approach in rather
purposes. Finally,
it can be said a

party system for comparison inconclusive,

of the simulator study
were
laconic way that even if the results
have compiled all the data pertinent to that
the mechanics of simulation in better shape
which is probably now
reservoir into one compact data base
than it eer was before.

kFRACTURE PERMEAB!LITV REFERENCES

RATIO
Research (Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.:
1. H. M. WaGNER, Principles of Operations
FRACTURE PENETRATION Prentice Hall, 1969).
and Reservoir Energy," Trans. AIME (1936), 118,
Figure 1.25: Fracture effect on productivity. 2. R. J. SCHILTHUIS, "Active Oil
33.
models because of Device for Analyzing Oil Reservoir Behavior,"
These single-well studies, sometimes referred to as coning 3. W. A. BRUCE, "An Electrical
economical to use Trans. AlME (1943), 146, 112.
the implied presence of gas/water coning, are reasonably STAMER IIt, "A Reservoir Analyzer Study
as a design tool. 4. R.C. RUMBLE, H. H. SPaIN, and H. E.
done more ac- of the Woodbine Basin," Pet. Trans. Reprint Series, No. 4, 123.
Overall decision making in reservoir operations can be
for the opera'ion Modei and Its Application to the Study of
curately and with firmer cunviction if the marager has a feel 5. H. G. BoTSET, "The Electrolytic
as indicated earlier, is at best Trans. AIME (1946), I65, 15.
parameters. The decision-making process, Recovery Problems,"
Flow in Petroleum Reser-
dificult under the most simplified conditions; the present-day complexities 6. B. D. LE, "Po:entiometric Model
Studies of Fluid
base, from which plans be drawn, 41.
voirs," Trans. AIME (1948), 174,
can
make the need for a more viable data
H. RacHFoRD, JR., and J. D. RICE,
all the more necessary. 7. G. H. BRUcE, D. W. PEacEMAN, H.
Gas Flow through Porous Media," Trans. AlME
"Calculations of Unsteady-state
(1953), 198, 79.
1.4 BENEFITS OF SIMULATION 8. A.S. OoEH and D. HAVLENA, "The
Material Balance as an Equation ofa
Straight
Line,"Trans. AIME (1963), 228, 396.
The engineer knows he has a single opportunity to produce the reservoir, any
mistakes made in this process will be around forever. However, the
simula-
can be made several times and the alternatives examined. When BIBLIOGRAPHY
tion study
utilization of
the simulation study is used as a management tool, the efficient
of Reservoir Simulation Models," J. Pet. Tech.
available energy within the reservoir can lead to greater ultimate production COATS, K. H, "Use and Misuse
(Nov. 1969), 1391-98.
and certainly a more economical operation. In the more complex systems
and Limitations of Computers in
for example, layered heterogeneous reservoirs with commingled production- FERGUSON D. S., and H. D. ArTRA, "The Uses
these variables; today the Petroleum Engineering Work," J. Pet. Tech. (July 1961), 625-28.
it has been previously impossible to handle all
 2 Reservoir Engineering
Concepts in Simulation

: :

2.1 INTRODUCTION
cannot be
media is a very complex phenomenon and as such
Flow in porous rather casy to
pipes or conduits. It is
described as explicitly as flow through as
a pipe and compute its flow capacity
measuie the length
and diameter of different in that there
however, in porous media flow is
function of pressure; measurement.
which lend themselves to
are no clear-cut flow paths
in porous media
has evolved throughout ihe
The analysis of fuid flow
and the analytical. Physicists.
1wo fronts-the experimental
years along the be
and thc like have examined experimentally
engineers, hydrologists, from san
fiow through porous media ranging
havior of various fluids as they have attemptei
fused Pyrex glass. On the basis of their analyses they
packs to
utilized to make an-
formulate laws and correlations which can then be
to
alytical predictions for similar systems. a
dictionary of new concepts whic
Flow in porous media is described by formulate
understood before we can adequately
must first be clucidated and
simulator. These concepts include permeability,
the cquations to be used in a
relative permeability, and fluid
ffow potential, single-phase, multiphase,
is to describe qualitatively and
compressibility. The objective of this chapter
sometimes quantitatively these ideas.

Darcy's Law!--The Concept of Permeability

reservoirs hinges around the
The ability to predict the behavior of petroleum in the
of the engineer to predict the flow characteristics of the fluids
ability
and fluid saturations havc
reservoir. After all the measurements of porosity

21
 SEC. 2.1 /Introduction
Simulation
22 CH. 2 Reservoir Engineering Concepts in
and location
pressure,
of ffuid, temperature,
be 3. Permeability independent
determine at what rate the reservoir fluids
can turbulence
been made, we still have to
4. Laminar flow-i.e.,
no

produced. 5. No electrokinetic effect

define the ability of a rock to transmit fluid,
we
In order to quantitatively effectt
of a rock,
6. No Klinkenberg
must introduce a new concept. This is the concept of permeability however, this
work has

which is petrophysical constant defined by Darcy's law: work was essentially for linear systems; been proven
a Darcy's because it has
multidimensional systems, not
been extended to inapplicable.
medium is pro- been able to prove it
The rate of fow of a homogenous fluid through a porous because no one has yet by dimen-
applicable but be determined
the or hydraulic gradient and to the cross-sectional of the units of the permeability can
portional to pressure The nature
and inversely proportional to the vis- is called the darcy.
area normal to the direction of flow unit of permeability
sional analysis. The
cosity of the fluid. By dimensional analysis:
k 6 (2.3)
Mathematically:
"dimensional
the right for
-- (2.1)
The units the left must be
on

homogeniety." In
the MLT
the same
system:
as those on

.wherer
V, =
macroscopic velocity in positive s

= absolu'e viscosity in Eq. (2.1), we have:

above substitutions
k = homogenous luid permeability Making the

z = elevation

= specific volume

P density
(2.5)
& gravitational acceleration

medium.
This is the definitive equation for the permeability of a porous be identical to L/T, then k =
LZ;
The quantity in parentheses is the potential of the fiuid, and Eq. {2.1) can Ifk/LT is to

(2.6)
be written as:
--
(2.2)
is thus (length)".
The unit of permeability
law
where is the total tluid potential. This will be discussed latcr. Darcy's
is an empirical law, and as writen in Eq. (2.1) or Eq. (2.2) it is a differential The Flow Potential
media is that the macro-
equation relating to a point. possible that every term in the equation
It is
A fundamental tenet
of fuid mechanics of porous surfaces
normal to the equipotential
k,, u, ö can vary with location and these variations must be accounted for fuid velocity vectors are always
scopic
in the use of the equation.
of potential difference when a liquid is forced
In Darcy's experiments there were certain limitations and assumptions *Streaming potential--production This can be measured and is commonly
membrane or capillary.
to his work; these limit the area of applicability. The assumptions are: through a porous
called zata potential. at wall begins to
the mean free path of molecules, slippage
tWhen pore sizes approach
1. Fluid-homogenous and single-phase
Occur.
2. No chemical reaction between media and fluid
 25
SEC. 2.1 / Introduction
24 CH. 2 Reservoir Engineering Concepts in Simulation

This can be simplified by calcuius to

and that the magnitudes of these vectors arc proportional to the gradients of
these potcntials (see Fig. 2.1). Since the distribution of potential within a fluid
deiermines the macroscopic velocity of the fuid and also the overall flow, the (2.8)
defines the poten
investigation of the flow potential is warranted. Hubbert?
location. To gel the
tial as mechanical energy per unit mass of fluid
at uny
Since the velocity term is negligible in porous media, we have:

(2.9)
156PoTENTIkLS ,

then V is not function of pressure and:

Assuming incompressible flow, a

STREAMLINES
:C
PdP+ (2.10

Thus,
, P, - P') *7, (2.i

for incompressible fiow.

Let us consider some examples of the use of the fiow potential in somc

Figure 2.1: Isopotentials and strcamlines.

simple systcms.

fluid to this location. several kinds of work must be done on the fuid. The EXAMPLE [1] FREE DOWNWARD FLOW: Note in Fig. 2.3 that the flow diec
direction. Then, using
sum total of this work done on the fluid reflects the mechanical energy within ion s and the coordinate z are decreasing in the same

the fluid. Consider a particle offuid at some datum with zero potential ( = Eq. (2.11):
0). Then the poientia associated with this fluid in moving to a new location = YP, - P ) + z
(1) is , (Fig. 2.2): , is computed by detailing all the work done on the
fiuid (PP)+
d,=-P', Collect
Note that d must decrease in direction of flow. Theresore. from
the geometry
of the system, e can arrive at Fig. 2.4. If fow direction s is same as cum
+Pa Compress dinate direction z, then
Elevate ds= dz

+P,V Eject -do

(2.7)
+ Accelerate

L
PORQUS
HEDIUM

VP --LOCATION PRIME

E
OR SOME DATUM
Figure 2.3: Frec downward flow. Figure 2.4: Potential change with
Figure 2.2: Particle location. distancc.
 CH. 2 Reservoir Engineoring Concepts in Simulation SEC. 2.1 I gtroductvon

then
EXAMPLE (2] FLOW DOWNWARD WITH HEAD (FIG. 2.5):
f flow direction s is opposite to coordinate dircction z,

P(P- P.um)+ L
ds=-dz

k d P Pa - P+L
. V- d
= H
In Example [1].

Y kd Potential Row

- Pipe flow
Figure 2.5: Downward Mow with
head.
Therefore, setting up limits and integrating:
Thepotentialat poi.tsz = I. andz =
0 arefirst determined, using Eq. (2.11):
PIPmPelt0
= 0
Thus:
At any instant:

From Eq. (2.11):

v-
Then;
PP -P) + I. =L

Pp - ?) +0 =0
Then: whleh gives:

Finally:

Flow rate is

(2.12) The procedure for solving flow potential problems is straightforward

and is summarized below:
This equation can be rearranged to solve for permeability:
1. Select two points, usually one on either side of the porous medium, for
which to write the potential equation
k-1 (2.13) 2. Write the potential terms using Eq. (2.11) and the equation for the

(
 26 CH. 2 Resarvoir Enginectiny Cuncepts in Siulation SEC. 2.1 /nruduetian 2

pressurc due to hydrostatic head: This function is used primarily in gas weil-testing analysis and in singlc-
reservoir models
phase simulators for dry gas. It is not used in the typical
flowing. The efficacy of this cquation is seen by
V(P-P) 4 where gas, oil, and water are
comparing the following two equations:
and
P=P'+ psth -z) 9=m (2.16)
3. Invoke the pipe flow equation get another cquation if
to
needed
(2.17)
(2.14)
Equation (2.16) states that the flow rate is a funetion of 2, a constant depen-
. Equatc fow rates or velocities and solve. dent on rock and spatial dimensions only and the potential gradient, wlhile
Eq. (2.17) states that the flow rate is a function of some pressure P, the vis-
Real Gas Flow-Roal Gas Potential cosity, and the deviation factor in additíon to the pressure gradient. The real
in addition to being more realistic, simplines, the equations
Under ideal conditione the p:operties of most gases are assuined independent gas potential,
Tequirec.
of pressure. This tacit assumpion allows the use of straightforward ideal gas
laws to analyze the behavior of gases. However, under reservoir conditions
no gases behave idcaily, and the cngineer must account for the variations in Concepts in Steady and Unsteady Flow
gas properties with pressure. The major variations usually included in a study
One of the more puzzling concepts to understand both by the experienced
are: flow. The
engineer and the neophytc student is that of steady and unsteady
producing 1000 EPD of
. Viscosity variation with pressure engineer sometimes ponders why he cannot start

fiuid from a reservoir the day after hc starts injecting 1000 BPD of water. This
2. Variation of gas dcviation factor z with pressure
and many more problems are caused by the behavior of fluids within the pore

Until now, analysis of gas fiow uas based upon lincarizations which required space of the rock and are indicated by
the way the pressure responds. Since
parameter, we shall
physical properties evajusted at some average flowing pressure. This assump- pressure is an easily measurable and rcadily recognizable
restrict our treatment of these concepts to the way in which the pressure is
tion implied that fiowing gradients were small, a situation not usually met
ith in real reservoir situations. In order to simplify gas filow analvsis and affected. This discussion could just as well be made using the density of the
incorporate some of the above variations, AL-Hussainy et al." developed a fluid as a parameter.
the
function called the real gas potential. The real gas potential includes pres- To begin, let us trace the path of a ffuid particle meandering through
as shown in Fig. 2.6. The velocity of
the particle is
sure, viscosity, and z-factor as one variable. It is mathematically dcfined as pore spaces of the rock
The acceleration of the particle can be obtained
shown in the diagram by V,.

(2.15)
FLUID
where PARTICLE

P = an arbitrury daium pressure SANO GRAIN

P= pressure of gas
= viscosity

= gas deviation factor PORE SPACE

P'=adunmmy variahle of integration Figure 2.6: Particle moving through porous medium.
 31
30 CH. 2 Reservoir Engineering Concepts in Simuletion SEC. 2.1 1 Introduction

by determining the rate of change of velocity. For example, since V=

f(s, t-i.e., a function of two variables-then
INNER
OUTER SOUNDARY
BOUNDARY
(2.18)
The equation for the total acceleration can be determined:
Figure 2.7: Radial reservoir system.

-)+()# (2.19)
The reservoir remains at equilibrium unless some disturbance occurs
the system
at one

Since dsldt = velocity, Eq. (2.19) can be written : of the boundaries. Depending on the nature of the disturbance,
conditions are:
may or may not reach a steady state. The possible
At the inmer boundary:
-))
The frst term on the right-hand side is the acceleration at a point, while the
(2.20) Constant well bore pressure:

1. Pr..1)= Constant (2.25)

second
follows:
term
is the convectional acceleration. In words, Eq. (2.20) is as
Constant flow rate:
Total Local +Convectional
Acceleration Acceleration Acceleration 2. O ) = Constant (2.26)
/substantial (at a point) /acceleration
derivative or experience if Variable well bore pressure
derivative you moved
following the (with the fuid
fuid motion 3. Pr..)f0 (2.27)
of the
By inspection two terms that correspond tu the total acceleration in
we can predict whether a fow regime is steady cr unsteady. If
Variable flow rate:
Eo (2.20),
4. -g,) (2.28)
(2.21)
then flow is steady. If Shut-in well

(2.22)
S.P).0 (2.29)
then low is unsteady. In terms of pressure, Eqs. (2.21) and (2.22) can be
At the outer boundary:
written
Constant pressure:
Steady fow: (2.23) 6. P r , t ) = Constant (2.30)
Unsteady flow: (2.24) Constant infux across the boundary:

Let us consider a reservoir to be represented by a well of radial symmetry

with a finite well bore radius and some finite outer radius as shown in Fig. 2.7. 7. P Constant (2.31)
 CH. 2 Resorvoir Enyineeing Concepts in Simulatiurs SEC. 2.2 Fluid Typs 33
32

Variable influx rate: 2.2 FLUID TYPES

. OPG-s) 2.32) Reservoir fluids arc classified into three groups depending on their comprcs-
sibility. In some cases these classifications are arbirary and are only made for
the purpose of simplifying the assumptions. The groups are:
Closed outer boundary:
. Incompressiblc
9. =0 (2.33) 2. Slightly compressible
3. Compressible
Infhnite reser VAir syáiam: Incompressible fluids have a consiant density. Slightly compressihle fuids
have a measurable change of density with pressure, and compressible fiuids
10. lim Pr,1) = P (2.34) have a significant density change with pressure. See Fig. 2.9. In reservoir

As the well is produccd. the pressure around the inner radius begins to dirop
cOMPRESS18LE
and the decreased preszure wave moves outward to the limits of the reservoir.
The pressure profile as a function of time is shov*n in Fig. 2.8.

TAANS TENT FLOW (UNST[ADY) SLIGHTLY CoMPRESS IBLE

1NCOMORSS 1BLE

StEADY STATE
FLOW
Press yT

caleulations the compressibility tern1 is evidence by the formation volume

factors.
The equation of state used in the development of the diffusion-iype ecia-
tion later involves the density/pressure relation
Figure 2.8: Radial pressure prafile.

P.Poef-P) .36)
Several combinations of inner and outer boundary conditions could pro-
duce a steady-state fow pattern; in contrast, there are some conditions which where
preclude the existence of steady-state Aow. Under the following conditions,
steady-state fow cannot be obtained. If the outer boundary is closed, i.e., Ccompressibility

Podatumpressure
P- (2.35) P any pressure

then no mass crosses the boundary and the reservoir will continue to deplete For incompressible fluids:
at all times, c 0
To achieve a steady-state flow regime, there must be some support for the
system in terms of influx or a constant pressure. This is achieved in practice Then:

by the presence of an aquifer adjacent to the oil reservoir. P Por forall P

34 CH. 2 Reservoir Engineering Conceptsin Simulation SEC. 2.3 Flow in Porous Me die

and relative permne-

For slightly compressible fluids: Relative permeability is a function of fluid saturation,
a
ability curves have a characteristic shape (see Fig. 2.10). Belowor given
value,
nonwetting
the relative permeability for either the wetting
of saturation this point of saturation,
there
Then: phase is zero. Therefore, up to and including
will be zero:
will be no flow of that particular phase sinee its mobility
P = PperiP-P,) (2.37)
Note: 0
V=k , since k
-1+*+i+1t (2.38)
1.0
eP1 + eP -- P) +| . (2.39)

Since c0, neglect higher-order terms

p-P= I+ c(PPo)
p poll+ (P- P,)N
Po t Poc(AP)
= (2.40)

Fluids which can be esented by Eq. (2.40)) are classified as slightly

compressible. These include most reservoir oils and reservoir waters.
Figure 2.10: Relative permeabil-
For compressible fuids.8 gases -the truncation the series
of
expan-
sion of the exponential is not valid, and the complete equation is used.
ity curve. wirr

critical saturation (S.). This

This saturation is called the critical point or
it will be discussed later in Section 9.5 on
feature should be remembered, and
2.3 FLOw IN POROUS MEDIA history matching.

Multiphase Flcw: In satursted porous media, tlhere can be as manv

fluid Relative perincability data are "sually
three fuid phases present. To understand more fully the behavior of these
Two-Phare Relative Permeabil:ity: cures. However, this
as
obtained from laboratory investigations on suitable
fAuids within the porous medium, we derive the system of equations which suitable approximations must be derived.
source may be lacking and some
govern the motion of these fluids. The multiphase flow equations and depend on the process which
are non-
These approximations are determined for
lincar partial differential equations which are not capable of being integrated Two approximations often used are the fol-
the reservoir is undergoing.
first define
by analytical means. To fully develop the flow equations we should lowing:
some new concepts.

In rocks saturated with more than one fluid, the

1 . Corey approximation*
Relative Permeability: Displaced-phase relative permeability:
ability of cach to move
fluid under an applied pressure gradient is a function
is defned
of the relative permeability of that phase. The relative permeability k =(1 S)'
fluid given saturation to
as the ratio of the permeability of the rock to the
at a

when 100% saturated with the given Auid:

the permeability Displacing-phase relative permeability :

kS(2- 3)
S'2-5)
 SEC. 23 Fiow in Porous Media 37
GH. 2 Reservoir Enginenting Cutnceptain Simuletion

flow in which
wlieic Stone' has developed a very clegant model of three-phase
of channel flow in media with probability
he combines the theory porous
S a normalized saturation function concepts to obtain a simple result for determining the relative permeability
1o oil in ihe presence of water
und gas flowing. This model has enjoyed rela-
measurcd data und
7his approxim:lion is good sor drainage processes-c.g., a gas drive tively wide acceptance because of its ability to reproduce
where the saturation of the wetting phase is being decreased. the simplicity of its form.

2. Naar-Henderson approximations The threc-phase nodel is developed from two-phase data. The rcquired
daia consist of a set of oil/water relative permeability
data and oil/gas relative
From the two ses of data the values of k,. k, and k,o
25) permeability data.
are determined.
The values of k,, obtained from Fig. 2.11 and k, obtuined from Fig. 2.12
k S
where
are used directly in the three-phase model (Fig. 2.13):

S(S)

This aprovimatien is good for imbibition process¢s-.g, water drives

wheie the turation of the wetting phaseis being increusea.

1hese approximations are all functions of a "normalized" saturation S row

which was defined above. The type of function depends on the type of system
being modeled. The enginer is at liberty to modify the equations for relative
permeabiliiy by making the required changes in the exponents which would
makc the relative permeability data more ciosely duplicate that of the reser
oir. A general equation could be the followirg:
Figurc 2.12: Oil 'gas Iclative veT
rclative
Figure 2] i: Oil/wäler
k (1-sy Drainage processes permeability.
meability.

knDS(2- S) GAS
3nd

2.S
Imbibition process
kOD S
where n,A, ,p, and q are exponents which can be appropriately determined
by a Irial-and-error process. NATER 1002 01L
This trial-and-error process will be explored further in history matching curve.
when the correct relative permeability curve is being sought to match the Figure 2.13: Composite three-phase
reservoir performance.
is obtained with the following equation:
The oil relative permeability
Phree-phase Relative Permeability:- Up to this time we have considered
phiy iwo Huds fowing simultaneously, as evidenced by the typical relative k r ( r + k,-X%re+k,)-(&r k,)
permeability plots. In a simulation model we must be able to predict the
be-
havior of all three phases flowing simultaneously within the porous medium. such that k,. 20.
38 CH. 2 Reservoir Engineering Concepts in Simulation 38
CH. 2 1 Bibliography
The inequality must be satisfied. It is
possible that the calculated value for
kro is less than zero, in which case k,.= 0 and no oil flows where:
This equation provides a good fit to experimental data except in the regions
of high water saturation and low gas saturation.

k=relative permeability to oil

k = relative permeability to gas
REFERENCES
k. = relative permeability to water
1. H. DaRCY, Les Fontaines publiques de la ville de Dijon (Paris: Victor Dalmont,
kro relative permeability to oil in oil/water system 1856).
krorelative pérmeability to oil in gas/oil system 2. M. KiNG HUBBERT, "Darcy's Law and the Field Equations of the Flow of
Underground Fluids," Trans. AIME (1956), 207, 222-39.
The defining equation for k. is developed as follows: 3. R. AL-HusSAINY, H. J. RAMEY, JR., and P. B. CRAWFORD, "The Theory of the
Real Gas Potential," SPE Paper 1243-A. Society of Petroleum Engineers of
fow
The
in
channel
channel
theory postulates that one and only inonethemobile phase exists AIME, Denver (Oct. 1965); R. AL-HussAINY and H. J. RAMEY, JR., "Applica-
each at given time: The wetting phase
a smaller channels
and the nonwetting phase in the larger channels, these two phases being
tion of the Real Gas Potential," SPE Paper 1243-B, SPE of AIME, Denver
(Oct. 1965).
separated by the intermediate phase. Extending this concept to the porous
4. M. B. STANDING, Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oil Field Hydrocarbon Sys
medium as a whole, the relative permability of a phase is the composite of
an infinite number of contributions of cach little channel.
tems (New. York: Reinhold, 1952).
5. A. T. COREY, C. H. RATHJENS, J. H. HENDERSON, and R. M. J. WYLLIE, "Three
Let introduce the Phase Relative Permeability," Trans. AIME (1956), 207 349-51.
us probability concept by defining:
6. J. NAAK, R. J. WYOAL, and J. H. HENDERsON, "Imbibition Relative Permeability
in Unconsolidated Porous Media," Soc. of Pet. Eng. Journal, AIME (1962),
O.krow+k 11-13.
which is the summation of the relative permeability to oil and relative per 7. H. L. STONE, "Probability Model for Estimating Three-phase Relative Perme-
meability to water in an oil/watèr system. The value a, is equal to 1.0 at
S.=l - S e As the water saturation increases, a, will tend to change;thus,
ability," J. Pet. Tech. (1970), 1-214-18

i s saturation-dependent. The term o (S) is a fraction of the total relative

permeability at S, and it can be considered the probability that these con- BIBLIOGRAPHY
tributions are still open to flow al a given S. Similarly, o, and o,(S) are
defined: AL-HusSAINY, R., H. J. RAMEY, JR., and P. B. CRAWFURD, "The Flow of Real Gases
Through Porous Media," SPË of AIME (1966), 1-624.
K r o +k ANDRE, H., and D. W. BENNION, "A Transform Approach to the Simulation of
Transient Gas Flow in Porous Media," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (June 1970), 135-39.
Since water displacing oil and gas displacing oil are occurring at different
places at the same time, these two processes are assumed to be independent ARONOFSKY, J. S., and R. A. JENKINS, "A
Simplified Analysis of Unsteady Radial
Gas Flow,"J. Pet. Tech. (July 1954), 23-35.
events, and the total probability of the events occurring is then the product of
AUFRICHT, w. R., and E. H. Pressure
cach individual probability. Thus, the fraction of the total relative perme KoEr, "The Interpretation of Capillary
Data from Carbonate Reservoirs," SPE of AIME (1957), 402.
ability remaining is:
BAPTIST, OREN C. and EuOT J. WHTE, "Clay Content and Capillary Behavior of
Wyoming Reservoir Sands," SPE of AIME (1957), 414.
kt +k=O BLAIR, P. M., "Calculation of Oil Displacement by Countercurrent Water Imbibi
=
(ko + k,Xko + k,) tion," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Sept. 1964), 195-202.
BoURGOYNE, A. T. Ja., B. H. CaUDLE, and O. K. KIMBLER, "The Effect of inter
This equation is solved for k, facial Fils on the Displacement of oil by Water in Porous Media," SPE of
AIME (1972), I1-60.
k k r + k-Xk + k)- (k, +k)
 3 Formulation of
Reservoir Simulation Equations

3. 1 INTRODUCTION

Some engineers experience "conceptual shock=· in going from the real-world

reservoir to the simulation model within the computer. This experience is a
by-product of a need perpetuated by engineers for some physical working
base, a need nurtured by many yean of "shop" opcraton who stressed, to
the point of dogma, that a model is a small-scale reproduction. In practice
we now know that a model can be "anything" that will allow us to infer the
bcba~"! •: ~ of a system from its performance (as discussed in Chapter 1).
Jn t'rdcr to allay this shock ltt us unfol<! the basis of reser,oir simulation
in common language and then ex.tend this by the use of more definitive mathc-
maticaJ terminology. Consider a system represented by Fig. 3.1. This system
consists of 1 portion of the universe which is separated from the rest by a.
definite boundary. The system exists in space (x-, y~. z-dimcnsions) and in
time (t). This it a finite 1ystem. We can make several observations about this
system.
I. Anything that enters or leaves the system must c:roes the boundary.
2. At some Initial time the system could bo described by some !let of con,
ditions.
3. The processes which occur within the system obey some known phy-
sical Jaws and consequently can be described by some set of conditions.
The above observation, allow us to describe in abstract terms the beha.vior
of the system, 0"9etv1tlon I 1ivea u1 the 6oundnr1 tt11tfllt/on,. Theee sr,ell out
•
41

..
 4f
CH . l / fCKmut.tion ol Ho~•~olr ::;1m1.1la1ion [quotior1' SEC. 3.:t I Dt1i~,t1,m1 of Equ,tio,11

processes wi1hin the ,ystem to the best of our ability and in that we do not
always havr complete knowledge of the minutest working of the system. We
PltO{tS!.I.~ ---♦ ~""'~limes hypothesize. Consider the system again as shown in Fig. 3.3.

I
HYPOlHEll CAI.
Ficvre 3.1 1 S)-itcm. WIIIOOW

the interaction between the probl~m domain and the rest of th~ world . It can
be viwaliu:d from the followin~. Consider some independent parameter P Fiaare 3.J : Sya\Cffl proccucs.
of the system shown in Fig. 3 ..2.
If there were a hypothetical "window," we could look into the system at
\ random locations and record exactly what we sec and then try to associate
these processes with the physical laws that apply. These laws may govern
fl: ;iJ {low, energy con.:ervation, and the like. By definio& the physica~
t: •.1t apply. we can tl,en formulate the r.1athcmaliol equations w~ch govern
the processes within the system. These govtrning tquations form part of the
t model of the system.
'
I '--}llhe complete mathematical model is then a combination of:
FiQw-c J.l: Dou11dary conditions. \·
1. Governing equations
2. Boundary conditions
Within A to C we h~,vc observed that no Rux crosses the boundary, im- 3. Initial conditions
plying a z.cro gradient or physically some "insulated" -surface. Between A
and B we have a known flux entering, and this flux is reprclicnted by some
value K. From C to B the boundary is defined by a fixed value of the inde- ~ .RIVATIONS OF EQUATIONS ' ·'
pendent parameter. Thus ~pccifying conditions A - C -- B -- A , we have
completely described the contact the system makes with the rest of the world. To undersland the flow of fluids in porous media we must be able to post u-
Observation 2 allows us to describe the state of tnc systtm at zero time. late ~ome system of equations which govern the behavior of these fluids .
All systems in equilibrium at 1.ero time will remain thr.t way unless some Having developed such a system of equations. we can then analyze the effect
disturbance occurs. A classically appropriate example is an oil reservoir; it of var\'ing conditions on the flow behavior.
remains undisturbed and at rest until the first well is drilled. This causes a Tt;c basic equations are obtained by combining several physical princi-
disturbance (a local pressure sink) of the normal equilibrium, to which the ples, namely :
reservoir begins to react by readjusting its pressure and flow patterns across
the m.crvoir. This initial state is described by initial co11di1ions, which tnke I. Conservation of mass I\
n
'
the following cencral form : '.! . Conservation of momentum (.
3. Com.er\'ation of energy (first la\>.' of thermodynamics)
P(x, y, z) = q, 4. R11tc equations-Da rcy's 111w If.
5. Equ:uions of st11te
where e i, some constant or a function of the ,pace: dimensions .Jc~ribing
As indicated in the previous section, the governing equations together
the parameter distribution at zero time .
with the necessary boundary conditions and initial conditions form the math-
ObKrvation 3 is more than an observation in the strictest sense . lt more
ematical model for our system. To solve this mathematical model we need
closely rnemblcs a hypothesis in that we have to descrit,c the behavior of the
 4!'
Cti . J / Formi.lltion of Ho,,1111oir ~imul111ion [quatioru; SEC. 3.2 / Deriv•ti.,ns of £qu•tioM
44

processes within the system to the best of our ability and in that we do not
always havt" complete knowledge of the minutest working of t_he s~tc_m. We
PNOClS~ F.S-- - -+ sonii:.-times hypothesize. Consider the system again as shown m Fig. -,,3.

HYPOTHETICAL
WINDOW
Ficurc 3.1 : Sy~tc!.-n.

the interaction between the probl:::m domain and the rest of the world. It can
be viiuali1.cd from the following. Consider some independent parameter P Flave 3.3: System proccucs.
of the system shown in Fig. 3._2.
Jr there were a hypothetical "window," we could look into the system at
rar.Jom locations and record exactly what we sec and then try to associate
HO FLUX ~ • 0 these Noccsscs with the physical laws that apply. These laws ma ovcrn
flniJ fio\i.<;' energy con:ervation, and the like. By de ning the physical Jaw~
t;o1i apply, we can then formulate the r.1athematic:d equations wh;ch govern
the processes within the system . These go,•erning equa1io11s f~rm part of the
~''. ' ~ ~ " ' " ' ~ ~
'"
1
a ____
.
or ~

p • p.
t model of the system .
~ The complete mathematical model is then a combination of:
Figure J.2: Bouudary condition5.
I. Governing equations
2. Boundary conditions
Within A to C we have observed that no flux crosses the boundary, im- 3. Initial conditions
plying a zero gradient or physically some "insulated" ..surface. Between A
and B we have a known flux entering, and this flux is represented by some
value K . From C to B the boundary is defined by a fixed ,·alue of the inde- ~RIVATIONS OF EQUATIONS ' ·'
pendent parameter. Thus specifying conditions A - C -- B _,.. A, we have
completely described the contact the system makes with the rest of the world. To understand the fl.ow of fluids in porous media we must be able to postu-
Observation 2 allows us to describe the state of tne system at zero time. late ~ome system of equations which govern the behavior of these fluids.
All systems in equilibrium at zero lime will remain th:it way unless some Having developed such a system of equations, we can then analyze the effect
disturbance occurs . A classically appropriate example is an oil reservoir; it of var\'ine: conditions on the flow behavior.
remains undisturbed and at rest until the first well is drilled. Thfa causes a Th~ b~sic equations are obtained by combining several physical princi-
disturbance (a local pressure sink) of the normal equilibrium, to which the- ples, namely:
reservoir begins to react by readjusting its pressure and flow patterns across
the reservoir. This initial state is described by initial conditions, which take I. Conservation of mass n
I\
the following genernl form: .., Conservation of momentum f-.
3. Conservation of energy (first la\Y of thermodynamics)
P(x, y, z) = 4> 4. Rate equations-Darcy's law IL
5. Equations of state
where 4> is some constant or a function of the space dimensions describing
the parameter distribution at zero time . As indicated in the previous section, the governing equations together
Observation 3 is more than an observation in the strictest sense. It more with chc necessary boundary conditions and initial conditions form the math-
closely resembles :i hypothesis in that we have to describe the hehavior of the ematical model for our system. To solve this mathematical model we need
46 Ct( 3 / Formul:ition of Resorvolr Simulotlon Equ111ions ;JJ
SEC. 3.2 / Dtrlv11/on1 of Equotlon:1
to determine the values of the independent parameters which satisfy all the The total process involved in setting up the simulation equations is sum-
governing equations and boundary conditions simultaneously. In general, marized in Fig. 3.6.
we have two choices: analytical or numcncal methods. The former arc not
used because the governing equations arc highly nonlinear and arc impos- PROCESS OVERVIEW
sible of solution by today's theoretical methods. Numerical methods arc more
adaptable to solving these equations. DARCY'S LAW
Duivation O~rview: The process involved in derivation of many of CONSERVATION Of MSS
these equations consists of the following steps: THREE PHASE FLOW
I. Select an elemental volume of the system (sec Fig. 3.4). PRESSURE EQUATION
,.._. J.f1 Procctt owrvtew. SATURATION EQUATION
§ Singl1°P!J111 Flow
□ l•D The equation governing the single•phase ftow of a fluid through a poro-.is
~- .
medium is developed.... by combining
. --: -· .. ..
the following:
1. Contervation of M lis5
~ 2. Rate equation
~ 3, Equation of State
Q tM>IAl SPHERICAL Conservation of Mass: Consider an element of a reservoir through which
f'il,we 3.4: Elemental volumes.
a single phase is flowing in the x-dircction (Fig. 3. 7). Than at any instant:
2. Write all the fluxes into and out of the elemental volume over an in- Mass rate in - Mass rate out = Mass rate of accumulation
- ~
terval of time, keeping a strict sign convention (Fig. J.5).
(v.p. Ay l,,.z) - (v .. u,,p ..... .1y llz) = (Ax .:'\_v lu>f,(p,."".... -, P,) {~.1)
l Dividing Bq. (3.1) by t:u, fly fl::
_ (vuA•P• .,..) - (vJ!.d.-= f<p,~., - P.,) () 2)
-~- 4x At ·
l Plpr1 3.5: Au,c dlroctions. ·Take the limit ns {~;} go to zero simultaneously:
3. Equate the fluxes to the changes within the system during this time--
i.e .• conserve mass within the system. a~:e> _ -~* (3.3)
4. T11kc the limit over an illltant u the elemental volume shrinks to nn
iilfinitesilnal 1lu. This Involves:
llmAr --o ,._.U IN--Qj-S} %, 01
l,,.x-o
~- The rcsultinJ diff'omitial equation i• the required governing equation. '. Flprt J.71 Mau balance on element.
 . •i
1
48
S&C. 3.2 I Oeriv,tio ns of Eqtution •
. •lfi Cli . 3 / Furm11!111lon of 1Cw$111'110 lr Sim11lt1io11 Eq1J~tion •
ly: and
. This is the comi11uity cquatio11 in a linear system. Similar
!P.. aP
,~ J1' Tt
at --- ~
ar,,n) (3.4)
--,L = -- ~ (.-
11j' ' Thcr~forc,
". o(,; n) - .J up k a:p k oPol '~) ao i)p .
(3 .5) (3.11)
" t1T =- -.,,r, ·-·( -;; a;/i ·" + ..ii rx rx aP = ·-t/J tvai
-[!:. ~-(;p dp_ ~!' (3.IZ)
Th\:n for titree-<ii11;en~ionml n~w:
. a:p + ~µ 11 Tx
)i] = _t>a1Tr
. µ Jxi"
,,
~ 1 (3:6) 1 small pres.ure
iif, e> + a~p) ._ a~e> = -•u
di Z
Neglec ting lhe (iJP/dx) term, ,incc we arc 1oing lo a,.umc
X )' ·- 1:
gradients. Eq . (3 . 12) becom e,, by multiplication through Ly
Rutr Equation : Darcy' s law rrlatcs the Vc.!locity to the pressur e gradien t: k a;p ~iP
" (3 .13)
µ Txi p = '~, Tt
- k ol' . .(~,?) .- ..- ,· :··...
V = -µf; :
Pividin g bo1h ~i<lcs b:v dens;ty :
Then. iUbilil Ulillf l;q. (3 .7) into Eq . (3.3) : ~ ~lp = ~ J... i/!_ ap (3.141
,- µ oxl p oPTt
a By definition , the compre ssibilit y is as follows:
µ (3.8)
k Tx
a(-
al' P)_ = -;'!ff
,,
Lj11.ititm of Smr~: The equatio n of slate is needed to e)>prc~s
the den sity c= ! *
i11 t1mns uf f'r'\!5'Ur~- Mo•l oil field liquid sy•toms are consid ered
to be: sligh1ly :
This is indic:i1cd in tile graph of p versus Pin Fig. 3.!( . Thrn
L<'mpressiblc. In thh case, the equatio n of state is:
k a;p aP {3. i5)
p "·= Poc'i1· .-1.1 U .'J) O)C"
-µ T"'i = ficr,I
\\htre Si,1ce klµ was cnnside rcd independent of lipalial uimen~•on:
p = den,ity ., J'FCiiUf C p aip _ ;µc iP (3.16)
qxr- T1i ~
Po dentity at pro11ur-c P 0
=
c - i,othtr mal comprcsfibility f•ctor If k/µ were a functio n of the spatial dimens ion, them :
c ~ - ~(it a( k ap)
(3.17)
~ T,
µTx = •ciP
left-ha nd side:
Equiati on 3.8 can be written as follows by expand ing the
k i'P , k iJp~) !P_ (3.10)
- ( µ "'JxiP-:- µ Tx ox = -•01
Note that: ~
~ = !P. ,,
~11 Tx Fill\lfe 3.K: /I VC!ril.lS P.
ax
 7
~t' CH . 3 / Fotmulatlon of R1ttt1rvolr Silhul11 !i<>n f<;ua1ic1115 ~,
S(C. 3 .3 I Otrivation of MultlpholJ /'lr,w £ti11dtld1ts C
Equation (3.16) is generally called the dij]i,si•·it)' eq11ation because of its rcscm ·
blancc to the difl\.t9i\'ity equation for heat trnni:fcr :
C
d 2T I 4T (J.18)
C
fir= "i,"T, Oil 1'A5~ .IIA tl
-I~
,. - --
'
·1 - - - • (IIL f'Jl~S ~\!£
..... • !J!)!
OthEr Coordl1rt1rt Sym:m.f :
- ' ' -- C
c;
12P + ..!._ dP _ ♦ µc oP RRdial flow FIIIUN 3,101 Oil mus balance on element .
Tri ~Tr-TTt
1ap +'ap fEE.OP flowing in a linear system:
c
Two-dimensional (3 . 19)
Ji1 'ljf"? k Tr
Mass rate in - Mus rate out - Mass rate of accumulation
11 P + 11 P · 01 P = ;µc oP Three-dimensional e
Txl ~•TzT TTt Thus :
The typical reservoir configurations for the above equations are shown 1
In FiA. 3.9. .•. ..._:: ···.·.. .· c:: v[(~·•' -= (3 ,20) c
- ,..- ·.. . " _, -- l!._~.t. 5t ., µ~i It At
(-:iAi~) - (-A~$E) H·• (t) ~j
-1\ ~ 7, ·-··::·c:;
where ..
-~ A E Ay A~ c:: ►
Y =" l!t.!it Aj tu:
Equation (3 ,20) bMoml!I in the limit:
·)
AA!IIAL
A-CM.
8 ( k IP) = 8 (f$•)
ti µ,).Ji Tt s; () .21)
c.
F~t a radial system t"e equlvalel'll system I~:
..!.. iJ (,...&. "') - ,, (f~,) (3.22)
c.:
r Tr #.Bo Tr - Tt 8 0
Gas: A mass bnlance on the glls phase must include all possible so1irccs
of gas (Fig. 3.11). For a linear system we can wrilc : C:
P1c-- J,,: Radial, areal, and three-dimensional sy~tems. Mass rate in - Mass rate out = Mass rate or accumulation C::-.......: :
Each of the sources of gas as indlcat~ in Fig. 3.11 is incorporated in· the
./J.3 DERIVATION OF. MULTIPHASE FLOW mnss rate term . fhus: c.::
J EOUATI0NS1 -
[-A(_&_+ R,aka + R..,k.)iJPJ -[-A(.!:...._+ R,.ko + R,.k·)'PJ C',
The flow eaoh ph111 is developed identically to thnt scheme outlined for
ror µ,B, µ.B. µ.B. Tx ., . µ,B,. µ.B. µ.B. 1x ••b~
fltto Ob 011
a singlc-phul fluid . sas In In C:
oil water
Oil: Startin1 with an clement of the reservoir, the basic equation for oil 1
;(§.i + R..S. + ¥)•• _ (~ + R~ -t- R,.,S..,)•]
flow is doriwd by combining the· continuity equation, the Darcy flow equa-
Ci9n, and ~uatlen g( sta._ (see Fig, 3.10). Usln3 a balance on the STB oil = V [ "3!!L Ji;" x A, · 1 B. -r.- (3 .23)
' } ~
~
 ',
~

~
t,3
OU . 3 / Fo1!l111"11 ion of tio~o,voi1 Sffi1l!la1io11 ~111.1tl i9ns SIX. J ,:; / Qt11iv.;tivn uf Mutcf11l,,11c rtov, ~q11otiiuu

& Tln~1,:

a
I·
IHloiS Ii.UC
F'IIH ~s
. *,·(,$". . s. + S.J = 0 (J .24)

a ---<MASS ~TE
Prcuure grudicnt:; arc assumed , mall and the iqUarc of this term is neglected:

e ----- GAS IN OIL

(3.30)

8 _L ~5S MT£
~~s ~fr The derivation is as follows in radial coordlnata. Multiply the oil equation
~ ~ r:- fiol.S IN ~TU
l1lSS Mn or ACtllltlUl ION Of
GA5 IN WAlER
(Eq. J.22) by B. and cxp:1nd b)' diffcr~ntiation:
fl[[ ~$
W.S IN Oil
w IN WATER
~ -- Fl11w, 3.Jt; Gt-J IN.O 1lal:in1.:.:·,.in-&n*iil
e, ;33 1)
" ·hich bQc.uH:-:> s in tho limit.
~. {_
'fl;u, :
(3.24)
~

• For a radial sy1Lc:m the following equation is obtained:

•
Neglecting (dP/ar) 2 term~, fq . (3.32) becomes

...•
..
y
'
-

Wut<'r · The water phauc i, eucutially the ,am~ as the oil phase. For a
linc,ur ~ystcm :
(3.25)

which is:

(3 .34)

...... (3.26)

•• (3.27)
The gas equation (Eq . 3.25) is multiplied by B. and expanded as above :

.... • - f
• "p•n•lon ~n R•di•I :°'m
t

.
, 1:hc gcncrahttd _multtphue ftow equation for the unstcady-1aa1e ftow or oil,

• ., ,.,.,.
~s, and water in a ~rou~ medium is developed by comb1nang the three
single-phase flow equations into one basic equation. To do this several other
observations arc made. Fint, for all phases the following is true :

s. + s, + s. = 1
•
(.\28)
 5j;
CH. 3 / ~ttttiltft!ll'III t;f !l!!~i"rvoir S!rr1Ul!lt lf:II Etillet1r111, SEC. ~,,1 I n('•fthl!/tm "' MtJltlfJ""~ fl1'W F.t7,1:1!/rms
~-
Collecting terms :
~o/ Since
2 S, + s. + S.. =' l (3.28)
...L.
~)a:p + ~ ~ aR .. (ap): + k. ~ a:,- (aP)
0 B. · µ, Tri µ 8 7P Tr
(k.µ. R ..BB. + kµ... R,..B, Jt. 8. P Tr
0 0 (3.29)
f,(s, +
s. + S,.) = 0
2
_ k. ~ as.(aP) &..!.. ~(ap)! _
µ, B, dP Tr I
~~(ap)! _ k.µ,.B.
µ. B. dP Tr 7F Tr
the right-hand side of Eq. (3.40) reduces to
✓+ (~. R.B, + k .. R,.B, + ~)..!.. oP = ;(s.B, oR,. - R,.S?B' as. I
'\µ B. 0 µ. B. µ. r Tr B0 7P B; 7P
RHS R_,.B.) + ~ aR,. _ s. aa.,,(t + R, ..B,) (
B. dP B. ?Ii B., 7Ji B.,
= ,[- ~ ~(1 + T.
~i + sf, ~R.. _ R,.SiB' as. _ ~ ~) aP Tt
,. ~ B.. "°U 111 dP
(3.41)
.+ Sj~' 8-b., _t. ~]¥, + R,~• 1!' + RF.~
+ ♦( ¥.1 ~ + /t.,~· ~ + ¥,t) (3.36)
Now, by substituting Eq. (3.34) and Eq. (3.38) into Eq. (3.41), the left-hand
Neglecting (oP/or) 2 terms in the above equation: -
sic!~ is rt-~olved partially in terms of f, (+i) and saturation, dependent
(~~ + k.. ~ + ~)(aip +..!..OP)=~(~ ~R,-: ~·vSrB· oB. on time:
\µ. B. µ. B.. T,-f
µ1 r Tr B. ll B • . Jp '
_ R,.S.,,B1 iJB. _ ~ ~) oP 0 0 _ 0
+ S,.81 dR,.. k., + ~) + [R,.B, (as S ~ iJP)]"
B rJP Tt
µ,0 B. Tt 0
r
aP) (kµ + µ.
J... a (, Tr
Tr
B.. oP B; l l B1 dP Tc '
+•(&A as.. +$.) (3.37) S., iJB.. iJP)J; = ; (- ~ aa. + ~ ~
dt B., B ll B. dP 0

+ [R, .. B, (as. - 'J;71"Tt

B. dt
~+ R1,.s, Tt Tt
iJP + R"B' ~ ~ aP
The water equation (Eq. 3.27) is multiplied by B.,, and expanded like the _ s. as.. + s..s, aff _ ~ ~) Tt B. _ B. '1P Tt
B, '11'
J4 "1P B,.
oil equation to yield:
~.JJ. ~ + R,.. B, as.. (3.42)
B.. dt 8., Tt
_ s. aa .. R,.,B, iJP + Ji;"
k,. iPP + k.. aP 1 •(as,. s.. as.. aP) (3.38) B,,ll Tt
µ. T,T µ .. Tr
r = Tt - B.,, 7P -~!
Collecting like terms in Eq. (3.42) an:! letting
~ombining the oil and water equation~, Eq. (3.33) and Eq. (3.38), we have. ;
1 _,_ s.. aa.,, aP)J c aR,., _ ~~ (3.43) f:',.
aP)-=-"' •[as.+ as. _(~ aa. aP R fJP 8,.
= _s. an.+ s,s, al;-~ aa.. ..._ s..!!~ 7P
' B. uJi 80 B. 7F ' 1
r Tr
(~ + ~)(aT,ip •· ...!..
/t 0 µ,. Tt Tt 8 aP Tr ' ~ °"1P T, ~ 0
(3.39) ~
lht!h I!q. (3.42) becoml!s
"' Combinina Eqs. (3.37) arid (3.39), . we have:
' .: .!. a (r a P) (.!.) R,.B. ~_ ; s,R n, ~ aP+ (, RjB' as..
r µ , di B.1 dP Tt ., Tt
+; T
ap)(& + k,. or Tr
r
aip + ..!... Tr
(""Tri µ.
+ ~~ + ~ &,b + k,. R,B.,,..B,)
p. µ, µ. JJ. µ.. f:;
_ lf,R,.,81 S. 8B., iJP = ;(c, iJP t- ~ ~ R,.B, oP
B,. J;...,,. Tt Tt B. dP B. T,
= ;[(~ + %- + ~)-¼.~(l ~
. + R8~•)
. + s9~, ~ iJP + RJB·$+ R,a,as,.)
• Tt
(J.44)
• di
-~~~---,;- Tt
B-. di' (:'
• --k~( t +Rt·)+ ¥.*- -t.~]~
(3.40) where(!.)
µ I
= k. + ~ + !A. Total mobility!
µ, µ,. Pt ~
u.. !£
+ -.;- • 7f
,, + RI'' a$.
f::'
-
 f,'"/
c:~,:,11on~ Sr{ ._ .! I M 1, l1 1corr;,_;unc 11t Systems
( •~ 3 / FormuJotior, of Ht :f.£- rvuir ~. ,: :· ;i1, ,, , , i

, , :, 11,:c.:l -
1 ,n I·,_ ,:atur., ?ion cq u.i tion (Eq. 3.29) to obtain :
Collect inr Iii-. ,' 1,~111 ,· 111 l. q . 1:-.44)a nd simplify ing the- Lq1 ,., ,,·
i11f. equal ,~rm • -·! 1 . .. ,1, "- ,,

ct . iJP) ( k)
;I a,.
aP
! . a; -,, = ¢,c,-J, (3.55)
. It

Fi11 a liy :
\\"h,·r,- ; i11: i.-\ ;1r1:~hic s ar-e mobilit y term, . p .., ·aria hi.-,. arc function£ of l'VT
I d (r ,U-:._) _ d,c, di' ipr,· - , urc.:-, " lu :nr -11;111pcraturc) terms, and ft 1 -, ariahlc, art
produd ion tcfOl ~-
r lJ, °Jr - (kfµ), Tt include the y-coor-
f -::- 1,, .,-c;i mc n~ional !low, Eq. (3 .55) "<''-l';r nu,·d I,)
l·.'-iu ;11.10n J111 ;1t .:: h:Jll) ,,
Tl11~ equatio n as,un ,.: , 1li;11 mnbiliti cs do nol vary wi1h rJ,J,u, .
equatio n fnr nil . l':t' . an ,1 •.1:1H•r metho\l , w , ,,in the i.imuhn or equa,-
(3 .4ti) i~ lhe threc-r! ,.:, ,· u11,1t ·:1<ly- ,1a1c flow ,<.. ~--l 1,11:111 1 1:,di11e: Tne two busic
1 t111< lquat 10n gives the value~ 01 p1 c, -,ur,·- : ;1 :11ly .-'\ br:,' I ,-,utlme of one melhod
!l,I a raJral sy~l~m . ,<;. '" ,11,. t 1\l i.:, ., ,,: ,._. ·•., ; ni in more detail in Chapin ~
radius at any umc . I l:i, cqu :11, o n forms the basis for prl',,urc
;in ," '- -,, o f
I' i~ pr, ,:,, 1.:,i ,;·, J·ig. 3 . 12 to introdu ce the cn r ,11•: ,·1 , ., t h.: procedu
re.
muhiph a,;e flow.

~pan: ;ion in Oor /Ji11w11 1"imwl Forms : Giveon the equ :.ui.-,ns f,1r C'&Cl': I·
fluid ph~se in a one-Jirn ensio11 ;1I ~ystcm : !
a ( :. -, a<1>._ J, + qo a ("'s) ,,,-;:;,;:r I
A,
µ_,H_, a.,
-i ·-.
O .~
--- · · - _- =
0
VA---r. ~
ut B.
Oil I ~.47)
FOAHULi., i ~~I

FOP. LI :> ~.
I
01 FFCREk U , oo• ri l)!;··
~ J r' f I

j ; _.~;')
I_________
r : :, ~: ~ '-t::· !
:-- ·:·-.:.. :
T -- - - - ·

,____ _ ___._ ----- - - - --- -7

s~nik.mo::~ :•i'~~!~=~::".::J

; , r t'•,cp ·._ ,11 . fr;

\Ve c.in c0mbin e r h,·, c· u, ,Jt:-t ;;iin the equatio ns for fltiw i 11
d.-,
lhi~. iw,, n,··r. , .. , 11ccd to cxpreis some acce;.;~01 > l" •."•n, i11 ,,, 11 , .
urd.-:r to Fi;!1m· 3.1 ~: Pro.::edurc outline for
6
The potentia l tern 1, :tr, d.-iincd as : ~,, i:!i i4.."':1 ,,! :i r\\\' equation.

<?>,, " Po + PuSh () .SO)

+ p,gh I::: .Si) ~ULT ICOM PONE NT SYSTEMS'-~
<!>, __., P,
between
IP, -' P., + p.gh 0.52) In s,mH' hyJr,xa rbon systems there is considc rahl ~ mass transfer
This mass transfer compli, 'Jl\' ~ ,he ;tircady comple x
tht· Jl,11,·ing pnases .
mass balance must be made on c,·er_v flo,nng fraction instead
The capillar y pressur e terms arc :: sys1em. sint·e a
l'f on each phase. In a reservoir system tht're are g~neral ly several
s~cics of
in differen t
P,. ·=-c P 0
- P. (}. 5:;) chemica l c,~mp,) unds. These compon ents vary Ill concen tration
(3 .54) pha~c~. while each phase flows at a differen t rate .
P,. 1 = P, - P. arc N
C.,mid er an clemen t of the reservo ir a~ ~hown in Fig. ~- 13. There
the r..-sen·o ir elemen t in three
:idditi,111. 1he ~pc,·ic~ ,,f d icmical compou nds flowin~ into
Equatio ns (~.47) tlm1ugh 1).54) can be combin ed using. in
1-8 CH. 3 ;:cu mu 1:1 :1on o, :-t tt:, .. ," ""' I J' •" u• ... •· '-·· • .... 1-, ... .... ~

I l•ftflrut T1ON I
Ste. 3.4 M 11/tlc1•mr,,, 11r.111 .,y., tMIJ
!19
·~
,----. a. = c., • (TotAI JnO !li
( INJlCTIOfj) C0111poncnt mn,s flux 1111 :0 C
,,/
c, OIL } } Oil c, =- C 1!,_&8P~
0/ µ. 1x Cc
CIAS } --+ } Cl.'~ Similnrl y. the accumula tion term embodies the changes in each phase of
C
the specific ce> mp,.,nc nt :
C
Ci. IIATn }
,,
, } IIATER
'" Mass rate of change = Mass at time (t + .1.t) - Mass at time t
At C
na-,. 3.13: Compositi onal mass balance on clement.

posc;ible mobile pbues. Within the element there are changes due to either
A general equation for the N spcc:ies under observati on wi ll be of the
form :
' '

Pr a ll of the following : a(·~'- ...;.. _.,P

--~- ,c.·,,·3aPi)
.. __
,l l, •
-
CJX .
= rua (t- . ,.5·!' c) ,
",r"'
I
.,,
. , l/
j ' I •.. . .V ( 3.59)
'
-,"
CJX .•,"::"
1. Production
"l Injection where .the ind~x I re pr~scfi.ts the phases and the index. j represent s the com-
J. Pressure change ponents.
At this point we must determine the number of indcpcnclenc variables
I ~ no longer suffices to mainlllin a m ass balance on each phase, but each
com p0nent muat bt conserved througho ut !he system.
Consider the ~onservation of mass applied to one compone nt. Let
in the system . Tht;e data arc summariz ed below for an :\'-c;o mp(Jne nt ~ystem.

Unkno.,..ns Number
"
C 0
, = mus fraction of jth compone nt an oil
C., = mass fraetion of ]th compone nt in gas c,, 3N
r, 3
c.. , = maas frac:ricm of/th comr or.ent in water s,
/ P:
3
3
T l', c-t

,~
:i.s before we c:a.n write :

+ ~c., .. P·c/P-
~ + kµw )
/ ,,,
k,
3
3

Jx ,
a (~~c.
µ~ dx µ tJx ~ 3,V + 15
1

Ci / • i •·.: l, 2, J
= f,(fJS p 0 0 C0 , -~ ¢,S,p1 C11 + ;s.p.C.,1) (:l..56) :,,.;Ol\: .
j =l, .. . ,N Toto.I=;,- ;

Equation (3.56) describes the flow of a single compon ent~.g., CH., - -in I :S independe nt
In order to solve this system uniquely, we must hav~ J /li
a linear system without any sources or sinks. These complica tions (sources
relationsh ips . The relations can be differenti al or a\gcbn ii:.
an d si nks) will be discussed later. A closer look at Eq. (3.56) shows that each
term on the left repreeent a the mass flux c,f the }th compone nt in each pha ~t,
wh ich is simply derived by the following :
These relationships come from several sources:

I. DHTerenr itd cquut it•n ~

'
1'otAI ffllSs flux = Volumet ric rate • Density 2. Phn5e equllihrla 4
J . PVT da l',l
=q..p.,
4. Relative pcrmouhi lity d:ita
= ~i.Po (J.57) 5. Con11crv:iLi<.,n prir:..; iplcs
µo Tx 6. Capillarity dntn
 CH . 3 sec. 3 .4 1 Ar1111t,1:,.,,,,.,,,.,,;- ,n D r !, / (.• 11,s f, 1

J • 1 11~ dc--<lop the necessa ry rcla t ir,1" h ip: 6. Ph:i~e c,p.1il 1bria : T he equilibrium constant which can be de vised fro m
thc.rmod ynam il" r1 in,ipl r, grivcrn $ the distributioo of a t:,1mp0n<·n t h(:1 wcer.
I <J nc partial diffcrrntial equo• 10 11 l·an 1... ,q ittcn fur each component in il.5 liquid and ra ~co u~ ~1 .i tc ~. for example,
th<' ~, , 1.- m . thus provid ing N rcl a l 1o n ,.h ip ~
:> . ·1 he fluid phase saturations mu ~\ :tlw:n ·s sum to un ity, since the porl' £.i K
C•I = J••
(3.65)
~p act· 1~ a lw~ ys fluid-filled :
s• .. s. This slates 1ila t I n,: r;ll •~·- of the mass fraction of component j in thr gas to t h-:
1 h i> 1• .,r.c N!liltion:ihip.
mass fraction of , ,,m p.,1,en t j in o il is a constant. Thi~ t.:o nsta m , called 1hc:
~·- I he mass fractions of £>ach cnm1wn.-111 ,r, each fluid phase mu,;t ~u111 equilibrium comtant , i~ a I unction of several variiiblcs :
It • u n 11 v. since mas$ conservation of each cn:n r(lncnt is req\Jil"(!J. Thus:
( 3.66)

Also:
. .... • .-• • - • • L .... .- •1.: •-; _,

a (3 .611

from whkh:

Th;~ provid,;, thr<e rclation1hips .

~ I-ram the PVT d.ita the fol! , ,,,_. ;i1J! J 1<• rc.~dil y obtainc:d:
CC,: -_ K/h
,....
K
K = ••• ..
,
Equation (3 .66·, pr,:!, :,ks 2N independent relationships when wri11cr, for each
p .. ; ( ./'., ( . . ) componcnl in n1e ,,·, \,·m T he lasr equation docs not pr, •d ucc an in <kr,c ncJent
relationship, s1nrt 11 i~ d,· ri ved from the others.
P. .. ;" ' f-, <. I (3 .<,2i
7. Capillan· p1c::~i.;,-c providts the remaining relatio nsh ip :

•
Pv =-· ' i f ' ... C , l

• L.
I', · - JJ, ·-= P, .. = f (S,, S •• S.)
J/. v ,. :° I/'_.. (
F. Pr = P,,. = f(S,, S., S",..)
/J , .. f· , 1-. . .. (3.t,:• ,
The origi11 of iii .:: n: i;,11 ,,n~ h;p~ a rc ~umm,rizcd bciow ·

·- - ·-- ----- -- .---~

1 hi~ provides six more rclatiomhi p~. !r, aci 1;.,J practic~ the density and vi s- E<1u~t;,mli1
R tl .Jllf\ri,h!p Unknowns '
,·0~11v a rc computed by using experimenta l!~ dt tcrn1incd correlations which -~
, elate these parameters to concen 1r a tions an d pressures . Two well-known
~ i
D ilfcrcn1ial cqua1ions N (3.59)
.. on elations arc the Alani-K.cnncdy :c and A, asu-Kcnncdy 11 correlations for Phase equilibria 2N (3.66)
PVT data 6 (3.62), (3 .63)
hydrocarbons.
Rclatiw- pcrrncahility 3 (3.64)
5. Rclati\'C permeability data a llow~ us 10 obtain the needed data for
mobili ty calculations:
L Mass fractions 3 (3 .&I)
L Saturations 1 (3 .60)
k . --= / ts,, s~, s .. ) Capillary 2 (3 .67) ~
3N+ 15
k, ,·.: _f (S, , S S.) 0
• (3.64)
k .. = f< s. , sMs.. )
We thcrrforc have JN •-:· 15 independent unknowns and 3N + 15 indepen-
Thi~ providt:s three more rclation~hips. dent relationships wh ich can be used to solve the system_
 L'H. j / lfCf~r •, 11..· ~ J
6Z CH. 3 / Fmmulatlcin of r.0s111\'oi, Si!11ul:i t,un tquntions

In practice , several simplify ing assump tions arc usually made

w make
arc the followin g: • (, I " 1
the formida ble problem more amenab le to solution . These -/
la ,.
. ,. . v
I. Capillar y pressure: between oil and gas is generally neglect:::J
.
2. Several compon ents are usually grouped togcthcr - e
as
.g .. a
shown
system
:
• ✓
ccmt0!n ing the following seven compon ent~ will be grouped

c, Component I
Fl!!llfl! 3;1'4l Well lt!(!ll!lotu .

c.lc,c. Component 2 SohJtion Outline

an
Cs !he solution of the compositional model is by virtue of its complex ity
Cs iterattvc one . The processes lndloated in Fig. :u 5 are but a ,urerflc ial outline
C. Compont!nt 3 and ar-: .:ssc:n[ ia lly the teGhnique followed by r -n n;urn , ;lOd Oi~on.
11

,:qui li brium
This -ent.ails .che develop ment of a set of consiste nt PVT data _.
<lata, and other pertinen t data for the system as defined .
that
3. The mass fraction of compon ents present in the water is so ;mall
are the unly phases in
the C,.1-terms are all zero. This means that oil and gas
equatio n for the water present
which mass transfer occurs. The conse1 vation
i~ still needed, as dis~usscd earlier in Chi1pter 2.
US ING OLO OR t H P.APOLAr £D TH£00-
0VIW1IC MTA , ~ (T UP WU FICIENTS
Sources and Sinks fO~ TH[ "LO'• Er,;~ ilf1NS
not include
The basic equat> n derived for the linear compos itional model did
ourccs and/or sink! as shown in Eq. (3 .59). These can be in:J uded ~y the
,;
·.J dltion or
a •.~rm repres~nting the ~ource or sink:
i"(:LL·--;~~;;!;)J.
t.(t '5JJ,Jl!.!c,,~ ) - t (± ,f>S,p,c,, ') kf. CAL L~J~ Ar:_
(J .68)
q,tt, 1 J(:<) === .t.t ,) r FV~ ~lll'! ~n•,, ·,r
ax iu l U .'r. , :.. , C]Cf=-- 1 ·

wh~rc
O~l ~P.l'!~ f. ·-·.a~r; ·:·.~-ri·: :; 111.(;lJ
1

P'lgure 3:U Ar ·•'.·, •P. , ·,>:·, ; -.

""'"'--'-- · ·---- --·--·- ~

• q1 = mass injection rate of phase i in suitable units

a.,, = mass fract ion or }th compon ent in ith phase REFERENCES
iS(x) = Dirac delta function which is defined as follows: rs nntl
1. J _ C MAR n:-., ·'Simplified Equation s of fl o w in G, ,,, l>rive Reservoi
ion of Multipha se Press ure: Buildup Analysis,'' Trnn:r.
Theoretical Foundat
Produc tion or injectio n in cell at x : 6(x) = l Al.\/£ (19591. 216, 309-11.
No product ion or injectio n in cell at x : 6(x) .,-= 0 l. R. E. Cou1.-..s , Flow of Flu{d, Through Porrms /1.-fareri,,t .- {New York
: Reinhol d ,
• 1961).
The location s or these wells arc shown in Fig. 3.14. .. 3. M. Mt.me.-, r. n,~ Flow of Homog,n,ous Flw,t..- Th m 11.::h
f'c,rous 1\lfrdiu (New
th : mo.-a
The solution of the compos itional reservoi r system is by fM York : McGraw •Hill, 1937).
difficult problem in te!ervoir !imulat ion.
 -4 Setting Up the
· Finite-Difference Mode\

/ , 1NTRoouc;,o~ . ""- ·'

derive d
{ . equations which govern the flow of fluids in porou s media were
on~
earlier in .the text. These equations are nonlinear partial differential equati
-which relate the pressure and saturation changes with time throughout
the
medium . These equations are extremely complex. and their applications are
:·complicated by the presence of specialized boundary conditions.
The solution o( these cquatim~:- by analytical means is generally impo~-
si~t: \!Xcept for th,~ most trivial cases. The solutions, when they do exist,
give
a co,it i,,uous di_si.r ibution of the d~ pendent puameters (rressurc or saturativn).
as shown in Fig. 4.1.
The numerical solution of these equations is generally the only way that
on
a solution can be obtained in most applications . The numerical soluti

67
 6H
GH . o1 / Sottio11 l i p tii,, I iro1 1tc - Dilfo::11111u, M~<.1.:1 :;re. 4.1 I lntrouu,tion 6~

Finite Diff11rtmco§1• 2
1 !..: j>r.rtinl diffo:-'!ntial rqu:11 ior, i~ r~rlarrd by its finite-difference cqu i, :,: c-ni
The finitc-difTcrcncc equatiom Lan he derived by makini a Taylvr .,,., ,es
\ • .l. tl expansion of the function at ~ ri,·c: n point and then solving for the r.:q uirni
derivative.
Consider the following 1 i\Ylnr series expansions:

P(x + Ax)= P(x) + Ax. P\x) -+ ½h.x 2 P"(~) + i AJt' P"'(xj i4 t _,

r l ' f\"~ ;-.re; din!·r<.nc~
P(~ - Ax) r= P(_x) - - !:,. _,, P'(x) ~ ! h.x: P"(~) - i Ax 1 P'"(x) (4.:>.)
F ~ ◄.J.1 Ditc~I~ mtern. lbd .w~rd ditfccencc

produce:!<. ;,.n~wen :.1 diJCrtiT~ p9iqt, wi\~i!l the sy~tcm, :s~ shown h, Fig. 4.;2,
~nd the lt1.::.i 1ion of 1hc points can bQ quile arbiuanly determined . The; h'u11s-
P
, __ af
. "fdriWiitio;--;:;f the wntir,uous differential oqY.ttion 10 a disnclc form is mn(k ·· ,:.; , ~-: -. >'·." -dx
b) 1hc ll)C vt ji11111.- ,iijjcm::nc,.,J.. In thi); pr'octsr. b•llh ~p.i..:t ~md time arc dis-
J1 p
P .. -- "fxT tc
r:retiu;d. e .

o,t;;',,,i1,J1iQ11 firor;t1si First De,ivative (fig. 4.4)

The solut,on 10 tht: systems of flow equations l·ommoniy encountered in .j Equation (4.1) or (4.2) c<.1Uld be ,ulved for the first vr second dcriv;11 !\'C, " .
rc~rvoir rngincning work involves the detennina11on of some dependent I
I r~quired-e.g.:
paramc:1.:1 ~ ,n ~pa.:c and time. As mentioned abo·, c 1hc ~,1iu11on is obtained
at d1scrctr poini ~ m space and time. The spatial donu1n i ~ hrok~n up into a
number .ii cells. f:•rios. (1r blocks by superimposing somt: ,ype of a grid. This
grid is usu:,lly :-cctangular in form but not necessarily so. F ig ure 4.2 illuslratcs
the u~e ol .: two -di: 1;ensional grid. The time domain i~ ai,t' discrcti1ed into
:t 11um~r ,,1 timc:- ~•q>s, during each of
which the prohkm i, ,:olvcd 10 obtain
nC\\ valut-~ .:,1 1t.e cqxndcnt parameter. 'j he siLc 01 tlw~.:- dr.pcnd~ on the ~,,p,
pani,·ular probkm t><'ing solved, and generally the sm:~lk: the time S\cp the
mon: ,~'Curate i~ th,· solution. An example of time di scrcti : ation is shown in
Fig. ,U. The tini1e-diffcrcnc.e cq~ation, arc formulated to solve for the
dependent parameters over this aridded domain.
I
I

··i
I I

.
: ! I
•···.. '
I
,1 • •~•J·!+;· ~.!Jl
. ' I •
I I I
I'
I I I
!.;: '
..
'.ill. .:..l..i.~!1.

([llil'~L · ;_I'• P~!-.t l . ~.

• Ll 4 j). .,. .:.1.
r.---
Figure .-.4: Fim dcfr,11ti¥C1,
YIPR .U: Time dbcmiution.
 These are the fnrward and backward dif]crc11n·s respectively for the first
deriv:,tive . A rffllfttf d((f"ffltt 1:lln be ohlained hy ~11htracting Eqs, (4,1) and Ii / FINITE-DIFFERENCE SCHEMESJ-CONCEPT OF
('1.2): "'--lXPLICIT AND IMPL,IGIT FORMS

P .(.x ) -_ P(x + .:b) - P(x - .:h) ~ U(t.x2) (4.5) Introduction

2i\x · ·
Let us consider a simple process which is time-dependent-i.e ., the solution
Note that the errors associated with these approximations arc different; varies as a function of time . Consider the temperature distribution in a one-
the forward and backward schemes have errors 0f the order of l!,,.x, while the dimensional rod. The governing equauon for the temperature behavior will
error in the central form is of the order of dx 1 . This error associated with the be of the following type with the appropriate boundary conditions :
finite-difference form of the partial differential equation is called the trunca-
tion error.
u x- L
Second Oeriv1tivt1 (Fig. 4.5)
Cons1d::r the addition of Eqs. {4.1) and (4.2) : By solving this system we can ol:>ta1n T(x, t), which allows us to <ktcrmin •:
the temperature distribution at an ~ location x at any time ,. In an :dy1ical
P(:c .;.. a .cl + P(x - A:c) = lP(x) _,_ 6 .,! p ·· (x) :- 0('1x 4 ) (4.6) treatments we obtain a solution whid, is continuous in time and spa..:c; in
. ...

Solving fl•r P"C.r_l:

- ~ l" .-«. :-,;~ .::~z_~·-;..;:_
__,,_,• .,. .nw:n.cclc.a.l solutions, howe\·er, the )'Jlution prooess allows ui to ha vc te rn- .
perature values at fiit"d location s "f r and at discrete points in timc--:-·tli1r' <c ' _,.
solution now can be vi,ualized a, a ,cries of still photoJraphs at partit:u lar
(4,7)
,n~t11rtce!I of time , this is intJ le:tt~d f!r:q,lllettlly in Fis, 4:fl.
Therefor~. lite errHr tt!llOCilttd. With the ~etlll\d ucriv::1ti-.-e is of the order of
tl .(2 .

tlHIT[ O!H~R!ilt- E fOP.!"!ilA ri a11 .

T( •• t)

Figure 4,6 : T~rnper,11ure distribiation in• rod .

• The time values 0, l, 2, .1. ... correspond to different time levels which
get progressively larger as the solution progresses. The info.-matiw, at :1
FJa-e 4.51 8.K:ond derivative,; . given time level-e.g., t = I --is used to compute that at a higher level -- c .~ ..
t = 2. There are two basic ways in going from the old timc-lev.:I values t1, d
Summary the new time-level values. The new values can be calc:ulatcd lndiricl,wllr fo r
For n di _,,;rcte :.et of numbered points: cnch l~ation In space x-a process which begin, at x-= 0 and terminates at
x = L for 11 given time value. This method ofcnlculacing the new rnlu0s on-:
at a time is the txplit:it scheme. The e.t plicit method involves the s~qucntial
solution of ont equation wirlr one unknown. On the other hand, nil the nc•.,
(4.8)
values between x - 0 and x =
L can be calculated simultaneously for a
given time valul!. This m,thml of calculating lhe new values simultancmhl 'f
I)
I,., ,· ,,,;f:.: ,Qili.,;. r,.;1~~~'; Sul tc1uo:. ~.Cu,tf~µ 1. ut I.. K;!'?li~:11 ''"·, (rf,iJ ;;.;;; Furn;s

•
~
i~ the ir.;p/i, h mi.:llh)d . ·1!.<' i 1npli '°' 1 schqi1~ inv~l Wli !he snl\Jt ii"•n (,fa n ,V :-·. N
0

q/ .. imU/f f11l i.' n U'- ; ,. , , ;;r ·•_Hn •( i(1II S.

.1_\',1/(.ltl
Let u, examine t h• :" n hi -. ,,: fo1muliltio11s iu some dc.ltti l :
prc~HI J-t: S:
_.,,--,

°'
": 1CA• II•
• 4·
· l, J "I 1- 1,J)
F·
ay•
a (4. I I)

••
s
(

'-=
~ t~it F~ffittJ/;, tirn
In the CX!ilicit schcmr 1-·c :,,,Ive for one unknown ut a 1imc as indirntcd in
Fig. 4.7. Consider th <' i w , , .-Jim•:n~ional equation:
No,~ tltat c•:ery value on the right•hand side i• now known and L...crc i, one·
equal ion ''· :11 1 one unknown. All values at the new time arc solved for by
mo, m? through all th~ (i,j) 1-0cations in the model in some systematic ma n-
u~P . a"P aP (4.9)
s c d~2 ; - "J'r = 71t .. /, ner. Figure ~.8 shows the cell arrangement in a two-dimensional grid .

•a
- --'If -
! ------
;1~_1_> J:l£ H~{!JCC ~o;~_nfS r7- i
~--·-i-- .-~-.,;..~
• I -- ~ - .-·7
7

-•
0 Pt 1CIT : 1 i>'.f l i. 1'£1
L --· - '
- ··· ~
L
~- ·1-~-- ,-
j
,-- i,j 1-.
] Jt I

• l•I HUllii-lH fl •.·, :·"

I
-· 1--- ---+-- -+.~.....i
1+ \,

• fl~lf~ Oi i fi~ r r. i : ,, . , .. ,

•-
I ;:-t--+-~+---+--+---+..,t#4
,___ _;__ D:;a;;;.:.L.,...J.._,.LA
[' II ... P" ,,r,tl - P"
, 1- l 1 i

•
· .. , : 6t Fli:urc ,ti t Cell lU'rangtrne nt 1n l\\O d1i1 1en, 1on, .

lii(uin ~-i : E-.. pl1,·i1 fonnulation in one dintt·usillll -

•
I h~:1:.:1 i,'1, <'l.l 1) can be simplified to :
I

A linite·dift~r-c1h'C fu rn, •~· I Pt· ~- F' ; -,· a.(P:.,. 1 - 2P 41 + P~.,-1 ) - · PU·?. , . 1 2P:., + P':- 1,,)

••
Ii .... -.

(4.10)
i where
(4.12)

.r
• ,_ (,j ""' liOll locaii,m in gfid
11 ""'old time level
..Y,::.H.,i,w (!( Explicit Fo,m11/a1ifJ11 : Explici1 method s arc not gen1m,lly
u~ed in r..-scrrni r si rnulation-becau1e of the usually severe restriction, 011 the

• 11 + I '"'now limf' lcvul time !-tcp size. The programming effort needed lo build a simulator based on
the c:< plicit scheme is much less than any other ; the running time, however,

•
Equation (•UO) has only one unknown value-i .e., the new pressur-e at
~ is qui te substantial on these programs.
time (n + I). This value involves the time derivative. This equation can be
T$ ~ ty criteria arc discussed in Sec. 4.4 .

• rearranged to obtain the new pressure ~xplicitly in terms of the other adjacent
 I • ,, . ,, .., . , , ., , •• • , .. -
.;, ,eu , . , , -.

CH . 4 / S91tln9 Up thP Flnlte• Olfferon~ Mt>dol

721

l ~ t Formulation
v11l11es simultaneously. (Sec
In the impli cit schem e we solve for all unkn own
dilfcr cntial e:quntion:
Fig. 4 .9 .) Cons ider 1he follow ing partia l l'lltlft 4,111

(4. 13) in which point ii~ linke d

Note th11t thl~ i, one erttmtion with three unknowns.
Equation (◄ .I 7) is of the general type :
or coupll!d to point , (f + I) ; (f-'-- I).
(4 . IR)

1""-ICIT: pomc try of the syste m

where tho coefficients a,, b,, and c, are relaled to the
n term,.
and Its phy1tc:1I properties and d, contain, know
linear ,rid mult i In one equat ion for
Wr1t103 Bq. (4.18) for N cells In a
N loM with N unkn own, .
each etll; the total resul1, are equat

clHt~IITlili. EOllf.TIOII : Gtl(

+ c!Pi "" ' d,
J ci1Po - b1P 1
:- : rl:
2 a1P, - b1P1 + c1P1
biPJ + c 1 P4 =- · d,
j aJP2 -
(4 . 19)
b.P, + c,Ps ~--= d,
4 a,P 1 -

F1fWe 4,t: Implleit rormubtlon in one <limfflsion.

A finite-difference anal9g·of this equat ion is

as foll~ s:
N
Pj_, - 2Pi ;- P;. 1 ( 4.14)
The cells with O 1tnd n + 1 >llbscripts arc generally fictiti ous eel:~ "f hcy do
,A.r1 use of the appro priate hc,u nct -
not form part of the mtlde l nnd arc deleted by
: however. we can set up Eq. (4.14) ary conditions.
This equ:n ion has only ~c unkn own, p~·' Note that this matri x ha; a chara cteris tic form:
there nrc th~ce Jia _.;onal
a, follows: This matri x is called a
to SL•lvc for all three P,-values in the equat ion cleme nts, and nil the olT•<liagonnl cleme nts arc zero.
of simul laneo us equat ion., (Eq . -4 , I 9) ~•Hn ht
(4, 15) trldltlJtJlldl ,,ttttrl.'C . The ~et
writte n in m11trix notati on :
AP= d
the new time level (Fig, 4.10).
This equat ion bAs all ttnkn own preHu re~ at Whl'te

~-fHJ
Simplifying Eq. (4.U) :
(4.16)
1'8¥1 - 2J'••· •· =
-t- p•. ~(P
-
Of
P7)
··
I
I
l~l I t•I (tf.2 I)

ColleGtin1 tetrns otslm llM kind:

(4.17)
P:N ~ (2 + 'Y,)p7•• + P7:,• _, ¥,P7
~ )

•-s 71, CH . 4 /

T his system i~ ,olvcd for the unknown pre$SUt·c:s P by using the Th~),!S
Sotti11g Up tho Fi11il1! •Dilfo1ro 11 cu ModPI

~l~crithm, which is a nwdifi,-d form of G:iussill!:) ~imi1_1a~i_qn . This alf:;iithm

si:c. 4 .2 I I 11rir~ - D d ferr.rio t1 S r:h11mes-Co11cQpt cf l:1<Plic,1 .,rad /111µ!,cit rou;;s

Wri1111g thi~ type equation for all N cells in a model produces N equations
wi1h Nunl.nowm . l hi~ ~ystem is now a. five-diago na l system as shown below:
17

111119 ~:-ill-~ discusscd later. ·· · -

AP- = d (4 .27)
:, 1

-e The example ,o far comiJercd was a i.implc onc--din1cm,ional model.

f.<,r :i two-dimensional system the dcvdopment ii identical, but the rc$ults
11'$ ar~ a little diffcr~nt.
~ -"', ' _
"'""":,C r d '-

111$
(

L
Con~idcr the following partial differential equation in two dimensions:
.·. /
.1.
a
i
(4.28)

~ \
Th.is cqyg1ion qc"ribos the pre~surc 1cspo1ue in a IW{i.-dimonliiQnal syst_~m .
(4 ,l2)
"' "' ""\: j
' I
L

-e, Writing the fuliy implicit lini1c-diffcrcncc formulation on the grid in

There is nu effi,-i<'nl algorithm to ,olv~ thi, systt'm, anrl special algorithms
for the tw<1-di111;;nsional grid will be di5CU&sed later. These algorithms arc
Fig. 4-1 I: -designed 10 reduce the work rer:u 'rcn:ent to ob1;1in the ~,>lution vector P.
-e I I ! he implicit formulations t\l:! unco_~fu: stable J2r all y:.i)u~f
- --
I I
-- At/'1?.7r,is -,.--iiiiTon IS proved later in Sec. 4.4 on stability.
~ - 6
I T
I ; •- 1 ·1 -----.. -· -·-·- - ··- - ------ ---

...
--+-i -; -
A a A Crank-Nicholson Scheme•
~ IA
..
--i--1--
-- ·-7 --1-
1• 1
~ s involves a combinatiou of old and new time st<:p values of the dependent
• i
Figure 4.11: l wo dimension;;! variable (~C•' Fig . 4. 12). /
I
J-1 ; j•l I_Irid. Consider :
~ (4.29)

~ -
\.... N,ltc ihat all prHiUrts :.re at ihc new time level and therefore uni: nown.
~ There are five unknown~ in the :.ibr.,·c cqu1ttio11 .

-.-
!".l 11 ,; 11 .i<ANK-HICkuLSON) :
For 1he sake of simplicity. let us assume /ix = Ay. Then, collecting term~ Tl Hl L[, :,
:rnc.l si mplifying Eq. (4.23) 011 the ieft yields:
,.·: r
"-,
'L°'I i
P ::,-i -:-
,

which rcduce5 _to

, .... 1
r1+1,J -
41•··
,.,
1 •
· t-
,1
p•1-1,1 A~; (P•'•'♦ I - . p•'·' )
+ p•• 1 = T,
1, J+ .1
(4.24)

OLD
r •.. 2 l
i -1
i I D
I 1•1 i •2

....- L
_ -.-
Pr.,~ 1 Pi.i'., Ax ) P,.,
• - (4 + r, ••
2
1
-~, -P,-1.
• • 1 •• 1
,-:-, P,.,.1
A,..: p•,.,
-_ -r, (4.25)
01 FFCRCNTIAI. EO,IATION :
i2P
~ •
~p
IT

~ , This equation is of the aencral type : FIHITC OtrfER(IIC[ tQUATIOIC:

(4.26)

---~
~ 1

.... where the coefficients e,, a,, b,,

tht one-dimensional system.
c,. Ji, and d, are similar to those defined for
F!Jure 4.11: Mixed fom1ula1io11s.

~~
 I I St:rfll lfry tr:C!!" il
CH . 4 / S11t1ing Up 1he Flllite - Olfference Mouc SliC:. 4.-1

for the bou ndar y cells nre mo~ ified

old time and new time levels can be cell ; unde r these cond ilion s the equa tions
:\ diffe rence form ulati on invo lving both ient is aP/d x = K, wluc h ind,c aces
to inclu de the sour ce term . Here the grad
set up ns follo ws : some nonz ero flux acro ss the boun dary
.

o("?:~ - 2u:-•
1+ u:-~,') + (l __ B>("~•I - 2117 + ~-1) = 117• 1At- u'i (4 .30) The lattic e-typ e grid is gene rally used when a Diric hlet- type boun dary
this cond ition the func tion is s~ci ticd
!xi Ax· cond ition is specified in the prob lem. In
on the boun dary as indic ated in Fig.
4. 16.
oximation, wher e
This is a genrral ~lgh tttl av~rage appr

90U NM RY =m l:::: l!OUNOll~T

CELLS
l
'•
If '"''~ 1 C
8= 0, then· thncbeme is expl icit
(} = ½, then the acbeme is Cran k-Ni chol son Flpre 4,l.5 : Neumann boundary. Flpr e 4. t6: P is ,pecifted : C
,Cl,/, r) -. r,.
(J = I, then the IC!htme is fully impl icit

~
'"~g ulsr Grfds . '
GRID DEFINITIONS .
be impl emen ted over some discr ete
lrreRUlar grids have nonu nifor m spac
grids are used to incre ase the defin ition
ings in the x- and y-dir ectio ns. Thes
in regio ns wher e bette r c0nt rol
e
i.~
'
Tl1!: finite-difference equations must
nt:t work ; o•fer thl; network the value
t:aku lateu .
s of the depe nden t para mete rs are need ed. Mos t resen ,oir grii.is a~cu
y
ally used are irreg ula r, as sho 1,1,·n in Fig. 4.17 .

...
'
C
L.
: ·1 I · J J
Two types of arid• arc gene rally used J l I I
nden t para mete rs are calcu lated
· l _l l J C
I. Block-centered (Fig. 4.13 }-Th e depe
k. Ther e are no poin ts on the boun dary .
at the cente r of the cell or ~loc
nden t para mete rs arc calcu lated at the
C
2. LMtit:e (Fig. 4.14 }-Th e depe ,--.,1_·-r-""Nr-T,.....r .-
e are ~everal poin ts on the bo1:n dary . Ll ~- - -·-·-·-• · _._,_
D\ ~te rs~.ni cm of the grid lines , Ther C
r--, Figure 4.17: Noow iiform irids .
_,,,,. V £"'- C;
/..,.. r-.....
.✓4
,...._
I STABILITY CRITERIA'·' C::
,.
• \ ,_ '. \
d to dete rmin e the depe nden t para -
\ ,- r-- -· J The syste m of equa tions whic h is solve . ~
ide a stablt! solu tion to be of any use
r-- .... · V mete rs in a simu latio n stud y must prov unco ntrol lably .
inue s to incre ase:
. I",. ~ V A sche me is unscable if the erro r cont C:
'•
the true solu tion nnu th1: com puce d solu tion
L-et r be the erro r betw een
at any time n. Then ,
Figure 4.13: Rloc:k eentel'9d ,rid. ~
f" .. ,
r d to diffe rent boun dary cond i- - (. ~ l The syste m is stabl e
The different grid conf igura tions are suite C:
used with a Neumann- :ype boundary
tivns . The bloclc-centercd grid is gene rally t• ·t-1
cor1dition, which specifies ftow acros
s the boun dary (see Fig. 4. 15). Flow 7 > I The syste m is uns tahlc
d by a souree term in the bound11ry ~ -
acro ss the bounduy ettn be rtpr~ ,ente
~

~
 - -- -
I.JO CH. ~ / ~Mt ino llP '"" Fi11i111-liii(,;r.111G~ l:lto<l ~I f;l

rc;,•icwcd hen~. The l'tigin<:cr is referred to the origit\iil " r1 i<:k fm in-dq~lh
study.
The Fourier ~cric:~ cxp,;i ll!,ion of a f~uclion ;s Ui\Ji!II Y •: •.r,1ei,~cJ in tcin11;;
( of ,inos or cosines: ·

= ,-.. a ,,,~ !iif~

I
((x) (4.31)
i . . . .(,..; ··•"'"'[----:'

(
However, to facilitate the arithmetic. it is somewhat lc.-5s -~umt)('r~,,mr to use
!r'· the complex e,cponcntial form :
~
c (4.32)
(
I where i :a: .J=T. Thi:: solut ion to the partial difTerenti:(I equation in finilc-
I STi\6LE
di!ferene:e form proJun.•s a discrete set of values d,:noll.:d by u,., a t points
i, _i. The Fourier seric:; form must then be writ1:C-1dor-1ri°cst discr.etc points.
Conside r •-~~ spat,a1 Jomain divided :nto N increments of widt_h Ii , thrn
(_ using a :1 integer coun1c ;: p the error at a ,Point can b.: written E,. , where
;i,L---- ---- I - p = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N . The equation in complex cllponcntial fflrm 15 now :

(,Pk • Qt<l!i!>E Ill PRES~U~I D\ll;ifiG ; l!!E SlEI' 'I:'

• p.Hl _ p~
(,U3)

J-1gu1 e 4.; g ~how~ the; bi:havior (!I jin•:,~urc changes for bolh the slabk
c.nd un stable systems during itcra1ion for the correct pressure solution .
There ue two gc-nerally used means o f (ktcrmining the stability of a solution
,,_. ht rn ::- :
i. \'on Neumann analysis tfouricr ;; 1, aiy: 1~)
2..Malrb: methods
~ n Neumann Analysis• (Fourier Analysis)
The method first proposed by von Neumann is sometimes referred to as the
Fourier analysis method because of the use of Fourier series in the repre~nta-
tion of the error terms or of the solution. The initial error in the finitc~iffer-
encc approximatio n is expressed as a finite Fourier series. The growth of this
error is then analyzed a, the solution progresses. Since the error term and
the dependent parameter both satisfy the partial di(ferential equation, we
can write the representation for either the error itself or the solution term .
The -st.ability of the solution scheme depends on the error term remaining
controllable and bounded throughout the domain of the solution.
A brief development of this stability determination method be · will
or
UU4)
where p = mt/L, with L thC' total length.
Since the errors fr om ,111 terms arc additive, we can dispcn~.t. with the
summation sign in Eq . (-L, 4) and analyze only a sin~le ttrni . thu -
(4.35)
As time increases, we need to investigate the growth of thi s error; further-
more, the error term must reduce to the initial value term at time -=O, ·We
need a function that will allow us to fulfill both criteria. The following form
is assumed:
(4.36)
where o: is a complex constant. The time domain is divided, up into q incre-
ments of k time. units; Eq . (4.36) is therefore rewritten :
(4.37)
Note that the constant A. has been drop~d from the equation . Equation
 SliC:. " ·" / ;)(/10 //lf y \..f/l<flfd
uz CH . 4 / Sl!ttlng Up the Ftnlte - Differonco Modal

.Since the term 4(kW) sin 2 (Ph/2) is always positive for all p0sitive v:ilt1cs of
(4.37) cttn be conip1tcte'1 to : k/11 1 , the value !( / ~ I, as required. The fully imrticlt fnrm is lhert!f<.irc
(4.38) unconditiohnlly stab!~.

where { = e... It is obvious from Eq. (4.38) that the error term nt any point .J M11tr/x Marhods~
p in ~pace and q in time will not increase n~ long as prop~gation
N,n general, the matrix method involves an analys i~ of the error
I{ Is;; I (4.39) by the use of matrix algcbra .. Essentially, the process begins by defining the
error associated with the solution of the system of simultaneous linear equa-
e
The quantity is an expression which usually contains the parameters h, tions and relates this error to the continued multiplication of a given coeffi-
as well ask in some relation; in this case, for Eq. (4.39) to be satisfied we have cient matri .'I: A ; e.g., at then+ l step the error i-; :
to determine what values of k and h would satisfy the inequality relation.
Gc,n9ider the following e11ample from Smlth 1 in which the parabolic (4.48)
~qu,ttloh is: fhu~.
(1.40) (4.4~)

•
0
Then the matrix A must possess certain propcrt i-!-; for Lht: error£"' .. 1 to remnin
The finite-difference equation in fully implicit form is:
bounded. The behavior of the matrix A is annlyzt:d in terms ofi'ts eigen·values
and cigenveotor~. This is po,sible because af the d,: ti111ti,-. n of nn eigenvalue.
(4.41)
For eny ~'::cwr v.
AV=,lV (4 ..SO)
Sttb!tltuting Eq. (•4.38) into Eq. (4.41) for the error at each te,rm in the finite ·
difference form: · '. define~ the eigt·nrnlue ). and the aigenveotor V . r h ti , . the cr1t1t NJtHHi<Hl
(Eq . 4,491 t:011 be wfltten:

(4 .51)

{ - I .,.. -$r({e-,,, - 2{ + {e'·*~) (4.4J)

Yltis i~ iJlmr,lif\ed by noting : Since th,:re ar:: ;\' cigenvnluc! for nn N :< /V m utr : • w •; n,:'.:·.1 c r1ty w c.~:ttn ine
the lttfgr:e. 1 v1!l•I! of the t!lg,nv:tlttei'I. ·r1111~. fat . (' I •2) ~ ' lfl /ie wti!•~n:
e-',A + f'tA 4
2 ·
cos(Ph) ,= (4.44)

Then:
The largest eigenvalue is called the spectral radiu , of the mntrix..
. . le~ · Con~idcr the ,rubility treatment for tile cdst: 11t' :i 1,arabolic equation in
{ - l ;-_ p(2 co~ fth - 2) (4.45)
two dimension,:

{ - l ~- --/fr4{ sin 2 P.p. (4.46) (4.5'.l)

Thus: f
Writing the fully implicit formulation for this sy, t,: m in two clim~1niom lcndi;
1 (4.47) to a set of simultnneou~ linear equation~.
~ = l + 4(k/hl) sin 1 (Ph/2)
✓
..... 11.a CH . 4 / Se1111,o Up the Fi11l1e-Difla,.11c;e MOdcl SEC. 4.4 I s1,bl/it y C,ito,,;; 86

Given the sy!.tcm of simultaneous equations obtained by writing the scheme can be used to solve Eq . 4.53. For the LSOR scheme the genera lized
~
fm iic -difkrrnc-c equation for every point in the mesh: fini ;e-diffcrencc ~chcmc u~cd in the model can be written in the fol k,win~
rcc-Jrsivc form:
~ Au= b (4.54)
(4 .57)

~ 111 m:11 rix f0rm: :1

I
t where
r 7 !

1119"8 (
b I
111!!!!8.. L
i

j .J

The matrix. iYJlc.m is normaliilcd with rei,pcc1 10 each dia.g()n"I i:ltm~nt

u,, . r lier, .-1 i:an be (\\ICOOl()OM:<i inlo Ji Iowa anti an upper triangulau mlltrix
·is follow, : ·· · ·· · ,...· ()
C= and b is a known column vc.: tl>r
(I - JI - X)u '- · b (4.55)

where J
ro lhe error at any given ill:ration is defined as:
iI
- }.' .. !

where U- is the nth approx 1mati011 to the true value ,

0 Solving Eq. (4 .57) for u0 1 :
:ilid 1 is the 1cJctttily mlltri11: H.5 11)

Su bu acting i:.q. (-L59) from Eq . 1-U6). the e,ror-propagariun 1~, m he,, ,11,r:. :

I=

since the column vector li i~ a constant.

lj Then:
/ (4.61)
Equation (4 .55) can be written:

Ju = u = (H + K)u -: h Solving for e"• 1 :

Thrn
u• = (H + K)u• -l · b (4.56)

where • denote• a true value.

As shown later in Chapter 6, the line successive o.vcrrclaxation (I.SOR)
 I .__,, •• •. ...... .. 1 • •• ,
.:, 1: 1,,.. , ' t . • t
CH . 4 / S&ltln!I Li p lh t1 Fln,tu- OlflNo ncc Mo tlol
86
One implicit formulation U$in~ cc~tercd_1
Using lmpliC'ir Ft>m111/111io11:
The matrix f[f - · (H - A- C)][K - A-
1 1 B)}, must have ::igcn,aluc:s kss
time dilfcrcncc in the finite-difference form
ulatio n prod uces an cquar10n ° ~
than unity for the system to conv erge;
i.e., fo"r the ,\"-ci gcnvaluc~ of this l:
the following type for each cell in the mode
syste m , 1..i. .. I < I, where .l.., is the large st
eigen value and generally calkl l the ~
mined t,y cv::1111.uin~ thc matrix
spectral radius . The value of J. .. CRn be deter
of Eq . (4.6j ) and determining it.s maxi mum
eigenvalue b~· ;0mc: ap~'rl,printc ~
meth od . (4.67)
As the iterat il1ns increase, the error term
decrca~c~ anti c,·ent ually
~
npproache~ ~ro - i e.,
e-•• -o whi1:h is of the type: ~
(4.68)
11- - 00
c;
e. as indic ated by a simil ar analy sis.
{..!_-5 CASE STUDY : EXPLICIT ANO
IMPL ICIT
This form ulatio n is unco nditi onall y stabl
The explicit and impli cit formulations abov
e arr: tested using the follo wing
c;
l l;QNCEPTS boun dary :rnd initial condition.1. At time
=0: 0

c;
throu gh ·a- f" ,rvu--; medium is .p(:r.) ·"':' ,0
The movement l'f a soh·e nt-ty pc subst ance
governed by the following type of differentia
l equa tion in c)cic d1 rnen,ion :
For titn~ O·
c..,
azp !l!=8 C!.Pa_
c ·,--v (4.64) OHtlet entl :
c.;
2
a.t ax Tr
,There lttlet end : A slug is injec ted ns ilidiGIHed
in Fi~ . 4.19. c:::
c = dilfu~lon .:-0 !lstttt1t ~
v = velocitt l~rm C::
p = concen,· c1 ci:.-n term
C;;
the necessary b0u 11dary and initial
The abov e equat io n can be solved given
cond itions . Figure 4. t <i: Tnlct end boundary
condition . 0 ? c::
(4.64J 1.:an b:.: appro ., imnt ed
Solution : Using explicit form ulatio n, Eq.
ified to yield : ~
by the finite-<lifferri1,;e equivalent and simpl

/U) p,.• . (1 2c ~() ' p,• + (·-cAx! --- L'.l

!J.t _;_ ~ ----.). p~ ~
PI.. 1= (CAl/it t' -:t""°t (4.65)
- 'f"A-: I -t- -
uX · 2 /..\.c · '
~
u.'l' - u ,t

thi, forntuhtic,n i:1 stable only

A von Neum111n - 1ypc anitly,ls inctlcates that
if th! inequlllity ~low i3 , atidl! !d: ~
Jv1 At~ I ~
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;.
.... ............... ::;:: ~~
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ooa aad ooo ~ o,oo no Io ~ o•aoua
::·::: :::::: ·:·::: :::::: : :: : t?? ooonoo

.
o If Io 1 • 1 o o o
o •t o I

ooonoo oo n~ --•-•• ~ ••••••~ ••w••- - n D

It. I I IO 1 • • • o • 1

~ ~ ,.,. !
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... ~-••0~ ••4~~- o~,~~ - ~~o•~ ~••-•w ~,~- ~

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LG

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,, 'c, - .
:--
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r!te>~ t3i~ <,~ t~~ z~
-;, ,I

~ct: .tt c!t

,I - ..... - ":I

•
~: :·· :· : ! · ~; : ; ~ ~ ~
: : ~ f ~ 'f :- ~ :} f- ~· :· r: f ;' ~ :·
~~ ~: ~i~~i~~1~i;r; f~~i~;i;!i ~i

~ ~ :-- :·: : ~ ~~; 'f f~ !...

. . ~ ~ f !' ~ ~ ~ 1- f :- f !- f ~ :- ;- ::~ =~ ~i· :tr ;:
,: C f
( , ~ . :~ ~~~ ~~ i~: ~~ ~1; :g: - ..... • \II W""' _., C., I' 4, ~ -
0 - - 0. ,L '"' .... e ... .
...
~
.,> -

-
• • - -I'- ,;. Cl •

?P? PP, PPP ~P~ ~~~ ~~, P~f ~~f PfC

0 0 0 - • ! ♦ "° .. "'4
. . :'. ~~~ • 0 - - ..., .._. C 41 • - .,,, -•• •~
•-~
# ..,. .._, -

~~
r <
L-
r. r
•o --~
C - r:; C
••o • ••~
t..,
Mww •O
o_. OQ
• ••, ~••
.,...,... ~ .,.-• o--, .o-a .~- i
--•- -•~ c.•• o#'- -..• :;;
~ ~ ? ~ ~ ~ ~ Pf
1

: ~ z•o• ! : ; ~ :: •••
! i ~ ~ :. ::••c
~ ~ P !> ~ ~ :- ;-- :- :- :- ~ ~ ~ ~
! e c=e
? 7~ ~ f f' .. !
in
~ :: ~ e ~ ~ :; ::: i : •-• ~n
: ~- :

~; ~- :. .: •-• -•• ~•
....
-- ~ •~c •M ••• ••~ ...
~~ ~ :- ~ ~~~ ppp ppp ppp ppp
~~~ ~~~ f~~ ~fP Pf .
0
"'.,z
~~ ~;~=:~!!2i!i£;;;~t!~~~~tt;:E~!i~ I
i

:, <-
!... I
:
0
c-
~~l
.. lit.,.
--~~
;;:.-1
~=: ... ,.:.
;" ~

-": ....
~
..
0 - ..
"'"'
~ ◄
~ ....
;; -,.
:-:=> i
0
oo
- 0 ..
-oo
i
=
0 <,
c -
2
C i
a ~
~

~
..
 SEC. 63 erative Atethods in Stn'atDn t7artuee
Combining Eqs. (6.102) and (6.104) we etun wrile:
CAL C t ATE.
(AxYA ATN LEVEL)
(6. 100)
i tl.-1(-P, - P,+1.,
IF UPDATING COEFFICIENTS And combining Eqs. (6.103) and (6.105) we can ale wriie:
RANSPORM A B (6.107)
CALCULATE COEFFICIENTS OF 8 FROM (-P., P, t.)d
THOSE OF A
P-1. +.y
where a is a selected parameter which gives a bet ter approximation to the
IS NOT UPDATING OEFFICIENTS
pressure. The new coefficients are multiplied by ¬, and t:. which minimizes
their effects:
SELECT APPROPRIATE a
P (6.107)
LSMEE P . j-1a(-Pu+ P 1.
6.103)
: PI.]t| d - P ; P , ..
IF ISWEE p : i : : ! INNER LOOP The original equation fot eaeh call theh becunnes
IF ISNEP 2: N INNÈR LOOP
e,P.-a,P, 1., bP + c,Pa.! J .
SiVE *ij
IH REVERE 1£DEP
(6.10)
ES ISWEE NO CONVERGENCE
1SMEEP 2 The first five terms are the original finite-dilference foemulution. and the last
two terms reflect the additional terms which are introdced hy SIP.
YES
Iteration is c2ried out as foliows:
Figure 6.1S: SiP tow chart. IP**' - BP = APi . d'
6.1 10)
or
Tu nuimize the influcnce of these new cvetficients they are balanced by sub-
at
tracting terms which are approximateBy equal to the terms obtaincd k P**1.- P* (6.111)
( 1 , j + 1) and (i+ 1,j -1. The terms which are subtracted involve B6** R* 6.1t2)
combinations of the five known cell pressures which are obiained by Taylor
series expansions:
Faetvr 8 ti l.t/:
(6.102) #UB*= R*
L R* (.19)
6. 103)
R (15
P oAy) (6.104)
where . . atd , are tHe eletments of the lbwer tätria dttainet My fasto
P.Pi.: a r . Of*) (6105 ing
148
i
 CH.6 Solving tle Mauix uf Simulheneous Lyualut SEC. 6.4 Dacct Methods in Sunulation Practise 161

hen from Eqs. (6.113) and (6.114), i s defincd from and power trans1mission design and other related fields. The main thrust of
these new approaches is to reorder the ices in sucli a May as 1o mininize
mat
(6.1 16) the computational work done in the elimination proccss.
An algorithm is then designed to solve the system as
eficicntly as posible
by operating only on the nonzero elements of the sparse reordered matrix.
(6.117) As a result of these reordering methods and computationail schemes the
ncreased speed of the execution has made these methods competitive for
7he new pressure increment is computed from Eq. (6.117). many reservoir problems which were formerly too largc.

Heration ferametas Qptigai Rpedering

A set of nine encaly spuccd paiameiers i» used in the iteratign proeess.
Fach parameler is used twice in sucçessieon. A suggested sequence ($tone")
ofarumaters is: 9, 9;6, 6;3, 3;8. 8: 5, 5:2,2:7,.7,3,3;,d:The minimum
n-rametrr nsed was zero, and the maximum was determined from :he grid
dimensions end tiie coefficients of the A-matrix. The maximum me is
There are several methads proposed for the optimal ordering of the matrix,
and the wark assoeatec with each ordering seheme varies iwith the partivula
scheme. Thc storage alioation is also dependent Ca ihe iun ber uí nonzeto
elements in the original o dering and also on the nonzero elements derived
from the soluiion process.
Coats et al. have presented several schemes bascd on optimal ordering

G4 2Av)(A) and the work and storage iavolved as functions of size t, J).
min
wAE
-

min a tby 1+ ayiy +by,

X , bXij 1. Regular ron urdering: The first scheme is the regular row ordering

(6.i 18) for Gaussian climinaton where the numbering is along the shoriest dimen
sion first, as shown in Fig. 6.16. This ordering is used 1o minim1ze the band
The above equation differs slightly fsom ihat given by Stone. 10 The param- width for the application of the bandsolve routine. The work involved and
eters are used recursively in order of incieasing value: the other parameters
e computed fromn
(6.1i9)

The su ongly implicit procedure is superior of the iterative nmethods

to most
In
except ALDI in all but the simplest homogcneous and isotropic problems.
the problems currently cncountered in practical reservoir simulation, homo
geneity is more the exception than the rulc. and these problems lend them-
selves more readily to SIP.

f6.4 DIRECT METHODS IN SIMULATION PRACTICE

In recent years there have been improvements in the direct method approach
a result
to solving the pressure equations. These methods have developed as
of breakthroughs in sparse matrix technology as used in operations research Figure 6.16: Regular ordering and matrix system.
 193
52 CH.6 $olvlng the Matrix of Simuiltarieous Equations SEC. 6, irect Mathots in Simuletlon Practiee

the storagc requireid are: The elenients on euch consecutivc disgonal ure:

(6.120)
Number of
S 1J (6.121) Diagonal Elements Ce!ls
**

2.Diagonal ordering (Fig. 6.17): In this ordering the cells are numbered 2) 2, 3
This
consecutively along the diagonals starting with the shortest direction. (3) 4,55.6
method groups the cells by diagonal count, which by inspection increases as
) 7, 8.9, 10
we move from the lower left through the grid to the upper right. 12,13, i4. 15 C
16, 17, 18, 19, 20; 21
(7) 22. 23, 24, 33, 26, 27 (C
(8) 28. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33
UrPER HALF OF GRID 34. 3, 36. 31. 38, 39
9)
40, tl, 42. 43: 4*
5 45. 16, 47. i3

$4
L..

The work and storage requifhefits afe:

.
.

3. Altenating point ordering: This is cyciic oriler1ng obtained by divid-

ingthe grid puints into two groups, cireles and suquares ( Fig. 6.18), then num-
the points such that no two
5ering similar cells are consecutively numbered.
Eaeh point is separated from its adjacent number by at least one other point.
The wurk ittvulved in the eyelic ordering suhenie is:

|20 |34 4. Alhernating diugonal ordering scheme: This seheme orders the grid
points on alternating diagonals (Fig. 6.19), and it can be seen to be a combina-
tion of
the alternating point
and diagonal orderings. It has produced the
greatest reduction in work of the methods exumined here. The work involved
Flyure 6.17t Diagonal ordering and metrix system.
 Smiulston Fractice 1
StC. 64 Gret Muihads n

uf Simviiyngous Cquetionr
1L Cit. 6 Sulv the Mait

Figt 6.1: Alierpati* pgini orde1ng iunsi Iiailis $5y'st6nt

1s givcn tit apprcainate rolation: Figure 6.19: Ahernaic diaponal ordering and mauix sysien

w- . In a given matrix there is a fixed number of nonirivial operations

required to solve the system by some given direct scheme.
2. The solution process produces some nonzero elements which wil
S- always be present at a given (i, Jj) location in the matrix.
in the
3. If the location of all nonzero quantities is fixeda priori both
Sparse Matrix Techniques matrix and in its solution, then a straightforward, nonbranching, nonlooping
Another improvement on the optimal ordering technique is to use processes computer code can be developed to solve this system very efficiently
One
which are geared specifically to the direct solution of these processes. to the
method used in the solution of transistor-switching circuits by
Gustavsoon The idea of generating a code and then solving the problem gives rise
Their method The be examined schematically in
et al' and now being used is the generate-and-solve algorithms." name "generate and solve." process can
The
makes use of the computer architecture in developing the algorithm. Fig. 6.20.
basis of the method can be summarized as follows:
 CH. 6 Sotving the Mati ot Stane* Fquations CH 6 Rererences

s'*
studv in ornder t predK"
w t h the trie cost ot runnn a mulat
COsts
due
Accuracy and stability are machine-dependent to some
extent t
the time step
propagation of round-of errers: they are also dependent on

election. assuming the same order of error is involved in the discretizatiun

Simnait0
process.There is a trade-off between terative methods and direct methods
GENEATE P0 as far as stability is concerned if we can guarantee
machine
precision uCh
that round-off will not be signiticant. Thc iterative techniques break down
horribiy if the coeficient matrix is ill conditioned (nearly singular). direct
SOLYE CODE methods are still able to generate sotlutions in this case. The problem as
ciated with the iterative methud can be resolved by taking smaller tume
Is the
steps: this increases diagonal dominance. The question then
in terative runs less than that
arises:
stngle
computational time involved of a
direct-step run over the same number of days simulated? The engineer must

address himself to this when he h to make a decision.

IVAL UAT ION On the basis of programm n ca the direct methods are some inat
mere complicated. primanly duv tu the manipuiation of indices and character
Iterative
sthns in the proeevs of storing the parse matriees efmiently.
methods are streigheforwernd in that the efeente are ueually storea
one dmeasional vectorn
The greae degreN of dsferenmt in the nethods covered here is seen ir
tigure 6.30: Generste and sotve methd
the areas of applicability. Some teraive methods, particularly the alter-
natin-direetion implicit methodi do nt function at all in those reservor
peobiems here there are markent dhrectianal permeability trends. In these
6.5 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS anroeropic cases the ADIP techniqucs heceme u nstable and produce rever.
The methods eramined in this chapter present a wide raner d features whh
als n potentialh whch are phy ally unrcalstc. lterative A DIP sometime
ot.Lnmes thin ter dency to diverge. but by far the better methods are thhe
may prove etfective in ome appBi.ations and just ,ian ucies in othe:
relaration technaqus ia coeit and cetionai studies the ADiP
the cot
The computational speed is a reasonable measure t
of a soluton algonthm, but this again is not always as cas
effectivenes
a term to define
auuxtitve with teratrve AD of OR, and some ui these methials
today. In genersl, terative schemes are computatumally fastcr per tume step have to be "heiped" by the use sinti r mulations of mobilsty term
than are direct method. This advantage, however. can e eauly lost if the
required number of iterations becomes too large Recentiy. however, some
direct methods (see Sec. 6.4) have evolved which minimuze computational REFERENCES
labor by the efñicient ordering of the matrix and alo by usng storage algo
D CaoUT, *A Short Methen t r Fvatutling
rithms whch explot the way the machine accesses data Ths techasque re Determinants and Sotvng Sy
tems o Linear Equatrons wth kra! r t omplex Coefñicients," Trans
duces the computer overhead, which is generally bulled the
user. Since
t (1941) 60, 1235
the advent of virtuai storage machines the efficient use of torage
limitatroas but
has become
an even more crtical parameter, not because of storage because 2 Dw PACEMAN and H. H. RacuwROhe Numerical Seltion of Parabotc
and Elliptic Diferential Equaton r indast. App.Meoh. (1935). 1,
of the way in whch pages" of slow memory are brought into and out of
core. If the storage is inemicient, the program could eupend many
times
the required time fetching and re-storing informaton required for a computa 3RSVARGA, Merrtr rerfiv: t itr
Fmgdewexnd C , NJ: Prentie Ha
tson. The enginser must be fAmiltRr with the bilting algdrtm ued to come 2
 ~
SEC 7.~ , F r.1id Dar, ~

~
I
t I
c,I
7 Data Prep arati on '1CCl'.AN ICAl
ilo\ TA

CASI!!(;
ECONOl'I IC
DATA
HI SCELL.ANf{)I))
MTA t-,
c,
l/11111 SKIN
,r SIZE
S/wtll FAACTll!ES

C-1
TUSING
II ECON. WOllltOYC~S
,u SllE
llF T LIM .

c~l
CJ.~~ CIH

IN q,LL~ ., cwljwl-._, ~ ~ -0._._

V) 1U ~ ~ ~ uill.t ~ cl
0 tQl}bw (.Gil~ t) L-
~ ,¥ i e . ,-4 ~ ~ul (\OJ-tb0-~ , ~ GM.b ~ Of)

Flgute t .t: Data SOll rc~ · :t llu t' 1r:! Gl Clers . C=-1
7.1 INTRODU CTION : "GETTIN G IT ALL TOGUW R'

There is a well-u,;ed clt-::he in lhe computer world ---Ci I (iO -an acronym
figure 7. I illustrates the sources and p,1ramctas. We shall discuss each c:-7 I
of the,c area; in turn and determine how ocsl the required data item can be
that states a simple lacl · -- Garbage in, Garbage oul.'' Th ,: unJcdying thesis
is simple: the qualit) of the output is no better than tilt· qtt a lity uf tht! input.
<lbtained e-..
The data required to 111:il..t: ,t ~imulatlo n stu<ly corne frum ,i:•:l'r;d ,l'lifees :itHl
are accessible to c~e engineer to a greater or lesser degr.x . l"he data it~elf are
7.2 FLUID DATA ~ C---
us•1all)' ·:1 a form nc : t".,r.:ctly applicable to a compuler ., olution. and some
preproc.:.; sing mu~t t-<! und:rc:1ke n to produce tl,c data in u,abk rc•m. There The r-.,crvoir lluids have properties which r;,u ,t he
evaluated many times C --
are usually several sourct:s o f the same data informa1,n11 . and ,he engineer during the ,, mulation of a reservoir unr.kr dcrkt 1.1n vr under some secondary
must exercise hi , ; udgrrient in differenti ating and sclert1n·g the hec.t data or tert ia n · mechanism . An examinati n n "r the !_'.a •; equation shows some or c:.
available . Someum c, th crt' arc no data available _for a pnicuhr case; in n
situation like th is the ~ngineer must determine some: ,ti(crnatc means of
thl: pr,.1pert1cs which must be evaluated :
c_
obtaining the same in formation . Some of these techniqu e; .i n: di scusse_d later.
The groups \>f darn generally required in making a ,imulation run are ~~
as roitows :
c_
n, Fluid data (__,u , ~1 ~c;.)
b. Rook daw \( , ch, gi.., , cl.mt,, '1) Tht: pres·rnrc-d ependent fluid propert it:, are : ~
c. Productio n d:lta ( \ , fb,.t.. )
d. flow r!lte c\ata Ql , tx.-,ME , ) , I . Forrrnitini \ volume fllcton (FiJ!. 7 .11 [ e , t; i...,,' , (S~.) <:
e. Mechanit al and t•perntion al data ( C.$C\ , ~;'.2-A 0-f •u,d'jJ _ H .1,,l ,i,rn,ity (Fig. 7.J)
f. Econ~mic da!!i <!loilo-v'- ,...__. hevruJ... f"""- ~tl.t. ) ~lilii!lti11 gtH 0 ,iil r:tllt, (Fi!!, 1.4.l (_l,..J..u ' ~--> , >J-.~)
~
g, !'vfo~l!llane1,u ~ 1.htta ' SK\'
\.: \,\ ' ~ \ Lll~DvV0 (f!:s"' .l 1....,)
C
16~

'
~
~~
QAI~ 1:19;,41,H illn
~
CH I /
\11 ~ 0 ~ tJ 'lo11 1', 'rell7\P1'
~ "v:, ( o - 1'~ r :

~
·•
~

~
r - Figure 7.5: Arca! V11ri,.1to n Flsur• 7.6 : Vertica l var,~11,11,
~- ~ l'i1urG 7.3: fluid vir.cOliily dlla .
J,'iture 7.J : Forn1~1ion- vol"me s in propc:rt,c ~
I h('sc variali om arc !.hown in hg!I. 7.5 ;,_rid 7.6. These change
~- ~- cf1111 .
11,u~• be incorpo rated into tht' model to produce a Jood represe ntation ol th~
arc include d is to define an arr.J:,
( n·~crvo ir. Thi! 1;,ual manne r in wl11d1 th('~C
J-, ,·,f /;',lid data de.!J·ig111J1ors (FDU1 1,1 ca~h fh11d data area (FDA) . wh ;..:h ,,.,11 id
(
; -:1- cqr.n;o n !'trr i- valuati nt the PVT data-e .g., as ~hown ,r,
,deer the pr(Tl
J ~s : 1-ig·;. 'J :- ~nd 7.6 . The PVT d;m ,-:, uld l~ c,,·.. iuated
1u fol!£..ws :
r,
~
(
' Fii:11r1• '1.41 Soiu1ion g.~-oil tillio. \ ~ol
:•
. .._hlov-

f':: _~
(
~ ~ • gJ-,'uJ. )
,11. J.1e})
B 0 ,. , - - a ~i::)

K is lhi: FPD corresp ond ing to c:d l i.

a,
°'
_ qo<k) + d ~::,~, -+
., I ,~-
q ~
ai ,r.,f',
\
t 7 -l )

~
,,;,i Th,tc pn ,1lt'1 tir) ;1;-.- 1:cnerally obtaine d from laborntory studies of samplo s
of the: -rCSCf\ ,, ,,- flu i.:L Th<:SC ~tudics form part of I ht rt'£lllar
tenipc!ralu rc- /f'\'1 ) wnrk done on a samplt '.
pressur e-volum e• t: ';T::iit," , C\11-1
!
l
,:1:""~.r-.:-ca. 7 \ CfV- ~DA
~
~1~ \
~ lnnLtt Fmrn ~ ~ c~oilJ ~
~ -~ ~ • J ~
, L ~ ,;;9
•
~- • _, ~ .
Po~1'11 ,-,11,i, ,; Ru,: •,' nt,11io11: The PVT dala li~te.i abm
. r
t lend them~clvcs
L. ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
qullc Tc!H0 1J~ 1,-. rc-,-, c~enta tiom o the following
"-t# 1~ pe:
f½ii'l'<Vrl'1 \0 ~
(7 .2) Fiaurc 7.8: Fluid
11, - ~-. -~' - Po\l..l.lltln-u'J _l
. -- a~ -,· a, .t. ,-, a,x·· .,·· u;-' , Figure 7.7: Fluid data dcs ign,,1 <1r
(FD>,).
-.# au.v-c.,,.,vr -~ · ~ 11,,v ,rDDJ -

>, •l-t,J..d
~ r 4-YJ"ell ' xwhcr-c: !he drp,:r.dc111 \'ariabl c )' can be any of lhe func!io m li~tccl
is an iudei~ ndcn: variable.
T · -
ijP()\'. C, 1,\1\d
The coeffic ient, a 0 .~, a, .•. ": .• will form a matrix uf values whi..:h
there would be two sets of
an- r, . ,. ,
a-.:_ ,wti1
in10 the progra m. In the exam ple given,

> B, = I .O.H + O.OOOJ ◄9P for P < /\ (7.3)

" ,1
cients l!sed, as shown :
R,cgion (I) : H•.. -" "o,,. ~- q 1 .,,P + q 1 ,., JH (7: ,
4ny lcashHquar~, l's :-Q o,+ql l -\- q'l-1
Th•,e pal}•11omi1il npros sion, _r, very easy to develo p with
> program avail.able on a routine buis. The cnginr tr should
be comple tely R;,
1
2-:: 9111. -t q 11.-A- q'l-2.-~ cgion (2) : B.,, ,. ~- a 0 ,,, !- a 1 ,.,P + a,,.. P
1

data within the ranac

satisfie d that the c.,pres sion u1ed generates adequa te efficiently evalua1 cd
to f!Cncra tc a table of values Within the progra m itself these polyno mials must be
of pressur e~ ~tudi<"d . The only way to be sure is several evalua tions at a iiven cell every lime !'-tq,
be signific ant variati ons in !>incc the PVT data involve
throui hout the ran~c . In some studies there could a time step if there were iteratio ns on pre!>surc . An
or several times within
fluid proper ties, due to either expone ntiatio n :
inefficient method of evalua ting Eq . (7.2) is by straigh t
-S~ ikU) ~ 1
d 4 . extreme a,~nl size, or ( ~ llA4J
& ~ '(½ ""4 :-1· high-rt'lirf reservoirs. ~ -~i,t.l., i/2 crz ,.-'IJ./W {V61Y ~ ~
~ ..,u-, <f __llUl,t.V on 1
'e. ~ .pf,-u,d l,t.,< ~ ..9u.,6 \J ~
T
cJ»_o_ . J.-u !-
 _ 2... , -• - ·-··- - : .. ····• .. • " ' • ••• ••• ••• ........ ..,,u,.,_,...,.-,._1111ni.11\C~!Wltnll,\;>,V.ll\~llW.iUI\Jfillllt.1d \l\l\\tJ1V~fl\:lO~','J,ii\ t'li!\'.!ll,{!\'(l!J'1U'l\llU\Ail,lll~;M,•1••• t1•J,o •• ' ~•"" ··-·
~~ o.~ :-- '( - q t> +-- q , f' ~"! Lf +<h f-St- alt ,-'-t ~ ~e.~ 1-\'-0lwj , J,\,vJJ ec; n ~ ~ ~ ~p61'1JM},Jic-v0 , ~ I-WM q,._1 1--w ,no~ -h~ LOJh)) U,Y>Ud Q)7~
194 .(J, n.V->~ <lM.~ CH . 7 / 08\1 Pl'llftlltllk,h S€C. 7.l / FfuldD11;, 18!!
_'< ~ (C_( (
q4 f + ~1) f )-+ q1-) P): "i)f -t ~ 0 ~ ~~ "'1-mO>.&t N.4-M ,J+- w 1n1 ~ .J,h'i, l1'uJ-i'O'\A cm½), .so
s-a'v-tl) "",1._ 61- q ,-,.;...., ,
This cq~at,on ha, _h•o many expo~ent1at1ons. and thC$c are the moil t1_m~-
coni;um'.np. <'(ll:raur•n~. The following formulation has at most n mult1ph-
cation'\ · S
t,
~
•cJp
~r • The mechanics or a table of look-up applied to a given curve are shown
in. Fig. 7.9. The model requires determining the value of P, at various values
ol S. • We can nccomplish this by chnrnctcriiing the various segments of the
(

f
Y · 1•(lf A4•t ..:. _..,))'I') .l• ..t2)'Pl 1 •◄ I )'P - .•Ill (1.Ml E.\ ~\'\l'I~ . j ~ i.urve and- Inputting th~ i,alr~ uf u111a pl,lnt~ 113 required.
This nested arran~cment is as efficient as you can get without ~pcclal evolua-
<;\ , . . . ~ ~
\a.Jl ~ " '
t
tioh fornrnh1 ~ ah~ ~1111uld alwiys ~ u~~d Ii\ lht' ~,·:1lutttltm ltr 1,t1 ly11t:m1lttl! ltt
sih1Ulllt<m1.
-s,~ t
p ,./ ~t~lt>H e
C (
Table of Look-up . Some PVT data arc not easily represented by a poly-
nomial expression. either because the functions have discontinuous segments
or because the order of polynomials are generally too high to be programmed C
economically- there arc too many multiplications . The solution to this prob- Fl1111re 7.9: Capillary pressure
lem is to use ·• --100k-up table." A series of pairs of ordered data points arc versus water saturation . C
developed to reprc5ent the data over a given range . These values have to be
stored in the computer to be used on call. In orde~ .to ~ t~l~a~~. -~·, P,a_t.llmctcr, Note in Fig. 7.9 that in Region A there is a slight curvature to the gra ph . C
the array of data ivr the independent variable is s.:arched until an interval is but it shows an almost linear rel~tior1~hip~ _·shall therefore need ahouc We
found in which the ~ariable is bracketed; the dependent variable is calculated five data points to represent this region . I ri Region 8 the curve ·is very ,harr C
explicitly b~ mtap,,lation (either linear or Lagrangian): showing rapidly changing S,.-values but nN a great change in P•. We shouid
therck,re use more closely spaced data points 1n this region. This enable: , th -: C
EXAMPLE IIJ Prc"11rc = 2176; B0 required at 2176 . table of look-up to duplicate the cur\·c mPro: closely. In Region C the rel.ir1 u n
i-~ r,ractltlllly a straight line, anti two values, one at either end of the llrie C
TAILE 1 .1 ~ld}i'OI-A segment, will suffice. The objective is to obtain accuracy consistent wi th the
,),1 Fmmallon VOiume Data UMd In Looll - Up Table = tlnta requirements using as few points as possible. (:
I --7 \ ) ~ The two most frequently u~etl mcthmh of interpolation arc illustrated in
l___ /Jg r ~ ~ - 'Xi l -" '\Flg!l. 1, 10 ii.ltd 7.J l, and th~ tquinioM ar<" :n follow 5 : C
j
i ~(.
~- = ~, ~ µ_ ~'2- Jl/ Uiieur:'
. )--(..._ - Y,
I.~') C
UR 21!MJ
Y,
II, · ·• : :~}
21~
{ 2200.
C
1.40 2250
1.36 2300
l.)S 23'0.
...J

A ,imple linear interpolacion produces:

C
2176 - 21.50
·-= n.,iue, -+ .2m- 21so[B.,, izo111 -
·1
Bo1Jt76 • !J._ JZl!OI (
•
" I.JO
26
+ 3',(US - UO) Al~to M frm,w~ ~ e C
1:325

f
4
,t -1· ·•')I.. -L..11,~~....~'.!.hjl.,...,-..._
~ uko\ ~ - '( =
..J.l~J.li,~Rf}l..' ~ ~ ~ \:..\\.,..Jll'!tb-;m,£.l!I:.it':-1"1..1\,
q " .... 0 • f .&- -, Lf L+q sf l t- F 1- &>~ 1-\U)liv-J • - ~ ~ I I ~
l\ ~ 1 ' .,l-1 .. ~h I\ Ll...Al.i.'i-tll'V"~, m.\1ll!.lt/..\h'Uih.l!., ''.i°. 141:., ~• l, 7 ~,;ilk.w.L'' .H' .u"'n.,•~•-· ..--
kt-,, n,o.°"'o 4U pt'l>\J....J, ,,J-t...,.,,. ~ JWJl_f q,,<J MA.I m.o6'- -hfN c. O'hAl.l....,·d ar~
\" r
:1
01.t, -i>
194 {J, ,u.J)~ ca-,,1\.ft-/- Cl! 7 f Otlt ,.,_,.,....,. .,;;Er: 7, f ff111tt IJ,ri, 18!1

O ~ /1\S~ .nut~ , j.._ ~ 4'.l mniJ'-

_'( -:: (( ( ( q " f-+ q ! ) f ) ~ q ~) P) ~ 4' .)f + q 'n' ~ ;., h·C..IV"'·.....,. cmi>J , ;o s;-,. ~ ... ) e,► GI M-, ,
Th1!!. eq~311on h.J. " "' m.:any ca.po~ent1.:a11on,. and lhc!'C arr the moil llm~• • ~rho! mechanics or a 1:iblc of lc,ok-up appl,ed 10 a given curve _arc shown t=- ·
coru.umintt "P:·r:i1 ,c-n, TM follOW1n, formulati on h:t~ at m~t n multirh· ~ 0/'(\..• ~
•..JI'
ln H@ . 7.9. The model requires determining the value of P, at various value,
or !'J'• . We t an ncc<>mrli,h 1h i1 by chnr11ctcriiing the various se1m..-n1~ c>t' the
e-1
~
t·atlot" · <,<>

>' ' ''(' ~d•f' ,L ,4~J•r, .J.. I o,•r, II ) •n· r

,1.11, ~ \'-\tin"'-' ""r i:urv11 nnd lnpullltt8 lh'! ratr, uf tlnlll ,w1n1, IU required .
s1.,...J.D\ ~ ,
That nested aman_Fcmtnc " as dlkient 81 you an ~I withl,llt ~re,clal evalua- w ~ "'
l i on roml Ul tl} &Id • '•nutt! Qhll"ltt bf u~ (I\ t!tt l' \':l lu,,Hun ,,r l\t•l)'nt1ml!!l1 In ~,~
~
sl mulll('f'\

Toblr of Lool. ---up So~ PVT data are not castl)' represented by a poly•
nomial cxpru~on. e1thcr bcc:aue the fanctions have discontinuous segments
•<
::;
or because the order of pol)'IIOIDials 8ff ,enera)ly too high to be pro,rammcd
ec:onomica.lly-thttc arc too maay maltiplic:atiom . The solution to this prob• Fl1wt 7.9: Capillary pressure ~t

~
,·crsus water 111ura1lon.
Ian is to ui,c ·, --1-,"k-up table." A series of pain of ordered data points arc
dcvdopcd t.:> rcpre~t tbc: data O\'Ct' a given range: . These values have to be
Note in Fig. 7.9 that in Region A there: ,s a slight curvature to the gr .1.;-,h .
stored in the oom.;-uttt to be ated on call. In order to C:\'aluate a p_acamcter,
but it shows an almost linear rc:t:uion~hip . We shall then:fon: need a ho ur
lhc array ot dua h•r the il\d t 1.-:!rn• variable: •~ sc:~ch~d ·; n,ii' an interval is
found m wh1c.h the: , .1.riable i, breckdcd ; the dependent variable is calculated five data points to represent this region . I ro Region B the curve is very ,ha rr
~howing rapidly changing S., -valuc:s hut nN a great change in P•. We sh•>ulti
cxphot l~ t-~ antc:rp,-l auon (eilbcr ~ r Lagrangian_): ~
therc:k,re use more closely spaced data po1 ncs 1n this region. This enable:, ch-:
Ex utf'U ft! P,c-.,u n:: - 2176 ; •• required at 2176 .
..,J~lcv\
tulllc or look-up to duplicate the i.:urv~ mnr,.- clo,cly. In Reaion C the rel J11 v n
ii. prncllc111ly a atrRlght line, nnl.l two value~. one at either end of the 111,c
c~
TAaLl 1., .:.•~ ===---
I> • A •

segment, will suffice. The objecll\'C 1s to obcain accuracy consistent w11h th.:
e-
.,,, ,_,_._ v..,.. Dau UNd In Loo~ -Up hbl• unt,l requirements using as few points a~ possible.
- ---- - - - - -- - -- - -, 'i ) ~ The two most rrequently u~c:ll melhou, of inttrpolation arc illustra1.:d ,n
c
•• r I ..,,_ ~ - -Xi l _,. '\Fl!!~-1,10tUttl7, 11,andthel'qun1ioMAr:-:nfollow s:
~':2.J \ } !.itlettf'. 1
- ·· -- - - · 4 w =: Ll 1 -\-}I.

I . C
ffl!il .J :J
' ~,
I Yo )-( 'l.._y,
~~J
' ( \ ..
', ..
I ~-
ic o ~- ( ! C
fl . '°j
• II .JI
.' 11(1

1..0 :?150 C
________________
Ufi
I.H
2)00
23'0 . )I
~

A simplt li near 1n1erpola1ion prodUON : C

2116 - 21.50
8.,,., •. ·-= 8.,,,,., +.m - 21,o(B.,.11•01 -- /1_,,,u,I C

. 1 JO + ;cu, - 1.10>
C
. 1.3:!6

•
 .~/ I . r _-, : lir.£1. Ditt~
H, 7

r .... :_-~ -~ <r-; ..

Ii

I .I -------
i
. I- - -
, · ..' i:- .::------ ·

Lr- •-1-~-:_
L
(
(
'1
I I
. 1 - L - - -' - - -- -
••• 1 •1

ticlar1· 7.11 : La (ircn~n i111cqlllla1ion

r~
- --+--+----4---

~- --+.......-ti~-+----+--l~+--------/J#.~
L;i&r,.111i.in . 1
~ 1,ei- 6t}- ~,----
~ o/<l'd'
( (' IX

( (7 . 10)
.,~--
r- -
I

i
No le that Uf:(,m~1.1 n 1n1c1 Jl';lation involve, quite a few mon: mulliplications, i
hut fewer data P<""" a,c required for the same range of 1he variables. 4
1 l'ill!,rt 'J. 12 : Ce:1 1dcn1 ili-a :i .. n

:-..· uLJt~QS ,d l'e((ll~Pbili{y Para

The ~·anoi; ~ r--,r.-; m.-i cn. lrl-~.;cJ to d!?finc 1t.c µhysi~i41 e11.-n1 ni 1l;i:- ri:~!!n,~i1 ·1 J",f ;-ibsoIu1e pcr·-1c:2bili1y data can be o btarnrc frqrn ~c.\ic1al ~our,.'- ~:
and 10 cvalu.it~ i! .: :;.: n.-rn,"iibilitir~ during ;he ~imul ati.111 run mui;t l)c
input in >Omr lo:.'' i :.. ~qui re .. data arc: Prl ssur~ build-up dala (drill stem 1c-q I
.., P1t•5~u rc falloff data
I. ~rmc~hii,;~ (};! ) 3. ln!i:rference tests
2. ~0,0>11} (~) 4. lnitial potential test
3. FarmilHOft 11ih.:knc~~ tf.-} 5. Regression analysis (case history approach )
4. Forma11on ekva1ion" ( -Z ) 6. Laboratory measurements
5. Con1pm"bility l ('.f- )
6. Relative: permub1li1~ l t(r l The moil important sourc:e of ptrmeability dllta u; pressure test analy!iili,
7. Formation fluid suuration, G S<--<>• 5~) 0
,
and the engineer should be familiar with the current techniques available for
8. Capillary prc,!>ure (_{'cw , f c..J}) l)btaining the permeability values from these tests .
There arc: four commonly used methods for analysis of well test data:
The1e data form the most voluminous portion of the: input data required
by the sim~tor.[Every cell in the model must be identified by a 1ti\'en value I. Muskat method'
of each oft e parameters li51ed earlier. The result is a rna1rix of values for 2. Miller-Dyes-Hutchinson method' (MD H , t-~JJ
each parameter. an example: being the permeability matrix in Figs. 7.12 and 3. Horner method•
4. Type curve analysis'
7. 13.
 1 O'! Ct~ 7 I Ot!I .,..ii,•~lli<t, srr 1 ., 1 r,,.o n,":,

2 3 ~ s 6 7

0. d 0. 0. 0.
4' 4'

z 11. 8. 8. l l. l 3. 0. 0.

3 l. 9. \ \. IS _ 10. 0. C.

10. 12. 13. 18 . 20. 23. o.

5 12 . 14. 17. 20. 23. 29. 26. pf lhf drl\lnl' tt . , .·, ,c:, .
tilt ~,t!i,e ,,, t1r !hf ,\ lliH.ur ~!ill 1 , !I fUl1(." !10t\
-
~~ . 27. 19 . Cl~lllf tf :
5 0. 19. 21. 2Z.
O fi0.~l8k
! ·) . 20. 23 . 2J 27. n. 30.
27 . 0. 0. ~tjllhrc ~. . •
fl ·). 22. 25 . 26 .
"r0111~
,) . 0. 26. ~, i i
(,.;;.} . 29. o. 0. ff!Jl

0. 28 . 2'J . IJ . 0. 0. tam .
10 ). The skin term rnn be.- ob1 :11n::d rr .. ,11 a n imbina t ion ul
,..... 7,H : t'crmc:i !'lil11 v ,1a111
' '
The 1hcor. bdund lbese meihods is well devclt,pcd throug
hout the literature
• on this subject. We
and a~ .u~h the reader is refen-cd to the 11 ;.,ny articles , h" " n
[2] MUSI.AT \IE rune, : rht< da1a for the build -up 1cst .,
,;1
order to be able lo analyze
s:hell "over ..:nly CM NICntial elttnen1s here in EXAMr u:
E 1: ,
ctrcc.t1H•I~ ,..,.,~ ..t"SI daf, . Tnbl~ -U.. From the graph in Fig 7. 15, i' -= 1860 ~ig. U~ing 4

~fu _,l..ar Wrthod . MIISb t proposed t ha r :i I, •;: pl o t of averag e reservo ir . ,~ _(),u~

shut-in time of
prc~,urc . I'. minus shut-in wcllbo n: prcs,ur c. /',., . v.:rius the (;, P.,)M•O

a -... :: II \, tll produc e a straight line. Howev er. since 1hc value of P, the average
d-erro: Then:
n. the proced ure is a trial-an
rcxr·. 0 1, pressure, is usually unknow
d in the later ;v>rtion of the curve. If P (94.6)( 1.461(0 .85)(1. H)
pr~c:..>. The su-aigbt tine is obtaine k ---- -, !(i) ){ 13)
i, w.-, h1 ~h. the curve is concaY C upward and for P too low it is concav e down-
" a,LI , J i >h o wn ,n FiJ. 7.14 Tbe incen:ept a1 t,.,
0 1s a function of k/1, and
,he c quar w n 1ndiclt lng this rtlatio nshlp •~ as ft.'ll11ws : ·
r ur a , 1rcul11r dralnt Jt areti :
kh= 118.~µ H (7.11) In!:.!.+ 0.75
(} - P.,).1, . " r•
•
1-,, r a ·,quare draln1 ,e 1ra: ..., 0.84 !.~.t~ •:t•;~~ - In~~~ + 0.75
kif = .,94,6qJ!._'! __ (7.12)
= 8.77
( - P• .),., .•
~
I hl
TABLE 7.2
~
~
100
-·-. - --,-~--, --, ~~ ~ -1 ----1
. - - ... - !---· - ·- - - ----
Presoure Build-up Da1 2

Wtll N,, . I

.A , ::o ac
~ Giver. Data I q .. 146 bbl/da ,
I I, - 20S ft P. 1 ~ l4 21i V p~i£
o.,.5 ft
:, JI i µ - 0.li5cp•
Ji ~ l.l9
r., .

~ • lllt,0 psi
\ I ! 1 .a S3 hr
J
~ - 0.10
~ l
; Ort1ifw11' tn@Pf i &Q111~. n~ ont:u,..
;
Well loc11ioo: Center
:,
, L
(
10
~ • 11Ci~ pd
- ··- .-- - -----... .,,.~~- ----
'I in11·
Build,up n.,.:
I'. , · - ,.~,

'
I,, mire
·-·------ - - -- - - ----
O. lC,"/ )(1 1 ◄ 51.S jj\,Jl[l
,~.,
2~ .E

' 0 .333 :,:-, 1 ◄ 76.0 16000

0.500 30 1 ◄ 91 . 6 107.00 71.7
(
) \ 1 0.667
O.B33
40
so
lSlO.l
15◄ U
SO.SO
64 .60
9J .2
11-'-6

' '
1.000 60 IS61.3 54 .00 134.4
)
) " \
\ ~ • 1B57 p~i
i
I 1.167
1. 333
I . ~(~.1
l. t>t>7
2 .(~Xl
70
llO
90
IUu
120
1581.9
1599.7
1617.9
163S.3
16(i5.7
46 .50
40.1,0
3(-,.40
)2 .!,0
27 .50
155.0
172.£
191.0
208.4
23& 8
:: _-<<' HO 1691.S 2: .70 264 .9
:' l•b 7 tr,() 1'71 ~-~ 20 .~ 21lli.4
· : . r:,ir• ~- _()iif• \ ~(l 173 ',. 3 :.,n
l~ ~O'i .4
l . - . . .. ~l)O 175.,.'I 16 .W 3~? .8
Figure• 7. Jf- : ._,.,,i.~111lc1 for Welt .:=-I. .-, .,l17 ~20 1710.1 15_5,, 34 } .~
4 lt:lil ~40 17li3.5 14. 211 }56Ji
,,5()0 .:n,) 11100.'7 12.!o:il :;,:; .8
This method i~ bai.ed on the assump -
Miller■ Dy11s-Hurd1111s,,1; .\frriwd : 11 .(,0 .,85 .9
,.oo:i .\00 1812.B
tion that the woll has been producing long enough to reach a pseudo - steady 5.500 330 1822.4 10.60 ]115.5
,tatc. With this assumptio n the solution to the pressure equation can be 6.000 360 1830.7 9.S4 401.8
410.3
obtained in a straightfor ward manner. This relation is shown in Eq. (7.19) : 6 .500 390 1837.2 9.15
414.2
7.000 420 18◄ 1.l 8.57
7.500 450 1844.S 8.07 -m.6
kh -
l6l.BqµD( P - P•.,) ,_ log 10 At ..:.. Constant
(7 .1 9) 8 .000 480 1846.7 7.63 419.8
7.23 422.7
uoo 510 1149.6
423 .5
9 .000 540 1850.4 6.89
425.8
Equation (7.19) suggests that a build-up pressure plot versus the logarithm 10.000 600 1852.7 6.31
1153.5 H2 ◄ 26.6
of build-up time will produce a straight line whose slope is inversely propor- 11 .000 -MO
S.42 427. l
12.000 720 lU.4.0
tional to the kh-produc t. From Eq. (7 . 19) the slope m is: 760 185<4.0 5.18 427.1
11.667
1855.0 4.61 428.1
U .620 880
(7.20)
•ccn11 poi~c.

1 71
 , 12 CH . 7 Stt, :'..l I n;,;:Jc Dil/,1

and
191/(l--- -·- - .. - ,---- _- --
A·!i = ~.oqµ!?
m
11100

The skin factor cnn be c:ulc:ulatcd from Eq. ( 7.22), where 1hc L,uild -ut' p,:,.:~- DI Hll Ni IU:, ; ~,; ~!:;
BY 11El180R[ uri ~~
,ure is tt11d at 1•hC\Ut ,hut•in time. as shown in Fig . 7. 16 : 1700 • A!Hl/u~ \~lk t ••;,;;

I "'. 22)

,,. • 16 p\1/~fclt
p • !!'16 ,.,
: "'"
IIOIJNOA~Y
HF,CiS
14titi ·

1.lOO '

•
p"1 120/J -- ·-· ._ .L_ ., .o..
__ _ ~.....__.~.,.,_ - ~ - - 1 - -, _ __ _ . . .. -L . • • ..
ptl 0.1 1. ·J Hl 11.i' i:i 1 Iii~
~t. '"
----,,-'
_,
.,. I Fll(Ure 7.17 : i\llller-Dyes-Huli;hinJc,n plol for \\ di ·: I
i ~ l ~Ji iVtT L l ~ff
DIS;O'-TICl.'I : ll'l(t)R?.l(
For the skin dfo\:L 11,ing Eq . (7.22):
CAUS(D IT
11[1.LSOA[
STORAClO~
Sllll /t S ---- 1151p
. 1 h' - P. ,
- ------• le
- Iog :r.:-::,: - f-.,""3
__ .f.
rr m y,;,icr;,
ID" I 1()~ 10 1
7 94
log (0.l)(0.8,)(fi\iY -~ - Iii J.2)

Figure 7. 16 : ,1111<:r-l >~t:,-11,,1d1in~o11 pl<ot. = 9.43

F JCA!-!PLE [3] The same data r, •.ht:d

MILLEJl-DYES-HUl(.1111'S0:>: .\lffHOO: Horner Met hod_. Th is is without doubt the mo~, .,. iddy u,;cd pressure
as in the Muskat example: the build-up pn:~sure is plotted vcrsu:. lo,; huild- analysis method. 11 in1;olves a plot or shut-in pressure \Crsus logarithm of
up time ; the slope is read off the builJ-up l·urvc --- Fig. 7. 17. Pcrmeabiliry is the tlm!! rttt io : (I tlt! 1~t . Thtt 80v,rnlni equntlon i•,

"' .. 16 psi ,,:ydc

(7.21)
Lsmg Eq. (7.20):

k ::s ~2.6{,µB This indicates 1hat a plot of I'., versus logarithm of shut-in time will produce
m,
• a 1raph the slopt: or which i, itwenely proporlional tc, the J'l<.'rmcnbility-
= (162 .~)(l~~K~~:!S-~)lJ ,.29) thleknes, produi::1 :
( I (l)( ..dJ))
kl, = l(S2 ,6qµB
= 7.114 mll t 7.23) (7 .21)
'"
 :.{C, 7.:J I 1:,,0 r,.,:. 1 ]!,

• ' !' .!. f

lt,
'i ,

?.lt(•I -
r' h, . it lJ. L' ; : ~-

.,. L- ----- \LY"~:i'::wm· . .

01 ~tJ
• ,,.
'" • 1 ~L

~l \_~~~ - lll~ h,kll tl~U-ll~lll Lf . ,~_,_ ___ ".,1 ..:..,. ,, j"< '

~ ~:::- -~_,. .._,~ t-

,, ~·
I
l tot, -

I - (_ i
,,- - - - - - -
- - - ~".,..
(
I. t~ IOI)
( l•l. l . • : • • i
fq:ure '1. UI! li1>10.: 1 1>lv1. 1600

Th(' r tr,, ,i10wn Ill Fi~.'7.i8 cxtraJ)')liltc, lo d prci,;surc JU al infinite shul-111

'S'lO - -
I
l he •kin factor can be calculated lrom tht• ~3rnc equation u in the M illcr-
0, r ~- 1-f utchinson method :
I
1400, -.----- ----: r-- - - - - - - - i ~ - ·- -- . __ ___JI~
I
1, \ 1

(7 .26)
l-i1a1rc 7.!9 : Horner plot for Will :: t

, r"· 1:,t 1l,GJ u:qi,ir~ thr ftowi11f :1n: r , pri,;,1 :,1 shut- in ~nd is c11h.:u! ;1 1t iJ

,, S = I. I ~I~..::.:.!.'.~, log - ~--;.. 3.23

I • . .: ' .£'. n.n , m i!,µa~
l.. '/1.u
I ISi 183~_-- __14.:li.9 ._ 8.47
' I.'- Ill£ (0.1)(0.8'5)(12.0:rx -ro--:-•)(11:·s1·,
► f. ,. ,-. ~• 1•1 E (4) HOIUwEK METHOD :
,-:. ,. 10.6 I i. 2/J ,
l
53 h ,
~
-~ From the graph in Fig. 7.19 :
Typt Cu,1°r. Analysis : This 1s a more rcccnt JMthoJ in which 1hc log-
log curve is used . A comparison is made between the actu3l field data and
►
, From Eq . (7.25):
m = 15 psi/cycle
an arialytically derived-type curve. The analytical curves arc a family of
curves generated by solving the radial flow equation to include wellbore
stora,e eff'ects. Build-up d11ta is iraphed as the logarithm of (P_, - P_ 1 )
versus logarithm· of build-up time. The idea is to plot the field data on the:
t k = 162:J/B same-size-coordinate tracinJ paper as the analytical curve and to try to
• - match the actual curve with one of the analytical curves. ·Once a match has
_ (162.6)(146)(0.85)(1.29) been obtained, the true kh and hydraulic dift'usivity can be obtained by using
- ,1sx2os> the coordinates which make up the match and the defining equations for the
•- \,,...
= 8.41md (7.28) dimensionless parameters used . These arc :

►
 ,: H 7 / 0111ft 1•1r11nrn lln11

ExA~11•11 (~I I n1 : CUil.Vi! METIIOO : Figure 7.20 sh1Jws the IY~ curve plo~
l)1mc-n~1onkss 1im.: : · met h 01 t ~. Th c ,111rng\:, \:I• ,n\lnnt ,~ \.·11h:11lntl'd .
for 1hr ~a111c d11111 11~ 1hc enrl1cr .
0.0002Mkt (7.30)
t,, •• - ~/IC'/!
(7 .J~)
Dlmen1ionles, rre"11re ·
, kh(f, ·- P.,1) (DI)
I t1 .... 7°41.3qJJR 4

(7.32) (' (7.32)

r• = 2'·
It'~ 5c'
ti". J

where the unit ,1nr11!!e '°'-'n•tnn! I~

r
yb 4t (7.33) ~
r = (f., - r,,> I.
Flgun~ 7. :'.0 111ll1catc~ a n1nt11h r,oint 111 :
·'
The baaic ru,on for trrc 1:ur,·<' fll!ing is ,elf•evident when we IL1 Jk 1 :it Eqs.
, ··· 100 min P.; · r . .
(7.30) and (7.Jll in e,t.-Rn.tcd form :
1,, ·· 2 X 10' P,, . ..i~
I 0.000264k + log 1 l 7.34)
Thu s. frnin I 4 . 17.J01.
C
og ~Jlt,t!
and k ,= 141.3qnBl'p
1,(P_, - 7>_,) (7 .36)
log I',. ~ log 141 ~~µB + log (P, - P., 1 ) (7.35)
_ (14l.3Xt46X0.85J!l_.~9_>~~~'
-- (205)(100))
Then the nr.ly diffcrcnc .: hetween a log-log plot of dimensionless pressures
= 4.64 md
and times ard the re·J: pr.:ssures and t:mes is a tnnslation rf both a., cs by
the constants on the ngh1•h.1m.l side of E'ls. (7 .34) and (7 . JS) . l: µi: curve ,.,. From 1:; pc ~ur ·.-c. hy rn~pection.
matching allow, u~ ru ,olve , ~ two equation, i.lmult1tn•~ou ~ly lu obt,1111 the S a· · 11
necessary parameter, The procedure is as follows :
,'i1111111w, _1 T:,hlc 7.3 summarizes the fuur ha,,'-· 111t:l11ous for analyzing
I . Plot on the ~ame-sizc-<:oordinate tracing paper a log-lo~ plot of
well tc~h antJ 1mli<.:atcs the dacn required by cad, In r .lbk 7.4 the parameters
(P, - Pr,) venus real time. . . . obcaincd by the c~aluntion of each method ar..: ..:las,,:rcd . It should be noted
2. Checlc: to sec 1ha1 che firsc points fall on a line of unrt \lope in<l1cattng
that Sl•rne or till' d:ua --c.g., P, the nvera11c rre~~url' are really required
that storaF controlled the build-up behavior. . during the h1~1C1ry -matching phase, and other, - e.1-! . s. skin factl)r-arc
f·
3. Compu1c Che storage constant c from any point on the unit slope line • required 1·1.1r udin ing the wellborc hyc.lrauli<.:~. 1~ hid1 :dl ,,w a better definition
using Eq. (7.33), then compute the dimensionless storage c using E4. (7.32~.
4. Translate the field data plot along the c-line calculated in step 3 until
! of the 1110<.Jcl.
The tlow dragrum of lhe processes involved in ca<.: h method is shown
the field curves and analytical curves show a reasonable match . in Fig. !.2 _1
• 5. A mat.eh having been obtained, any matching point from the two
Some of the: other methods available to de termine the value of the rock
curves can be used w calculate kh and k/;µc, by reading 6.t, (P_, ·- P_,), permc:1t>rl it>· ar •; im.lic:ited below. These method, an: n,.. t a:, Jdinitive as the
10 , and P0 from the curves plotted. Equations (7.30) and (7.31J are usc:<l . The
pressure transient analysis methods just inve\tigntt:<l , hut they do produc:c
Jkin factor i1 read directly ofT the analytical curve. figure, whkh <.:an be usr.d a, a good ~tnrting ptiint
~

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!,,~ (~- ~~ ) -, 0 .: , ~
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t tri.
..:, (
: .:--, ~p,1 ir;9 P'-re :-

l vr.L il c :,.,f. r. lli.e ,. ~n~ tlcn .

_sfr . : . :;,t
t•c~ r,r. !~ -J\,s ; \ ldt:l

..:, 1 ! -- -- --···- ··1 - -·-·- ·

p and (~ - ~wi )tt• J
["aetcrRdne:
..;, .
t'
0 l. -- -··- -1-·-
· -- - J
..., 1

...;,
~~-
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r~ i
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.-- -- -- ---.....;' o,. iMr...pt911/
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; , ·, n . l«-
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:;:

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,....-.J~-~
:oi c.w l,tf t.
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:I T ;H~~~'\~~:~
--3 -- .- -
~
________ ___ \

~
- --
_,
fi11111e ·1.21 (Co n t" <l . )
J
~
- L

__,
_, l-
 o" ta li~qu ir~ :
rw, -At• l\oiloBo
h . ♦, c_,, .A, t,
Pwf• r"', Drain •
/
/
age shap• and __,,.,/ tOA ► O.
wei1 1octt1on
<::: '.111@1n\ pseud~t
·-......--.... 0 . 01 ~ Atoe
,1et '"' vs log(:, t) ~"- semi log paper ------

jOe_term ~~~--:-~~-Io-p-e ~
I No
►--· - - - - - - --·,
_..----;:c.l,.- iir-.; - ·-' -
--·- _...,. . -· . . ,
,-....;-..:..a..=~-~-------
I •
[~_~i'_:'~ :_:-'· ! ~ :

~~ , ,1 :-. ?OM!!H at dti!A from

: , i~ . :-1 1 ot RHl!l'~hi:e I_J
:.....-- - ·· - - -
t ;.il.1tc K
_I ~l-4,.'.l,'.~.
--r ---- -
,
r:!n

ta1cul1te t , 0 , , tt 0e A tbA
l ,. '.lr)lj 25,1 r-t. t

I ..~_:,'::::~:-. - - )µ,;A
------
. -(~-

f.lJ!Uf-~ 1.2 1 ( C ·ont' d.)

1its
1 ii,i
 I
·1

_L
C

Kud £P 01111H lt tM frci.

Fi~ . 4-3 t Q 4-9 of Ref. 13

·-
l..
FiJMr, 1,i1 (Cont'd.) Fig!l(e 7.~J (Cont'd .)

I
 .
'
II duce nn c~timatc 0f the
,;; :' ~: .·.: -~•J·,-g . .
Tire !11/tlfll F'nt t'ntial T,·,·t : fht s tc~t cou l ~ro • ,
permeublllty of n rcg i,,11 . The fl,m· during on lnlllnl ~c!'t " ~t~I -
·ctl'V radiul . and
j~:··:·:'.· ,\-~.<·:· tkt: t1!t~~y flt,~ c-ttti~iln11 ctilllcl bl': ~ttl'l':Ht~d to ~t,lvt ft1r k ·
'J,·~,,n::-.' \ !°ll='C .trld
· \£ :.• ' i I=-: 1 ~ • ,,,
- -·-----·- (7 J 8.1
Q·
(7 , J<fj
C
(
~el Kt • fl0111\ OIi tlll 1tn, of ~nit , I Qr~ Regr,ssion Analysis .· The use of regression analy~is techniques is
reuommendtd in tho~e $ituation~ where no data are available from other
Utt ('ift • ,.,,,) 611d &t WI IUP\ ~f th.It
~ouree~. Con!lder the ~ituntltin IIIU!tf!tted In Fis, 7;l2, Ate!U ,◄ 1tnd Bare two
parnt to ealet11lfl etllllort Hoh ~• ,on. •_;n,
..~et !
c•,~i;,, · P,.rl I

- ~ - - - - - - -·- ····- ···J

- - - - - - - ' " - - - - - - •·- · · · I
Ca Ital He Olatlltll!ftlfn stor1qp C'>~H ~n< .: '
c• .S,615 c
z,.~atr,. 2

7
Pliftirl! 7;11 ! 8&wrn,11n11 (•'•
dillit by rt,gr(s~ion .
._,f ·'-·
'
!11ove the fltld dH• plot on 1
r.,,.,._c,,,..., (Ft9 . 1 on JPr.
J•:;,c~t~~; ~;.:a~b~=~~!1 •/ unit~ or a common rcserv c, ir nwned by difl'etent operatOr:o; . A ~im ulatinn
stutly H ht@g set up for A nhtl II, but perrtteablllty diHa is ava l lahle in A only,
'
C
where pr~!i~Ure bUild•l.lj> stlHlies hatl been made slnc:e company , : wa, a
dlt!g~ht o~fator. Since th~ reservoir;~ flte s!\tne gr.•: 1 ngic uili! In hc:,th area,; ,
it I~ ~11.Sllile to p c,s 1UH1te that the- fo.;;tots afTeeti•1~ ~rm1;ahlllt) in .-t ;.re
slhill!lr.to those in fl .,\ rc ;j rc,~i t" ll alllll~~•~ is run (jit lite p\:fntet:~iltt y d11t:.l
in A; ttying to delinc: a r:.: lat11H\ betw~en pt!rrtteablllty a11,i o!li~' r ,. i\1iwn
I
.,..,, ,-.,u;·.:.•.:d:"i:;1-:-;::.t] ~-:c:l'\>tJ lr p:ttiHt1e ta, -- c.?. .. p1:rrnettbll!ly :is 1t fUnct !tm tjf rtitp,;i ty !tn d w :1tl'r
,:lt!H":tlit,t\:
'
'
--·------ ~

r 7 .-1rJ)
(
Fii:ure 7.?I (Cont'd.)
The values or codticicnls a. h . c. and d which give the best lit to the ()b-.crvctl
data are dotermlnctl with n routine regression analysis program. Th,:. equa-
tion 11 used to calculate permeability values for reservoir B. and these values
I' con!ltltllte our best appro:-1imation at this time or the pcrme;tbilities in area
c;r
B; An e:JtllmJ'le a regre,~ inr1 1tnalysi, Is Eq; (7AI):

le ,~ 2SO~ (1A I}
s.
 1 hi•
- - - ··- · ·- - ···- ··- - •" ·• .... ,.... "' '""""" ~- • ••~•••• .. u•· ..w••·• ..~·,......, .....,,u

CH 7
i1
~•1
..mun~u~111111n Ill 1m1\11tT!'ll~'i\f\\lll!lllm hi'.ll

sec 7.J , 1• •.,1 , .~,,·

-- r
ll\ff'))i'l!<lJlll1l1Ul.~lll1llftQJt'f\\.iJJ~il(m,\'.\ll!l/mlllilffilflllillllll,'J.mW:Mll\llfiimW,.:;. '

C~ J.hl- -mJ<.
-.;. e,ht)-.SVl''"J ~ 91
l

Sou,ce& of Paro$ity Dato : ,1 !-1/horat~•rr J!._t•o.1·ur,•111e111s: Poro,ity mc~11u rc:111enti. 111 the laboratory
1 he porol,ity parameter i~ usually ohtaint'd frnm one of the followinr ~•ill I,, , · arc ba~<'d <•n l he- d,•1nm111:ition of any two of the folio-... inr th rrc parameters :
bulk vo l11mr , i:- rai n vol urn<:, and !H>re ,·c •umc. u~ual method~ determ ine pore
Logging dnta s~' c.. ~ rf C,L-{..~'c... ~) vC1lumc hy 1·11 lier 1hc i111 roductio11 of fluid into a rock or the removal of fluid
Laboratory mensurcmcnl ~
;! . from a roc k . l 1,cn: .. re ~ever al types of devices, generall y called porn~ imdcr~ ,
~. Publi,hed correlations which an: rou1mcly u~cJ lo determine poroi.i lics. The dc.:1t:nn i11:1ticn of
porosity i~ ba:,l·<l on 11ic followi11g . If
1...-- l.os;ginx Dar11: Lopiug d~ta• in the form of ,e>nic or acou~tic 1011 ~ ;i~
l>ry weight of co,t sample· '-' 11 ·,
sh• ,v.-n in Fia. 7.23 arc obt;uncd by mcal,uring the travel time of ~:·,unJ
I Sa1un1ted weight = W,
llll.\"tl ltK •H</h .i
Then
I luid weight = W, - wd
S ~·c .1.~{ ~ e--u>~ 'c.
t ..ld o/v-R-(;I ~ v~
1:1u1J volume = .1i, ·- IVd
Pr
51 ,~~ ' = Effective pore \p:t<.L

t
Bui!-:
. volume cure=~
. p.

l'igwr~ 7. 23: Sonic lllg~. And then

I'
P
0 0s1 1
. P.orc volume:
,h , ,-,uph the fi;nm;iti<1 n. The t,,,.-el timl· 1s ci1rcc1ly affected by the fluid, ,•.·h i,.h r >' = Bulk vo!ume
inh:: 1.it t he pore ripacc of the rc,{'k a~ inJ11 ·a1rd hy '""= ( IV, - lf'.},L£!
·w.Jp,
I 7.4.::' l ¢ = R,(W, _:-~~1'~1 (,.4~;
P1W~ 0 ·'-•$\/A(' ,1,.,1,,>'"'
• l ,b { ~ \f'J "f -"

wlw r.:· r i!. '. Ju: int.:f'l:ii l tr~v•.i lime for ~ou1,J . Vis the measured velocity, und whr.rc P.r = f1uiJ <len~11y . v.,_.,,-urrYlb -e,J,,IA • •\µle ~
I··< and I'"' arc the velocity of !,OU11d in 1Lc forma tion fluid and matrix n,ck. P' - , <;Jnd -!! r:J!II d,'. 11s1tv- , _ L' •" ~vru
l ~,s..r, Cl-A V ' - - u..,,, '
rc~.pe,ti\'cly. Solving Eq . (7.42) for ¢,. the porosity, produces : t.S t ~ --r- ~ -
i Published Correlations: Several correlations IZavr bc:en published relat-
I
l I .,..! ing porosity to depth of burial for -different types of rod,s . Krumbe in and
¢, =- _y .. J\. (i .43)
!
.j
Sloss' have a porosity depth curve based on natural compact ion.
l I
v, -- ,,;;,
Sou11;01 of Formation Thickness Data
The typii.:al acoust ic log records the inter\'al transit time, and Eq . (7.42) Formation thickness data arc obtained from gross isopach maps or net
becomes : isopach maps . Most simulators usually use gross isopach maps in computing
the flow characteristics of the model. The gross isopach map gives the correct
(7 .44) vertical dimension necessary for evaluatin& the correct potential .h ead;. h~~-
15
ever, for calculating oil-in-place figures which arc based on net 011 san~. it
where Ar• is the recorded interval transit time. usuall~' in microseconds/fo ot. customary either to include a net/gross factor which allows computation of
_,,..,. (i~6 v.:i o pa-c,h ~
f,arm,J-; CIA {\,-\ '._ ~i,u.,10 ef) C aJ_ uhJ~ ~ cfYY>' ....____ f\/ U- t/2 tr f ~ rnAf
N ~~ (fi 1_!!2 ~av\ a:,_J ..,, flo.f~· ·1 / ll11tn r,nptii~ll011 .'/Et'. 7 .•1 I flt•d U.,1.1

N { 4 y-e-ho :;::-) ~ ~ · akunit -- cg .. h,cp;

net oil in place or to use a separate progr:1m lo calculate the oil in place Usually the: data to be contoured is availab Ie as a stn ': · kl1 "-Ir
based on net thicknesses. Formation thickness can also be obtained from • · ·
in some cases . however. lm lv combinations o
rd a t a arc: •available--e
• _-g . •
' 'I' ·
.
· h I the total reservoir,
the structural data by subtracting the structural contours on the formation In determination l)f original oil in place under t c eases or
1:-ottom from those at tht tC\p of the- form :rnon . the followinl! equal il'll mu~t be evaluated:

~ Sources of Formation Elevations Data ,·= 7758 1 ~ (A 1h,-4,1S..,) (7.46)

8 0~
F,--.rmalion elevations data arc l1btnin.:d from the subsurface srructurnl
rn::ips of the ~servoir. Thl",e datn nre in iti ,illy compiled from : ~ It is sometim i: , \Lh i~ nble to plot multiple•paramctcr maps t\' dctermi~e
a Log dltll ~ uJ,5U)16-0...tt!.. ~~J rK"'-f ,_ f~~ ~ j_~ , e:-int:tly Whe:re tli e ~\f
is :ittd con!\CttUtntly Whfrt the re,~rt-11ir energ~ 15
1
b. Drillln~ records J. oWll,"i ~ I ) •t-.1.J..p-->, Ir, ~\,,ku\AJ V-U ~ CV\,
located .
e.. l evo.h eiM ol..,.jq .
Plottfng of ~,mrJ.Jtf ltm:k fltm ! · Th,· dntn ~ets prevlomly enumeruti:d
S/;1glt•P1tra1in•ra C(lltfottr{ng: Several re,ervolr parameter~ are U!!Ually
••:l rnely . c:anit1ur~,1 sl11g11

: pc-rmcab1lh>-. I.' 1he i~l'IJ'. ic h man ,~ interpretively contour:cl.

: porosity, 2. lhe isopl•rl,s11 y map is mechunically contoured .
: formation thickness, and 3. The isopcrmeab :l i1 y map is mechanically contoun:d
{ .; formation elevation 4. The oil )acurJt1 , 1 n rT\ap is mec:hanic:ally contoured . Thi, v.·..:: menr can
be omitted if the 1 d , atur~ion is reasonably uniform .
1

- a rt: obtained at discrete locatiun, in rh-: ;c:$ervoir. For these data 10 be

u,.:d in the simulator, they must Ix ,!.\a1 :..10 L: at every point in the reservoir. · 1\f11/tiple-Para•11 ocr C(•11t'o11ring: This process c o mb ine , ": -. -:ral para-
Th~ data ~ thus plotted and contoureJ :<• obtain an overall distributic•n meters into a morc c,,mpkx. 'f\lnction which is then co ntoured :
1.1.1th1n the r~rvoir limits. In this cont0ur11Jg process the engineer uses all \
the known geological data in evaluating ..111d contouring these rock para- I. Poro:.ity-1h1cknc" (¢,Ir) \
me11.:r,. The use o(_computer contouring pr• •?-'. "ams is recomm;:nded as a goud a At each k,c:1t1on the p'orosity-thickness product is e\aluate<.I
s111.rting point for development of the 1:ontt •.. · rr1aps; however, care should be b . A mechvn1ca :l} c:untou ~~map is made of th 1::, parameter.
exac: :-ed when interpreting thr r..:sulls u, , ... .;c: "canned'' t•Jntour proJrams. c. A rcct:i.ni:t-1.u gncJ is lai over the map and the ¢,Ii-product evalu-
t·,pcC'ially where the data are widely ,epar:1ted ,,nu in those locations where ated at each u:11 .
rli -.: Lbla r~te" C'U! : (Cle,,o;e to the h•.•1111 tl:11 ,-:- . ,,,me pr0grams li~e in:1ccur:ue
,11c••, ,,. 1rnal ic,ns.) .\- 77585\,.!!J
B f
,_, A,(if,lr), l'1 A7,l
C,•ntourlng Methods: The ar:: t w•.• :·-: 1-i ~ c:ontouring techniques uscJ
2. l'ornsity -~uturau1 n-thi<: k11.:ss (i/,S It)
1
111 o btaining a two-dimensional r rcscnu11u11 vr d:Jta.
a . At each loratil111 the poros1 y•saturatio!'l th11.:knc~, pr\iduc:t is
lmcrpretatfve contouring is sue th:H : ht: c:ontours honor the knvwn
ev.ilUC\ted.
gcu lL•g ical information and thr CUil ~ Jf i,: :i.:•; par:Jllel the known geologtL
b. /\ mcd1an1call y conwured mnp i made ,
trends . This technique is almost always\ i,·:d in rnntouring formation thid-
c . (if>S)ll , 1, ev ;duatcd at each point I a rectangul :1r net ·
n_es~cs and elevations. It is an intuicive rri)..~ huJ .
:\frchanical contourin1 is nonintuitive an
,s based on some computing
7758 "' \
prc,cess or algorithm in which the data is titt.:t . .,trapolated, or· interpolated 1V "'"' - :E A,(if>S').li),
Bo 1-1 \
(7.48)
between known points to obtain values at •Jnkn · wn locations. Mechanical
cc>ntouring is geocrally used for tho~ par:!mcter- hich do not depend l>n
\
Digiti=ing flr C,mtuttrrd Data:As indicate<\ in Ch~1ptcr 4 . the reservoir
th.: geological conflpration of the rod, . e.g .. po osity. Most multiplc- is divided into ., cveral -:dis by superimposing a,_ rec:t.:rngular g riJ over the
parame(er contoun are mechanieally cun1uurc<l. ~1ion. The <facrctization procc!ls is required bec~usc the finite -differencing
\
\
 ll.4 186

~chc11H· 1c~4in.~ th.: ~"tini~iOil qf ;iii 1l,1o: n::.crvQir ~i:~m:rtil'!~ ;ii ¢\!,n' .?,i,-i:11 C\lllTi.l!f,
L i~,i~
,·,·II 1t1 1he model. Within 1111 y civcn l:c-11 the p:mm1c111rs which dc:;nihl'. tl,c
n ·,..c ; ·.•oi, in the model arc i:;cnrrally a~~umcci 111 be uniform throughout :hat
p:lr11 ,·ul;1r cell. For example, if a thidness value of 20 ft. is used inn JO,ac:rc
/
_,.?II
I AY[AAOL
cell i11 the model, this implies that the average thickness over \hat JO-acre .,..i'"LU(
region i, 20 ft . lb~etermination of these discretized values is best done
ma_nt.1ally by the en inecr and can he obtainr.d "-'ith reasonable facility .with Suro All t,I
.......,.,_;__., C:O!':TOURI t
a hlllt" effort on the ngineer's p.art . P~~AM[lf t _
lh,· determinali n of the average value to put into a given cell can b.:
o hta111cd as follows : I he "~arameter volume" of a cell may be defined as the
v,)lumc of that pn~ delineated between the surfaces· of the contoured
rarumctcr and the v ical sides of the cell a!> shown in Figs. 7.24 and 7.25.
I I '''l' could define a rectangular prism (parallclipipcd) on \he same ba~c
I
Hl:Kl\tl I•· ,t)LUHf
. ~ i •

Fii;urc 7.::5 ; I)c1ermina1ion or avcraae l)ilramc1i:r ,-a l..c

l
and having the '· par 1m1tcr volume:," then the hciaht of this recta11gulur pri~m
will be th~ 11veragc he ht of the cell. This is the value wh ich would be cnco.; . d
in the m3lrix of input ( , ta .
. A - - 4 - ~ - CONTO\I~
Ll~I ~
In those areas where he zero contour line p&li~C~ tl,ruui;h :2. ceil, 1f that
l<.JO{l C[U cell is part of Lhe model.,- tti · paramctcr is avcraacd over the area ,;f nor.zr-r,,
~OUMO,.r.Y-
thickness, and th1!, value i<; th averaged over the whole cell. Tim avcr:,_eii,r
must be done because the s11nula r treats the whole cell as .i part of the moud
I and the informa11011 is distt'ibutl". throughout the cell
I I
I
I The digitizinp pr0ct!,~ c an be l'X dited by using a Mvla r or other tr2, ::-
I
/ par1mt material o,· .. rlay ( r.c.- Fig. 7.26 on which r.r, iden1 ical grid hns h(.-- .
I
I marked. The overlay allows the cnginCC!r o diJijze the contour mJ.p with, ,i.1;
/
actually defacing thi: original mar by dra ·ng or writing on it. Since ink 0i,
the Mylar overlay is erasable, corrections ca be easily made. A photographic
copy of the completely digitized map can then be made for a perma.-i:.:nt
record.
A record of all digitized maps should be ~ept, since the engineer will
refer back to several of these maps in doing a history match .

( to---lo ~~ 0J4---sources of Rock Compressibility Dat, \__ ~~ ~ ~ )

( fulJM~ )' J Rock compressibility data are obtained ~rom laboratory analyses
of the
\___~.J,':<>.....J) reservoir rock or from published correlations.

r Sources of Relative Perme,bility Dala rh .7tn.k. ~ ) (c.

Relative permeability is often one of the more difficult pieces of data to
· · all · d by simulators arc the fol -
evaluate or obtain . The relations usu y require
Fllure '7.M : Contour ni.p and ml:srF('d ~11 vie\\'. lowint: .
~~~·- 6) .M,QoJ--w f ~aJe.ili~ olo.krt.11,;<1],v.J. wk.l ...l1-Jt<'aJJ-,
 147
( ti .'! fC 7 3 •1 1 • ~· ' , ' ,f I

-1. I h:1nn11111: ;11 HI 1·cn1rll ~al!lrutk•n~ i 11 111 1: t:• •rc •

,... o~t RL~T r, <·:11t.:11ilnr n•li1tlH• perm,nblllty of CllL'h phn~l' frl't1 1:

)-·-· ...... ~ -. ,'(J[L

( ( ...... ~
v ~~! O

~\
'"'
I' / (7.49)
~~ "\
,\ - \ ~l~
'\
\ "\
......_ ~ "" ~:)

...... - " J

./
'
- .. (, J 11,.. i' "•', ::: " 1, repettted by goi , bad
1n1cc11,,11 ~-•·· \
'P ,1ep I ;1ml u,in1 A d i1Tere11t

....... ~
By tl11, ,_rcr·.lli'-e process a complctc\ et ,.f n.:bl1\·:: permeability cur·,cs
can be Lk -:: '•.<rc:d .
1
- \
c•tatHAI. CONTOO R ,.) , lln , tcad-. -,rare techniques have been d \ ,:h,p,.:d h:,. Welge and also by
John,;o n. B;•"ic.:r. and Naumunn 11 whic h c abk ;i rap id determination of C
flsure 7.26 : Lll><' or tnnsparent overlay rciati,c ~'crr!lcat•ility. These methods are u, all:, rckrred lo as dynamic
displaccmc:11 t rcl:1tive permeability measurcrm: hand arc based on the mea -
a . Gas-oil relative permeability C. 't<.y i,-6)
b . Oil-water relative permeability K"'f" 1'-J o surement of r..ite, and/or injection pressures to t ·tcrmine the fractional flow .
c. Gas-water rclativ~ permeability K....-"'3 "-'· The sa l11rati,,11 1, obtained by a material bala11cc computati on. The relation-
s,1ips in,nh cd arc basically lhc following .
The 1 ~lative permeability data c-,tn be obtained from one of f1 ·, :! means:

I. Laboratory measurement,i; u~ing steady-state displaccm•~nt rri,ces,c,

At any time in the displacement process :

(7 .50)
'
2. Laboratory measurements u~ing unsteady-state displacem e n r rrnc.es·.c,.
3. Calculations from capillary pressure data .
4 . Calculations from fic:lcJ data .
5. Calculations from publisheu correlations.
i.e .. th e chan:,:•: uf :iverage water saturat iL•n "1th wat r injected mus t equ a l
the prC!d uctinn r.itil', ~ince only two fluids an: rrc~ent an a Buckley-Levcn:tt- '
Review of Method.r~rnerermining Relatli•e Permeabifiry . 5ceady-,tatc
techniques involve the desaturation of a given core which wu~ urig111ally
typc displ:m: rnt:nt i-,; occurring. Also : \
\ '
(
!00% saturated by the etting phase. Amyx, Hass. and Wh it111 ~ 111 survey (7.51)
.\ CVeral methods for the s ady-state determination. Basically, u.. c<.111sim uf
r he following for an oil/wur~systcm :

I. Saturate the core I 00 % ith; wetting phase.

2. Select a given· inject.i on r ~ o of nonwetting to wcttin~ _ph:15c .
J. Inject at thi, rare unril the ots{'low ratio 1, the samo as the 1nllnw rnt111 .
Figure 7.27 ,h,1•,, s the typical response of a u1:.placcmcnl-type proccs:. . Nole
the ini11::il sll •pc or unity which always occurs unt il breakthrough ; after
'
breakthrough the: curve decreases in slope an J finally reaches a limit where
s..... l <.· The other relation m.-eded i, that for the change in average
wnkr •mturnc it•n . Thi~ relation i11 derived n~ f1.1llow~ .
 - - ------ --- --- ---
'
' \I r I 3 I 11.,cJ l;a/J 1.,

~ 11..in r,f llici rcl.. tnc pcrn ,cuh il, 1> I\ (font very 111piJly U1i1tt ;.i 111,q,:,
, .,, , . ,

' " ' Ill(' " " a plo1 s ,m,1.ir 10 I ,r 7 77 The procn , i, as fo llow)
~
~, .-,,.
f"o n\trud !! pl o 1 o f w ,11 0:r ·n1cc 1cd and averap: water ~11ura1 11-.·.
~
~ • + !!..L.
PV
:-, I 1CI"' Ul . l)ynaffl lC d ~-
- tM"·t · ~ f""""'11,r where N, is me asured a~ a t u m1.•l,u, vr ~olumc Th is pfoc
1s shown ,r f .
:,

-
J:<. :=-~- T·
t--
~-~
~
1: --- ", .-c -- 1
,._L
~ •. \I.
.... ,, .,1 - - --- --- - --- j "' :'Alll l f
~ • --
) 1

t ,c .. 11t11oo sh ,n a
t--w..,, · -~ - \A,';uc:. .. , uHll ,Po 4 1•U1bu1,.. 11 .,,

) !4-..,.-1 ' ' fl"

>
) 1'',, - f AL 1AS.-, J (7 .52)

, •11: , ._. ♦A L j ,•. , .,, _

. ,..
(7..53)

, ., Pick any value of S •. .. a, , ho"" n in Fig. 7.29. Ora

zo11tal line, lo S•• anJ If',, r\: ~~ ll \dy Draw a ta.nicn t
\ vie rti-:a t _: -. ;
IC' t he c, .• , , 101 1

,. (7.54) tli is tangen t interse ct the or J 111 Jt t 1 ) .·3x1s 1

RcaJ S,.,, s... on the or v1 113\, 1 he n . :.ma:

, \ l i:111 ~ :1 .r / , ...,, , ., 1 ad•·• •JU CQU&Uc.n :

AS.,, s.. .\ ,.
\
\

··x. .)
\

, N, r•·
= 4iAl( AS, -. . ,., "•ff. .ts.)
A .\ , .. 11,(I
( \ ,\ I h ,/ :
fru m Eq. l7 .5S)

the: 1,n 11L·1r --

Thi:rorure. rcaJ 11•.J•. 11s )h,,w,, rn Fig. 7.N . lhcn uiin11
» - iiAL ( As, + ..., J',..df. ) -I
nf , mulur triunalcs, /., 1s read () 11 the vcr11cal ,u.i, at 11•1 E::: I. ( N(1c c 11i .. 1 ii i:

t .. -- (7 .55) trianalea ABC and ADE arc s,m il.ir.)

~- A table or/.·. /.-. anJ s•. ~ -va lues is then obwnc d,
and lhc rc: IJI f\("

•
J - ~-
Then
llS.,, ,.. AS 1 -i · w,( l - / • .)

Equat io ns (7.56) and (7 . Sl) form the bui, for tht>~

method s. The dc1crmin11-
(7 .56)
permeubility v11luc, can be c: ompU ltJ .

T hr othrr dynamic d i1ph1cc mrnt approa ch u"• a 111c&1u

prt S) Urc rnt io as a fun c tion or .:umul ativc water inj«te d.
re or 1he 111Jcc 1 11 11 1
The needed rel ,1

'
)
 CH. 7 SF:C' 13

th'I\ between lh~sl.' 1crhi ~ k

(

(7 .57)
«
C
where !,, the injccti(•n prc jsure ratio, is :

I,=
(-bL. (7J8) " .• ,, l
'
C
'
(b),>O
Fh!Ure 7.30: Graphical relati\·e J!(rmcal•11!1, d:1111 mmg lnjNtion . '
The curve actuall ~ ;•low:J
Not-= that :
1~ I//, ver,us w1, and this is grar- i1ically resolved.
11, ·,·.·. , r;,: , ,::;!,.: 111:h: penden!!y. CL1 n~it.ler P , 1 -11h,1s•: How ,,f oi! Anti ga, •!1 a
'
(7 .59)
r:1 d1 ~i ·. , ••'. · 1?1 :

Q, = 1.08 k,Bh ~ f'.

µ 1 ilfl{' , r .• I
( / (1! 1 '
C
Q = 7.08 k,), ~ '- -- 1: ~ . Oil

'
O .ri Jl
0
JI ,8. ,n (r . ,·. 1
Using a similar tec:hnique tv ihe s.;., mtthod we can cli:\1:l , p tli ~ fr--lc tiunal
1

'
flow dittl\ :\ltd relati·;e pttme111'i!lty dll.l!t fl~ ~hi,wn in Fie. 7. 111 .

Capillary Prc.Hure . Sc,·eral theoretical treolrncnts :m: avail!lhle for R, = Q, ~/ MJ C

determining relati ve permeahility from capillary pressure data . Pur,·dl pre- Q.
sented the following eq11at1011, :
= kt!!~~S .6 15 · R ,
i•. µ 1 B,

f.s- dS/(P,)•
s-s.,
0 (7.60)°
= Free g:•.~ ·· So !,1111 ,11 ~a~

fs•i.6 dS/(I',)•
S•O
.., .. , 11 1\! 1,•r 1t: l'. 1l l\l' permeability ra t1t•.
C

k , ...
s:~~-, dS/(P,)"
s•, dS/(P,)•
(7 .61j t C
fs-o ·1:, : •. • ,rr : ,,,. •r1<.! 1ng nil saturat ion is d~t ,; rm1 r.•: · I rrPni a materia l t>al:inc:c ,If
C
th •: , ur1111 L,t 1·. e produced oil :
For Purer.H's equ!lti 0n n · ') while Fatt and Dyhtrn rr, ,,l uc:eJ a ,;imi lar
relation with n ..,, 3
-- :; . ) ('l.fj7J
Fl~ld Data: These can be used to complete relative penneabili ty ratios.
Thit method i1 t,ased on th@ C!lnc:ept of Darcy flow being applicabl~ to each
,v!-: ::rc ,\ ,
,\
cu mulative oil production
· original oil in place '
'"Tbe ltJMc'fipl WI mtaM weltlfll.
rn,e 111Metf,r n.,,, tneaM nonwtttlliJ.
f h1•. rn ~tho<l can be u!td to determir1-: ~•: •:t:r ,I \' :tl11 .:, of rela ti ve pe rrn~ -
:1 h il i 1ythr ·1
'
 r11 ·; : D;11a hcp~ralicn 203

1,,,/"t,r<' P,,rm,·uhiiity f,-um l'ublislu:J Cvrr~,/w11,,,a: ·1 hcse have al1eady 40

h,•cn d i..., 1P,,,·d in < ·1iar,ler 2. l "hc gcnernl l'quati ,•:'. 1ypr , Jrc :

k. = (' - Sr
k!J = S•(2 - S J

~ -~ In i.t rcM;-r-,,,11r th~1i: "re two po~~•blc: pl1:1nl's cf 1n1pi:~1 wh1d1 can bti LUil:d to
'- evaluate 1ia1ural1011s of rcliervoir ftuid5: the gasioi l conliKI and watc:r/eil
~ conlAc t. The $alurutions are generally comr,uted from 1hc- location§ of the
( rnntac.:ts withi 11 a ce ll (~ee Fig. 7.31).
'n l-.·
~ ~ ~r,<.0,.,..J, ·,,.,,
'7'Yt:\ / 11 L,
6} ~ rev<. 7.4 PRt';O'JGT-ION OATA J :,- I.....' •'f"''-'--'

~ ~4 s ~ · ~ 0 ~ ""' '-, Prutlucti .,, ;_!_,,., ·; re r<:qu ircd LI.• 11p.:r,•tc the ~i muhitor in histury mod e. Th,·
information required is obtC1incd fro m w,111 production record:.. The follow-
J ltt'""" ..}vJ- JJJ«~ 'v-.J't'eA rL
"(S - - .
"
> . . "'-
A . -~-CA~ Coe:
,P,..,,:cil c_~ ·'(_"~5.-:·.:_·_.~ ; .
" \ . . :. •• : • • •• •
OIL
\. " ~w
ing is required for each well :

. <l . '

~
[~. (.I , O \,._\ C '\. •. ~ ---~ conr,Ht o-\<,t>v« ,:,1.-J c:.. r ,~ l. 0 il pre; uct1on Vii. time
1 2. Water production vs . time
(!_._) ~6(.. -- ~ -- ~ ' ' < ~.~~;:~ .--0 (..JL &.:I. n 3. Gas -..,roduction vs. time:
\ '¼I f vO.., . <.,<}~
4. Any measured pressures ,~ . ,in,c
~~ (', \<l (_
Fii:ure 7.31: Satura(io.ns and fluid ,·,1 11 1;J~1,
Mos 1. well records have complete oil production data; howisvor, some of 11,c
c -t ::1
:, n waler and gas production are usually mi,ising. The missing data mu~,

..,
.3 /\bm·i: the oil :wat , r '. ,1ntact the water sa1ura11 011 ,,,iii be e:~scntially
constant and c4ual 1,1 ;he l-onnatc saturation . The :1 \'cragc ~;i turation in those
·_ d•i.ermincd to be used in the l11 story mode. The simplest proced ure use·
entails plotting the produc~ion data and .fmoothing the curve through thi:

., .. _ blocks which arc traversed by the oil/•.-..atcr coutact has to be computed using
a weighted thidn(·~~ of JOO ~-;. water-saturated s:Ji\J . 1_· ,,111, :U L" water can be
rvuluatc<l frolll .
missing points ,Fig. 7.3J) .
The input format requires p roduction data at every time step, and a tabk
uf values is generally the bc~t means of encoding these data~ .g.. a~ rn
_, '·

., Ill ~Sllll.
ll/i T~

, w 1111:>' Sourc,1 of Cipi/larv Pr,nurtJ Dili ( ~ ~-vt ,c-c.,"- ~ J

UT
q

,> Capillary da1a ore needed 10 evaluate prcuurM in tho various pha~s dur-ing
the IMPES calculation and also to set up the equations i11 the simultaneous
- PRESENT

, - ,-
K~ !~
solution. Capillary pressure is usually determined from laboratory data.
(See Fig. 7.32.)

~~
Figure 7.33 : Smoothine misains data.

., ,,.,,,,.,..,,,_,_ ot..J,, !I) UA(,(g.~ okk.J.' .,..,/

~ {ft,b ~ )
)
 .' ; rt • 7 ', I r/, h>, f).;, N (J ,t/J

TAfll~ 7 . §
Pred'~tiotl Otta
I
I

,, ~,w I
ll IM..25 1~5
A2 II' lMUO IIO •11 1100 I
I
10 I; ,• .u 200 1, ~ l40
I ~ 1(1 17
t.
1•1:00
1Gg!. ~
190
I~
<J l
... , vt,TIOI I
I
I ~lf'C'--111os
~ --:,1
- . ~ - - C!l
'MIA.11'~U:
r~ow Ill I
,i,c
Ta~ 7.5. llus •-ell bu bad the productioa of oil, ttai- . :ind water durin~ the I
timn showt1 In those cues where tbe meuurcd pressure:, arc ab~n,. no
valu~ are rnCL-<21:°d ~~ simulators do not rtqui1t gac, 1.g \\Utcr production
dua bu: C(':tlf\".1te tho" valltH of pl and oil which a rc rn:.. 1u1:ed b:ncd on
l"tt!lt\~ r,e mte.i t-tl ,,. rt lattt)n§ aftd ~,inJh! ~etv~•1r , ,•ntl1: 11 1ri1

tr11ur, 1,34! TUblnt """"

~ 5 FLOW AATE DATA ( 4 f-k ~ - .f-o sJ~QJ,y) ,:11isfi~d sltntilti\11l!t,tHly.

I~
I
t • ~ot~l!,CT

·. ·Flowing ~ U• ;ind ra<- li ft wdls 8t~ly show some r.11..- ,c11 , 11i,11y l<> gas-oil
ratio (GOR ). ~ >ll<•m hl •lc: prcssure(BHP), and flow r..it c· . :\ u,rrdation of the fLOW RA!( 8/e
rype-s developa.J b~ Hv\ , rocuman-Carpcnter, Ori-.. 1, 1 1:\\ ' " , . ,inti uthcrs 12
Fll,!ure 7,JS: Typic:al tubing llo" i:4u,11111n, anu rtwrvoir fl-:,w
is c-sscntial lo obt:un a true representation of the fluiJ h<:ha, "-'' Jt the wcll- ~q11tl110ll .
bore/ rescn-oir in!rrfacc:. This procedure involves a ~imul1ani.;11us solution of
the rcseritoir ft l) w cquat,on and two-phase flow in vcrti..::il rir<: ,hown in Fig.
rate~ . I hi~ approach is usually belier. and ll allows for incorporation of an
7.34. ll is ~ ,it.,lc that rhe fluid volume capable l'r t--:1ng rr ..ducc<l by the
up11m1z.111on process into the model.
formation cx_cecJs lhc: capacity of the flow lines ·flu: 1yp1•:al curves nre
,\ :, l'., ample of II surfncc fit for flowing hl,uom hole pressure is:
shown in F1g~.1 7.35 and 7.36. A surface fit of flo"'i11 g r1o111 11 rn hole pressure
vel"lus flow r.tt.r and OOR is necessary to detcrmin,: th,· fl ow p:1rnmetcrs In
the wellbore dlJring <.1mulation.
It is 3Jso N5<iible to develop the flow rate correlar '"" rn ,1\l a ~ct of com -- when: ( -a oil production rate
pulalion:< ~i,tijn the simulator. This is most efficie111I, i.11111~ t.-. u~ing n suh- ,. glls-oll rntlo
tdUtitte wh1d1 ~tt: ~r,1 , r::<l'r'"t1ir ~11d fti:,w siting d:sr -, 1- •• 1 , ·, .,, ·11e , rhe flow !· UHi' ~-' tlowlng btm"rn ht:,11! rre~,urc
 I ,i I
D .. ,;, h t: 1'fllit1HH1
lt.0.li

f jlfll flll t,;)~ •

I/II ~!: i.J/ 1 : ~Cd l 11 p
qil rl!Jio .
t-

A GAS
SIM lJL AT IQ N Of

r~~ tnvol vc d i n n~ uin g

,~ uc~ 1anco. lo lihow lhc pro c,·:.hJ
.... · ·
.>Ill~ ·
·n.
I
c iholl ow ing ul
Of .d er a ~1m :1 11c ,,r a ~m - 11 d Pi re15orvo11 . I J·, c r~tl!lllc:er i~ •,rovidcd
ry
. "' iod of hi~tory · an d the
.1
an d . rC! >iUrc da ta for a given per tle an ti-
w~t i pro <lu ct1 on
da t~. Th e str uc tur e
is bclicv<'d 10 be a gen
roc k an d Ru, . •,n d 7 3 d ti IC
n in Fioc · 7 ··17 •
11 •.
n ~C t'SS R:Y .. o, an h1 s1ory.
rin his tor y arc r.how d "'"' ' r rcs ,ur c, durin11
1 he flow da tu du Fii;ure 7.J 9: Mcas ur.-
cli ne.

Jr
r- - ·- - .- -· -- ··1
~•rr .,:·lI
ll i.'"
1
' -
~- - •~u ~ - ·-,
~r - .. -

r-·-.---- -------.- -/·j

RA II
I
1111C H, 1
j .~~- t',-,. 1
I~ ! t ). l.,: • ~ • I

I ,.
/ :
c•L _____i, . -- )
() - - . - ' · - ---
1:j0
. . . •
/'. I:._';
- · --- - J
}l)O
.., / '
:, •~ f. ·:x
; !1:. rr,
1 Jv11
0
I ~l I . .:
i ~ •4; .:_3 _(!
~u:1111:: c'..3. s /,1
li'ialµrt 7.l#i: I-low !.1\ ~, /
"' -~ /
t,·,, -vc lb J8 . 0
f'!&WJC: -,,l i: Fl ~!" ra1\!, hi" ory . /
d1nin, hi, tor y.
3
; ; .0
~
nir da ta iire i9.0 ...,
sh ow n in Fig . 7.39. Th e bai;il· rc, crr ~6 . 0 •
mca,uHd prcssLU'lil> arc
, 7.40. Fiaurc 7.41 is
a plot of the gas
we ll loc ati on in Fi&
indicated al each urc variation .
vi sco sit y wi th prcu
IIAS J C
gh -
deviation fac tor an d areal dis tri bu tio n thr ou WCL L DAlA
sic da ta arc co nto ure d lo determine an int erp ret ati ve ly WELL NO.
The ba co nto ure d
reg ion . Th e for ma tio n thi ck nc u dala arc da ta arc co nto ure d k - lld .
♦ • 1 PR[SSUI![
ou t the ity an d permeabilit y
7.4 2. Th e po ros rec tan gu lar h - ft .
as sh ow n in Fig . Figs. 7.43 an d 7.44 . A fiiiure 7.41 : Gas dev iati
on fac tor
plo ts arc sh ow n in lo get the erv oir dat a .
mechanically ; 1h c,c res erv oir with an eff ort bei ng ma de fig ure 7AO: Dasie res and viscosity.
rim po sed on the dig itize all
gri d is su pe gri d is then use d to
cen ter of cel l blo ck s. Th e sel ect ed sam ple of the inp ut
we lls in the 8 ,hows a
for the model. Fig. 7.4
the reiiervoir rock da ta rcssults.
um pl c of th.e output
data an d Fig . 7.49 a 20 7
 i'I
-;
'I

0. 0. , .. I ~. G, o, cia

<!• .:1. . . .,. 1 .1. c, 6,

C. :! '3• J 4. l , • I 5; o, ti,

<. J-:, . JS. ·' ,. 21. 10• z.

'I C •
z,.. •l. .1 !,. 21 • 12• ••

" 4! !• jil, 4(5. J7. 21. lh

"·
Z 1. J'• 4'. , .. ~ ... I'• o.

Jt;. tlJ ; .!O • Ii, o,

rdll!-1.\ltQ:1 z ~. I ~.

t111et!itss
~~ T~.
.. 22, J~. t ~· • l., . I tJ' O• 0 ~

Lil • "~. I~ • 0. n, (I.

/
/
'" C •

Fl!!Ufl! 1.4~ : ·rhi t• kne~ ~ d i~1r lbution mntriiL

fi¢Ure iAJ : l,Of)ClrtJ~lty mitt,.
POdi1St t> lJ ("'; f;:1 ft) d t !Qtj 1Htlitt

, I . o. G;

c. 0. I ~I • 0. 0.

\ \
\ IL
\
\ }
\,
11.

) 0. ~:I. / l • 10,

.:1 . I'> . ,.
zz; .,. 11 . o,

H t.- ur, 7.44 : rentte:iblllty dlti. 21, I t• , ,. IO. o, o.

It . I.• I4• ci. o.

10 c. \ .. o.

Flj!Ufl! 1:z«i: Pt1ro~lt; rtt:tfri~.

2rJiJ
20A
~

~
F--3
I
i
·r

f-3 'I : ~,,,:

;t, I

~
tt~n 7'4U .

, ,,;,. t~[;!, t-M~IX W STl!tlT

I\ .
it!l ' L I
7~.

f-3 ( t •,
n.
j4 .
:it
n.
27 .
jJ .
U,
lS .
21. 10 ,
llllCl 2
11!1Ck 3
1111Cl 4
TNICK S

~
i 1. 12 . lS . 21. 12 .
. t== ) ?) . JG 46 . 37 . 2•. 1). ~- TNl!:l 6
21 . 14 . TNlCI: 7
HfD11f•tll I I " IJl5tMl8U llUH •&Ttllk l7 . 31 . 48 . 34. '1111Cl 8
n 3C . 20 .

r-3
JI, l8 .
. t- n. ;7 . 32. n. 10 . TWICl
TIIICl 10
:: i 2~ . 18.

r-3 STU()l ()
>I P.ffH~:t JTY I\AfRU W
I

12 . n. n111C
u. 0. c,. P[IIK
~6. 28 . ~- •~1111 .
n . 2' . Z8 .
~
2! PUM
za. ~o. 0 . 7~ .
?t .
Zl z; . lt .
,1. 7() . 2'-
2:l .
27 .
ll .
l2 . PUI• '
~

n. 26 . 2~ . i"UK 6
16 . Ii.
,,.
II .
'"· "'"
7

r---3 )t .. It . IC. 17 . 19 . "!~.

c. ✓ '. ll,. Q.
Jj ;<, . lJ. l~ . Pf'" 8
1:. ~fllk
li . U. f!l£j! Hi
lL I! .

~
,) I "

,,1H;; 1n MHII IJ,S SiC~Y

lo 8 :6 .6
, 1, ~ 21>. 2S .
r-3 L~ . 2, . 2i, .
i3. , i, .~ :i.s
,i. S 2l. Z~ .
i1.
IS. 1,

r-=' ' .. , ,. ly.

?O . B 19 . S lS . t
li .
ii S
I~ . 17 .
16 . 6 IS . ~
i8 . l J

~
i~ .& 14 . S 14 .
, ... c.
. t111 ;.~r.1,:.
lo 1( .
0.
lJ.
. 001J7! . IIO ~-~X~ i.~i %
u . 023'-: i_ {rJ
%3' ·, . .ira . 059~9f. 0 - . 07'~ 7l.OO
u. I•• ,,. c. ( .. ":(J l j l l.
<
.(,

~
0, c. :-000,H:iO .
I 1. I I ,
J( t OO.:JOO .
. r Fii:urt , ..ii : l'c:rmnbil ity m111rix.
:.200000
li>OOOO .

~ . ....
:· <,()0()0(1 .
0
?O . 0
::o . 0
;:o . 0
:u. 0
;o. 0

~
::~ . 0
0
i r, :::r,. ()

~ '

~
-
:!11
2\!)
 tH. ' I f'mtilcr !J

l"ROB Le MS

Using an appropr iate: curve fi tting program determ ine an cqu:u i~rn to clli -
cienHy cttlculate e,tch ('I f th~· ri,ll owing rnrnmeter, :
I , {)fl ft1f'Htcltfn1 1 1•i1 / 11mc /ntift•r

PltESSUU
s 6

n;& . 0. 0. 0.
o. 0. ll~ .

0. 0. ZlS5 . tltS . 239& . o. 0.

n ts. 23M . 2l~S . 0. 0.

0. 2~3 .
2394 . 2391 . Zl'16 . B9?
o. tt'• . 2liH .

1'96. 2JQ ) . 235 -; . 239'. . 2Ho .

0. H'° .
i~s . 1396 219,. 2l91 . 2)95 . ZJH
l;lf' .
2 3!!5 . Zl95 . 2388. 2l96 . 6.
2381. 1'~~- ;
0.
zm . 217& . n<i 1. 23!!9. 2310 . 0.
·j
z;a& . 2J9l . ?381 . 0. 0
t,89 .

J
2l85 .

IIELL P~!J{JU(T JON T~RLE5 2000 JOOO

~TS PRt H UR£
C:Jl'IUI.ATI ~t T111( Z!J

1£r-~ BHP CUl1ULAT I 'IE

'Jfa LOCATIOII flOII MT£ .l'IG .
2. So/;,tion Gas-Oil ,t'/.attrJ
9

e s
2 • , ,'()Cl ,000 .

800. (1()()
2280 .

l JJO.
2070 .

209 .
40,000,000 .

16,000,0f)II . BOO r- - - --,--- - - ~ - -- - - - - - - - r

I
7 2 l .fOO iOOO . 22?. ~ 2!~0 . 64,000 , 0,'.)IJ . t
I i
I I
,so ,ooo . n ~-~- l 124 . 15,000 ,000 . a,
•-v > I I
I
5 5
. . . _ -:, :J' l ~ - .r.)-,;..;..a.,.. .,.~-=-.=c..;.:.- ,~1
50 ;O<)(J , •JOO.
) ) i . ~ ;00<) ll~S 21&0 .
:~ ! 'I
1a1,ooo .ooo
. G.~S I
·ffll .\L 3 II
I
fl ~th ' 7.1'1

:?IL
)

)
J. M . Mua,H, ·· u"° of o .. ,. on lluiWup of Bo11.i1n 11, ,/c Pru•ur a.- 7,-'-.u
) AIMf. (19.t7l. tlJ . «
~,
J . t" C M,u ' "- · A IJ I.h e and C. A. J. HVlOU)Q U~-. Hu: Ls1 un.111ot1 o(
) mdl'l11rty .an-i Ru-er "o,r PrU11ure r,om Bo110ffl Hole Prc•,ut< 8u1kl.up Ch.lnc-
krn.l iu.- ,,,,..1 AfMC(l9 50}. l",91
) 4. 0 R. Ho- Nr• . ~Prc<sure Bu11<l09 m We&," bl l'rfH' Tl,,,J w.,,1,1 Pn ~ , u
r
(t..&*O flro :1 . 1951 ) 2. SOJ
) 5. R. O . A OAUVAL, ll A t - H!M,UN'Y, aDd H. J . ll.ua:·,. J" . An l,rvc~t,cAl!On
of
Wdlborc S•o1.a1c alld ~!-in Elfed in U___., uq1Jid Flo-- I AM lyuc:-.aJ
) Truunen1. - ~<>< Pn &, J (Sepe. 1'10). ffl-90
'- 6. AIME. l'rtm,rt A,.01,,,, M,,,_..
Pwftoleufn T,anMCt, om Jlcpn:M Series No
) L 9, (Dallas : 1967 1
/ /4,lttf»,/s
7. B. CAIINAII" -" · II A I VfNU . and J. 0 . WtUU. Applutd •:,.m,, ,co
) (~w Ye>1k w,, .. ;. 196?)
•' , ' lf'11/l l4 A,w/1,u fEnlic.., ~Jd t llll, . ;-. J P1, nl11.c
I. Ji . J. 1'1Ut1·•. • ,
) Hall. 196J,
9. w. C. K11 uiw111 '"' •nd L L SlOIS. s,-,.,~-,.,
!#Ad 5 dJ.il>Llt!oi ll"" fat> f ''"'

) t ciaco: Frscm.n . 19,i,

10. J. w. ,. .. , 11., D M ftASI. Ja ., aad a. C. WWfllliCo, ''"'™-
J<nO •OJ7 EA11 ·
1t11rln, l'ltJ•flrw ! P1 1,,p#'11#1 (New Yon : McQraw- Hill. I ~ )
)
II. E. F. JOIIP.SOI'-, 0 . P. lkluua. ud V . 0. N.t.&.M.Uli--. ·C.Jcuuu v~ 01 Rd,1i~<
) ta• TrtllCJ '4I\I Cll~'9) . .370
11. (j , w. Gov1r11 and K . AZIZ. T1w Flow ..rc....;r U 1t /J,I ~ ,,, P,tJ<• I ~ YM~

) Van Nostrand Reinhold . 19721

0
13. C. S. MA11 ►1 Lw \ and lJ. G. R ~ . ~UIIH &.,!,du;, . ,..: n . -.. 1 ,•,1 1 ,,. H,d;,,

\
) SPE of AIM I: IOallJi 1967).

) ...
) r•• BIBLIOG R.A PHV

)
.... Aa.uu1. A11ou111• .and

ncc,
t' ... uL A. Wnweeo cw• .. NUffllllic.ial ) 1mu1. 11on of N411U.al-
ly Fractured Rncn-o,r s. • SPE ~ ThirdSympm'::m on s ~ ....~, Sunulaho
or Raervou Perfornu HouatOQ, Tau. Jan. 10-1 !. 19'7)
n

AUBICKT , \I/. k ilnd E H. Koor, 1lw ln..,.... tioo of C,p,11.ar,

Preuurc Oat.i
) of A.IMI! (ltnl. ~
rrom Carboiw1e Rcac~oan.. • SP!
BAIUY, H. R. •nd W 8 GOOAUY, •0tll\luoft Cocftltcicn11 frnm t ,r,,tt.an· Flo"'.'
IPC or AIM( ll%.l). 11-2'6.
lity.'
IAlU, P. I; ., "Oi\Cu"i on o( Elfcct ol V111eoli~ Ratio on Rcl.a11,-c Permcab,
IP£ or AIMI; (1960), 4(M .
Buw.. ti . C. anJ U . K . V"'4 Poou.lN, .. ......_. D,1,,..-Jown and Buildup in 1hr
RHUIENCE, .s«. "'· Ufl. J. 1Scp1 1967). 301 - 9 ,
,._.nee of lhdlal Discontinuidca,·
J. W . S. ~ and D. O. Mr£1tACJCDi, Nwat11lrol M,11tod1 .-/tit /10111011 Cuu T10111 . AIM L'. 1-W
S11J1r, (Ne,;, York : Wtk)'. 1~72)
 src. 8 I I Ml!t:hllH!lit ,,, .'WHlihitfo/1 !t i.Ill

Eoch 11rcn will he dl!ICus~etl , nni.l 1hr: intt•r l'n l'ing with the conccptl4 ulrea,.1:,-
slu dicd will be indicated.
A i1imulation program is by its very nature a complex collection of com -
r11tnr !lllbroutinus ti"d to[lethcr hy a well-defined logical set of operations
whl\lh Rllt1w the glmu lnu,r t•J p!!rfNm 1tntl w p~rform atlequelf!ly,

8 Making a Simulation Study

.l

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I II
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1
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I 11
I 11
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LARGE II '1 OYI.Y II
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AACHINE I
:• :,
1, I
I
32K
8.1 MECHANICS OF SIMULATION RUN Tl~l
~flt .

The engineer today is coming ever closer to the computer as ~n everyday

working tool. The --systems approach" has entered hi:- way of life, regardless
of his acceptance or not. Familiarity with the simulator of m:cessity entails
a certain degree of acquaintance with the operation s of the pr~,grams. It is
for this reason that the following dcta;;-,:d account L).r the ,1 n1ulntor flow-
chart will be undertaker..
-fhe objective of i ',c flowchart is to give a sow :what cnh-~i"c:n1 account of
the compuuuional operatl011" required an·d to c:huw any a tea~ \\ r:~re crrots
or omission; ma y affect results. •·
The simulator,~ generally divided up into three 111:1111 :1rc :1~ 1.;c:c fig. 8. 1) :
f'l!llitt IUi Overl;iv proce~\ .
Simulator programs are very large and generally occupy several hundred
thousand words or
cornputer storage . The vast bulk of these systems lim its
their effectiveness to large machines. There are ways in which smaller
m~rr11n1:~-- -i .e. 1 32K words-can be used hv using a series of l'Verlr.v,; or simi-
h1r linki,111 proceu,s. Tha overlay process ~h11 ·~,, schemA\ically i~ Fig, 8.2 . is

I. Input Aucom,,cic Monitoring of Input Data

2. Simulation calculations The input dnta required by the simulator usually run into thousands of cards .
3. Outpuc and with a data set this -large there is ample room for error both by the engi-
neer and :Jy the keypunch opcrator.-Th cre are several checkpoints which arc
usually built into a good simulator package which check the input for errors
a_n<.l indicate these errors to the user. Th is process is essential, since the input
SIii/LAT.iON phase cnn be executed In a matter of minute!; while the simulation phase
,IIOCus
I
I m11y run for un hour or more. A bad run on inc.:orrect data la wor&c thn.n no
I
I run at all.
I
L. bi!llc<.l below are some ~ature~ which mnke the error ch~king of the
Flr,Hi'~ !I. I : <;y\l<:111 cW~tvll:!W. i11put d:tttt ~!islet.

210
 CH f

lwng<' .:,f I ui,,/11_1 I ,r , y bi t of info1111at iC111 ~l,,,ul, l ti .11 1 ., 1,11 1t!C wi 1lt in
which i1 i.liould 111:·. er . ,,n 1he pcrm~bili1y m:.111, . 11 ,, 1, ~,, . .ui ,j I)( :1 luc.i -
tion in 1he lnJl J I " ·txrc 1hr cnJ?inec,rcan input Im I. , , . and~- . The inp111
program "ill 1h,-i1 c-hc.. : , ,·er) /: -value that i!i. r.od 11 , 1 • rn • '" ,· · l• ..i
, 1n11 ly :dt·,111 fi11lilc record £ of cud1 run. hy comp,11 ing the rcsulcs from 1hr ::ic
-- 111 ~. l, r l fl ll n1•~c new t:han11n in the .Ja ra . The data arr !tnerally l..~r•· ·•r;
n,:i11nt•11c 1apc o~ a r.cric~ of iequent,al file) .
1 h, : ,JJ)C cu r. be vi~u al izctl a~ follow ~ as sli c,wn in f-i 6 . E.3: Each fik i~ ;,
,r p;ir;11 c entity ~cqucntially located on the tape ; the enainccr has accc,s w
., 11y ,if 1l,c fib by 11d r.r, lhc " ~l.i p- or ··backsp,,cc~ fr:,turc of tape h:?n<! lini:

ln lb~ cn 'Cli i 1i1111 d :u;i .,: , :111~punchcd or m 1»m1:. ' ' " J.)1.11: ,. ,1 , ,, i~cn.1ifitJ
illld prin t,,i r I'

••••• PERM i. ESS THAN MIN AT l :. J

.. ! i
3
- ', i'
P-<>IJ·ncJ1111ul I. ,a/..._.,,, ..11 and Printout : All pol~ 1, n ! .. •, l d.,: .: U\ fd in the
,iniul;at1on i.huuld be n ;i l,uncd O\'Cr the re.n{lc or p,1! :,,,,.ic.,-. npcclc~I in lhc
run and th,~ ,!~1 :, o utr,L•1 TI1c look•up tables sh0ul,i 1,, 1,kc" ,,, pnntrJ Olll --
for ViliUill ;:Uf'l!' ,11..,,

lt1PMt G,iu /J ,1111 • All 1o1,1ri• data mu11 be pnr,ll'd c,u, bdorc the run -- -- -- --
and the rrid<. cli«'·t"<i for empty grid locations. Th.- n111lin,·, ,,f every rrid
should be identK-:.,1 --
Mod,ftco11on• of ll,w .- Doto : It ,hould be p,i,., :hr w11J-.in lhc inp11l
J)roaram 1.0 pcrfur m ;, 1,, 1r•n~form111ion ()f tl,c: ha· :, ~! J ,J d;..1:i hy simple
Uf.Cralifll'f' - l j:

I. Ao.J1t;" 1t .-.; :. ,.. 1;~ 1.i 111 I r or - - )

2. M ijhir,::a11, =- i.•~ .: ccnsu1111 (t or -i- )
{"
3. Obt.tin ir. ~ t•r. ~ ,, J I:., ~t from anolher by corr, :.,·. • :,
where lhe k-n,;.11 ,-: 1~, ••-•1a 1ncd from the porOiity anc:l \1 _
Ordenng <Jf J,1dep, 11,k111 Variablt!s: Jn a table of lo,•t. -up t he independent
variable1 )bould be cr,nsisttntly ordered in incrett>Jn!' MJc, ,1f magnitude.
A, the d:ua arc read in, the computer ,hould check 1hat the>c: value, arc in
uc:ending order. This minor check ensure, that corrcc1 interpolations will be
made latu when the program is cx~_Jed.
M•int•lning the Input File
During the cour!-C of a hii.tory match KveraJ run, wi ll 1-c made on modified
versions of the input data. Each version ,hould be proi:ressi vcl y closer lo the
correct description of the reservoir. The engineer mu ~, endeavor to keep
' 1,e n•<juiri.:d file ca.n be copied lO .. ,, 0r:... i11~ :.1 :i:1 ,.ul modific'1 for :. ,1.,i l,
1·
' .:r . I: ,':!ch rc.:ord in the file is an 1ni:;pt" of an :npul card sequent ially Ill: !·
:• •. · ' 1. ~ : ; ,~ a ~implr opcrn1ion w a:ri ;. " or 111o<l1f~ a f; \en record ,,r ~er,.
•·, ;rr ,·- r,i~ by the use of a util ity pro;: ram . ~ nc utility program will rc.'ad t ~.
:1·1 :-;,1 t. : ;, uon matrix. • ::,n: c·.:i dut.i cards as inpul and m\crt. ,-: ;tt: ,W\!r. or delete the :. pp, ,
i-,, ;:!It' ,·ard~ in the original tape . The modified 1ar,c: wi ll then be the ba s• ~ 1, ,.
1!,,.- 11<:.\t run .
Restart P,ocedures
Till' simulator program performs the simulation in a sequential manner stan -
i11i: :11 the beginning and proceeding 10 lhe end of lhc run as indicated by ::
given l·umulative time. After the program has passed through a time step, thc-
parumct<'h ,:alculated or used in the 1ime step are literally "lost" unless lhc
Jatn i~ ~a,ed on ~omc temporary stN31!<' de,·1c<' like a tape, disc, ord,um. Ar
1hc end 0f the run when the program is removed from core everything wrll
be lost. The engineer will be faced with rerunning everything from scratch it
 221\ CH . S / M3ki11q 3 SliliUl~!it:in Study

he has to make some operational changes . The use 0f ·· r~~ 1a rf· 0 r .. recovery"
procedures allev iate most of these problems .
The restart procedure quite simply allows the simulator 10 lcnvc "foot-
prints'" behind. In cs,cn<:e, the engineer indicates a t sch:cted time steps thnt
he needs to have a restart record written. At thnt particular time the simula-
tor dumps out \.,ntl' a storage file all the informatil•n needed to continue
the run from that point. This information is identical in form to the input
data as required by the simulator except that it is comrressed onto the tape,
usually in binary notation. ~ventl restart records may be written during
ll rtth . anti ,llch i~ ~ql11!11tl!llty ldl!Htlftllblt t,y nn ettthi f.file tect,ttl

If ~Hons for Ra:t,rc

The most obvious reason for using restart rec,,rds i, machine failure. Al-
though ,ucb occurrences are few and far between . ;y, t..-:ms sometimes dit and

i
jobs ma)" be inadvertently aborted.
In " history" mode a job may blow up at a f.ivcn point due to incorrect
time step size; in such c;a.scs, instead of losing the: complete run, only a por-
tion of it is lose.
By far the best use of restart records is in prediction . By selecting a set of
points in time throughout prediction the engineer can make scheduled
changes in his opcratin1 plan and so optimize hi ;; 1m1jc1:t : e.g., he ean
I . convert ('rodUCl!r!I to injectors,
2 . dr ill new well\ ,
3. frai:ture wells.
4. work ovt'-r, or
5. ~rform anr cl111ng1: thitl d~~ not mocl ir:,- the b: ,;.: re~enc,ir descrip -
tion .
Aft ~xtt tnjlle ~t'! t;f run~ m111! te~tatt prt,tctiun: i. ·:liri11 n in t-i~ . 8:4 .

•
 8.2 SIMULAl UK fl OWt:iHAIH

The i;im11 ia1or 11"'1!= · 111 i~ ;, \·r., y coniplox s~t c;f ro111i1w, . Thr f,·1ll,,w11ig flow-
chart nllc:mpl~ 1t1 ~i"oow the !,cqucn<:0 of opcn11iom tJ.111 ;u-,· inn 11\cd in put-
ting logcliic1 a s1nwiato1. Sc-me of the $tatcmcnts may srrrn <:r) pt i<' , hut I he
engineer shoulJ ix .,hk to fol low the logic by reading be1wccn the line~. Thr
IMPES procedure a~ d~vcloped in Chapter 5 is used 10 lm111ula1c the flow -
chur!.

JNl!Ul

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RESE~VOJP. Pk( S' : : .
BY SPEPFYIN6 ' _..
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CALCVLAlf Q,:!G\ ~:.1 i

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SIHIILATOR FLO~· c~:..~;

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CALCtJLAT~ CC!Hi'ICICNTS CALC!JLAH Ml)fl lUT ![\
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0 0 0 0 0 0 M O 0 8 ,3 SELECTIO N Or- THI: MOO[l C

The engineer hns to make a decision in selecting the opt imum model to ~imu- ("
lntc the reservoir under srudy. His selection mu~t be m~de systcmattc~lly
0 0 0 0 0 N in ,--. . .....) 0
11nd with un annly~is of 11.ll the pnrnmeter~ involved . The pnramcters wh ich ('
;-
nte slg11ltlt111tt in 1111wtlt!I ~~let'llt1M rtre !ht' fllllow l11g :
·-s.J.e.,c_n'a.v t q '3\ ~ ~ d,fp~ L>-.f'tfl--<n
a . Reservoir type
c.
0 N ,...._ N
<?I 0 0 0 ¢
,- 1-i. Reservoir geometry and dlmen~ionality
C, Data availability
C
., ____
d. Type of secondary or tertiary prpoes~ bl!lng modeled
0 0 d ,.._ e. Mar1po'l\·~t requlrl!ttH!rlt&
C
(!:) M
;:.. ....
r-.. M M
f. CMhpliter llVail:tlilllty
g. ( ,,st cttectiveness 6f ftititl~I C.

" 0 0 ~
'° -
ID od-
N
,...._ N M
-
C
,,
~
-"'
·,
The overritling concern oi' the engineer i n making a model study is to
itdl!qllatcly simul111e the res@rvoir with the minim um of effort . This does not
ncceSJitate "cutting corners/' but simply mean~ that all due care should be
C
C
(X)
:5 e!li'r~~i~t'J not tt' "o~erklll" the model study by using a simulator which i~
6 ,n
~
lO •Y ,:J) \l> t:-- r---. N
N (',J oi:frit•!1 ~ly t ti ti ,orhl~tlc:Htd !irtd t:\fM!l1~ive.
1
C:
0
;J.. The Selection Proce3s
LO 0 co \0 M LO r- ,.,; 0 ;;;
F- N N .- '° JO Thi: siniulator selector shown in nuw dia8tatn fo rm in Fig. 8.9 ,pell, out the
~
::,. modus operandi 0f optitttun, st!le~tlon .
~
~ f't ;::j r. •n N ::::, ( v syslt't, /' .•/it1ffiN1 : Re~ervoirs t'Xi~I u,tHtlly in three generic group,; :
ll1
,_a.
"" 0

I. U:h
2. Oi l (hl ackJ
M M 0 <T r") 0 M 0 0 0 J. CL'nden•.ate

. MnW--:- ~ .LI) a.,µ~ J-W ~ cr-cc~ b/i..:, a.,() f , - Oas rn3crvoirs may be eresent with or withou t ncJi'iC..(Jnohll.e)...w.ruM~,t!I~!!)\ .
~lad{ &) n-t>)'l,U).jVI
ff there is no active wnt,r, a sln3l11-pha,e model is adequate . Oil reservo irs
.,.,,
which have minimal mius transfer betwcen....o.iLl.nd-i-t~-M5ooiated...saua.n_ ® ·
N 0 :t.) "T M 0 0 0 C>
.A.h q}y) cs~..i'.Jl e..J Pl) ·
hahtfletl by the black oil jimtihUors. 'The r,re~encc of ntobile water may naccs-
sitnte the neeu for the inclusion of the water phase an<l hence a two-phas e
.- 0 ,:::, 0 0 0 0 0 0 c:, motlel. When !ht mass tran!fer betweel\ the hydrcx:arbon phases j5 1ignifican t,
lt i!l lmp'!rl1fo•e thrtt :i cforttr,t;!itlmtill fflt,dt:I bl! u~ed to ncwount fnt the phy,;ical
~c,iJ, \onoJ /Vt~:-- i2} l/,) ~~ ~ ~ ~/:£,,- - b/ w ~--kt fi C ptoce~;es or rna., s Wti1s~r.
10 \0 r- CX)

s j'1M..I' k'(_~ . --- I. Caf--St ngle-phase gu with no active water drive

__ 2. Black oil-Snt ur11tet! or undi!rsaturatttl sy~tem

2!S
~ I _;·_;

~
it , N11 111a~s t1 a,1~f.: 1
~ b. Pni~cncc: m ,lli)l:lld" ,,l wa1a Jrive
c. Ahovc or bdo " the buhblr point
~ -'· Co111/e11satc-Co111rosit io nal hchavior
a . Significant ma~s lran~fcr between phase,
~ b. Very volati le hyd1ocarboi: ~ystems
SI IIUlATO~ S(L [ C10k c. Gas-cycling op<:ra1i,">m
~
~;~ b. ReJer1 oir Grom<' tr, · 1.J11d J>i111,-·,uiona//1y: Perh•P' the ca~ ic~I r hasc ol
_ 1

~ ~.1\ (5!:: (_ "2,tAA

the selection process i~ the.- <lc.-1crmination or the model dimensional it:,, . Thrrc
~ ~ .---'--- f.,l- VI a,,0~ are only four possible cornb:nations . First, a zero-dimensional model indicate ~
·e/J ela~r that reservoir propcrt ics do not change with location in the reservoir; th e:
~ (_ . ~
8
C()jOCN~~H
81.AU Oil
-r!i) Y--< ~f reservoir is essential!~ homogcneou~. isotropic. and uniform in every sens~
~ c.JK ... ',t,,\. In this case we use a z,· ro-d1 111 c!1~.io 11al simulator, which is a matcn ;! l bal.11,Lc
~
1

Ai»A v'o,,¥ ·t/, '€/t~ ~ ~u::\ ion. _. . ..

E~~iilff~~ ~~ ) ! > ~,· •, II the e11i;i11ccr is trying ,,.-, ,11111Jla1c a pilot projcier or a simple linr·;,, :,l ,
~ - -- -.....-- - ~ - - ~ - - ___ _ _ _ _____ • ' .:,.. we. ' s~ mcnt or the re&crvoir , a 01i.•-di111elllio11ul modd is 1dcqu111c . This unc-d i1rie1 ,-
~ _ ~ ~ \.J.IY\,l..r"" 1 · si_onal_model can_be rotalt'J in either the vertic~I, horizon1al , or rnrvilin(:a r
~ ~ L~ ~ Jirect1on depending on the: need to !.1mulatc particular effects.
1 0
c_f_u,J- f-y(J-J e.J-) ( ~ Pr ~ ) Figure 8.10 illustrate~ the 1ypical one-dlmen~ional appl ication or .,
r--l \t-t\ (?, f) \ S -~ vJ ~imulator. Note the presence or the two fluid contacts. Figure 8.11 ~how, :,
1 modific,ilion or the linear 11111dtl 1n account for a dipping reservoir. ·1 111 ,.
~
.:, ljEQHt. JnY

i.!'
.:,
II
~ -t-1
u

~
·~ 1-,HAS[
W~TER

~
, - -- IIICRfASIHG COMP\.HITY J.N t [H fs:.: . - ------+

,
li'i,111r• II.II: Simuhnor i,clx1or . ON( UI Hfll~ IQH/.L HORIWNJAI.
• ~JMl.lATES RfSERVOllt S(CTl(lNS
I W
- SPECl&.LIZC~ STUDIES

, - LINE ORIVl BCHAVJl)R

- 11ISCIBLE FLOODING
- PILOT fLOOO Sl"IJI.AllPNS

~ . ~ Fi&ure 8.10 : One dimensio~l horizon1al.

t 2:$8
 Ch . 3 I M :ildri\l ~ ::;1n1ui11t!Cti Stut1y

TWO.l)i :,!NSIONAL tlORJlOIITAl

!C>ST OENEAAU Z(O AN D Ai. L PUii. ~!)~£ l()D[L
_.,,., - SIHUl,ATION or l! ~GE l'llJL:!- WELl STIIUCTUIIE
- LAllllt REUP ~O : ~ ,! M1Jt.A7 ['lll~ OF MIILTHJIUT SUTIHS
• HH[IWGEN~Ot•' ,.~:< """"r,; l [S
- SllGPl t Y[P ;,: .~• ·, ~• ! l '. (,:,•, l ~ FLU II! Pl!CP[AT l (5

.J t, DUWIIIOIIAL - DIPPING
• A.~ALYS[~
- StUCTION
or
or
~t ,: >~ [[C)h 0( oos, LEA~[ LIHtS
l,j~ f ! l'i\J"I 0P,, HIONAL SCH(HU IN
• Sllllt,tCANT ~AAVITY OVER-R !UE ~Wlfi OAP. T ts,u~t MAIIIWIAN<:E
, :::.: ;•;(? < .1•: c >0
- WI 111 P.tll~RAL As HdRIZOHT~ L
oflt iiii4tmi!MAL M60EL (1,..,,,., 2--0 t"tJ2,aLJ jJ- V) av,:;~ W Fliettff 8:12 : Tw" , 11111e11 , i•.•n:i i hl'tti Whtal.
- um, GAS IIWttTIOH
y,, I
,~ M
- FlAIIK !H.JtCTIO!t OF WA tEP
~ yr,eJt.. b
~ ~ w ,'JJ~ . lo u] Qfa\~
Fl1vre 1.11: One dimensional-dipping . &_ ~ ~iuJ- a ~ \/'<VJ~,,,._. 111
0\
9
application is suited to those areas where significant grnv1ty override ex¾"~ ~~~O~ ) c. :::::::~.:-.~,. ,c;.~.::11~~--""":~i;~:~;~~--c:::~C::::::::;[".. ._
or when tht engineer wants to examine the updip injection of gas or the flank v~ c ~ d "'
injection of water into a section of his reservoir.
A two -dimensional model is ~st su ited for larte stuJie, where l".ffects of
_areal changes arc important. Vcrsicns of the two-dimensional model ,uc
available for ~pccia l studies. Figure 8.12 shows the most common reservoir
model. lt 1s the general-purpose simulator which is used on more studies -+r-1---

~
than any other. It allows the simulation of large rnult1wt:ll structures where
the engineer is interested in the total behavior or the :;ystem . This model
handles wide variations in rock and fluid properties areally, but assur.·,es
that there is not a great variation in these properties vert ically. Because of 2]
the very size of the area modeled, the engineer can louk at fluid migration
across lease lines and the effects of aquifer inr::rfcrem;e and other outside
influences on the reservoir behavior. Recently, ·methods have been proposed
- SIIU.ATION OF LARGE R( ~UYOIRS COH S IS T(NC. OF
whereby these two-dimensional models can be used to simulate three-dimen- SEVERAL PRODUCING HQP l ~IJ:tS
sional flow by the selection of a set of relative pcrmcahility curves which - C()PtllNQ.ED OR NON-Co,-,1(~' ... rn PP. 0G•r.~ !n11

wo uld account for the vertical effects of the flow dynam ic'> . These pseudo- - MIi. Tll'l.E COl'f'lET lOl'IS
- THIS l"OOEL IS IN EffEcr 'i~YERAL t -'J l'OD(L s STACKED
relative permeability data arc being used to ::conomi..;ally predict three- TOGETHElt WITH s0 cc 1~,_ -~<Ll ~/) ~' e ( DUUL (CS IIOUTIN[S
d imensional behavior without the prohibitive incurred co ~t of a thrce-dimen-
sfonitl modtL Fl~ure It I J it anether exten~lon of the two-Ll lmen,ional model. FJilUre 11.13 : T hrc.,: d imen-.ional l!lye~d.
4
2.11
4
 , :, rt,,,.'"'" nf 1/11. M odel 24 ::
( jt ,.
• 1 •• I, ·

In thi, :.q,pl,c:.1,, ,11 1hr ,oc-rvoir lo~ mo1t..11r..1 ru n" ,; , ,·,f :i ,,·q11C1 nt:i: nfpro- 11 1a 1t·h111 r p1lX-.cdurc in 01dcr to dc1crn1111<· in s, tu permeability charoctrri , ii c~.
clucinc hori 1, .11, ,·:lf"h nf v,hich is indi,1idunlly 1,"1-,l,111r n, 1, 1 nal. ·111l' areal 1·,p11 1r X.15 indicat('S the .l• Z· •lypc mndcl Y.hcre the study of a rc: ~r1, 011
simul;ICH can In: UM" d :0 i.oh•r this ~yslem a~ lonr a~ 1hr l,>,:tlions which , •••~~ :.l·•·tilm i, made: . This approad; ca~i1ly 1,e sinrle• or mult1pk -11rll
l'Onlam 1hc w ; ii, uc -L•11ably hJ1:dkd . Sin~ thl' well • p,r~c nt 1he only com- , . ,mpl,·: :on, 1111~ examine gravity sc:grr1_1a1ion and the effects of crn~s/lo·.v
mon region 1l<-1"rcn 11,cM' layer:.. 11 is clear 1h11 a ~pc-, ,.,1 )Cr\1,11, o( 1hc model and anl\ritropy on frontal cl isplaccnicn t procc,~s. l·or example, a <·onmf
must br u~d 1n computr the wcllborc bchavio1 Thr c 1m pu1rd conditions 1 ~t ud) IJ~· 11s very nature requires an, -: model 10 allow a proper rcprc ~cnt;,
in each la "r ' t h.-n fo, m 1hc mnc, boundary co nd,t i,111 fn r each ,di containing 11,m 11i 1hr cor.vr.r~ins, flow p~l!.,c:( n\ . r,A ._,
.i well. l h1) lpphcatJo n an be u~d " 'ith or wi1hou1 l·,m101111µ
lcd production. .U,~ -\--WO a l ( ~' ~c,.I l 'U>«JU

1hc r-z m~dcl "){.- 7,_ (VIA . L .'

~ Fipu"· f: IJ 1\ a '<''Y i.pccjal two-dimcn,ional rnndcl. It ,, t!- 1~
.J\J.hV ,..,-
L:V U)Cd ,n \1mu la1m@ !t.lng}C'•~dl behavior with raJial )ymmc11y and vcrtt<illl 4r
>~
hclc-ro,en iciy. The conin~ model looks at ,inp.lc-wd l rarametcr s such u com• \/) y-p(}J)
L plction rffccH . ,·1111r •.J Jlroductio n ratu 10 prc\"ent pa~ ur wa1a coning, 1md
Jclivcrab ilit) 1c,1'<ln '-<' nf {!U wclh. A rather novel use of thr coning Mudy i,
to b.:d-nl, u:.~:,· ,. '' 1•:,-.urc build-up 5tudy. Thi• l'\Crci ,,· i•, a history-

~ ~ ~cAJ) ~ ;~
'().,,Z. (._\>-\ I, \ , t~ ti\ \rP,..v\ '1
\ v~ _,\ \a.l:
Id Sl"W .J ~ ~ a.,..,)
7.- .
""~ i
.:; '-~,v-1 ) .J <; 't
~ ~~., ;J,J ·

- - S lf;(il[ OF. 1:11.il l ! 1·1 i .:::l . ~,~c.u 7 )(,1,

· CIIO~S-S(CllO:. ,:.~:•~:: :-, 0 0~1•1 o!r
fO~ ( 1 ) 1.R• ~ I Tl : ! l H : n : . '
12) unc• ', ! ->s: ~01, · ,..,
fROtl1~1 f'l'.,,l;ol l,'

Fi1111r~ 1,15: Two il1ffil)n ~1tJna i ,·rn,qil

-., . o .,,.,w Vl u.JIJ.)· L,.,,

~ "\cl
oJU•o..h:..,, f')-v
Tlrn-dim ,•,uioi,ul mod,/s are requ,,,d m >i1U<tiuns where the ,..,,_..,;,
icf i~ great. fluid properties vury ,·crt1cal!y, anJ flow pa~ter_ns arc com?li-
.
! WO OINCIISIOIIAI. tOIClllfj ~Dfl
~J~ c.,JJ- \I • ;~ r:11cJ In- shale: breaks and other impediment~. Figure S. 16 ind1cat~s a typical
! ;,ic;u wtll ~Tl"IU,Tl(il ( SlUC,lCS µ_,...icl (t!Y"~~ VIA • 1hh·~imcu~iona.l study. The reservoir consist~ of a large arc:i w11h reason·
of bot~ rock and fluid
- LOCATIOII Of CONPl.UIC)II IIITERYAL~ 4. , o,..l, di'r11-<..11' v1 H,.~' ably 1hio:k sand sections. There is significant \'aria1ion the incorporat ion of the th ' rd
· ".J.JI- HIJCl[NT UT(S 11"2-\-ic · · pro1x-nies vertically, indicating the need for
· f h d"mension al model where
.
• ~ W~ '
~ LlYCUlll ITT StUCl(S , ·
,hmc11~1,,n ·
. Figure 8.17 shows a por11on o a t rec - 1
- ;/{LL TEST IJIIILY~a • UMtk the oil •w:11cr ,·onlucts arc shifted, where c,)nstdcrablc faulting hlls modified
'C,\- \}) .
' v) V ~ \ _It --'.()_J . ' fi
Flaur• 1.14: Conin1 model. ~ \ J o 1-< ~ L~ 1hr normal reservoir con 1gurat1on.
1) v,.i. cl ~ ,,f.,a,J., VJ C. , I ."c... r,..I ,u,/
0 ,. ~ 0~ _,
foJJ~ o<---1"
;) [VJ'<> ~ o 'o-~ ~
~ 5 .t2 11rfor,U
o\r'V-M
 ✓ --.....
;/
~
• "' . . ......
r-
I
I-- .....
• ~

I
/
• w
' - I
;
Oil

I
W.l , ~I

f f I
V
'
I
• I o '

""~ • \ ~ e
-- -- -·-L (

'
lltU
r .,a
;,~""-
"""~
--8=1i
~~
.... ...._ _
"-c; . _ -
- -
~ ~{
~~ ~ TllltH oU'ltHS roHAL • CL"'T l!t~.ls (![i'.Tttiill
'. , . ----=-· :: -- ~ ~
\._/
.-rt Pl fl!P ;l l'>AI. - :-.~ _!?t~">'!~
-' ~:: :'
..........
"-....,k
"'
. , : \ oJ ~'"'.a_ \])
- E~'lrlffl~ll •
• FA ll Ten S'r9WCS
~.l"!! .\S l •O tlliffliCt-lm

Flgllrl' !I. I ,: Th rt't" d lr11c-r1(1t•t1:tl ,--cot1tinuoli'! 11\U!t~I .

~ .JU.At
' rOII or LA~ ~-11 '1! u ,' ~ ...., I""!"'". ' ~ . 'be.\J.-()("
Tll ltl'. ll(S(.-Otf PAf SCCTIC!II~
S ICiN lrJCAIIT YAlllATIOII Of R0C' • • .. ,, . !,·
v'\ ~.l\o , r-
c.,ol"'~ c. ~"'" A1·ai/ahillty : A s ufflcienl quant ity of data is rcq ui rctl ~ ., .. ,..: : 11 ! ,
- ~I GJll ! rtCAIIT YAl!ATIOII Of fL 0JI C, • •, ~c ~•:·
o.J.\_~ .• :»\Rf/-~ simul ation should be attemru:ll . In the :ib~ence of rock parameter-. :ind J' fP ·
~ u,~,
.q 1f(.4LlY
- tJ.ff~D ICSPWOI• srsre-"S v1 : • ,_ .,_,~ -'" · .. , ,
Cf\'V
cluction history dllta, no a!lcmpt should even ~ mad e at s1mu . I11 t 11. •n I·t!·.:
()II StClllt,rCAIIT YCUICAL C?.'1'> ~ .. •-., o. ,v-. more comr,lex the model becomes. the more detailed is the dn1 a n:1.p 11n· -
~ . mettt. The minimum dat11 requ ired ~h c, uld be enous}\ 10 define !h(' r~ , t· n ·, ,, r
Fl..-. 1.16: Three d imcn,11 •n31 - c,,111 ,nuo us. # ~ aclectutttely In the area of inre (~,t. • C
Y\ ~ ~ d. Type of Sec<>ndary ur Tertiary l'ruce.s.s: The most comml\11 r, ro-:c"• ·,

''
• • A

DI yu - - nre wilier ftood or gas inject ion. In these oRses a three-phase model 1,- oct:t: ~-
~ \, 1-'f ~ tr'"(\ snry 10 account for tile mobility of all Ruid phases. In some in:.ta ncc, : t
~ ~<Y . \ ) rf',/;1---r ml~ciblc flood m11y be init i11ted und the model must be modified IO rclkt:t 1h c:
• o:,:V' ~~\ ,_,\) mi!lciblllty of the injected slug in the hydrooarbon phases. Jn polymt:r llnu d
.,,- ~~ ~~ '6'v 'v-1\ ~ ~ ~tUdili, th~ pttmC!nbllltY ~:ttttr:1t lt1n 11:,tn mu,t he~,,
Uf' ll1 reflec t ! hr lt•.1 1d
4
/ t~ \ \,,O~ -, '.,.1'r ~ ~ ~~tY'-
l-1•1
.,,-- (r,\~,Y" ~~\' (._ ~ S> ~ \

\~
V. ~ ~yJ
p,]}> Y(J_9-1'l~
ti' '
l(P ~ ~
 11

1,t. 2 ,;7

i,clu,vior of poly mer!> 11 1 w,11c1 . Tlii~ ui;u;illy Clllliil~ n,,i.l ,ti , ;1 I 1, \11 11f Ili c n 1;11 ivc.: i, inu1 c , ,,:,1-l:lk c; ti\-C fo r ui l-rouud rcicrv,11 r c1,l11 11cc:;r v.- ,,, k, and ii is far better
pcrrnoability <l~1.; . 1h:,n .ir1~ nic:th c,.-'. u~cd 10 date for rcs,!rvo1r r11r1111·t"rin(' . In 111c:a5 where 6Cvcn1J

~ ~ .~
hu nurcd thou~u nd dollar:, will be invcstcJ on a project. it maku good cn;:ti-
io,\: ; Al,mpo11•cr R, •,1;,i11·mell/., . Complex .,1u,lit) i11H1l w ;1 l• >I of data nccring ~c nsc t,, con<lucl a :.;mulatoi study wtw: h allow!> the optimum dcvel-·
~ fl'-; .~ .t ._,.,.,.... ~ i;athcrinf and c:ompdaiion . \\.'ith <-'U t an adcq11:11c swff it m:iy he i111pr1~sible opmcnl !>Chcmc . The saving aecrucd from no1 drilling a single well could pay
! ~~ 10 do the job in a rca ~onJbk amount of time . for the entire qudy.
~ ~ . ~ TIie :simul&tion prO(.CS~ ,~ bai,ically a thr~c-st11g_c pMccss The primary
( ~ ~ !tllfC! in\'Olvc, the !!llllicnn, •>f data and the i;ub,cquent naJuction of thii;
43, ~ ~ c; , ~~
:, 1,j,,.,.__... . o_ lJ,at, lo a form u~l,lc: h~ the- l>tmulalPr progra,n. The gathcr,ng JH<>.:c~s is
- ~~ VT~ by f,r the lon1eit or the- three-, ~incc th• oxploilalion and develotiin~nt of
~ f-- ("I:> ~~~ reMlrvoin in the r,ut \l-a~ nor deiigncd to cc11tr11izc the data bases but to
~ 6"\ ,.,..e.sl , allo\l.· each enrint'cr tn have a• hand whatever particular pie<'t' of info, rn:ation
0 c ~f~ ~
~ ( .,j) A .., he rcqui~d . Today. the-re i!> a 11cnd to consolidate lhcsc data, and the !',la rt-up
r,occ,s m a ~•mula11 l)ll stud~ will therefore be i.hortcr. Typically. si>. n1an- @) ~~ ~
rnonlhs afC rcqu,rcd I<• 1,ut 1ui;c:1hcr datll for a modi:ralc si;,_.e ~1udy.
The M:cond stajte mvolvcs tl,e history-matchin, proces~; tt:is st;tgr·. 1:iou11l1 0 ~ J. C)~ ' 4 . ~ t-°i,I
- f,ortc::r in man-hou~. consumes the most computer time . A reasonable esti-
rnate for this period 1s about a third of the overall simulation time. The final
!.tagc involve, the J')roduction running stage, where the engineer u~es the
completed history-matched model to generate a series of rum to obtain an
ontimum operational M"heme. Thii. last ,taae normally involves about a quar-
:rr of the: total ~imula1ion fllr1c .

~ Camp1u,;~ '." l'flilu!i:!iil'.· A larJ;C rr,~~h_ini: is. ~:i~j;Milil for rilµid wrn ·
f
, ,._,.,).. \.--0 illuun.J ;rn_'1
eftlClt!fti .:,m,pl,:11,.-.r, c_,f a i.ludy. fh.e mm1rn\lm rcyUJJ~rnenl IS .4
'f\ : 0 tto\ 32K ma,hmc- On an~ ,,rn:iller de\'ice _it becomes physically 1mp,)~~1bk to nw ~ '1- ~ µ~ , Q.)j W'2_ ~ ~
t. ~ ~ , even a $"1311 study. 1 ~re chan;!1ng, disc aC<"~5&, and compuung urnc mcrc,1se
' ywA i; ~~e -.;poncntially ilS the m~chinc ~ize de~rca~es.
· \~ ~, The rtiUr,iin~ <?f vinual TTIC!mory in the computer marke1placc h~s
~ah. . o ~o h 1--{) , aM.R f~
l ~~ · cAtcndcd ,he us~ of larger m,idr-ls to smallor machi11e1.. Since the -.·1rtual. t?Jc . ~ qfl cvfZl.t'u.A e,<-. ~
• { <;.c mcm~ry machine maintains _only tl~at fr1ation of the ~~~gram.. in real core
that 1s n"ded and sr,oc,ls in co1111nu.ou1Jy from the virtual area tho~c
•· pap," of memory as 1he program executo1, it i, po1&ible to run l.ar~c modc:li;
~"',Cl.Nl c--pJ-~ ~-~ Sc.~ ~ b__p
on smaller machines. The overhead involved in swappinJ these pitges of
mtmory into and out of real core can become 1ianificant if the computer
~ .
program ia not coded cfficic-ntly for the u,e of virtual memory.

g . .,Cost £ff11c1ive11esJ of Model : The mqdcl, UKd for reservoir ~,mula-

c ~ J-/- eac)~ J ~ b-R
11on inHo&it in ccm1plexi1y and t'.\pcn.c as we 10 from one, pha5e 10 thrett-
d'\ V<::U-JJ I ~ O(A.. ~ ~ .
phllK, u we 10 from onc-<limcn,ional to three-dimensional. and as the
applications become more and more specialized. A general all-purpose model
,--,
 recently th i~ ol,1crva c1,•11 iu, led w ~everal algorithms of varying dq~rcc~ of
cffcctlvcness which at t~111p t a uto matically to perform the history match.
The rttdbRck loop h,1 , tx:c n tightened considerably, with the net result that
the en1inccr i~ now ~•-1u~·cu d ou t of the loop completely. Some engineers
seem to prefer ii th i, w .1~·. but there i, still some need for the 1ubjective

9 History Motc:hing approaoh of the trai ned mind . We shall discuH ,ome Clf th~,e automatic
t~hhlt111'~ llllflt.

~ lltJty•Mltt!hlng Pt1t ,1rt1f] /llff

~!\1efdl r,ttWtl~IW c1,,: :M! l!ll,fl! fc,r dttttffll11tn~ :t ~nod h l4tof1' tntttth :

A Pm::ufl!~
2. ~iaw r~ i~~
t t1tiJ~c11i rn ii:,,~
4. \Vlit~r,oll r:i! 1•1 .

The objective of •h e engineer is to determine: the reservoir de script ion

which will minimi1.c ,;,,; difference between the observed parameter a~ indi -
~ NTRODUCTION cated above and that pred icted by the simulator program. It can be a rgued
very effectively that ,here i~ really no unique set of descriptive parameters
T he rescrvolr simulator, as such, e.1 nnot be used to predict the performance
which fit a reservoir. \\. h ·k thi :. is true, it is also noteworthy that th e practic-
of a reservoir under any operating scheme unless the data built into it ade-
ing engineer is not c 1) m pletely in the dark; he is not solving an unconstrained
quately describe the gieomctrical configurat11Jn, the rock and fluid properties.
problem. Whether or mn he quantifies it, he has instinctively set in the back
a nd the flow mechanics of the reservoir sy~ tem .
of his mind a list o f l:, •.\cr 1.:Utl,ff values and upper limits of all his variables .
The original -tala built into Lhe simulator are the engineer's best estimate
1 This set of constraint , . whether written down or not, arc part of the engineer-
:'If all the panmcten which describe the rescrvoi: . Unless he is very ucky.
whole. Tl--: ;. ing know-how essenri.d in making a good simulatio'l study. A good hi st-ry
1 : 1s d:ita will "ot be eucrly representative of the reservoir c.! a
the behavior · th::
match =s, in esser,,.:c: . tlur set of rock, fl:J:1, and rclat• ~•: permeabilit y data
dat;• m ust be modified .mtil the s1mul:>~<-r reproduces 01
the existing which acting together produce the most rc;uc,nable r.:>u lt, at ,.. g:vcn pc :nt in
resc r~oir to an aa:q,table degree The pn •1.:css of modifying
. time. As more data a,:: a m:1~,;eJ with the passage of time, the dcscri pr io n c:in
model data until a reasonable compa n ~1J11 i > made with the observed dat:!
be refined even more . Th is updating process is essential in a :.t mu la w ,n , wd y
,s c:uled history matching. The p ro<:c ,s is a necessary prelude to making an y
not only for continu •.i m, 1 nit1•ring but also for being able t, 1 make pr.:d u.: -
se nsi ble prediction, with the simula t,J r, becau~e the same mechanisms whi1.:h
_tions bn,ed on nn y unfvrc:,c.:c:n operational changes in the future
were operative In lht hJ11ory peno<l ·of the reservoir should still be operative
in the prediction period.
The process of history matchi ng i~ •J ne of the more time-consumin g ~ chsnics of History fo.T,1 tching
'
as pects of a simulation study. As much time is spent on making a match as i~ There arc several par.1mc.:te rs which can be varied either singly or co llcctivdy
spent on compiling and preparini the duu for the simulator. A good rnatd1 to minimize the d11Tc:rcn1.:c, between the observed data and those 1.:alculatcd
is as important u good data. by the simulator- MPdilk1H1l•ns arc usually made on the following areas :
The process of history matching is characterized by a feedback loop in
whi1.:h the engineer reformulates hi s bas ic <.;0nception o( the reservoir a:; 11 1.-,Rook d11t11 rm d11ic;11,ons
1

res ult of the responses of those paramcten which he iJ using as 11 measur-: of ._,,,- a. Pcrmenbil it~ .
the system behavior. By analysis of the effect of changes made after a p:,r • b. Porosity
ricular run n, the·cn,u,eer then decides on the form o( the Input data for run c. Th lokncs~ ~
(.rl . I) This ~DNH has all the earmark, u f" clttHic control problem , a w l
d. Snturst111>11 .
 (;I I !i

.th1 r fu r u i;in· 1; :,r 1.. 11 ,, ( muJd . TJl.; <:'1mp,14tod pic,11;1urc dib1 ;;b1, lic.i, ,,;, i;
,J,---rluiJ d11u1. modific.iti on ' c:itc-d in Frf. <; ~• • h,\\, , ;, i,-calized high areil am! a loc<1lrud 1,w ,,n:a rn ilw
a. Cl)mpreuibili1in
,.:gion ~c ki:1r-J
h. PVT clwln
1.: , Vi,Qosit)'
------------1. Ri;l~tiy~ rx:rm~sbili(y cJ:, 1.,
a . Shift in rch,tive pern;t·.1 hd ity, u n ·(
-_-;·l'Ff-Fl
b . Shift in critical sa1ur:: L, ·:1 d;;: :,
,, 4 . Individua l well complct111n <latu 1-+-+-+ -<f-i~~ ..-
' ··n- -,
a. Sic in effect : .;;1,, t-l l
-,· 7"~ -~
b. Bottom hole fiowm!! rr('\l.ur.·
- - -J ~T: -.
► - f- Thr two fundamental pr<J.t·•. , t·, wl.1, ii ,trc controllable in history ma1d1 -
......_..~..........__!_ ' ___ ..!..

1r;i- arc a~ follows : Figure 9.1 : lwnc- 11n<!;1 h d1 i,. rnur. Flprt !l.2 : Pressu re <'1 • •r,bu t,on
from mood 11 t11""n ,.,, ,r
nu: qlwntity of fl11;il· 1,, ! '"· · , ,i, r,, , : :u,y time: anJ its distrib111io 1, \\ 111111 1
ti<L 1~~11tv1li~, and The r,-,, ,,·,': ,,I ;,, ·1 1-111 r"t11•i: 1:d here is to lowc:r n1e h1gh-prc-5, u ,,- 111ca ;,11d
2. The 1110,·e11wn1 of /i1Ji, i '·' 11111. . .111 · ~Y~lrm J :1Jer e;1.is11pg r,111,.-.1 ;.,1 raise the low-r:,,su ;,· a1t"a . This could be achieved by one or mc,1c <'f the
i,'11,dic11tb followinfl p1<•,:<'.iU rl' ,

Thr -01::.nipulation of t h~·~c 1,,." pr, w,•,seh cnallie> the ,niin~~r to m,·,dif:.· I. Mon: :1 111.t fr11 m 11,c: high· pre51,u1c to th, h1\\·-pll· , w1c ll " 1.: h:r ;,
.i n_y of !hf carli1r,mon1io11cd p.11;; nwll';, "hid1 arc criteria
for history m.. kh ·
good en~illt\'.I · chunge in rv< ~ 1-..:; n1<.";1 bility.
111J.! . It i~ mandator y that t he~t 111, J 1t'ica1 i, •m of lhe data reflect
2. Dec-re:, -,· :h,' ,11i rn place in the high-pressure area lw r11: ·.,.,
1

1r,g judg1m·nt and be within 1,·:, · •·n,d·I,- l1n,i1~ of condition s existinf ;n t~. ;ll
a . deC'H." J ' r,\.·: \) ~llj' ,
1; ! :,:'
,:rc;i . The expcrlii.c of the cn,: ;1;,:,·1 .,1;; 1 hi., famili!lrity with the par11c1 d.1·
b. decr .;-.i,u ,~ thll ~n<"sses.
rt·~ervoir car. rnarkedly n :du cr 1 hi.• 101 ;; ! 11mc srent on history 111:1tl·h111~·
c. dc-0,·.1, :ni: f •i: ,:11 11rntion, or
d. all, • :i; r .1h, ,, .:
3. lncr~a,c !t" , 11 1 , ;i plal·c 111 the low.pn:i.su rr arr.! r,, -: ,,.,.:
Ji MOOIFIC ATl')NS u~:, !NG !~OCK DATA
a . incrC',j . . :!if p···: ,.),~ly,

, R 0<:k data arc generally input :,~ a m;n rix of values over a two- or 1hrc.: -
dimc:nsio111tl grid . The data wer,· ,1eri ·,ec ~ ~ Jigitizing a contour map of ~t)m,·
i-. :nd. Grid data modifications arc nc,·cr made on a single-cell basis, but nver
b. incn::!,111~ 1h ,d,n<'sses .
c. :ncreJ,!n!! , ,ii ,a1urat1on. or
d. all of tht• at,,,\e .
r
an aren wherein the necessary change-~ arc required. The paramete r being
The engineer al th,, p01nt must decide which proced ure a, n·, .-,~1 li kely 10 _
l·h:rnged- c.g., pcrmcab ility-i~ rcc,,111,· ured to produce the desired chan~c
create the desired acti0n and not disturb the model at 01her I,,,: a11ons r:or
and this new map ap.in redigitizcd. Th•, method ensures a certain smooth -
to create addi11onal proh\ems in these locations at lat<'r time,
ncs~ and continuit y of rod propertie s and prevents the building up of d is-
The most h\..cl y p1<xedure is to move ftuid across the rest'f \l)1 r 1r,'lm the
t .:ontinuitics, which may not be pr..-~ent . There may be instances, howc\'er.
high- to the l,1w-pres~urc area . This is accompli shcl1 b: rec,rn wur:ng the:
where faults or pinchouts may cause di~continuities and, as such. must he
incorpora ted in th~ model.
permeabi lity m:w Thi-. maintains the same original 011-in-plare tigurc. since
we have not , :med 4' ,)r h
The- following is an examplc <'f gricl data modification to remove a local-
The ~im,·::hilit~ map rs rccontourcd in such a manner :!, k' 1110, e the
ized pressure abnormal ity. The mcchanK~ of grid dala modificat iM ar<'
fluid in the general d irection of the low-pressure region. Th<' ""n0se;." of the
l>imilar for all the various paramete rs "hi"h constitute the basic rock data
contour line!' :u~ toward the low-pressure zone. This g1ws s,,me Jirectional
i.et. and this example should familiari1<' th(' engineer with th(" ··modus
pcrmcabihty in ll) the low-pressure re!!ion as i.hown in Fi~. 9.~
operandi ." Figure 9.1 illustrate~ 1he pnmeahility data as input to the- ~irnul-
 2SJ. CH . !l t
J_ Th ese abnorm alities can l'<! corrected as follow~ .
\
\.
... ' I' '
' . ·d . l" ti al the oil-in-place
I
I " ,, I
I\
Pressure levels too high throughout usua IIY m 1ea ... '
. . . . •
figure 1s too high 1n the reservoir; a bla nket change m porosi
·ty could reduce
. h
the overall oi l in place. thereby reducin g the total e:>epansive ene rgy in I c
1
'i 'l s
,.' 1 I \ system. Thi~ is illustrated in Fig. 9 .6.
I I I I/
' / / Flprt 9.3 : New permeat-ility C
I I/ map.
'
'
'
This map is rcdigitizcd and lhe data repunched to make a new run. The ' ~
new pressure map shown in Fig. 9.4 may need some modifications in data
again. Thne hi1h-pressurc: zones can be easily modified by slight poro,ity z .
C
chanses in that !fneral area. a~ shown in Fig. 9,5. 0
, ... ..I
' c._
I

I , I
t·ttcur, <J.c,: Pre,;1ur~s at time I . .I --'-v

The press,He, arc w.-, high _ovtrat: by a fact or of. "ny, 10°,,. We therefore
C
perform tt reductit,n ,,r Hery poro11lty v!llue by a wnJUHH f,wwr- -~:.y, 0.96:
__...,....-r-1-,...-,r·+--h· ~:~~..-.
Por,, ""' Por, 1 • Factor
I -I~ IH I
Flpre 9.4: New pressure: mao ,u
giYen time. Note that the co nwurs in Fig, 9,7 are exactly in the \ame pl..1..::.: . The numbers
il!~Ociated with them :i re ditTerent Note an overall decrease in the prc:!.sures,
es shown in Fig . 9.8.
I/
i/ I

.. --~ -- ,,
r- ... /
,
L ,
....
.... _
~- "-
I
:· 7
i ✓
OLD I 50-POROS ITY CONTOURS

~EW ISO-POROSITY CONTOURS

I_ _

9-U-'
/I

I
./ I
,_: ' I -- Ol0 , V~L~L

· - · ,.,.
I,,

V
/
/ · .... rn.·. • '1Ai.'J£
"'-
,:
I I II 4 '\ I!
'
fl1111rt 9.!: Motlif,c:atiun of i~opNo5ity lines in localized a~a,
\ I
'i. \. .. ........
.... ·-
One of the more defin iti ve matching criteria is pressu re, since 1t i~ ahn
I"\. ..

Fi,:ur, 9_1 : Pc:,ro~ity contour mllp used in determi11:it it111 L't f ,;: '1.f>
'
rt1ssible to c:;btain pressure J1ita with reasonable accuracy. The t:r.•mput i:d pn:·.,.;rc:s f_J1e•,, v..1lt1~,).
rressure~ C!lrt be irt error in _sever~! ways-namely:

I . The pr,,surt ltvtl.s tltru1.1gho11r the reservoir may be either too high ur
too low.
2. The prusurt distrib11tiorr may be too discontinuous-i.c., ••jaggc:J··
when looking at a cross-sectional profile.· ·
3. Loc11/ind wll pressure Juta may be too high or too low, indicating
spi!dfk locallud im'b1l1neei;. " - " 9.11 '. New rr•~~ure mnp.
 A Jl••~~u, c ,1istribution that ii too di~co11tm u,1us u11ualty inJicatcs in,·011~1 as 11 stcudy-stute lll()(id .ind less u., a tnmsient or ut11leady•stak 111odd . ·1 he
rcml\' .. bili1~ \-&Jucs within the S)'stem. A , 1oi-!. ~co inn of the mervoinhow- model tends lo 1c11~1 m .-nl· like a "1::nk" of uniform pro~rtie~ 1hr lurrt: " 1hc
mg th<· prcs•u,-c profile is sho11.•n in Fies. 9.9 and 9.10. pcrmcnbiiity.

- - J. - - - 9.3 MODIFI CATI ONS U:i lNG FLUID SATURAl ION$

I
r-..
~ i, ~
,, -
The fluid saturations w11h111 1hr 1escrvoir arc usually rcllSonablv well knvwn
"
" I
- ·
\ V from vari~11s source~.
.
--- -- I. Core S111T1plcs
t- t 2. l!l,ctric loll~
( 3. C'(!H!.lla~j()ns.
f j~ IU: PrcW! IC pr .. fik
Tl,!: (jUa 1,tity ul' npiill:;; , .: ,:acr11Y ,.i,hin 1hc ~ jrou~ rv, ~ 1· .: :
rdated to ii.( ~a111ralit,m, l)f 1hr 1h rc~ 1lu1d pha~.i .ind 1he i;lfi:d~uf 1•.- _
eneray arc shown in ~C\'cral way~ :

I. Rescnvoir prc,i.u re k\'c l

2. f!roduction ralt ~
3. Gas-oil ratios
Fia:ure 9. 10: T re venc . 4. Water-oil ratio~

Hy ·n o~ 11,;.. :; r-1;.;nket change in permeability by using a constant factor, the During the course r.t' a history match several events ma) br- n11t1..:ea.hl e
p;.-~ , :.irc .. h,rh~·· and " lows" are smoothed out as indicated in Fig. 9.11 : which can be attributed 1,.- crrt1r~ in fluid saturations within thr i"'rc space .
The most obvious is the inabi lit :,· to maintain a given producti<..'n r ;:h· 11 om :l!':
Perm/J = Perm;_, ,. Factor area and consequent drop in rese:rvoir pressure and fl.uid sa1 -,r:,P,,r,
Factor > 1.0--smoothing effect This is generally due to insuflicient -iii in place and insuffic1cn1 1nthn 111
the given locality. As meu, ;,)lled earlier, this can be corrected hy c.: hu n~es in
Factor < I .~more pronounced effect pore volume ; an incre:;sc in oi l saturation is recommended :o ._,,!·rec, th :s
discrepancy. It is difficult 10 say precisely which chanae is mMc r.:afot1c at
i this time, and only an overall analysis of the model bchavio1 w,11 in,h.:all!
1 the more reasonable change .
.... '
- i Another event thllt Clln occur in a history match when there 1s msuftic1cnt
'- gas in place in the reservoir is that the model runs out of gas. The wells have
'· !
hccn making the observed gas production, but there is not enough gas origi-
'
nally in place in the system. An incrca~e in S,, by some factor would o:Tsct
--
;
' -t" - ·· this tendency to deplete the gas in place and maintain reasonable production
r rates throughout the prediction mode. Before this increase 1s made , the
engineer should reexamine the locat ion of the fluid contacts within the
Flprt t.l I : Smoothins the pressure profiles.
reservoir, particularly the gas/oil contact. A shift or a few feet in this contact
can make a significant difference in the quantity of gas that can be produced
Thi~ " i;m,KHh111{' effect is due to a large transmissibility product throughout
the reser,·oir : the lar!tr the transmissibility, the closer the model behoves by depletion .
 g:is-oil
Rclnt1vc pcnnca bility dirtttly affects flow rate nnd conseq uently
cs :tre affecte d becaus e of_ fl~td
9.4 MODIF ICATIO NS USING FLUID OAT >-\ r,,thl<. :iml water-o il ratios . S«ond ly, prc.ssur
flow under the pressur e gradien ts existin g
movem ent incurre d durin1 the 01 1
,1.,t., include nat10 and the produc ing watc-r-
Fluid dat:i :i~ ~n~nl ly ~ti known in a ~imul:it ion ,1\1,l y. fhc ~( in the rc~cr ..·oir. The produc ina au--oil
modifie d r~
the followin~ . rnt11• :i ~ two criltna uff'd In hletnry m:.rchi n8 which can be
rcl:u1vc pcrmen biliry ch1n,es.
Format ion ,-otume factors GOR
I. C-"ns1der the following. A field has been produc ing and the ovcrnll
2. Viscosit~ (~as-oil ratio) is plotted venus c:umul1 tivc produc tion (Fig. 9.12).
To reduce
3. Comprn s1b1 lt t~ The GOR is too high, indicat ing a too opt1mi.st1c kJk. curve.
4. Solutio n gas data. kJk. curve is moved from left to right to decrea se
this high gas produc tion the
misplac ed at a given liquid saturat ion (Fig. 9.13). It should
The usual errors invoh-ing th~ data arc caused by faulty mput. A the quantit y of gas ftowing
decimal point or an incon-cct upooe nt can cause an order-o f-magn
itude ~ pointed out at this point
.that the lower gas produc tion figure would also
be reme •
error in the input quantit y . Some exampl es arc the followi ng : cr.:nte a smaller pressur e drop throu1 hout the reservo ir. This could
.
died if need be by n change in the quantit y of ftuid in the system
model versu 5
I . Obs~nario1t . N" noticea ble drawdo wn in the pn::-~•J re~ in !he Cons 1er the opposit
11 e case of too low a GOR. A plot of GOR
gas flow1r, ~
even after conside rJ. t>le withdra wal of fluid . cumula ti-.e produc tion is shown in Fig. 9. 14. There ,snot enough
.
·causr: Rock compre ssibility is too high by an order of magnit ude. causing in the system at any aiven liquid saturat ion . To increas e gas produc
tiou_ the
as set.>11 by in,pcct ion of le ftow condi-
the effects of changin g saturat ion to be negligible ko1k curve is shifted from ri1ht to left to induce more favorab
0
a sec-on -
the C!ffect1ve ,C"mprc~(ih1lity <-quation: 1i,>n~ to ~Cls . ,,s shown in Fia. 9.15. The higher g-.1.s produc tion creates
dnry f:wtc•r to he accoun ted for-i ,e ,. lo~r ~,ervo ir pm,u
m. The u,c t1 f
~ c. __s.c. 7 s.c;. i- s;c• . _c:. (9 . 1)
grid data modlfk:Hlon! ean be matte tt, corttct th!se di,c:rt!p
anoltS.
s.
,_ ...... CALCI.UltO
Action: Use the correct rock comprn sibility value .
--
1000
withou t
2. Obsrr,-atiM Water saturat ion appca~ to increase in 111 0,kl L.,,
O&URYlO
RP
any inJcction or in flu.\ of water . ,, .
Cauu : Rock compre ssibility is too low, causing a free volume tu
develop in
GOR
SCF/HL
.., .
is filled with :t,e immobi le soo ..,~
the ,:X>re space. In some models this free volume .i.
atJditio nal qua"tit , ,,ppcnrs i,1
l'>hasc, which i, u~ually wa1e.-. As a resull, :m .... .....
· the water m1ttrl1I llalan~ .
. ~ttlM : Corttcl the rock CClmpre,,lhlllt)' .
0
- ., •- - • - I

h
p
-~it
-'---·-·
•
,._ ~
lrJicure 9,Ut t•roducin9 1u.1oll mtlo ,l:il:\ 100 hi9h .
9.5 MODIF ICATIO NS INVOL VING RELATIVE
PERME ABILIT Y DATA 100
- ...... ' - -· ~
Relativ e permea bil ity 1s a very comple x phenomeno11 . ::ind
1t can be - ... . ,, -
•... .,,. -.. ~
....
handle d in many ways in the simulat or. These different appro,11
degree, :.111J it
.: he~ affect
bd1u11\ ·cs the loq
k
r I~ J ~~
.,_
lhe calcula ted perform ance tu 11 1reater or lesser
, 1 hich he is
0
L.
~
~- """ ~- - --- ""
.-.I. . ... . . r..!L-.
englnH r to be familia r with the scheme used in the mod•: I with
, As m,nrlun ell earlier there are two type~ of .;11rve\ ·
I
. ·~ ·-
wortrlhS ...-111! -- ~"[ - .:
' - ...
... 1... .,_
,(I
. - .::... ""
I. Jmblt,ltlan
2. Dr1ln1 1e
Fll!ltl't ' :": Shin d~wn in fic• /k,, t.littft .
·t11e1e 1m: used fnr dlfft:tent ptucU\e!I In the res"rvnlr.
 .'~/ C. !J. 6 I P1r~si:n,:c of C11 ,, ,111 ur,,.·;-1 fl • / /l, r.-..,::

A1101 l,1•r c..;un1plc of lho effect of relative pcrn1eabili1y on gM-oil fillio

n111 he ~1·1•11 from Fig. 9.16. Free gu itarls fl1rn i11~• tn,, ~,1rly in the modd ;
or
rmr
,--~\ -b. ;-· .
T1 . " -1 · •
l t,
:·T
'::r ....:f;'
the cup·l·. however, hai. the gen.:ral shape lhc ohsi:r·,cd curve. A shift in
lh c critKal gas :;,Hur11tion as shown in Fig. 9. 17 delays thl' production cf gas ~ --h -. -~ -
until lhc gas sawration renchcs a higher value . ·1 h i~ h;, ~ a secondary effect
of int·rca ~ing re servoir pressures sinoc the total ~:i\ product ion is decreased. - - + 4-- \ ~
The ,,pposit c example is shown in Fig. 9.1>;. whrr1· the computed GOR ·- -1 ·t
lags he low thc ·mcasurcd GOR at a given saturation . The relative permeability .
~ -~-: t?~--¾J
--vc_,rsus- g a s curve can be modified by shifting thl· S£. 11' thl' right (Fig. 9.19).
The dkc1 of thi$ i~ to make the aa, flow at 11n earlier ~llturation .
F Fillllrt 9.1'7: Shih in , ri1ical p, Uluralion.

r 100.'l

(
~ ~-
( ~cc,
.....
.,._
"-
~ 1,0R

0
Mp -
H
p

FiKVrc 11.1": Produc:inJ ra\/llil r;. 1i n ?<> , · i,, .,•. h1i11f<' 4,1 , 111: Model pro(lli, c, ~., , Fi11!1r, !I.Ill : Sh ift ,n c,iu,~1 ~- -'
100 - 10.. -, fat, . saturation.
1 I,-~ .j . ~
- - -~ -~ ~ ~ ;
. -~ ~ - . ~ . ~ - ·1
l(l Hf--.i,,.,.±L.4'~~-il.""
·· "'-~~~➔
:.ill ... - ·- - -; 9.G PRESENCE 01 UltvH,';LJN ;C ATING AREAS
... 0 -- -- . . . i

( i~ 1; l,:,-IH.,.,.j,~.i,.;_,~...._HH-+-·-,--~-.,...-
- ·-
P./ '" ~o:ne hi ~torv runs it is p,),,1 \,k 11, -.M y all the ~aramelcrs g(i \t rrn :,~- ,i ic
{ r ,,din plac~ and
still nol obtain a matc 1: An example_is as foll_ow~
1n a eiven reservoir, even alkr , an ;ng the reservoir dua within th..- , .: np,••
. 01 !
sg ;-,f credibility the follow,ng. .1hn.. m11a :n ies are still unresolved :

•IIW~ t.l5: Shift \IP k 1 /ko dn 1.;

1_ Field observed prci;stut i- a1 c s1, 1i to l11gh to be matched . d .
2. Field observed production rate ~ :ire still too high compare I L' 1
mlit c i
1000 ~ U. l CIILI.TlO
-~
figures.
Ol5[PV[O
::;
., .,,
;;
.... ~

.l -~- The obvious question remains . : what cJn be mainta1mng

· · · th esc pressures- ;:in d
~
g !,OQ , ,
--+ --t-
I
rates ·> The answer is unrecognized rc-, en·oir energy.
f
. .
t ide the lim11 s of
~ ... i
. · . • . r
The reservoir is getting energy in ~omc 1 orn1 rom ou s .
§ I
the pr£1sently d,jined area . This · ener°"
. source o f reservoir e.;
can be either
r
f-"
0 I

"p ◄ 1. additional undeveloped productive zonct., or .

2. unrecognized water drive influencing the ra1crvo1r.
Fi11we 9.1': Model produce1 p, too earl~·-
 Z 61) CH . !J , tl,~ t,, iy Match lll<J

The cngin~r cJn int·t•rporate these conditions intt~ his 1twdc l !w
I. adding additional acreage to his simulator hy e:"(panding his model in
the :iren where the abnormnlit y exists and rerunning : :ind
2 simulntin~ Jn aquifer affeotin! his reservoir in the given r~gion .
A careful anatysi~ of these two is then made during several runs to define
which process may be operative. If there is no evidence of increasing water
cut, the abnormalit y is most likely due to undevelope d acreage .
It should be mentioned that the presence of communica ting zones should
be looked into as a last resort and the engineer should not flagrantly increase
the producti,,e acreage unless the evidence is overpoweri ng. In these cases
it is generally good practice to recommend offset drilling 10 prove up the
acrca~ . Figur~ u_J) ,ndieatu the pre,enee ofundcn:l11flCll ~and in a resMvoir
syst..m .
')~IG(NAl
SANO •. I'll 7
11
I. Generate a n:prcsen tat ivc- ~c l t•f s1 111 ula1ion runs with knl"\ pa ra -
meter~ randomly or otherwise .
2. Optimize the solution to get a t,c-.1 fn by linear proitr:unming- or
~enrch-type methods .
All the current methods pick puramctc r~ wh ich form the history-ma tching
criterin . These parameters ore pressures . pr<,uuclion rates, or producin~
ratios .
Jahns' uses a nonlinear regression approach to match reservoir pressures .
The outline of his method is shown tn Fig. 9.21.
The reservoir is zoned, and each zone has a descriptor for the transmis-
sibility term (kh/ µ) and the storage tt: rm tq>ch"l. The pressure behavior is then
a function of those two parameters. These independen t parameters arc "then
varied in n formal manner, and by the use c,f regression analysis, the values
lhl\t mini mile the following rehtt wn ar..: -.e lected :
(
C
O!ISCRVEO DA TA
mssum

'
• WEli.

'
ZOML ,\P?~Of<CII T1J
?.[~~~vO!P. GESCft t,,I ~;.
'
'
'
Ylf!u~ ,.Ht Cotfltnunic:tt1ing area, .
'
9.7 AUTOMAT IC HISTORY-MATCHING · METHODS '
There have been several attempts"to relieve the enginea of the burden of the '
• history-ma tching pr~ure and to generate a history match automatica lly
by-a series of simulation runs. These methods arc r1crative in a general sense
~
µ.
· {~en)•

SOlUTION '
and usually couple some statistical analysis with oplimitati'on techniques
to obtain chc •'bes! .. combinatio n of parameters w matc.;h the re~ervoir
hbtory. -The large majorlly of automatic history-nrntching ,lpproaches can Fll'!ft 9.11 : .lnhn~ method.
'
be et1vi~it!fed a , ot:cu rrin~ in two steps :
 CH . 9 / 111m11y M•tchim;1 SfC. fi .l I Aur,un;,tJc lii~lutY•M;.t~lli11fJ !,d,,1/,,,cli
262

~ This method ciin cruatc i.cvi:Fal problcmi of it:. own a11d liUffon from MfiQU•
drawback,. Thc,c is no guarantee of the minimum , and several different
solutions can be obtained that indicate lhe cxistcr.~c of many minima. There
' i, •lso no gu11rantce of convergence, and h<'-~ause of the unconstrained nature U$ l 11~ Ll~EAR ll~~: SQUARC~, DETERIIIIIE
TH£ CClfllCIEs;l~ •1 j WHltH 1111111112[ TII[
of the optimization there is a clear and present danger of negative lransmis-
~ sibility and storage values-a physically unrealistic siluation. Most of the
llEYl.t.TION IET\lllN THE QeS[RYEO [lt101t
ANO THE COMPUTE ll ER:tOR FOIi EACH RUIC .
above probk•ms can be resolved by careful scrutiny of result and making k
~
"- "· .1
Kl~ : DI • •; . /J•I 1 1j 1 j
reruns where infeasibilitics exist.
. ,I
Coats 3 developed a mclhod which combines least squares and linear
~ - ~
proarammin g lo oblain a solution that is realistic in the sense that no negative
- ~ or physically impossible parameter values result. The outline of his method
~ is shown in Fig. 9.22 .
THI~ GIV[S TII[ 6lST IH t ,q HTl11ATC :

~ , ...
_

O~~J:IIVED ~ "-

:, • P~~iiUU~
- '()j
- un~ ~l - ~

~ TH£ TOTAL CRRO• IS NQII • INl!! l~[D tllllllN

TII[ COHS 1aAINl$ Of 'J" lW IS l lNUF.
l Z ~ L ~ " TQ P!WlilWfllNli fROCHS IN~O(_VlO THE ,wu-
:, ltUElVOIR DlSCRIPTO~S '• / TATIOII or THOS[ OPTl~L Vl.LU[S Of .j
IIHICH SOLVr ·
= ~OMtTRAl!ll' OM O[SCRIPTORS
r:.1'.
~ Hit, :

~ ) . • l
J - I,;

~ GCtiCRAH A SET Of N $IIIULJ,T(jR RVt,S

U~!NG IIANDOl4 O,..TA FOR EACH ltl)lj '~ ':
\

~ "/
SOLl!T ION ro R P. [O.. I ~lD
O(SCP.ln(;R~
~
·r "f~II 11.11 (Cc r,t'q .)
~
This mclhod h~s provided adoquatc rcsulti -.auit Qf the carolitr.ii rm
~ CALCULATE TH£ UIIOII IETIIUN TH[
OUUVlD DATA AIID TllC CAltl.UTED placed on the paramcten, but it hu been noted that IOIM of the pnraructcr~
O,,TA IT[MS :
arc obtained at their upper levels. This seems to indicate that the assumptiom
!)

~
. .,,;
tt •
I
dobl - (dulc,t
1 I made as to the linear nature of the problem arc not valid u expected .
Slater and Dur~r' use a gradient method as a aearc:h technique to find
the "best" solution. Their method is outlined in Fis. 9.23.
Automatic history-matching methods currently leave something lo be
~ desired. The methods appear mathematically pure, but for acvcral rcasom
)

_., - ~
Flpre ,.21: Coats method .
to be enumerated they do not solve the problem.
The biggest drawback in these methods is their total objectivity. As the

-~

~
 --· --·- - - --- - - - ·- - -- - •·-•• - •-n-~- ••-...--..tl'lU.IJOV......h Ul'il!I.IU trMll.ut'.1JIU\- UIU'Jl lli !JIYU.'T~Um" " • ' " " " " • " •• •• ··--

.~F.I;, !J.fJ / Cllt<1 t11ll'1'r: !flrlll!l.m -Jh t<f Ii !4~t't,flt/:l'Y If PIUHltr,Y l1tt1/~Et
CH . 9 / Hlttflll' M11tC!hinD
2114
. point Even in the
the pr<X.-css to remove the infeasibility by starting at a new · f h
. . . fi "bTty because o t I e con- I
09S(1tY(D Di' TA linear programming model which maintains east 1 1
. d I btain extrema va ues
. PltCSSUltU strained optlmiZAtion process, there 1s a ten ency o o 1
showing that the llne:tr progrRmming model was either at the upper N owcr
end' of the constraint range. .
1
In general, automatic history matching is a good tool for h)'pothc.t ,~a
reservoirs senerated for academic interest, but they stumbl~ badly In trying
, .. ,.... ... tktl ...".~····· lk ll "bl.ilt•ta-llte" ft■ld , Tiu! ielik:H h,r • truly
th e
automatic procedure must center around including more paramet~n In
function detc:riptlons of the field and solvin1 thne in a manner which allows
feasibility. ..
e
---'-'--'--'----·· The optimum procedure at the present stap: of simulation development
C!Tt.. lllATIOII or IIIF\.UCllt£ should combine the best of both worlds. The automatic approach could be
,OHFl,l(NTS 1Y ,-llllO A ~l•IT
cal~~ I~ A 11¥!11 ,UMttU: U91!d to lfl bRlll'.lttrk f\~ur@11 u a start i from 1h11 point the cn1ineer will u~c
I I I; , . . ,n HI~ liitt!Hll:Ht tt, et1Htttllf tiHt! t!ev~l8f' tile tt1!ffl!l :H 11! 1'f!t kttt1"-'!t.
j ,;. 1, .. . ,h

9,~ GAS! SfUEJY: 91MUbATIQN OF! A 9BG9NQA,.Y

?!Cl A SCAO OIRECTIOII RECOVERY PAOJ!tT~
X'EIIDI 11G OIi lllC 1111'\.UClltt
COHf IC ICIIT 11A Tlll
ihe Postle Reservoir h: a 2 I ,300-ncre field in Texa, County, Oklalwrna
1hc Morrow Snnd produces at a depth of 6100 n and the area under ~tudy
includes a gas cap region, an oil column and a water/oil contact zone . The
I T[P,HE Till [IIIOI rs SATISfACTORT study area is shown in Fig. 9.24. It consists of the Postle Upper Morrow and
the Hough Morrow A Units. The Postle study is a classic example of the use
Pia.. ,..13: Shter and Du•:-er method . or a simulator to "manage" a reservoir effectively. In this case study we shall
look at the !~put requirements, the history-matclain1 proce~i. ::1'.1d the: selec-
engineer well knows, there are areas in the reservoir for which he has a good tion of the optimal operatior.al design for secondary recov~ry ur.dcr.v nt er
feel. His experience in working with the given field for some time has given flood .
him an iniuittve approach in formulating the properties in that region which The basic input data-porosity, thickness, and water saturation-were
is far superior to that obtainable by automatic methods. obtained from the sonic and induction logs, and along with other geologic
Secondly, the trial-and-error approach used in this history-matching data a 56 x 73 grid was set up with only 2130 actual data cells being used
section employs several variables at a time. In some studies all the data in in the model. A total or almost 10,000 data cards were required to set :.:;, the
every cell have to be reanalyzed and rebuilt in trying to match history. The basic reservoir data file for rock and fluid properties.

I recontouring process a.ff'ects every single cell in the ml)(Jel directly. In the
automatic history-matchin1 mode the reservoir is divided into relatively
The history match covered seven years of recorded history. The history-
matching process involved n comparison of measured pressures. water-o il

I large zones which are generally few in number, and within these zones rock
and ftuid parametcn are pouped together to further blur the definition of
the reservoir.
Furthermore, the automatic history-matching methods may produce
dtra whf<?b are lnhe.rentJy lnfeulble, At chis point the enilnetr hu to enter
ratios, and 1as-oil ratios with those calculated by the model. In the process
of history matching it was apparent that a single relative permeability rela-
tionship was inadequate. Five different relative permeability curves had to be
used to obtain a reasonable match in the whole field. These curves are shown
In FlfUre P,lS, In addition, the critical ps satw-ation had to be moditic:d
 .~ { (" y I

t ~I ~ ~ H ol l ,

I
I
.•.. I I\""
r~l
;; ! \
>,l. ll• I

'" -· - I ____ J

~Rli < l l((t ;

\.,,, Crll I ~\✓-' I

l

- ~~
!
f i~: I \

I
\ I
I
I.

/ ' '.
L1:LA < I. U-'

,... ,.J
r
~l . · ·-~

·r
u prc"urc: match and f:t ~ 11 r,Jdu,1io11
.:·r 1:
·, c· 1 i t'.11 P\'

111 the a-~ ..:.;ip area 1.1 o t.1a 1n ;.n :.--i:t· ptable
rate• -
Tbe fea,ibility ~•udit·s .:a rncd out on the Postle area invol\'ed varying 1he
IOJCCtion patterns and 1111ec11011 rat c.'S and pressure to optimize recovery . At
first an optimum pattern was develor,ed after analyzing a line dri "e , pc·riph-
eral. and a modified pcripher:11 flood pattern. The optimum plan re)Ultcd in
improved sweep rffi.:,c-n cy and ;ibout I~ % greater ultimate rCC\)\'ny . The
simulation study incrc-alot"d the number of injectors from 8 10 I~ ani.l the
injection rate from I ~.:!l,O to :!4,000 bbl water/day. This re~ul1cJ 111 1111
increase in oil recowr~ rate .
By of the ~weep efficiency and by J_c,clopmg a movable oi l
nam i 11;.111u11
plot ¢,ht .\. - · S. ..l the location of additional reserves at any time can be
pinporni.·d ; one Slh.:h map is shown in Fig. 9.26 . U:-i ng these data new pro-
ducer k •~a t1~11h were selected and drilled to accekratt the economic recovery.
Four \,( the si., wrlb selected under this scheme were economic successes.
Within 1hc: ,1uuy itself 16 of the 18 producers studied wc.'re economic suc-
ccssc ~.
Th , 1111 pn" .:men t 111 reservoir manageme nt oota med by utilization ~if
thr ~imulati,,11 apprc.:>nch is ~hown in Figs. 9.27 and 9.2~ . where the difference:
268
CH . !I / Ul~t~ly M:ti c1,111g ~-

betwe en the pr~simularion stud~ (d:is"ic:ll

:nt for 1hc 1wo
w:Ha flood appH ,nch) and thi:
areas withi n the Postk ticll.l. The
e
simul ation study arc appan
to show the contr ibutio ns
cross -hatc hed and dotte d areas are sutxlividecl C
ttH1v tttln~ !tt.'let:tt~tl wl'lls
:."t'm Hu~ :.tdtlltlt,MI wt:lh dttllt'rl •.•r tHt t~tt~ of
tl• ihjed itin. e
C
e.
c--
u C.
~
::,
u
u
),!
C
~
C:
,s C
!
~
1
~
~
-
l@
• 5000 STB/AUe
,.,
t:'·
'-'""•
4000-50 00 STS/~r ,e
..
0\
:, ~-
~-.
~
ir.

!
1
~

1L~1
Fftutt , :U: Movable o,I rlo1. ;h(S0 - So,,.).
t;

<. llfq - 1:r\t l'.Ji!tlti~d 1!!1 l!iVli~~'I Al!'fl)

 (./(, D / /lt/ ,{ ,/lf}'n/1 / , \

Rf.FERHJCF- f

•· H . L. J.-.Hr-:,. " A 11.anid Mt1l,od for Obtaining a Two-dim

cmional Rci.c..r\'Oir
tion F,,,m Well J>, c:,i.urc Rrspons e Dara," ~r. rrr Fn,; J , Ike J9{,6).
Dc!oerip
315-32; T,011.t. AIMEl. 11 .
Ne--. Trd,1,t(lU( fer
2. K . H ., COAi ~. J R . n ►.. 1.ll'S ►.Y , 1md J. H. litNDtJI. ION, .. A
J)c,tcrm ioine Re...-rvoi1 JJc5L,ip tion From Field l'erform.& ,x:c- D.Jtd... s,,c. J'e1 .
C. Ent. J. (Marc-h 19'10). <,6-74; T,-4ns . .AIMEJ II.
~
-~
3, G. E . i1-~10 . ,rno E J . DU!lllf.& , "Acijustmsnl of ~~~1 rni,
S1mui;,1mn Morlcb
t= i i I() Matc:h Field Pcrrorm u nre," St!C. /lfl. F.lfl. J. (Sel'll - 19ill. 295- 305 ; Tra11S .
... !. AIMf. lJI.
f- •C,

(
~· i~
'v
C:
,.._ ug
:ti~
. i: Ii'
i 4. J. 11, WAno:-:. " R1:•.i:r.·01r Simulat ion M*I li1Hli1s ul the flo~tk Mcmow
Sandilo ne." mast,:, ·~ th ci.,~ . Univers ity of Oklahoma . 191-4
'A'

f.•
~~
c.. ~
~t;;
~ :r

i;
0
i .
...

~:;:
•I' •

0 -~ -~ ~iBLIGG 11APH Y
'
,_ 0 ,
"'.::,

-,. ...._, c:~

-
2
..,
,
~--~ -- ~
~, ~I
..,_
,.;~
::l J! BOBERG, T. C'.. E . (, . \l\'oous. and W . J. McOONAU>. JR ., .. Apphcat ron of Jn.erM:
Simulat ion 10 a Comple x Multi-rcscrvoir- System." SPE 41i26.
~th A1111Uill

I DI I
~ <.
- c:--
::, r:: Meeting, Las Vegas, Nev., Sept. JO-Oct. 3, 1973 .
;;~""
....,. s ITR. ·· A. Tc-chniqL•e fo :
oc~-~
~
BREIT, V. S., K . A . 81s1-10P. D . W . GREEN, and E. E. TllOMPE
CL C
Assessin g and lmpro,-inv. the Quality of Reservo ir Parame1 er farirna lf"~ L;~c.d in
( al Simula10 1~. -- SPE 4546. 48th Annual Mcel tn!i . L-, • \'q;a5 . 1'cv ..
Numeric
Scpl . J0 -Ocr. \ 197.';
llR1oos. J . E. a11d l N DI '\•;:-- , ··some Practica l Con,iden 1 1..
,r,, ,n 11"' Nurncr i..:..i
Reservo ir Problom s:· .5,,. f' ,· · , ,,, . ,' (Juno.:
Soluti<>n of l "1,-d 1mcm io n11l
1968), 185- ')4, T1um . AIMD. 243.
CARHR , R. IL I I . KF.t.11•. J1c. A. C. P1EllCE. and P-
L. Wu 1 ,~,, ~. " Pc:11,>1 IT\lln.:.-
Malchin g w11b ( ~.-.~crn:n ts. · SPE 4260, Third Sympos ium 01, Numeric al
Hou~t,.>r , i ,·,,.. . hn 10 -I:'. .
Simula1 ion of l{( ~t'P'l°lH Pt- rformance Sympos ium.

1973. 1
~.: ,)f Op1i1rn,I
CHAVENT, c., M. DL PU Y, and P. LtMONNIEI, "tiislOrY Mill~lll fl~ t-y l
1

Nev .. ~pc
Control Theoo-: · SPE 4627, 4ilth Annual Mccline. La\ Vegas.
30-0ct . 3. 1973 .
CHEN, Wt:N H .. GF.O!lGC R. G,WALA S, and JOHN H. SIINfELD , " A Nt'w Aliorith m
for Au1omu1ic Histnry Ma1chln1:." SPE ,545, 48th Annual Mectin1: . Las Vega~.

,'.l,·e,1,r niro Nev., Scr,t. 30- Oct. 3. 1973 .

\111 • liOJl)(l()(f id ~!i,
COATS, K. IL J. R. DEMPSl:.Y, and J . H. HINDIU ON,
"A New Techniq ue for Oeter-
minin11 Re5erve1 ir J)c:$(:rip1iort From Field Perform ance Data, " Sor. P~r. £11¥ , J .
(March 1970). 66 - 74: Tra11s . AIM£, Mt.
Huv.sAKI, GElllWL J., " l=.stim1uion or
Roservo ir Paramet ers by H1s1ory Ma1chirig
Oil Di1place mcn1 by Wuter or Gas," SPE ,213, Third Sympos ium
on Numerical
10-12. 1973 .
Simulat ion ,,r Rcs,rvo ir Perform ance, Hous1on , Te:us. Jan.

270