GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 53, NO. 3 (MARCH 195), P. 41-484 9 FIGS, 1 TABLE, Curie point depths of the Island of Kyushu and surrounding areas, Japan Y. Okubo*, R. J. Graff, R. O. Hansent, K. Ogawa§, and H. Tsug ABSTRACT. ‘As part of a comprehensive, nationwide evaluation of geothermal resources for Japan, the first of the Curie point depth maps, covering the island of Kyushu, has been prepared, The map was created by inverting grid- ded, regional aeromagnetic data. Two satisfactory algo- rithms were developed to invert the gridded data based upon a distcibution of point dipoles. The first algorithm estimates xp, Yo, and Zo, the coordinates of the centroid of the distribution, by computing a least-squares fit to the ragial frequency of the Fourier transform; the second algorithm estimates centroid depth only by com- puting @ least-squares xed amplitude of frequency estimates The depth esi to produce the final map. The then compared to regional geology and heat flow data, and to a limited set of gravity data. Good correlations are found between the Curie point depths and the heat flow and regional geology. A spatial correlation ob- served between gravity and Curie point depths is con- sidered a secondary, structural effect. Locations of the currently operating geothermal power plants corre: spond to the shallowest Curie point depths. Based on these comparisons, we conclude that the methods pro- vide geologically reasonable results which are usable in «a nationwide geothermal assessment program, INTRODUCTION ‘A complete nationwide project to assess the geothermal re- sources of Japan has been initiated by the New Energy Devel ‘opment Organization (NEDO}" The goals of the project are: (1) reconfirmation of prospective geothermal areas, (2) analysis of regional relationships among known geothermal areas, (3) discovery of new geothermal prospects, and (4) production of priority rating for geothermal development potential. Part of the project is creation of a Curie point depth map forall Japan from aeromagnetic data. The frst portion of the Curie point depth map, covering the island of Kyushu and its surrounding ofishore areas is described here. NEDO is government agency, established in Octobe the Ministry of International Trade and lndusry ts po ‘ogous to that ofthe US. Geologieal Survey within the United States Beparuent of Interior The idea of using aeromagnetic data to estimate Curie point depths is not new. Earliest papers on the subject are those of Vacquier and Aleck (1941), Serson and Hannaford (1957), Alldredge and Van Voorhis (1961), and Bhattacharyya and Morley (1965). More recently, analyses have been published of Yellowstone National Park (Bhattacharyya and Leu, 19754, 1977; Smith et al, 1974; Smith et al, 1977), parts of Arizona (Byerly and Stolt, 1977, portions of Utah and Wyoming Shuey tal, 1977), and the Cascade Range of Oregon (Couch, 1978; Couch et al, 1981). However, we believe the geothermal re- sources project for Japan is the largest systematic attempt to use the depth of the Curie point transition as an integral part of ‘a nationwide geothermal exploration program. Manuscript recived by the Fito February 2, 184; revised manuscript recsved September 10,1984, New Energy Development Orpaniration. [BORG Geometries 95 Java Drie Sunnyvale, CA 94086 {Geological Survey of apa ID 1988 Soctey of Explor fon Geophysics Al rights reserved 481492 Okubo et ‘The algorithm developed for the analysis requires extensive ‘two-dimensional (2-D) data sets covering thousands of square kilometers. The method is based on depth estimation using the broad, long-wavelength magnetic anomalies inferred to be as- sociated with magnetization contrasts at the Curie transition depth, which can range from a few kilometers to tens of kilome- ters below the surface. Here we use “Curie point depth” to describe the depth to the inferred Curie point transition of ‘magnetite, We prefer this description to the term “Curie iso- therm” because we do not know the exact value of the Curie point temperature and cannot calculate the value by our algo- rithm. The method can provide valuable information about the regional temperature distribution at depths not easly exam- ‘ned using other methods. Note that this algorithm (and all, ‘other magnetic methods) only computes depths to the bottoms of magnetization contrasts. Whether or not these depths repre- sent Curie point transitions is an interpretation that must be supported by other independent evidence We here outline the methods of analysis used in the project; describe the procedures used in making the Curie point depth ‘map for Kyushu; discuss the Curie point depth map compared with regional geology and heat flow data and with limited ‘gravity data; and state our preliminary conclusions. METHODS ‘The mathematical model on which our analysis is based is a collection of random samples from a uniform distribution of rectangular prisms, each prism having a constant mag- netization. The model was introduced by Spector and Grant (1970), and has proven very successful in estimating average depths to the tops of magnetized bodies. Weemphasize that the ‘rectangular prism is only a convenient geometry from which to develop the necessary theory, not a required geologic model We could have begun with a right circular cylinder, or some ‘other shape, with the same results. Our algorithm is largely independent of such details as the assumed body shape. Of ‘course ifthe ratio of horizontal dimensions to each other oro (One principal result of Spector and Grant's analysis is that ‘the expectation value ofthe spectrum for the model isthe same as that of a single body with the average parameters for the collection. In polar coordinates (s, w) in frequency space, this spectrum has the form Fis.) JATN + HL cos y + M sin vi} x [nt iC cos y +m sin v)] sine (rsa 0s v) sine (nsb sn 9) x exp (—2nis{Xo cos y + yo sin W)) x [exp (—2nsz) —exp(—2R)}, (0) where J = magnetization per unit volume, 4A = average cross-sectional area of the bodies, L, M, N = direction cosines ofthe geomagnetic fel, ‘mn = direction cosines ofthe average magnetization vector, @ and b = average body x-and y-dimensions, xp and yp = average body x- and y-center locations, 2, and ; = average depths to the top and bottom of the bodies, and where sine 6) = 322 Following Bhattacharyya and Leu (1975a, 1977), we ap- proach the estimation of bottom depths in two steps: rst, find the centroid depth zy ; and second, determine the depth to top +. The depth to the bottom (inferred Curie point depth) is calculated from these values: 25 = 2f9 — ,. This method recog- izes that there is no wavelength range in which the ex pponential signal from the bottom dominates that from the top and that a direct calculation of depth to bottom requires a simultaneous computation of the depth to the top—a much ‘more complex problem. The terms involving z, and z, can be recast into a hyperbolic sine function of z, and 2, plus a centroid term. At very long wavelengths the hyperbolic sine tends to unity, leaving a single term containing zp, the centroid. At somewhat shorter wavelengths, the signal from the top domi- nates the spectrum and an estimate of the depth to the top can be obtained, We begin with the centroid. At very long wavelengths (com- pared to the body dimensions) the terms involving the body parameters (a, 6, and 2, —2) may be approximated by their Jeading terms, to yield Fis, y) = AP VISEN + ML cos y + M sin y)] x (n+ H¢ cos y + msin y)) x exp [~2nis cos w+ yo sin WI) x exp (—2nst9), e where Vis the average body volume. Equation (2) can be recognized as the spectrum of a dipole In effect, the ensemble average at these very low frequencies is that of a random distribution of point dipoles. What follows, therefore, is independent of the details of the body parameters (prisms, cylinders, or whatever), provided that the dimensions in all directions are comparable. Note that we do not invoke reduction to the pole, or even assume that magnetization is induced, Numerical experiments with both model and real data show insignificant differences between results obtained with and without reduction to the pole. Since geothermal areas are often in volcanic regions and are likely (0 have strong remanent magnetization, we believe this is an important advantage of our algorithm, Two satisfactory methods were found for estimating z9 from equation (2). The firs, very similar to Bhattacharyya and Leu’s method, s Define Gis, y)by 1 Gis. v) = 2 Fis vis then 0G (4. y)= ~2n[z5 ilo cos w+ yo sin VIIGIS, w) —@) holds if F(s,y) satisfies equation (2), The quantities z,,Curie Point Depths. 483 Xo, and yy may be estimated by least-squares fiting (26 (2s) (s, 9), using Gs, w), G(s, v) e0s y, and Gis, y) sin v. ‘The second method is very similar to that of Spector and Grant (1970) and Shuey et al. (1977). First, average the square amplitude of G over an angle in the frequency plane: Ho) f 6G, w)P? av. 4 de ‘Then H(s has the form Hs) = A exp (28529) if F satisfies equation 2), where Aisa constant, Hence In His) = In A 2nsey o holds. The centroid depth zo can now be estimated by Jeastsquares fitting In H{s) with a constant and a term Tinear ins Only the frst method gives an estimate for xp and yo, but both should give comparable results for 9. Both methods were used in parallel for this project. ‘The second step in the process is the estimation ofthe depth to the top. For this purpose, we return to equation (1) and assume that a range of wavelengths can be found for which the following approximations hold sine (nsa 08 y) = sinc (xsb sin y) = and exp (—2n52)) = 0. For these approximations to make sense, the bodies must in ‘general be large in depth compared to their horizontal dimen- sions. However, ifthe distribution of horizontal body dimen- sions is very broad, a similar effect will be produced by the variability in terms corresponding to the horizontal body di- If the above approximations hold, the spectrum reduces to the orm 2RJALN + i(L c08 y + M sin w)] x [42 cos y + mssin yi] Fs.v) x exp (~2nsitxp cos y + yo sin W)) x exp (~2nse), © which is very similar to equation (2), except for a factor of s Equation (6) sin fact the spectrum of a monopole. Because of the similarities, the same two basic approaches to estimating 7, ‘ean be used. First, onecan use oF Fe OW) = Pale, + Ct9 cos W + Yo sin WIIELS, W) o to Bt (OF 5) (s, y)using F(s, y) Fls,y)cos y, and Fis, w)sin y, and obtain estimates for x9, yp, and z,. Alternatively, one ean calculate from which K(s) = B exp (—2ns2) follows, where Bis asum of constants independent of Then form In K(o) = In B 2x Oy and fitIn K(s) with a constant and a term linearin s The first method produced reasonable results for three- «dimensional (3-D) models, but yielded erratic results that were difficult to interpret when applied to real data. This method ‘was therefore abandoned in favor ofthe second method which always produced reasonable results CURIE POINT DEPTH ESTIMATES FOR KYUSHU ‘The aeromagnetic survey of Kyushu was performed between May and September 1981, The survey was flown at a baro- ‘metric altitude of 4 500 f(1 372 m), with higher altitudes where necessary for terrain clearance, at a line spacing of 3 km for traverses and 20 km for tie lines. The magnetic data were corrected for time variations and leveled, after which the 1980 IGRF was removed and the data were interpolated to a square arid. The grid was differentially continued to a barometric altitude of 6 S00 fusing a generalization of the algorithm of Bhattacharyya and Chan (1977) developed by Hansen (1982). These data were integrated with existing gridded surveys fown sand compiled by the Geological Survey of Japan (1973, 1977, 1978, and 1980) covering the offshore areas around Kyushu (Figure 1). The offshore surveys were in five areas with fight elevations from 1 $00 ft to 2 S50 f. Flight line spacing varied rom 2 km-4 km for traverses and 8 km-30 km for tie lines. To integrate these areas with the new aeromagnetic data, the off- shore areas were upward continued and matched to the new data using a technique similar to that of Bhattacharyya etal (1979) At the beginning of the analysis it was recognized that the composite magnetic anomaly map of Kyushu (Figure 2) con- tained long-wavelength components arising from regional, pre- Neogene structural belts and gross terrain features. Addition- ally, there may be other components arising from magnetic core fields which were not adequately modeled by the IGRF ‘models used in compilation of the separate data sets. These ‘components could seriously affect the centroid depth estimates because they would tend to violate the mathematical model implicit in the theoretical development of the algorithm—a collection of random prisms. We decided to attempt to remove these components before evaluating centroid depths. Various schemes considered includ ed modeling the terrain and directly subtracting the modeled field from the map. A simple high-pass, frequency-domain filter was ultimately use. Dimensions ofthe square blocks to be used for the centroid calculations had already been chosen using the following cri teria. The overriding concern was that for the analysis to be successful in terms of locating potential geothermal areas, the spatial resolution of the calculations must be kept as small as possible. Based on 3-D magnetic model studies, a minimum ratio of 12:1 or 13: 1 of block size to prism dimensions (magnetic sources) is necessary for reasonable centroid esti- ‘mates. For the Kyushu magnetic data this meant that a mi ‘mum block size of about 60 km is necessary to resolve the438 Okubo ot al Soa Fukuoka L -- ae Miso 4 vagaaae L J Kyushu | | TER | ! fi JPEN it y / | it J NUL i! 7 ! L | ! “ | foo \ H c/a | ao ! 1 Kagoshima i \ I 2 LA | r -- \ 1 4" \ \ 1 I ranege-shime \ 1 1 \ 1 L ----- sso 20" ya0" 13 132" 2 199 Kms Fic. 1 Survey area outline map: area covered by the survey flown for this projeet—solid outline; areas covered by exiting ‘Geological Survey of Japan surveys—dashed outline. ” *Curie Point Depths cs 139" 30° yt 1" ue] a Fig. 2. Composite magnetic anomaly map of Kyushu: differentially continued to 6 $00 ft datum: contour interval 207.496 Okubo ot al. smallest anomalies (approximately $ km). Block sizes actually varied from 60 km to 90 km depending upon the anomalous wavelengths involved, Each block overlapped adjoining blocks by approximately 50 peroent. ‘These block dimensions constrained the location of the cutoft point ofthe filter. To assist further in selecting the filter parame- ters, a 2-D power spectrum ofthe map in Figure 2 was created, Figure 3 shows the low-frequency portion of the spectrum, [Note the spectral peaks at 35, $0, and 125 km wavelengths. For the block sizes already chosen, only the 35 km wavelengths might be resolved by the algorithm. The cutoff wavelength, 41.148 km, was chosen to pass this wavelength, while the zero wavelength was arbitrarily chosen, The amplitude response of the filter is indicated asa dashed line in Figure 3. Note that the power spectrum is plotted in logarithmic units so the corre- spondence between the curves is only symbolic. The resulting filtered map used for the centroid depth calculations is shown in Figure 4. Ultimately, the validity of the filter parameters will be judged by how well the resulting Curie point depth map corresponds to independent data, as discussed in the folowing section, Comparison of the components removed by the high-pass filter (Le, the complementary low-pass filtered map, Figure 5) with topographic maps suggests a high degree of correlation 1-125 4m “ "he 41.148 ke! with the terrain, The correlation is more obvious in magnetic profiles, especially over isolated volcanic peaks. Thus, the ‘major long-wavelength components removed by the high-pass filter were probably due to topography. However, a thorough analysis of these components would be required to develop 2 clear understanding oftheir origin. (See for example, Coles and Haines, 1979) ‘The bottom depth estimates were used to hand contour the Curie point depth map (Figure 6) at a contour interval of km. Where questionable, the contours are dashed and annotated with question marks. All depths are in kilometers below sea level DISCUSSION In this section we compare regional geology, heat flow measurements, and gravity data with the Curie point depth ‘map and analyze the results One of the most striking features on the Curie point depth map is the dominant east-west trending shallow ridge north of Kinishima, which roughly follows the strike of the San-In voF- canic zone (see Figure 7). Ths shallow zone extends west of Mt, ‘Unzen, perhaps as far as the Goto Islands and becomes grad- ually deeper. The southern boundary of this ridge approxi FILTER RESPONSE WAVE NUMBER: 70 20 Fic. 3, Logarithmic power spectrum of the combined Kyushu data,487 ‘Curie Point Depths FIG. 4. High-pass filtered magnetic map of Kyushu: contour interval 20‘Okubo ot al 129" 120° rae 13 2 i “ Fic. 5. Low-pass filtered magnetic map of Kyushu: contour interval 20‘Curie Point Depths 489 ic. 6 Curie point depth map of K yushu—depths below sea level: sn. Geothermal power plans: 1 = Otake, 11 Pome pol MW; 2 = Hachobaru, 50 MW; @ = oan plat depth sinter490 ‘Okubo ot al. T 12900 & 2 | pe Leo 4 wo Laver + we a % ° 2 100 Kms Fic. 7 Simplified structural map of Kyushu showing locations of some Quaternary volcanoes.Curle Point Depths a1 mately correlates with the southwest Japan Median Tectonic Line. The shallowest Curie point depths, 7 km below sea level and less, ccur around Mt. Unzen, and in an area from the Aso caldera north to the town of Yabakei, The region around Kiishima and Sakurajima also contains shallow Curie point depths, but they are slightly deeper (8 km below sea level) than the region to the north. All these shallow regions are sites of Quaternary volcanism, in which some volcanoes are stil active, eg, Sakurajima which ejects ash almost daily. The east- northeast, west-southwest trending trough of the deeper Curie point depths separating these two shallow regions generally correlates with Paleozoic metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of the Shimanto belt Similarly, the deeper Curie point depths northwest of latitude 33°N, longitude 131°E correspond 10 Paleozoic metamorphic rocks ofthe Sangun belt. ‘South of Kirishima and Sakurajima, a second poorly defined ridge trends nearly north-south and generally corresponds 10 the Ryukyu volcanic zone. This shallow feature is bordered on its eastern edge by the deepest Curie point depths which range to more than I5km below sea level Yuhara and Ehara (1981) published heat flow map for Kyushu based upon five existing heat flow values (Horai, 1963; Honda etal, 1979), four new heat flow measurements, and nine estimated heat flow values (Figure §). Qualitatively, the Curie point depths correlate weil with the heat flow distribution—the high heat flow values correspond to the shallowest Curie point depths. Note the low heat flow value, 0S HFU, northwest of 39°N latitude and 131°E longitude, depicted on the Yuhara et Al heat flow map. Ithis value had been more carefully honored. by the contours, the qualitative agreement between Curie point depth contours and heat low contours would have been even better. “To test quantitatively the validity of the Curie point depths, wwe begin by estimating average temperature gradients from the Curie depths. Since the Curie point temperature of magnetite varies with pressure and mineralogy, exact gradient values cannot be defined. Assuming that the Curie point temperature ranges from SO0°C to 600°C (pure magnetite is 580°C), and that the average elevation is $00 m at Mt. Aso and Mt. Unzen, 1000 ‘mat Kirishima, 0 m at Sakurajima and in the basin area of the ‘Shimanto belt, the average temperature gradient has the distri- bation shown in Table 1 ‘Average geothermal gradients in continental areas range from 30°C/km-50°C/km worldwide. Gradients calculated from the shallowest Curie point depths are anomalously high, '59°C/km-86°C/km, relative to the world average. These gradi ents are comparable to results obtained in Yellowstone Nation- al Park, where Bhattacharyya and Leu (1975b) proposed that the temperature gradient varied from 66°C/km-72°C/km in the central part ofthe caldera to between $3°C/km and 66°Cj/km in the remaining parts of the caldera From the heat flow data and the geothermal gradients c mated from the Curie point map, average thermal conduc- tivities can be calculated. These results are als listed in Table I. According to laboratory analyses (Kappelmeyer and Haene!, 1974) the values of thermal conductivity ate approximately 6-8 x 10 ealjem sec °C in granitic rocks, 4-5 x 10~? eal/em sec °C in andesitic rocks, and vary with temperature. The thermal conductivity estimates from Table I are comparable 10 those of andesitic rocks. Other facies, such as fine-grained sedimentary rocks, have similar conductivities; the lower bound of conductivities fr Schist also falls in this range (Uyeda and Horai, 1964) Thus, the conductivity estimates obtained from the heat flow and Curie point depths are not unreason- able It might be expected that at the depths estimated for the Curie point, the predominant lithology would be grani Thus, average conductivities computed using the Curie point depths would reflect the conductivities of granitic rocks. The conductivity estimates should then be about 6-8 x 10"? cal/em sec °C, rather than the 3-4 x 10°? cal/em see °C actu- ally obtained. This diserepaney may be due o a systematic bias toward shallow Curie point depth estimates, uncertainties in the heat flow values, variations of thermal conductvi temperature, oF the presence of lithologies different than those expected. Itis quite likely that all our factors are involved ‘The Bouguer anomaly map, Figure 9, prepared by the Geo- graphical Survey Institute (1970) was qualitatively compared to the Curie point depth map. Zones of regional depression which are clearly depicted by the Bouguer anomaly map show strik- ingly good correlation with the shallow depths near Mt, Unzen and the Aso caldera. These features also coincide with the Oita-Kumamoto tectonic line (Yamasaki and Hayashi, 1975). Gravity lows around Mt, Kirishima which correspond to the Kakuto, Kobayashi, and Aira calderas northwest of Sakura jima, also correspond to shallow Curie point depths. The vert- calextent ofthe low-density volcanics in the graben marked by the 40 mGal contour north of Mt. Aso is roughly 1 km below sea level (Yamasaki and Hayashi, 1975), while the Curie point is at least 6 km deeper. The correlation between shallow Curie points and gravity lows is therefore probably a secondary structural effect the inflling of grabens by low-density vol- ceanic material ‘Curie point depth maps of northern Honshu and Hokkaido, produced by the methods described inthis paper, were present- ed by Hansen etal (1983). A remarkable qualitative agreement between the regional heat flow measurements and the Curie point depth maps was also found for these areas. However, the with ‘Table 1. Estimates of temperature gradient and thermal conductivity from Curie point depths. ‘Average Cutie point elevation depth km)“ km) telow sea above sea M evel revel ‘Aso, Unzen 65 05 Kirshima 33 10 Sakurgjima 80 00 Basinal area 120 00 Heat flow Average (HEU) thermal Temperature 1 HFU = conductivity wadent bx 10" (x0 ECjm) calms eallem'C) 71-86 30 3542 55-70, 25 3642 6275 25 4 33-40 42-50 1s 3036492 ‘Okubo ot al Pero + 2000 frazo0" +. fsror 4 129° 00 130%00 O 13000" 13200 L L “i i % ° 50 100Km= a a Fic. 8. Heat flow distribution in Kyushu: @ = heat flow value, A ~ active yolcano, A = dormant volcano. Contour interval 1 HFU (1 HFU = 42 mW/m?),494 Okubo ot correspondence with the Bouguer anomaly map in Kyushu does not extend to the maps of northern Honshu and Hok- kkaido, A detailed discussion of these results will be given in a future paper Finally, it should be noted that the two commercially oper- ating geothermal plants on Kyushu (Figure 6}—Otake, 11 MW and Hachobaru, $0 MW-—lie on the ridge of shallowest Curie point depths north of Mt. Aso. Also the regions immediately surrounding Mt. Aso and Mt. Kirishima were under geother- mal power development as of 1980. CONCLUSION ‘The positive correlation between the Curie point depth map and regional geology and heat flow supports the validity of analyzing regional aeromagnetic data to map inferred Curie point transition depths on a regional scale. 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