UNIT 2 Physical Activity and Nutrition

What is PHYSICAL ACTIVITY?

WHO (World Health Organization) defines physical activity as any bodily movement
produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure. Physical activity refers to all
movement including during leisure time, for transport to get to and from places, or as part of
a person’s work. Both moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity improve health.
Regular physical activity is proven to help prevent and manage noncommunicable diseases
such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and several cancers. It also helps prevent
hypertension, maintain healthy body weight and can improve mental health, quality of life
and well-being. Popular ways to be active include walking, cycling, wheeling, sports, active
recreation and play, and can be done at any level of skill and for enjoyment by everybody.
How much of physical activity is recommended?
WHO guidelines and recommendations provide details for different age groups and specific
population groups on how much physical activity is needed for good health.
WHO recommends:
For children under 5 years of age
In a 24-hour day, infants (less than 1 year) should:
UNIT 2 Physical Activity and Nutrition
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
WHO (World Health Organization) defines physical activity as any bodily movement produced by skeletal
muscles that requires energy expenditure. Physical activity refers to all movement including during leisure time, for transport
to get to and from places, or as part of a person’s work. Both moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity
improve health. Regular physical activity is proven to help prevent and manage noncommunicable diseases such as
heart disease, stroke, diabetes and several cancers. It also helps prevent hypertension, maintain healthy body
weight and can improve mental health, quality of life
and well-being. Popular ways to be active include walking, cycling, wheeling, sports, active recreation and play, and can be
done at any level of skill and for enjoyment by everybody.
How much of physical activity is recommended?
WHO guidelines and recommendations provide details for different age groups and specific
population groups on how much physical activity is needed for good health.
WHO recommends:
For children under 5 years of age
In a 24-hour day, infants (less than 1 year) should:
Path Fit 1 – Movement Enhancement, SY 1st Sem 2021-2022
 be physically active several times a day in a variety of ways, particularly through
interactive floor-based play; more is better. For those not yet mobile, this includes at
least 30 minutes in prone position (tummy time) spread throughout the day while
awake;
 not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers, high chairs, or
strapped on a caregiver’s back);
o Screen time is not recommended.
 When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged;
and
 have 14-17h (0-3 months of age) or 12-16h (4-11 months of age) of good quality
sleep, including naps.
In a 24-hour day, children 1-2 years of age should:
 spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of types of physical activities at any intensity,
including moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity, spread throughout the day;
more is better;
 not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers, high chairs, or
strapped on a caregiver’s back) or sit for extended periods of time.
o For 1 year old, sedentary screen time (such as watching TV or videos, playing
computer games) is not recommended.
o For those aged 2 years, sedentary screen time should be no more than 1
hour; less is better.
 When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged;
and
 have 11-14h of good quality sleep, including naps, with regular sleep and wake-up
times
 be physically active several times a day in a variety of ways, particularly through interactive floor-based play; more
is better. For those not yet mobile, this includes at least 30 minutes in prone position (tummy time) spread
throughout the day while awake;
 not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers, high chairs, or strapped on a caregiver’s
back);
 Screen time is not recommended.
 When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged; and
 have 14-17h (0-3 months of age) or 12-16h (4-11 months of age) of good quality sleep, including naps.
In a 24-hour day, children 1-2 years of age should:
 spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of types of physical activities at any intensity, including moderate- to
vigorous-intensity physical activity, spread throughout the day; more is better;
 not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers, high chairs, or strapped on a caregiver’s
back) or sit for extended periods of time.
*For 1 year old, sedentary screen time (such as watching TV or videos, playing computer games) is not recommended.
*For those aged 2 years, sedentary screen time should be no more than 1 hour; less is better.
 When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged; and
 have 11-14h of good quality sleep, including naps, with regular sleep and wake-up times
In a 24-hour day, children 3-4 years of age should:
 spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of types of physical activities at any intensity, of which at least 60
minutes is moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity, spread throughout the day; more is better;
 not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g., prams/strollers) or sit for extended periods of time.
oSedentary screen time should be no more than 1 hour; less is better.
 When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is); encourage; and
 have 10-13h of good quality sleep, which may include a nap, with regular sleep and wake-up times.
Children and adolescents aged 5-17 years
 should do at least an average of 60 minutes per day of moderate-to-vigorous intensity, mostly
aerobic, physical activity, across the week.
 should incorporate vigorous-intensity aerobic activities, as well as those that strengthen muscle and
bone, at least 3 days a week.
 should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary, particularly the amount of recreational screen time
Adults aged 18–64 years
 should do at least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity;
 or at least 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination
of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week
 should also do muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or greater intensity that involve all major muscle
groups on 2 or more days a week, as these provide additional health benefits.
 may increase moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to more than 300 minutes; or do more than 150 minutes
of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity
activity throughout the week for additional health benefits.
 should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any
intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits, and to help reduce the detrimental effects of high levels
of sedentary behavior on health, all adults and older adults should aim to do more than the recommended levels of
moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity.
Adults aged 65 years and above
  Same as for adults; and
 as part of their weekly physical activity, older adults should do varied multicomponent physical activity that
emphasizes functional balance and strength training at moderate or greater intensity, on 3 or more days
a week, to enhance functional capacity and to prevent falls.
Pregnant and postpartum women
All pregnant and postpartum women without contraindication should:
 do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week
 incorporate a variety of aerobic and muscle-strengthening activities
 should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any
intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits.
People living with chronic conditions (hypertension, type 2 diabetes, HIV and cancer survivors)
 should do at least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity;
 or at least 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination
of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week
 should also do muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or greater intensity that involve all major muscle
groups on 2 or more days a week, as these provide additional health benefits
 as part of their weekly physical activity, older adults should do varied multicomponent physical activity that
emphasizes functional balance and strength training at moderate or greater intensity, on 3 or more days
a week, to enhance functional capacity and to prevent falls.
 may increase moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to more than 300 minutes; or do more than 150 minutes
of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity
activity throughout the week for additional health benefits.
 should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any
intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits, and
 to help reduce the detrimental effects of high levels of sedentary behavior on health, all adults and older adults
should aim to do more than the recommended levels of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity.
Children and adolescents living with disability:
 should do at least an average of 60 minutes per day of moderate-to-vigorous intensity, mostly
aerobic, physical activity, across the week.
 should incorporate vigorous-intensity aerobic activities, as well as those that strengthen muscle and bone,
at least 3 days a week.
 should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary, particularly the amount of recreational screen time
Adults living with disability:
 should do at least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity;
 or at least 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination
of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week
 should also do muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or greater intensity thatinvolve all major muscle
groups on 2 or more days a week, as these provide additional health benefits.
 As part of their weekly physical activity, older adults should do varied multi component physical activity that
emphasizes functional balance and strength training at moderate or greater intensity, on 3 or more
days a week, to enhance functional capacity and to prevent falls.
 may increase moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to more than 300 minutes; or do more than 150 minutes
of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity
activity throughout the week for additional health benefits.
 should limit the amount of time spent being sedentary. Replacing sedentary time with physical activity of any
intensity (including light intensity) provides health benefits, and
 to help reduce the detrimental effects of high levels of sedentary behavior on health, all adults and older adults
should aim to do more than the recommended levels of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity. It is
possible to avoid sedentary behavior and be physically active while sitting or lying. E.g.Upper body led activities,
inclusive and/or wheelchair-specific sport and activities
Nutrition refers to the food intake which is the key to any level of physical conditioning. It
involves the nutrients that get into the body through the regular three meals and snacks.
Here are the most common meals and snacks of Filipinos.
2.1 NUTRITION
COMMON FILIPINO MEALS AND SNACKS
Breakfast
1. Coffee, bread, peanut butter
2. Chocolate, pancake
3. Milk, bread, egg, papaya
4. Canned juice, rice dried fish
5. Tapa-sinangag-itlog (Tapsilog)
Lunch
1. Rice, fish sinigang
2. Rice, pork adobo
3. Hamburger, sandwich, soft drinks
4. Rice, fried chicken
5. Rice, sauted vegetables, fried fish
Supper
1. Rice/tinapa/tuyo
2. Rice, chicken tinola
3. Rice, pancit/noodles
4. Rice, menudo
5. Rice, beef nilaga
Snacks
1. Spaghetti, soft drinks
2. Junk foods
3. Noodles, banana cue
4. Sandwich, juice
5. Arroz caldo
Nutrition refers to the food intake which is the key to any level of physical conditioning. It involves the nutrients that get into
the body through the regular three meals and snacks.
Here are the most common meals and snacks of Filipinos.
2.1 NUTRITION
COMMON FILIPINO MEALS AND SNACKS
Breakfast
1. Coffee, bread, peanut butter
2. Chocolate, pancake
3. Milk, bread, egg, papaya
4. Canned juice, rice dried fish
5. Tapa-sinangag-itlog (Tapsilog)
Lunch
1. Rice, fish sinigang
2. Rice, pork adobo
3. Hamburger, sandwich, soft drinks
4. Rice, fried chicken
5. Rice, sauted vegetables, fried fish
Supper
1. Rice/tinapa/tuyo
2. Rice, chicken tinola
3. Rice, pancit/noodles
 4. Rice, menudo
5. Rice, beef nilaga
Snacks
1. Spaghetti, soft drinks
2. Junk foods
3. Noodles, banana cue
4. Sandwich, juice
5. Arroz caldo
THE FOOD GROUPS
Contemporary health specialist considers four basic food groups, namely;
1. Carbohydrates-rich foods.
2. Protein-rich foods.
3. Fat-rich foods.
4. Vitamin and mineral-rich foods.
A balance diet is made-up of all the basic food groups so that the three meals (and snacks) can provide sufficient
nutrients needed by the growing and active body. The quantity of food is considered in maintaining the weight of a college
student.
GUIDELINES FOR WEIGHT AND HEALTH MAINTENANCE
1. Eat balanced meals every day
2. Follow a consistent eating pattern
3. Maintain your ideal weigh
4. Eat low-calorie snacks and avoid junk foods
5. Cut down on high-fat foods and eat more lean meats.
6. Drink 6-8 glasses of fluids a day
7. Eat amidst a relaxed and pleasant atmosphere
8. Food supplements may be taken if necessary
THE SOUTH BEACH DIET
This is a low-calorie diet composed of a lot of fresh or sometimes steamed vegetables with fruits, lean meat/fish and
good carbohydrates-rich foods. It is recommended for overweight individuals and for weight maintenance.
Get into the SBD program only upon the approval of the school physician. Strictly follow instructions.
Here are tips for you:
1. Set your goal. How many pounds do you have to lose?
a. Present weight
b. Ideal weight for your age
2. Plan your meals – fresh vegetables, fresh fruits, some lean meat/fish, add good carbohydrates-rich food in small
amounts. Increase your meat/fish and include some food with good fats. Try to follow this diet (with slight
changes) for weight maintenance.
3. Monitor your weight once a week and record the data.
4. Get into some forms of exercises such as walking, dancing and swimming.
5. Pace yourself. Understand your body needs and move along gradually.
6. If possible, eat and exercise with a buddy.

2.3 Basic Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are the study of the body's systems and structures and how they interact. Anatomy
focuses on the physical arrangement of parts in the body while physiology is the study of the inner functioning of cells,
tissues, and organs. This section will review the major systems of the body; the musculoskeletal system, the circulatory
system, the nervous system, the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the integumentary system. The
Musculoskeletal System. The musculoskeletal system provides structure to the body, allows for movement, and physically
protects the other systems of the body.
The anatomy of the musculoskeletal system is complex due to the large number of muscles and bones, for the
national registry exams and EMS practice memorizing the exact position and roles of each of these structures is
unimportant. An understanding of the general structures the bones and muscles are arranged in (spine, skull, ribcage,
limbs, etc.) is what is important, as this will allow for a better understanding of the effects of trauma and
medical conditions. The anatomy of the musculoskeletal system is based around the larger structures thatthe bones and
muscles create, these structures are the skull, spine, thoracic cage, pelvic girdle, and limbs.
The skull is made up of multiple flat bones that interlock and form a protective space for the brain, they also create
the structure of the face and mouth with many attachments for the muscles that allow for all the movements of the head.
The spine is made of multiple interlocking vertebrae with a central channel for the spinal cord and exit points for the
nerves that come off of it. Like the skull, it serves to both protect the spinal cord and provide attachment points for both
muscles and ribs.
The thoracic cage or "rib cage" provides the rigidity of the chest which is vital to the expansion and contraction of
the lungs, making the rib cage vital to the respiratory system. It also serves to protect the vital organs within the chest.
The pelvic girdle is one of the most complex anatomical structures in the body, it transfers the weight of the upper
body from the spine to the legs and has a massive number of attachment points for various large muscle groups of both the
trunk and the legs.
The limbs, similar to the pelvis, are complex and have many different joints and attachment points to allow for
precise and varied movement.
As a whole, the muscles consist of a bundle of smaller fibers (myofibrils) that are anchored to a bone via a fibrous
tendon and are innervated by one or more nerves from the peripheral nervous system that allows for voluntary
and involuntary contraction. All bodily movements stem from the muscles pulling against the bones across the joints.
This type of muscle is known as "Striated" or "Skeletal" muscle due to the arrangement of the muscle fibers.
There is another type of muscle in the body known as "smooth muscle" that is a component of many
bodily systems, this form of muscle is loosely arranged and does not have the characteristic striations of the previously
mentioned skeletal muscle.
The physiology of the musculoskeletal system is focused on the structure of the muscle cells and the
chemical processes that allow them to contract.
The muscles are made up of bundles of muscle fibers that contain a large number of sarcomeres, these
sarcomeres have a specialized protein that contracts in response to the release of calcium from the sarcolemma, a
sheath that surrounds the muscle fibers, this release of calcium is stimulated by a signal from a nerve that
connects to the muscle. The energy for contraction comes from glucose and oxygen, these are delivered to the muscle by
large blood vessels that run into them.
The Circulatory System
The role of the circulatory system is the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the cells of the body and the removal of
waste, it is comprised of the heart, blood vessels, and the blood itself. The anatomy and physiology of the circulatory system
are extremely complex but its essential elements can be broken down into a relatively simple framework.
The anatomy of the circulatory system is simple at a superficial level, it consists of a pump, pipes, and the fluid they
carry.
 The heart is a four-chamber pump that fills with blood when it relaxes and propels it through the body
when it squeezes. The chambers are separated by valves that prevent the backflow of blood. The coronary arteries run
across the surface of the heart and provide oxygen to the muscle. Within the muscle of the heart is a network of modified
heart muscle cells that act almost like neurons, transferring electrical signals through the heart in a precise and
structured manner.
The blood vessels not only carry blood but regulate their flow to different areas of the body. The vessels are smooth
muscle tubes that can expand and contract based on signals from hormones and the nervous system. Vessels are present
in varying sizes, with the largest ones being near the heart and the smallest within the body's various tissues. There are
different types of vessels; arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, and capillaries all have unique functions which will be further
reviewed in later sections.
The blood is not traditionally considered to have anatomy, but know that it has many parts in the form of
different cells, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and a variety of protein/hormones/chemicals all have
different roles.
The Physiology of the circulatory system is complicated by the many types of cells in the heart and blood.
The heart's muscle cells (cardiac myocytes) are unique in that they areelectrically connected and do not
require a nerve signal to contract. This allows them to beat in a rhythmic manner that allows for the effective pumping of
blood. A collection of specially modified myocytes known as the SA node act as the pacemaker for the healthy heart,
creating the electrical signals that spread through the myocytes and lead to a heartbeat. Other specialized myocytes
act as fast pathways for these electrical signals, ensuring that the spread of electricity through the heart
results in a coordinated and effective contraction.
As mentioned above the blood is a complex mix of cells and other compounds. The most relevant of these are red
blood cells; these cells have a protein known as hemoglobin that allows them to carry large amounts of oxygen from the
lungs to the tissue in the body. White blood cells combat infection, and platelets help to block off any holes that form in the
system.
The Nervous System
The nervous system controls the entire body, it has fibers that run across every inch of the body, controlling
muscles, organs, and glands; while returning information to the spinal cord and brain to allow it to make
decisions. Neurons have several parts, dendrites that receive signals, axons that transmit them, and the
cell body which maintains the nerve cell.
The anatomy of the nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral systems, with the central
nervous system acting as the control system for the body and the peripheral as communication lines that
relay information to and from the central system.
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord, both of these structures are made up of
a large number of neurons and support cells, with both large blood vessels and capillaries supplying the large amount of
energy the neurons require.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is extensive and covers all areas of thebody, these nerves have a myriad of
functions controlling movement in the body, controlling the function of the organs, and returning sensory information from all
across the body to the spinal cord and brain. The nerves of the PNS branch off of the spinal cord.
The physiology of the nervous system surrounds the ability of nerves to transfer signals. They do so via
"action potentials" which allow signals to transfer down the axon of the nerve and to receptors at their end.
The action potentials that neurons send are created by the opening and closing of voltage-sensitive
ion channels on the surface of the neuron, this results in a "wave" of electrical energy which travels
down the neuron and eventually results in the release of neurotransmitters from the end of the neuron.
The variety of receptors present on neurons and muscles allows neurotransmitters which are released due
to an action potential to have an effect on other neurons, by stimulating other action potentials; or causing the release of
calcium which causes muscles to contract.
The Digestive System
The digestive system exists to break down and absorb ingested material, allowing it to be used for energy and the
creation of new cells within the body. You can divide the anatomy of the digestive system into the hollow organs and solid
organs. The hollow organs convey food matter and process it, while the solid organs act as support systems, ensuring the
process of digestion can proceed smoothly.
The hollow organs are the esophagus, stomach, and intestines: The esophagus is the physical tube that
connects the mouth to the stomach. The stomach both physically grinds up food and chemically digests it with acid. The
intestines then absorb the nutrients and water from the ground up food with help from liver bile and pancreatic enzymes.
The solid organs are the liver and the pancreas: The liver serves the dual purposes of producing
bile, which helps with the absorption of fats by the intestines and with detoxification of the blood. The pancreas,
like the liver, has a dual role. It produces enzymes that break down protein and hormones which balance the blood glucose.
The physiology of the digestive system is heavily dependent upon the organ in question and many have
multiple roles. The hollow organs tend to be specialized in the mechanical breakdown and absorption of food while the solid
organs create and secrete substances that assist with the chemical breakdown of food.
The stomach and intestines have a variety of special cells and receptors that work to detect their contents and
absorb them.
The livers cells, known as hepatocytes, produce bile from the body's waste which helps to absorb fat in
the intestines. These same hepatocytes are filled with complex enzymes that break down countless toxins the body
produces.
The pancreas has several types of cells, some secrete enzymes to break down proteins while others are known as
"islets" secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon which regulate the balance of glucose within the blood.
The Respiratory System
The respiratory system is a close counterpart to the circulatory system, its role is to bring oxygen from the air in
contact with the blood inside microscopic capillaries. It interacts closely with the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal
systems. Some of the
largest blood vessels in the body are associated with the lungs and the chest wall is vital in the inspiration and expiration of
air.
The anatomy of the respiratory system is divided into the upper and lower respiratory tract, the division occurs
at the level of the larynx. The upper respiratory tract consists of the nasopharynx and oropharynx. While the lower
respiratory tract is made up of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs. With the movement of air through the system
provided by the diaphragm.
The upper respiratory tract is responsible for the initial cleaning and warming of air before it is transmitted to the
lower airways. The upper respiratory tract also carries food and fluids to the esophagus and is instrumental in
the production of speech.
The larynx is a cartilage "box" that divides the GI and respiratory systems. It has a physical flap "the epiglottis" that
protects the airway from food and fluids. The rest of the larynx is specialized to allow for the production of speech; the vocal
cords and various cartilages can change shape to allow air passing over them to create speech.
The lower respiratory tract transfers air through a branching inverted tree made up of the trachea,
bronchi, and bronchioles until it reaches the alveoli, microscopic sacks who have thin walls that are covered in
thin-walled capillaries. These allow for blood to come in close contact with air.
The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle at the base of the lungs that pulls air into the airways by creating negative
pressure in the chest. Remember that when the diaphragm contracts, air is drawn into the chest which is known as
inspiration.
The physiology of the respiratory system is best divided into that of the airways and the lungs.
The airways have physiologic mechanisms that protect them from the countless viruses and bacteria in the
environment. There are countless mucus-secreting cells that coat the inner nose/mouth, trachea, and
bronchi/bronchioles in a protective layer that inhibits bacterial growth and traps inhaled contaminants. These musocal
cells are paired with cilial cells in the lower airway (trachea, bronchi, etc). They are mobile and work to push mucus and
contaminants up and out of the lower airways.
The lungs chief physiologic function is the exchange of gases between the blood and the air. They do so
through the incredibly thin walls of the alveoli, which allow the process of diffusion to naturally move gases from areas of
high concentration to those of low concentration.
The Integumentary System
The integumentary system provides the physical barrier between the inner systems of the body and the outside world.
It is vital to the regulation of the body's internal environment, holding in fluids, keeping out bacteria, and providing
a regenerating layer that prevents permanent damage to the more fragile cells of the body.
The anatomy of the integumentary system is more complex than it would first appear. It has three main layers, the
epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layers.
The epidermis is a thick layer of dead cells that acts as a "sacrificial layer" for the body. This layer of cells
gradually rubs off and protects the more fragile layers below. The dermis is the living skin layer with cells that
continuously multiply and divide; it holds nerves, blood vessels, sweat glands, and oil glands.
The subcutaneous layer is one of the main areas of fat storage, also acting as a significant insulating layer for the
body.
The physiology of the integumentary system is based around the continuously dividing stem cells in the dermis that create
the thick epidermis. The dermis also contains countless capillaries, nerves, and glands that act to regulate the
temperature through the mechanisms of vasoconstriction/vasodilation and diaphoresis (sweating).
2.4 Tissues, Organs, & Organ systems
Learn about the main tissue types and organ systems of the body and how they work together.
 Humans—and other complex multicellular organisms—have systems of organs that work together, carrying out
processes that keep us alive.
 The body has levels of organization that build on each other. Cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, and
organs make up organ systems.
 The function of an organ system depends on the integrated activity of its organs. For instance, digestive system
organs cooperate to process food.
 The survival of the organism depends on the integrated activity of all the organ systems, often
coordinated by the endocrine and nervous systems.
Organs
Organs, such as the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the kidneys, the skin, and the liver, are made up of two or
more types of tissue organized to serve a particular function. For example, the heart pumps blood, the lungs
bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide, and the skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures from the external
environment. Most organs contain all four tissue types. The layered walls of the small intestine provide a good example of
how tissues form an organ. The inside of the intestine is lined by epithelial cells, some of which secrete hormones or
digestive enzymes and others of which absorb nutrients. Around the epithelial layer are layers of connective tissue and
smooth muscle, interspersed with glands, blood vessels, and neurons. The smooth muscle contracts to move food through
the gut, under control of its associated networks of neurons.
Cross-section of the GI tract. From outside to inside: Blood vessels, networks of nerves in smooth muscle layers,
connective tissue, more smooth muscle, another layer of connective tissue, epithelial tissue, and empty space in the middle
as the path of digested food.
Organ systems
Organs are grouped into organ systems, in which they work together to carry out a particular
function for the organism. For example, the heart and the blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system. They work
together to circulate the blood, bringing oxygen and nutrients to cells throughout the body and carrying away carbon
dioxide and metabolic wastes. Another example is the respiratory system, which brings oxygen into the body and
gets rid of carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs
Major organ systems of the human body

Organ system Functions Organs, tissues and structures

involves
Cardiovascular Transports oxygen, nutrients, and Heart, blood, and blood vessel
other substances to the cells and
transports wastes, carbon dioxide,
 and other substances away from
the cells; it can also help stabilize
body temperature and pH
Lymphatic Defends against infection and Lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph
disease and transfers lymph between vessels
tissues and the blood stream

Digestive Processes foods and absorbs Mouth, salivary glands, esophagus,

nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and stomach, liver, gallbladder, exocrine
water pancreas, small intestine, and large
intestine

Endocrine Provides communication within the Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroids,

body via hormones and directs endocrine pancreas, adrenals, testes,
long-term change in other organ and ovaries.
systems to maintain homeostasis

Integumentary Provides protection from injury and Skin, hair, and nails
fluid loss and provides physical
defense against infection by
microorganisms; involved in
temperature control
Muscular
Provides movement, support, and Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles
heat production

Nervous Collects, transfers, and processes Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
information and directs short-term sensory organs—eyes, ears, tongue,
change in other organ systems skin, and nose

Reproductive Produces gametes—sex cells—and Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,

sex hormones; ultimately produces ovaries, mammary glands (female),
offspring testes, vas deferens, seminal
vesicles, prostate, and penis (male

Respiratory
Delivers air to sites where gas Mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
exchange can occur bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm

Skeletal Supports and protects soft tissues of Bones, cartilage, joints, tendons, and
the body; provides movement at ligaments
joints; produces blood cells; and
stores minerals

Urinary Removes excess water, salts, and Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
waste products from the blood and urethra
body and controls pH

Immune Defends against microbial Leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus,

pathogens—disease-causing agents and spleen
—and other diseases
Although we often talk about the different organ systems as though they were distinct, parts of one system may play a role
in another system. The mouth, for instance, belongs to both the respiratory system and the digestive system. There's also a
lot of functional overlap among the different systems. For instance, while we tend to think of the cardiovascular system as
delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells, it also plays a role in maintaining temperature. The blood also transports hormones
produced by the glands of the endocrine system, and white blood cells are a key component of the immune system.
Organs in a system work together.
Just like workers on an assembly line, the organs of an organ system must work together for the system to function
as a whole. For instance, the function of the digestive system—taking in food, breaking it down into molecules small enough
to be absorbed, absorbing it, and eliminating undigested waste products—depends on each successive organ
doing its individual job. Digestion is the breakdown of food so that its nutrients can be absorbed. It includes both
mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. In mechanical digestion, chunks of food are broken into smaller pieces. In
chemical digestion, large molecules like proteins and starches\ are broken into simpler units that can be readily absorbed.
Mechanical digestion, along with some initial chemical digestion, takes place in the mouth and stomach. Chewing breaks
food into smaller pieces, and the stomach churns the food up into a fluid mixture. The stomach also acts as a storage tank,
releasing partially digested food into the small intestine at a rate the small intestine can handle.
Digestive system. Starts at mouth, which connects to stomach. The liver and pancreas are adjacent to the stomach,
which leads to the small intestine and then the large intestine. The small intestine is the major site of chemical digestion,
which is carried out by enzymes released from the pancreas and liver. The small intestine is also the main site of nutrient
absorption; molecules like sugars and amino acids are taken up by cells and transported into the bloodstream for use. The
mouth, stomach, small intestine, and other digestive system organs work together to make digesting food and absorbing
nutrients efficient. Digestion wouldn’t so work well if your stomach stopped churning or if one of your enzyme-producing
glands—like the pancreas— decided to take the day off.
Organ systems work together, too.
Just as the organs in an organ system work together to accomplish their task, so the different organ
systems also cooperate to keep the body running. For example, the respiratory system and the circulatory system work
closely together to deliver oxygen to cells and to get rid of the carbon dioxide the cells produce. The circulatory system picks
up oxygen in the lungs and drops it off in the tissues, then performs the reverse service for carbon dioxide. The lungs expel
the carbon dioxide and bring in new oxygen-containing air. Only when both systems are working together can oxygen and
carbon dioxide be successfully exchanged between cells and environment. There are many other examples of this
cooperation in your body. For instance, the blood in your circulatory system has to receive nutrients from your digestive
system and undergo filtration in your kidneys, or it wouldn't be able to sustain the cells of your body and remove the wastes
they produce.
Control and coordination
Many body functions are controlled by the nervous system and the endocrine system. These two regulatory
systems use chemical messengers to affect the function of the other organ systems and to coordinate activity at different
locations in the body.
How do the endocrine and nervous systems differ?
In the endocrine system, the chemical messengers are hormones released into the blood. In the nervous system,
the chemical messengers are neurotransmitters sent straight from one cell to another across a tiny gap. Since hormones
have to travel through the bloodstream to their targets, the endocrine system usually coordinates processes on a
slower time scale than the nervous system in which messages are delivered directly to the target cell. In some cases, such
as the fight-or- flight response to an acute threat, the nervous and endocrine systems work together to produce a response.
2.5 MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS
The single-celled protozoan ancestors of animals had their weight supported by water and were able to move by
cilia or other simple organelles. The evolution of large and more complex organisms (animals) necessitated
the development of support and locomotion systems. Animals use their muscular and skeletal systems for
support, locomotion, and maintaining their shape.
Types of Skeletal Systems
 Movement is a major characteristic of animals. This movement is a result of contraction of muscles. The skeleton
helps transmit that movement. Skeletons are either a fluid-filled body cavity, exoskeletons, or internal skeletons.
Hydrostatic skeletons consist of fluid-filled closed chambers. Internal pressures generated by muscle contractions
cause movement as well as maintain the shape of the animals, such as the sea anemone and worms. The sea anemone
has one set of longitudinal muscles in the outer layer of the body, and a layer of circular muscles in the inner layer of the
body. The anemone can elongate or contract its body by contracting one or the other set of muscles
Functions of Muscles and Bones
The skeleton and muscles function together as the musculoskeletal system. This system (often treated as two
separate systems, the muscular, and skeletal) plays an important homeostatic role: allowing the animal to move to more
favorable external conditions. Certain cells in the bones produce immune cells as well as important cellular components of
the blood. Bone also helps regulate blood calcium levels, serving as a calcium sink. Rapid muscular contraction
is important in generating internal heat, another homeostatic function.
Bone Tissue
Although bones vary greatly in size and shape, they have certain structural similarities. Bones have cells
embedded in a mineralized (calcium) matrix and collagen fibers. Compact bone forms the shafts of long bones; it also
occurs on the outer side of the bone. Spongy bone forms the inner layer.
Bone Growth
Endochondral ossification is the process of converting the cartilage in embryonic skeletons into bone. Cartilage is deposited
early in development into shapes resembling the bones-to- be. Cells inside this cartilage grow and begin depositing
minerals. The spongy bone forms, and osteoblasts attach and lay down the mineral portions of spongy bone. Osteoclasts
remove material from the center of the bone, forming the central cavity of the long bones. The perichondrium, a
connective tissue, forms around the cartilage and begins forming compact bone while the above changes are occurring.
Blood vessels form and grow into the perichondrium, transporting stem cells into the interior. Two bands of
cartilage remain as the bone develops, one at each end of the bone. During childhood, this cartilage allows for growth and
changes in the shape of bones. Eventually the elongation of the bones stops and the cartilage is all converted into bone.
Growth of a long bone.
Bones continue to change as adults, to adapt to the stresses generated by physical activity. Exercise can increase the
diameter and strength of bone; inactivity can decrease them. Age is a factor: osteoporosis is a disease that primarily affects
older, postmenopausal women. Increasing calcium intake, reducing protein intake, exercise and low doses of estrogen are
effective treatments for osteoporosis.
2.6 Joints
There are three types of joints: immovable, partly movable, and synovial. Immovable joints, like those connecting the cranial
bones, have edges that tightly interlock. Partly movable joints allow some degree of flexibility and usually have
cartilage between the bones; example: vertebrae. Synovial joints permit the greatest degree of flexibility and have the
ends of bones covered with a connective tissue filled with synovial fluid; example: hip. The outer surface of the synovial
joints contains ligaments that strengthen joints and hold bones in position. The inner surface (the synovial membrane) has
cells producing synovial fluid that lubricates the joint and prevents the two cartilage caps on the bones from rubbing
together. Some joints also have tendons (connective tissue linking muscles to
bones).
Skeletal Disorders
Injury, degenerative wear and tear, and inflammatory disorders affect joints. Sprains are common injuries that
cause ligaments to rip of separate from the bone. Tendinitis (such as tennis elbow) and bursitis are inflammations of the
tendon sheaths.
Osteoarthritis is a degenerative condition associated with the wearing away of the protective caps of cartilage covering the
bone-ends. Bony growths or spurs develop as the cartilage degenerates, causing restriction of movement and pain. The
cause is not known and may just be wear-and-tear associated with aging.
Rheumatoid arthritis is a severely damaging arthritis that begins with inflammation and thickening of the synovial
membrane followed by bone degeneration and disfigurement. More women than men are affected. There may be a
genetic predisposition to rheumatoid arthritis. Joint replacement may in some cases restore function.
Skeletal Muscle Systems
Vertebrates move by the actions of muscles on bones. Tendons attach many skeletal muscles across
joints, allowing muscle contraction to move the bones across the joint. Muscles generally work in pairs to
produce movement: when one muscle flexes (or contracts) the other relaxes, a process known as antagonism.
Muscles have both electrical and chemical activity. There is an electrical gradient across the muscle cell membrane: the
outside is more positive than the inside. Stimulus causes an instantaneous reversal of this polarity, causing the muscle
to contract (the mechanical characteristic) producing a twitch or movement.
2.7 Anatomical Terminology
Before we get into the following learning units, which will provide more detailed discussion of topics on different
human body systems, it is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing body structure. Knowing these
terms will make it much easier for us to understand the content of the following learning units. Three groups of
terms are:
Directional Terms
 Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.
 Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of the superior extremity).
 Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity).
 Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).
 Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body).
 Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial sideof the foot).
 Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot).
 Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of the femur joins
with the pelvic bone).
 Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is located at the distal
end of the forearm)
Planes of the Body
 Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into
anterior and posterior portions.
 Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into
right and left sides
Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into
upper and lower parts.
Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its
parts into right and left halves.
Skeletal system
The skeleton is the central structure of the body and is made up of bones, joints and
cartilage. The skeleton provides the framework for muscles and gives the body its defined
human shape.
Types of joint movement
Hinge joints allow flexion and extension only.
Flexion – bending a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint decreases. For example, the
elbow flexes when performing a biceps curl. The knee flexes in preparation for kicking a ball.
Extension – straightening a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint increases, for
example the elbow when throwing a shot put. The take-off knee extends when a high-jumper
takes off (the other knee is flexed).
Ball and socket joints also allow flexion and extension.
Flexion of the shoulder joint occurs when the humerus (upper arm) moves forwards from the
rest of the body, which happens at the end of an underarm throw or bowl in
rounders. Flexion of the hip joint occurs when the femur (upper leg) moves forwards, which
happens when long jumpers land or at the end of kick in football
 Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts.
 Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left
halves.
Skeletal system
 The skeleton is the central structure of the body and is made up of bones, joints and cartilage.
The skeleton provides the framework for muscles and gives the body its defined human shape.
Types of joint movement
Hinge joints allow flexion and extension only.
 Flexion – bending a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint decreases. For example, the elbow flexes when
performing a biceps curl. The knee flexes in preparation for kicking a ball.
 Extension – straightening a joint. This occurs when the angle of a joint increases, for example the
elbow when throwing a shot put. The take-off knee extends when a high-jumper takes off (the other knee is flexed).
Ball and socket joints also allow flexion and extension.
 Flexion of the shoulder joint occurs when the humerus (upper arm) moves forwards from the rest of the body,
which happens at the end of an underarm throw or bowl in rounders. Flexion of the hip joint occurs
when the femur (upper leg) moves forwards, which happens when long jumpers land or at the end of kick in
football.
 Extension of the shoulder occurs when the humerus moves backwards from the rest of the body, which happens at
the end of the pull stroke in front crawl. Extension of the hip joint occurs when the femur moves backwards, which
happens in the preparation for a kick in football, or in the back leg as a gymnast performs a split leap. Ball and
socket joints also allow types of movement called abduction, adduction, rotation and circumduction.
 Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder joints during a
jumping jack movement.
 Adduction – movement towards the midline of the body. This occurs at the hip and shoulder,
returning the arms and legs back to their original position from a jumping jack movement or when swimming
breaststroke.
 Flexion and extension are a pair of opposites; abduction and adduction are a pair of opposites.
 Circumduction – this is where the limb moves in a circle. This occurs at the shoulder joint during an overarm tennis
serve or cricket bowl.
 Rotation – this is where the limb turns round its long axis, like using a screw driver. This occurs in the hip joint in
golf while performing a drive shot or the shoulder joint when playing a topspin forehand in tennis.

To help remember the difference between rotation and circumduction, imagine there is a pen at the end of
the body part. If the pen draws a dot, it's rotation. If the pen draws a circle, it's circumduction.

Types of Stretching
 Active stretching - is a method of enhancing flexibility. In it, your own muscles provide resistance to stretch another
muscle. It's performed by flexing a muscle opposite the target muscle and holding this position for about 10
seconds, until a slight stretch is felt.
 Passive stretching is excellent for enhancing your balance, as well as your flexibility by holding a position or a pose
with gravity or by hand. As a specific force is reaching the outer limits of your range of motion, the target
muscle is being lengthened. For example, hamstring stretches involve bending at your waist to touch
your toes and holding that pose for over 30 seconds before you do a deeper stretch.
 Dynamic Stretching - These are lively stretches that rely on momentum to flow through repeated movements. An
example is doing a hamstring stretch where your leg is swung upward in a kick through its range of
motion.
 PNF Stretching – this refers to set of techniques that involve table stretching and the help of a certified stretch
therapist. PNF stretching promotes the restoration of a weakened or injured muscle as resistance is provided
while keeping everything in place. As the contraction is released, the stretch pose is being held in place for about 20
to 30 seconds and another30 to 40 seconds for the muscles to relax completely.