The Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Handbook

The Certified Six Sigma
Green Belt Handbook

Also available from ASQ Quality Press:
The Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook, Second Edition

T. M. Kubiak and Donald W. Benbow
Applied Statistics for the Six Sigma Green Belt

Bhisham C. Gupta and H. Fred Walker
Statistical Quality Control for the Six Sigma Green Belt

Bhisham C. Gupta and H. Fred Walker
Six Sigma for the Office: A Pocket Guide

Roderick A. Munro
5S for Service Organizations and Offices: A Lean Look at Improvements

Debashis Sarkar
The Executive Guide to Understanding and Implementing Lean Six Sigma: The
Financial Impact
Robert M. Meisel, Steven J. Babb, Steven F. Marsh, and James P. Schlichting
Transactional Six Sigma for Green Belts: Maximizing Service and Manufacturing Processes
Samuel E. Windsor
Defining and Analyzing a Business Process: A Six Sigma Pocket Guide

Jeffrey N. Lowenthal
Applying the Science of Six Sigma to the Art of Sales and Marketing
Michael J. Pestorius
Lean Kaizen: A Simplified Approach to Process Improvements

George Alukal and Anthony Manos
Business Performance Through Lean Six Sigma: Linking the Knowledge Worker, the Twelve
Pillars, and Baldrige
James T. Schutta
The Certified Manager of Quality/Organizational Excellence Handbook, Third Edition

Russell T. Westcott, editor
Enabling Excellence: The Seven Elements Essential to Achieving Competitive Advantage

Timothy A. Pine
To request a complimentary catalog of ASQ Quality Press publications,

call 800-248-1946, or visit our Web site at http://www.asq.org/quality-press.
The Certified Six Sigma
Green Belt Handbook
Roderick A. Munro, Matthew J. Maio,

Mohamed B. Nawaz, Govindarajan Ramu,
and Daniel J. Zrymiak
ASQ Quality Press

Milwaukee, Wisconsin
American Society for Quality, Quality Press, Milwaukee 53203
© 2008 by ASQ
All rights reserved. Published 2007
Printed in the United States of America
13 12 11 10 09 08 07 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The certified six sigma green belt handbook / Roderick A. Munro.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-87389-698-6 (hbk. : alk. paper)
1. Six sigma (Quality control standard)—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Production
management—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Quality control—Statistical methods—
Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Munro, Roderick A.
TS156.C4235 2007
658.4'013—dc22 2007043656
ISBN: 978-0-87389-698-6
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Publisher: William A. Tony

Acquisitions Editor: Matt T. Meinholz
Project Editor: Paul O’Mara
Production Administrator: Randall Benson
ASQ Mission: The American Society for Quality advances individual, organizational, and
community excellence worldwide through learning, quality improvement, and knowledge
exchange.
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To place orders or to request a free copy of the ASQ Quality Press Publications Catalog,
including ASQ membership information, call 800-248-1946. Visit our Web site at www.asq.org
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Printed in the United States of America
Printed on acid-free paper

To my wife Janna and daughters, Brianna and Hayley, thank you for your support, patience,
and love. To my parents, John and Marge, thank you for challenging me to do better.
Matt
Special thanks for inspiration go to Dr. Jahan Baig, Professor and Dean, Kingdom
University, Bahrain, for her enthusiastic input and support. I would also
like to thank my daughters Shahana and Sofia for their patience.
Mohamed
I thank my mom Vasantha and dad Ramu for providing me with the right
educational foundation and morals and my wife Anitha and daughter
Vibha for their unconditional love and support.
Govind
To my wife Susan and my children, Ryan and Brooke, and to my late parents John
and Angie. My passion for quality, Six Sigma, and operational excellence emanates
from the positive examples of my employer Accenture, my prior employers and
clients, and the universities and colleges where I have taught. Finally to ASQ and ASQ
Quality Press, which have enabled me to expand my horizons beyond expectation—
ASQ allows members to stand on the shoulders of giants in their pursuit of ideals.
Dan
I would like to dedicate this book to Matt, Mohamed, Govind, and Dan. They had to
put up with a lot from me in trying to bring this project to completion, and I do thank them
a lot for their support and patience as we went through this exercise. I know it became
frustrating for them at times as we moved through the process and hopefully we will be able
to achieve a high level of quality in maintaining this reference handbook for the Six Sigma
community. Thus we do request your help, the reader, to give us feedback through the live Web
page that ASQ has so generously set up for this effort: http://asqgroups.asq.org/cssgbhandbook/.
As in any work of substance, there are a lot of people involved. The authors would like to
also thank all these people for their time and support. Of special note, thanks goes to ASQ
Quality Press, especially Paul O’Mara as he tried to herd this group into some form of
timing on this project. Another helpful ASQ staff person was Sally Harthun of the Certification
Committee who along with the ASQ volunteers from the Green Belt Committee were as open
about the CSSGB BoK as our ASQ Policies and Procedures allows. We also had many
individuals assist this project, from helping to develop practice exam questions (we actually
duplicated the same process used by the ASQ National Certification Committee) to developing
white papers and other tools for Green Belt use, as well as a college class from Davenport
College in Grand Rapids, Michigan who, along with their instructor, Mr. Don Brecken, worked
on creating a paper for the CD-ROM. We want to acknowledge everyone for their time,
effort, and assistance in helping to bring this handbook to potential Green Belts everywhere.
Rod
Table of Contents
CD-ROM Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

List of Figures and Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Part I Overview: Six Sigma and the Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1 A. Six Sigma and Organizational Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1. Value of Six Sigma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Organizational Drivers and Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. Organizational Goals and Six Sigma Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter 2 B. Lean Principles in the Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1. Lean Concepts and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2. Value-Added and Non-Value-Added Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3. Theory of Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 3 C. Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) in the Organization . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2. Design and Process Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
(DFMEA and PFMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3. Road Maps for DFSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Part II Six Sigma—Define . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Chapter 4 A. Process Management for Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1. Process Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2. Owners and Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3. Identify Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4. Collect Customer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5. Analyze Customer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6. Translate Customer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Chapter 5 B. Project Management Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1. Project Charter and Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2. Project Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3. Project Metrics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. Project Planning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
ix
x Table of Contents
5. Project Documentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6. Project Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7. Project Closure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Chapter 6 C. Management and Planning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Chapter 7 D. Business Results for Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1. Process Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 8 E. Team Dynamics and Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Team Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Team Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Virtual Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1. Team Stages and Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2. Six Sigma and Other Team Roles and Responsibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3. Team Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4. Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chapter 9 Commonly Used Define Phase Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Activity Network Diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Advanced Quality Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Affinity Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Auditing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Cause-and-Effect Diagram (Fishbone Diagram or Ishikawa
Diagram). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Check Sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Customer Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Focus Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Force-Field Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Gantt Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Graphical Charts, Control Charts, and Other Statistical Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Interrelationship Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Matrix Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Multivoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Nominal Group Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Prioritization Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Process Decision Program Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Project Evaluation and Review Technique and Critical Path Method. . . . . . . 116
Quality Function Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Risk Priority Number/Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Sampling Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Supplier–Inputs–Process–Outputs–Customers (SIPOC) Diagram . . . . . . . . . 123
Tree Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table of Contents xi
Written Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Part III Six Sigma—Measure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Chapter 10 A. Process Analysis and Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1. Process Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2. Process Inputs and Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chapter 11 B. Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1. Drawing Valid Statistical Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2. Central Limit Theorem and Sampling Distribution of the Mean . . . . . . . . 143
3. Basic Probability Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Chapter 12 C. Collecting and Summarizing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1. Types of Data and Measurement Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2. Data Collection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3. Techniques for Assuring Data Accuracy and Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4. Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5. Graphical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Chapter 13 D. Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Chapter 14 E. Measurement System Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Chapter 15 F. Process Capability and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
1. Process Capability Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
2. Process Performance vs. Specification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3. Process Capability Indices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4. Process Performance Indices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6. Process Capability for Attributes Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Part IV Six Sigma—Analyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Chapter 16 A. Exploratory Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1. Multi-Vari Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
2. Simple Linear Correlation and Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Chapter 17 B. Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
1. Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
2. Tests for Means, Variances, and Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
3. Paired-Comparison Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4. Single-Factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5. Chi Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Part V Six Sigma—Improve and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Chapter 18 A. Design of Experiments (DOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
1. Basic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
2. Main Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
xii Table of Contents
Chapter 19 B. Statistical Process Control (SPC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

1. Objectives and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
2. Rational Subgrouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
3. Selection and Application of Control Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
4. Analysis of Control Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Chapter 20 C. Implement and Validate Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Chapter 21 D. Control Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Part VI Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Appendix A ASQ Code of Ethics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Appendix B Six Sigma Green Belt Certification Body of Knowledge . . . . . . 360
Appendix C Control Limit Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Appendix D Constants for Control Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Appendix E Areas under Standard Normal Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Appendix F F Distributions (F0.1, F0.05, F0.01) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Appendix G Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Appendix H Chi-Square Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Appendix I Exponential Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Appendix J Poisson Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Appendix K Values of the t Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Six Sigma Acronym List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
CD-ROM Contents
How to Use This CD

Appendices to Handbook
ASQ Materials
Blank Forms
Case Studies and Papers
Dataplot Software Handbook
Exam Question Samples
Figures
Odds and Ends
Presentation Sample Formats
Standards and Specifications
Tools
xiii
List of Figures and Tables
Table i.1 Certified Six Sigma Green Belt BoK mapped to Certified Six Sigma
Black Belt BoK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1.1 Example of a process flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 1.2 Relationships between systems, processes, subprocesses, and steps. . . . . . 9
Figure 1.3 A feedback loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 1.4 Categories of inputs to a process step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.5 Traditional quality cost curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 1.6 Modern quality cost curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 1.2 Risk analysis table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 1.7 A format for SWOT analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2.1 Symbols used in value stream mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 2.2 Value stream map example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 2.3 A sea of inventory often hides unresolved problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Figure 2.4 C-shaped manufacturing cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 3.1 Example of a QFD matrix for an animal trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 3.2 Map to the entries for the QFD matrix illustrated in Figure 3.1. . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 3.3 Sequence of QFD matrices for product, part, and process planning. . . . . . . 40
Table 3.1 Design objectives and outputs traceability matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 4.1 Process diagram/model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 4.2 Basic SIPOC diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Figure 5.1 Risk assessment assignment matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 8.1 Common negative team dynamics and potential countermeasures. . . . . . . 75
Figure 8.1 Typical Six Sigma organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 8.2 Typical Six Sigma roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 8.2 Multivoting ranked approach example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 8.3 Multivoting weighted approach example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Figure 9.1 Example of an activity network diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 9.2 Example of an affinity diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 9.3 Example of a cause-and-effect diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 9.4 Example of a check sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Table 9.1 Steps in performing a design or process FMEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
xv
xvi List of Figures and Tables
Figure 9.5 Example FMEA reporting and RPN chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Figure 9.6 A typical risk action plan Gantt chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 9.7 A typical top-level management review report for FMEA progress. . . . . . . 105
Figure 9.8 An example of FMEA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Figure 9.9 High-level flowchart for an order-filling process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Figure 9.10 Detailed flowchart for the order-filling process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 9.11 Example of force-field analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 9.12 Gantt chart example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 9.13 Graphical representations of question responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Figure 9.14 Example interrelationship digraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 9.15 Example matrix diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 9.16 Prioritization matrix example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 9.17 Example process decision program chart (PDPC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 9.18 PERT/critical path chart example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Figure 9.19 QFD matrix elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Figure 9.20 Example of a completed QFD matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 9.21 QFD stage flow and relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 9.22 QFD input–output matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Table 9.2 QFD value characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 9.23 SIPOC diagram with requirements capture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Figure 9.24 This example of a tree diagram is a fault tree (used to study
defects and failures). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure 10.1 Symbols commonly used in flowcharts and process maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Figure 10.2 Basic flowchart for warranty product replacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Figure 10.3 Cross-functional or swim lane flowchart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Figure 10.4 Empty cause-and-effect diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Figure 10.5 Cause-and-effect diagram after a few steps of a brainstorming session. . . . 135
Figure 10.6 Pareto chart of final assembly inspection defect codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Figure 10.7 Pareto chart of final assembly inspection defect codes (weighted). . . . . . . . 138
Figure 10.8 Example of a measles chart (pictorial check sheet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 10.9 Example of a Pareto chart of a too-detailed defect summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 10.10 Relationship diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Table 11.1 Descriptive versus analytical statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Table 11.2 Sample versus population notations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 11.1 Various populations and sampling distributions of the mean for
selected sample sizes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 11.2 Venn diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Figure 11.3 Mutually exclusive events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Table 12.1 Measurement scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Figure 12.1 Example of a data set as illustrated by a frequency distribution,
individual plot, histogram, and probability plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
List of Figures and Tables xvii
Figure 12.2 Cumulative frequency distribution in table and graph form. . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Table 12.2 Comparison of various graphical methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 12.3 Histogram and stem-and-leaf plot comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 12.4 Box plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Figure 12.5 Example box plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 12.6 Box plots versus dot plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Table 12.3 Example yield data of three periods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 12.7 Box plot by period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Figure 12.8 Run chart analysis (using statistical software). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 12.9 Scatter diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Table 12.4 Mold process data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 12.10 Examples of scatter diagrams (variables versus effects). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Figure 12.11 Correlation between variables (using statistical software). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 12.12 Example scatter plots—exercise versus weight loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Figure 12.13 Normal probability plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Figure 12.14 Example of Weibull plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Table 13.1 Form, mean and variance of certain distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Figure 13.1 Binomial distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Figure 13.2 Binomial distribution using Microsoft Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Figure 13.3 Poisson distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Figure 13.4 Poisson distribution using Microsoft Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Figure 13.5 Normal probability density function and cumulative density function. . . . 182
Figure 13.6 Normal curve example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Figure 13.7 Chi-square distribution example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Figure 13.8 F distribution with varying degrees of freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Figure 14.1 Gage repeatability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Figure 14.2 Gage reproducibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Figure 14.3 Gage R&R data collection sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Figure 14.4 Gage R&R data collection sheet with data entered and
calculations completed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Figure 14.5 Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Figure 14.6 Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility Report with calculations. . . . . . . . 195
Figure 14.7 Example gage repeatability and reproducibility analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Figure 14.8 GR&R report using statistical software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 14.9 Sources of measurement variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 14.10 Observed versus actual capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Figure 14.11 GR&R sample selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Table 14.1 Measurement test data for linearity and bias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 14.12 Linearity and bias analysis using statistical software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Figure 14.13 Attribute agreement analysis using statistical software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Figure 15.1 Types of sampling for SPC data collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
xviii List of Figures and Tables
Figure 15.2 Control limit versus specification limit grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

–
Figure 15.3 Example of X and R control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 15.4 Process capability scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Figure 15.5 Process performance indices Pp, Ppk, and Cpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 15.6 Process performance 1.5 sigma shift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Figure 15.7 Short-term versus long-term performance with 1.5 sigma shift. . . . . . . . . . . 219
Figure 15.8 Proportion defective summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Figure 15.9 Binomial process capability using statistical software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Figure 15.10 Defect per unit (DPU) summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Table 15.1 Sigma conversion table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Table 16.1 Areas of variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 16.1 Variation within samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 16.2 Excessive variability (part is tapered). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 16.3 Less variability (center is thicker). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Figure 16.4 Variability shift over time (part is getting larger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Figure 16.5 Stainless steel casting with critical inner diameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 16.6 Sectional views of stainless steel casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Figure 16.7 Data collection sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Table 16.2 Measurement data from five parts produced during one shift. . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 16.8 Graph of data from Table 16.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 16.9 Part-to-part variation (graph of data from Table 16.2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Table 16.3 Data from five parts produced during one shift using precision
castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Figure 16.10 Graph of data from Table 16.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Figure 16.11 Graph of data from Table 16.3 with orientation measurement numbers. . . . 231
Table 16.4 Data from five parts after pressure-washing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Table 16.5 Examples of dependent and independent variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 16.12 The four types of correlation in scatter plots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Table 16.6 Data table for correlation calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Figure 16.13 CORREL function in Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Table 16.7 Least squares example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 16.14 A schematic showing variation in y as a function of x. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 16.15 Regression dialog box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Figure 16.16 Regression data analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Figure 16.17 Simple regression results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Table 17.1 Error matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 17.1 One-tail test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Figure 17.2 Two-tail test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 17.3 Excel’s FINV function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Figure 17.4 Setting up a one-way ANOVA in Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Figure 17.5 The ANOVA: Single Factor dialog box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
List of Figures and Tables xix
Figure 17.6 Final results of one-way ANOVA in Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Figure 17.7 Excel’s CHIINV function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Figure 18.1 Main effects graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
3
Table 18.1 A 2 full-factorial design using + and – format. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
3
Table 18.2 A 2 full-factorial design showing interaction columns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
3 3–1
Table 18.3 Half fraction of 2 (also called a 2 design). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
3
Table 18.4 Half fraction of 2 design with interaction columns to be filled in
by the reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Table 18.5 Latin square design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
2
Table 18.6 A 2 full-factorial completely randomized experiment with results. . . . . . . 291
2
Table 18.7 A 2 full-factorial completely randomized experiment with results. . . . . . . 292
Table 18.8 ANOVA outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Figure 19.1 Average shifting, variation stable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 19.2 Average stable, variation changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 19.3 Average shifting, variation changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figure 19.4 Average stable, variation stable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figure 19.5 An operating characteristic (OC) curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
–
Figure 19.6 X and R control chart example with data plotted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
–
Figure 19.7 Measurement data entered in an X and R control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
–
Figure 19.8 Completed X and R control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
–
Figure 19.9 Example of an X and s control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Figure 19.10 Example of an individuals and moving range control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Figure 19.11 Example of a median control chart with associated range gage. . . . . . . . . . . 318
Figure 19.12 Example of a p chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Figure 19.13 Example of an np control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Figure 19.14 Example of a u chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Figure 19.15 Example of a c control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Figure 19.16 One point more than 3s from the centerline (either side). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Figure 19.17 Nine points in a row on the same side of the centerline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Figure 19.18 Six points in a row all increasing or decreasing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Figure 19.19 Fourteen points in a row alternating up and down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Figure 19.20 Two out of three points more than 2s from the centerline (same side). . . . . 330
Figure 19.21 Four out of five points more than 1s from the centerline (same side). . . . . . 331
Figure 19.22 Fifteen points in a row within 1s of the centerline (either side). . . . . . . . . . . 331
Figure 19.23 Eight points in a row more than 1s from the centerline (either side). . . . . . 331
Figure 19.24 Points beyond the control limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Figure 19.25 Seven points in a row more on one side of the averages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Figure 19.26 Seven points in a row that are consistently increasing or
consistently decreasing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Figure 19.27 Over 90 percent of the plotted points are in the middle third of the
control limit region (for 25 or more subgroups). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
xx List of Figures and Tables
Figure 19.28 Fewer than 40 percent of the plotted points are in the middle third
of the control limit region (for 25 or more subgroups). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Figure 19.29 Obvious nonrandom patterns such as cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Figure 21.1 A sample control plan template. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Figure 21.2 An example control plan—first page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Figure 21.3 An example control plan—second page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Table 21.1 FMECA and control plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Figure 21.4 A gage repeatability and reproducibility data sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Figure 21.5 Gage repeatability and reproducibility report example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Figure 21.6 Example of poka-yoke in electrical plug design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Acknowledgments
R
od Munro would like to acknowledge the following people for their
participation and contribution’s to this book’s content and CD-ROM:
Trisha Balazovic, Pam Bethune, Edward Blackman, Steven Bonacorsi,
John Bower, Don Brecken, Scott Burnside, Laura Burr Busse, David Carosella,
William “Rob” Cushard, Sheila Deporter, Grace Duffy, Brenda Dusek, Arland
Eilert, Ed Faylo, Kevin Hankins, Elizabeth Hanna, Mark Havens, Mark Hehl,
William John Hindelang, Rita Ita, Chad Johnson, Rajinder Kapur, Terry L.
Kozlowski, Bob Kukla, Mike La Dolcetta, Steve Leggett, Joe Lucido, Janet
MacDonald, William Maholick, Tariq Malik, Marcia Martin, Cecelia McCain, Ryan
McCleary, F. Leland McClue, Max Moore, Scott Neal, Peter Picketts, Salil Raje,
Roger Rau, John Roberts Jr., Ibzahima Sall, Abhijit Sengupta, Kush Shah, Mogda
Shin, Steven Sibrel, Deepan Sivaraj, Mary Beth Soloy, Maria C. Staab, Andrea
Stamps, Rita Stockman, Peter Vadhanasindhu, John Vandenbemden, Michael
Walmsley, Xiaobo Wang, Eric Zink.
Govindarajan (Govind) Ramu would like to acknowledge a number of students
who participated in the ASQ Ottawa section certification courses, JDS Uniphase
Corporation Black Belt and Green Belt courses, and quality professionals from
ASQ and Elsmar discussion boards who have triggered many thought provok-
ing questions. Practical solutions addressed in this book were inspired by such
questions.
xxi
Introduction:
The ASQ Certification Process
W
elcome to The Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Handbook. This reference
manual is designed to help those interested in passing the American
Society for Quality’s (ASQ) certification exam for Six Sigma Green Belts
and others who want a handy reference to the appropriate materials needed to
conduct successful Green Belt projects. This handbook consists of an introduc-
tion to the exam process, the Body of Knowledge (BoK) materials used in the ASQ
exam with appropriate references, handy tips for taking exams, useful tables and
formulas, and a CD-ROM disk with sample exam questions that can be used for
practice. Note: you will not be allowed to take the exam questions with you into the ASQ-
proctored exam.
This introduction contains information about the exam process itself. This
material is not considered part of the exam, so if your only interest is in learning
the BoK, you may choose to skip this section.
THE TEST DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Many exams, whether tests or certifications, are written by a very few people
(sometimes only one person) based on what they think an examinee should know
to meet the criteria of some training materials (like nearly all college exams). The
American Society for Quality Control (ASQC changed its name to ASQ in 1997)
started developing the Certified Quality Engineer (CQE) program in 1967, making
it the oldest professional quality certification in the United States. ASQC gathered
a small number of quality professionals together for the development cycle of the
exam. The first CQE exam developers and a few others were grandfathered in,
bypassing the taking of the first exam, which was offered in 1968.
Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s ASQC and others developed more certi-
fication exams. During this time, the issue of what the difference is between a pro-
fessional certification and a state license (for example, the Professional Engineers
exam process) was being raised as some U.S. states and Canada started question-
ing the professional community about what they were doing. ASQC and other
professional organizations started trying to distinguish certifications given by
their organizations from state or other governmental certifications. Basically, one
is granted by peer recognition (professional organizations), the other by a govern-
mental licensing process.
In response to this growing concern and the possibility of legal litigation as to
the fairness of the exam process, ASQC wanted to become proactive about their
certification process. After a benchmarking exercise and a search for what was
xxiii
xxiv Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process
considered the very best exam development process, ASQC partnered with the
Educational Testing Service (ETS is the organization that creates and maintains
the SAT exams for college-bound students).
The two organizations worked together to develop an exam development pro-
cess that would be both legally defensible in court and to the various govern-
mental organizations who might choose to challenge the process. The ASQC CQE
exam was the first to be redesigned with the new development process. The basic
steps include:
• Design of a survey to identify the current tools and methodologies
being used in a wide breadth of industries across the United States.
• Targeting ASQ members who are currently certified in a particular
discipline, as well as managers and industry leaders who are aware of
the needs in the various industry sectors across the country.
• Tabulating the results of the most widely used tools, techniques, and
methodologies to create a basic Body of Knowledge (BoK) for the new
or redeveloped exam.
• Coordinating exam-writing workshops around the BoK, paying
special attention to the demographics of the exam question writers.
Each industry and all parts of the country are ensured some
participation in the exam-writing process.
• During the exam-writing process the participants are broken up into
teams. Each person writes a few questions based on their assigned
portion of the BoK and then has two or more other team members
review the question for accuracy, references, and fairness.
• The team leader submits the questions to the exam-writing workshop
lead person, who also reviews the questions. Others will then review
anything that raises any issue at the workshop.
• The questions are then entered into a proposed exam bank based on
their relevance to the specified exam’s BoK.
• As enough questions are identified in the proposed exam bank,
another workshop is called with new reviewers to look over each
question. The questions are accepted, reworked, or rejected for the
BoK exam bank.
• About six months before an exam is to be given, a sort of the exam
bank is conducted to select a new exam (each exam is different form
all other exams) with some alternate questions for each area of
the BoK. This exam mockup is then presented to an exam review
workshop. These participants review every question and discuss
their attributes related to the BoK. At the end of this process the exam
is set for the next offering.
• Exams are prepared and distributed to ASQ sections or at ASQ
conferences where they will be administered to participants.
Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process xxv
• After the day of the exam, exams and relevant materials are returned
to ASQ for grading. All exams are graded using the identified answers
from the exam bank. Once all exams are graded, a statistical cut score
is developed to maintain a predetermined level of ongoing knowledge
for the BoK field of experience (this is not just a simple 70 percent or
some other numerical pass score).
• With the cut score established for a given exam sequence, all exams
are then reviewed to determine those who passed. Any examinee that
falls below the cut score will receive a Pareto diagram of their exam
identifying where they had problems. Those that pass the exam will
receive a certification and exam card for their wallet or purse.
• Once an exam has been given, the exam questions are statistically
reviewed for how well they discerned the knowledge of the applicants.
Any questions that were generally missed or passed by a significant
portion of the audience will be discarded. Only a very few of the
questions will return to the exam bank for possible use on a
future exam.
• Every five years this cycle is repeated for each exam that ASQ offers.
This process is long and tedious, and ASQ spends a lot of time, resources, and vol-
unteer effort to maintain this process to ensure the highest level of professional-
ism possible for the certifications offered by the Society. Once you pass an exam,
you are encouraged to join in this process to help ensure that future exams will be
meaningful to the participants.
ONGOING MAINTENANCE
As can be seen in the previous section, ASQ maintains a comprehensive process
for ensuring that exams are reviewed every five years and that the exams are of
the highest professionalism possible. To this end, security is tight for the entire
process, and very few individuals know the entire history of an exam question’s
life to ensure that questions are not released to exam participants prior to an exam
being given.
Some of the general activities that ASQ uses to maintain exam processes are:
• If you are a local section volunteer helping to administer a refresher
program or teach a refresher course or other training process, you are
not allowed to proctor an exam for the same BoK.
• If you proctor an exam for a section or conference, you are not allowed
to teach that BoK.
• If you volunteer to assist with any of the activities listed in the
previous section on the exam development cycle, you are not
allowed to teach or publish anything related to that BoK (for example,
Roderick Munro was a volunteer refresher course leader and
instructor from 1985 through 1991, then on the ASQ National
Certification Committee for CQE from 1991 to 1998, then waited
xxvi Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process
several years before working on The Certified Quality Engineer Handbook

and teaching refresher courses again).
• ASQ maintains an ASQ National Certification Committee for
each exam that is offered through the Society. Each exam is either
coordinated through an ASQ division (based on their field of
expertise) and/or the ASQ National Headquarters, who coordinates
with all ASQ divisions that might have a stake in a specific exam.
• These ASQ National Certification Committees are made up of ASQ
member volunteers who meet on a regular basis to ensure that the
processes listed above, the ASQ national activities, and other issues
related to their specific exam are maintained at the highest possible
level of professionalism. This includes recertification activities for
those exams that have that requirement.
• These ASQ National Certification Committees ensure that the process
listed in the previous section is followed (usually by participating in
and/or coordinating the various events) as well as ensure that the BoK
is positioned for reevaluation every five years.
Once an exam has been given, most of the questions will be put into an archival
file with notes on each as to when it was used and statistical results of how the
question performed on the exam. In future exam-writing workshops, these old
files can occasionally be used as a basis for writing new or variations of questions.
Thus it would be very rare to see exactly the same question show up on a future
exam. That is why although using practice exams (as included on the CD-ROM
accompanying this handbook) can be useful, the user should realize that these are
not real questions that will be used on the exam by ASQ.
THE EXAMINATION PROCESS

Given the aforementioned process, the Green Belt candidate should realize that
anyone saying that they have inside information as to what will be on any given
exam is either violating the ASQ Code of Ethics (by stealing information, in which
case ASQ will prosecute if found out) or stretching the truth in the way that they
are presenting the information. The ASQ certification exam process is always
evolving and will rarely ever have a question in the same format on any two given
exams. The candidate must be prepared to answer questions (you are allowed to
have reference questions with you) that could be reasonably extracted from the
ASQ Certified Six Sigma Green Belt BoK (see Appendix B).
Also, given the number of various industries in the marketplace today, gen-
eral questions can be asked about a given topic in any number of ways. One exam-
ple here is the FMEA (note: acronyms are very rarely used in the actual exam). If
you are in the automotive industry you might use the AIAG Potential Failure Mode
and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Reference Manual, Third Edition or the SAE J1739:2000
standard. On the other hand, if you are in the medical devices industry, you
would have to use BS EN ISO 14971:2001 “Medical devices—Application of risk
Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process xxvii
management to medical devices.” Still other industries might use the book Failure
Mode Effect Analysis: FMEA from Theory to Execution, Second Edition. Either way,
any question related to FMEA might focus on what the primary function of FMEA
is, which is to manage the risk of the product or service that your organization
offers to a customer (either internal or external). So you should not be shaken if a
question sounds as if it comes from an industry other than the one in which you
work. The point is whether you can decipher the intent of the question as it relates
to the Green Belt BoK and answer the question using facts and reason. The sample
questions on the CD-ROM have been developed by a group of Black Belts for you
to use for practice. They are not part of the ASQ exam bank and any duplicated
questions on the exam are by coincidence.
The ASQ Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Guidelines booklet starts off the expla-
nation of the BoK with:
Included in this body of knowledge (BoK) are explanations (subtext) and cog-
nitive levels for each topic or subtopic in the test. These details will be used by
the Examination Development Committee as guidelines for writing test questions
and are designed to help candidates prepare for the exam by identifying specific
content within each topic that can be tested. Except where specified, the subtext is
not intended to limit the subject or be all-inclusive of what might be covered in an
exam but is intended to clarify how topics are related to the role of the Certified Six
Sigma Green Belt (SSGB). The descriptor in parentheses at the end of each subtext
entry refers to the highest cognitive level at which the topic will be tested. A com-
plete description of cognitive levels is provided at the end of this document.1
After the BoK is listed, a description of the meanings of remember, understand, apply,
analyze, evaluate, and create is given. This is important as it tells you the examinee
what level of knowledge you will need for that category of the BoK. The ASQ
booklet lists the levels of cognition as:
Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy—Revised (2001)
In addition to content specifics, the subtext for each topic in this BoK also indi-
cates the intended complexity level of the test questions for that topic. These
levels are based on “Levels of Cognition” and are presented below in rank order,
from least complex to most complex.
Remember (Knowledge Level)
Recall or recognize terms, definitions, facts, ideas, materials, patterns, sequences,
methods, principles, and so on.
Understand (Comprehension Level)
Read and understand descriptions, communications, reports, tables, diagrams,
directions, regulations, and so on.
Apply (Application Level)
Know when and how to use ideas, procedures, methods, formulas, principles,
theories, and so on.
xxviii Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process
Analyze (Analysis Level)

Break down information into its constituent parts and recognize their relationship
to one another and how they are organized; identify sublevel factors or salient data
from a complex scenario.
Evaluate (Evaluation Level)
Make judgments about the value of proposed ideas, solutions, and so on, by
comparing the proposal to specific criteria or standards.
Create (Synthesis Level)
Put parts or elements together in such a way as to reveal a pattern or structure
not clearly there before; identify which data or information from a complex set
are appropriate to examine further or from which supported conclusions can be
drawn.2
These words can be kept in mind while reviewing the chapters in this book to get
a better sense of the detail of questions that could be asked in that section. This is
also why it may appear that some material may be covered in more than one sec-
tion of the BoK.
In preparing for the actual exam, we suggest that you do the following:
• Follow the list of “What Can and Can Not Be Brought into the
Exam Site” found on the ASQ certification Web site—Frequently
Asked Questions—“Taking the Exam.”
• Select the reference that you have used in preparing for the exam. You
should be familiar with how the reference is laid out and how you will
use it.
• Create an index of your planned references—you are allowed to
use self-prepared information as long as there are no practice exam
questions in the material.
• Consider having a good Standard English dictionary available.
Sometimes a word might be used in the questions that you may not
be familiar with.
• Arrive at the exam site early so that you can set up your materials
in a manner that best fits your needs. You might even call the chief
proctor ahead of time to learn the room layout if you have not been to
the particular exam site before.
• Remember that anything that you write on during the exam (scratch
paper, exam pages, answer sheets, and so on) must be turned in to
the proctor at the end of the exam. Thus, do not write in any of your
references that you want to take home with you.
• Relax and breathe.
Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process xxix
Additional advice given in the ASQ Certified Six Sigma Green Belt brochure
includes:
Test takers are also advised to keep in mind these general pointers about standard-
ized exams:
• Read all of the questions on the first page of the test so you realize that you do
know the material. In other words, relax.
• Read each question thoroughly. Don’t assume you know what’s being asked.
• Eliminate implausible answers and move quickly past the obviously wrong
choices.
• Keep in mind that an answer may be a correct statement in itself but may not
answer the question.
• Two answers may say exactly the opposite things or may be very similar. Read
them again to decide what makes one correct and the other wrong.
• ASQ does not subtract points for incorrect answers. Answer every question.
There is no penalty for guessing, so you have a minimum 25 percent chance of
getting it right, and even higher if you are successful in eliminating one or two
of the answers as incorrect.
• Go through and answer the questions you know. Then go through and read
the ones you’re unsure of.
• Mark those you are still uncomfortable with. You will narrow the field down
to just a few questions you will need to spend more time on. These are the
questions you might want to use your reference books for.
• Be aware of the time available for the exam and the remaining time as you
work through the exam.
• Do not select more than one answer for a question. If you do, it will be scored
as a “blank.” For example, you think that both A and C are correct answers.
Select only one answer and use the comment sheet supplied with your test
to point out why you think both A and C are correct. Your comments will be
reviewed before results are reported.3
Taking an exam (offered by ASQ or any other organization) is a matter of prepa-
ration on the participant’s part, and your results will show how well you achieved
the exam requirements. We have seen people who, based on overall education,
should pass an exam not do well and the other extreme where a person who we
thought might struggle, but studied very hard, actually passed the exam. Study
and use your reference materials and know where and how to find information
when you need it. Few people can memorize everything, so the next best thing is
knowing how to find information quickly when needed so that you can finish the
exam in a timely manner.
The remainder of this introduction shows the linkage between the ASQ Cer-
tified Six Sigma Green Belt BoK (note the number of questions for each section)
and the ASQ Certified Six Sigma Black Belt BoK, and suggested further readings
to help you understand the makeup of the ASQ exam process better.
xxx Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process
Table i.1 Certified Six Sigma Green Belt BoK mapped to Certified Six Sigma Black Belt BoK.
Six Sigma Green Belt BoK SSBB BoK

I. Overview: Six Sigma and the Organization (15 questions)
A. Six Sigma and organizational goals
1. Value of Six Sigma. Recognize why organizations use Six Sigma, how they I.A.2, I.A.5
apply its philosophy and goals, and the origins of Six Sigma (Juran,
Deming, Shewhart, and so on). Describe how process inputs, outputs, and
feedback impact the larger organization. (Understand)
2. Organizational drivers and metrics. Recognize key drivers for business II.D
(profit, market share, customer satisfaction, efficiency, product
differentiation) and how key metrics and scorecards are developed and
impact the entire organization. (Understand)
3. Organizational goals and Six Sigma projects. Describe the project selection I.B.4, I.B.5
process, including knowing when to use Six Sigma improvement
methodology (DMAIC) as opposed to other problem-solving tools, and
confirm that the project supports and is linked to organizational goals.
(Understand)
B. Lean principles in the organization
1. Lean concepts and tools. Define and describe concepts such as value chain, I.A.3, I.A.4
flow, pull, perfection, and so on, and tools commonly used to eliminate
waste, including kaizen, 5S, error-proofing, value stream mapping, and
so on. (Understand)
2. Value-added and non-value-added activities. Identify waste in terms of excess V.A.2, V.A.3
inventory, space, test inspection, rework, transportation, storage, and so on, IX.A.4
and reduce cycle time to improve throughput. (Understand)
3. Theory of constraints. Describe the theory of constraints. (Understand) VII.E
C. Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) in the organization
1. Quality function deployment (QFD). Describe how QFD fits into the overall IV.A.3
DFSS process. (Understand) (Note: the application of QFD is covered
in II.A.6.)
2. Design and process failure mode and effects analysis (DFMEA and PFMEA). VI.C
Define and distinguish between design FMEA (DFMEA) and process
FMEA (PFMEA) and interpret associated data. (Analyze) (Note: the
application of FMEA is covered in II.D.2.)
3. Road maps for DFSS. Describe and distinguish between DMADV (define, IX.B, IX.D
measure, analyze, design, verify) and IDOV (identify, design, optimize,
verify), identify how they relate to DMAIC and how they help close the
loop on improving the end product/process during the design for Six Sigma
(DFSS) phase. (Understand)
Continued
Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process xxxi
(Continued)

II. Six Sigma—Define (25 Questions)
A. Process management for projects
1. Process elements. Define and describe process components and boundaries. I.A.5
Recognize how processes cross various functional areas and the challenges
that result for process improvement efforts. (Analyze)
2. Owners and stakeholders. Identify process owners, internal and external I.B.1, II.A
customers, and other stakeholders in a project. (Apply)
3. Identify customers. Identify and classify internal and external customers II.A, IV.A.1
as applicable to a particular project, and show how projects impact
customers. (Apply)
4. Collect customer data. Use various methods to collect customer feedback IV.A.2
(for example, surveys, focus groups, interviews, observation) and identify
the key elements that make these tools effective. Review survey questions
to eliminate bias, vagueness, and so on. (Apply)
5. Analyze customer data. Use graphical, statistical, and qualitative tools to IV.A.2
analyze customer feedback. (Analyze)
6. Translate customer requirements. Assist in translating customer feedback IV.A.3
into project goals and objectives, including critical to quality (CTQ)
attributes and requirements statements. Use voice of the customer analysis
tools such as quality function deployment (QFD) to translate customer
requirements into performance measures. (Apply)
B. Project management basics
1. Project charter and problem statement. Define and describe elements of a IV.B.1
project charter and develop a problem statement, including baseline and
improvement goals. (Apply)
2. Project scope. Assist with the development of project definition/scope IV.B.2
using Pareto charts, process maps, and so on. (Apply)
3. Project metrics. Assist with the development of primary and consequential IV.B.4
metrics (for example, quality, cycle time, cost) and establish key project
metrics that relate to the voice of the customer. (Apply)
4. Project planning tools. Use project tools such as Gantt charts, critical path IV.C
method (CPM), and program evaluation and review technique (PERT)
charts, and so on. (Apply)
5. Project documentation. Provide input and select the proper vehicle for N/A
presenting project documentation (for example, spreadsheet output,
storyboards) at phase reviews, management reviews, and other
presentations. (Apply)
6. Project risk analysis. Describe the purpose and benefit of project risk N/A
analysis, including resources, financials, impact on customers and other
stakeholders, and so on. (Understand)
Continued
xxxii Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process
(Continued)

7. Project closure. Describe the objectives achieved and apply the lessons N/A
learned to identify additional opportunities. (Apply)
C. Management and planning tools. Define, select, and use 1) affinity diagrams, III.F
2) interrelationship digraphs, 3) tree diagrams, 4) prioritization matrices,
5) matrix diagrams, 6) process decision program charts (PDPC), and
7) activity network diagrams. (Apply)
D. Business results for projects
1. Process performance. Calculate process performance metrics such as defects II.E, V.F.1,
per unit (DPU), rolled throughput yield (RTY), cost of poor quality (COPQ), V.F.2, V.F.7
defects per million opportunities (DPMO) sigma levels, and process
capability indices. Track process performance measures to drive project
decisions. (Analyze)
2. Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA). Define and describe failure mode VI.C
and effects analysis (FMEA). Describe the purpose and use of scale
criteria and calculate the risk priority number (RPN). (Analyze)
E. Team dynamics and performance
1. Team stages and dynamics. Define and describe the stages of team III.B.1, III.B.2
evolution, including forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning,
and recognition. Identify and help resolve negative dynamics such as
overbearing, dominant, or reluctant participants, the unquestioned
acceptance of opinions as facts, groupthink, feuding, floundering, the rush
to accomplishment, attribution, discounts, plops, digressions, tangents,
and so on. (Understand)
2. Six Sigma and other team roles and responsibilities. Describe and define the I.B.5
roles and responsibilities of participants on Six Sigma and other teams,
including Black Belt, Master Black Belt, Green Belt, champion, executive,
coach, facilitator, team member, sponsor, process owner, and so on. (Apply)
3. Team tools. Define and apply team tools such as brainstorming, nominal III.E
group technique, multivoting, and so on. (Apply)
4. Communication. Use effective and appropriate communication techniques III.B.3
for different situations to overcome barriers to project success. (Apply)
III. Six Sigma—Measure (30 Questions)
A. Process analysis and documentation
1. Process modeling. Develop and review process maps, written procedures, V.A.3
work instructions, flowcharts, and so on. (Analyze)
2. Process inputs and outputs. Identify process input variables and process V.A.1
output variables (SIPOC), and document their relationships through
cause-and-effect diagrams, relational matrices, and so on. (Analyze)
Continued
Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process xxxiii
(Continued)

B. Probability and statistics
1. Drawing valid statistical conclusions. Distinguish between enumerative V.D.1, V.D.5
(descriptive) and analytical (inferential) studies, and distinguish between
a population parameter and a sample statistic. (Apply)
2. Central limit theorem and sampling distribution of the mean. Define the central V.D.2
limit theorem and describe its significance in the application of inferential
statistics for confidence intervals, control charts, and so on. (Apply)
3. Basic probability concepts. Describe and apply concepts such as V.E.1
independence, mutually exclusive, multiplication rules, and so on. (Apply)
C. Collecting and summarizing data
1. Types of data and measurement scales. Identify and classify continuous V.B.1, V.B.2
(variables) and discrete (attributes) data. Describe and define nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio measurement scales. (Analyze)
2. Data collection methods. Define and apply methods for collecting data such V.B.4
as check sheets, coded data, and so on. (Apply)
3. Techniques for assuring data accuracy and integrity. Define and apply V.B.3
techniques such as random sampling, stratified sampling, sample
homogeneity, and so on. (Apply)
4. Descriptive statistics. Define, compute, and interpret measures of V.D.3
dispersion and central tendency, and construct and interpret frequency
distributions and cumulative frequency distributions. (Analyze)
5. Graphical methods. Depict relationships by constructing, applying, and V.D.4
interpreting diagrams and charts such as stem-and-leaf plots, box-and-
whisker plots, run charts, scatter diagrams, Pareto charts, and so on. Depict
distributions by constructing, applying, and interpreting diagrams such
as histograms, normal probability plots, and so on. (Create)
D. Probability distributions. Describe and interpret normal, binomial, and V.E.2
Poisson, chi square, Student’s t, and F distributions. (Apply)
E. Measurement system analysis. Calculate, analyze, and interpret V.C.2
measurement system capability using repeatability and reproducibility
(GR&R), measurement correlation, bias, linearity, percent agreement, and
precision/tolerance (P/T). (Evaluate)
F. Process capability and performance
1. Process capability studies. Identify, describe, and apply the elements of V.F.6
designing and conducting process capability studies, including identifying
characteristics, identifying specifications and tolerances, developing
sampling plans, and verifying stability and normality. (Evaluate)
2. Process performance versus specification. Distinguish between natural V.F.7
process limits and specification limits, and calculate process performance
metrics such as percent defective. (Evaluate)
Continued
xxxiv Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process
(Continued)

3. Process capability indices. Define, select, and calculate Cp and Cpk, and assess V.F.2
process capability. (Evaluate)
4. Process performance indices. Define, select, and calculate Pp, Ppk, Cpm, and V.F.2
assess process performance. (Evaluate)
5. Short-term versus long-term capability. Describe the assumptions and V.F.3
conventions that are appropriate when only short-term data are collected
and when only attributes data are available. Describe the changes in
relationships that occur when long-term data are used, and interpret the
relationship between long- and short-term capability as it relates to a
1.5 sigma shift. (Evaluate)
6. Process capability for attributes data. Compute the sigma level for a process V.F.5
and describe its relationship to Ppk. (Apply)
IV. Six Sigma—Analyze (15 Questions)
A. Exploratory data analysis
1. Multi-vari studies. Create and interpret multi-vari studies to interpret the VI.A.4
difference between positional, cyclical, and temporal variation; apply
sampling plans to investigate the largest sources of variation. (Create)
2. Simple linear correlation and regression. Interpret the correlation coefficient VI.A.1, VI.A.2
and determine its statistical significance (p-value); recognize the difference
between correlation and causation. Interpret the linear regression equation
and determine its statistical significance (p-value); use regression models
for estimation and prediction. (Evaluate)
B. Hypothesis testing
1. Basics. Define and distinguish between statistical and practical VI.B.1
significance and apply tests for significance level, power, type I and type II
errors. Determine appropriate sample size for various tests. (Apply)
2. Tests for means, variances, and proportions. Define, compare, and contrast VI.B.5
statistical and practical significance. (Apply)
3. Paired-comparison tests. Define and describe paired-comparison VI.B.5
parametric hypothesis tests. (Understand)
4. Single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). Define terms related to one-way VI.B.6
ANOVAs and interpret their results and data plots. (Apply)
5. Chi square. Define and interpret chi square and use it to determine VI.B.7
statistical significance. (Analyze)
V. Six Sigma—Improve and Control (15 Questions)
A. Design of experiments (DOE)
1. Basic terms. Define and describe basic DOE terms such as independent VII.A.1
and dependent variables, factors and levels, response, treatment, error,
repetition, and replication. (Understand)
Continued
Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process xxxv
(Continued)

2. Main effects. Interpret main effects and interaction plots. (Apply) VII.A.5
B. Statistical process control (SPC)
1. Objectives and benefits. Describe the objectives and benefits of SPC, VIII.A.1
including controlling process performance, identifying special and
common causes, and so on. (Analyze)
2. Rational subgrouping. Define and describe how rational subgrouping is VIII.A.3
used. (Understand)
3. Selection and application of control charts. Identify, select, construct, and VIII.A.4
– –
apply the following types of control charts: X and R, X and s, individuals
~
and moving range (IMR/XmR), median (X ), p, np, c, and u. (Apply)
4. Analysis of control charts. Interpret control charts and distinguish between VIII.A.5
common and special causes using rules for determining statistical control.
(Analyze)
C. Implement and validate solutions. Use various improvement methods such VII.C.1, VIII.D
as brainstorming, main effects analysis, multi-vari studies, FMEA,
measurement system capability reanalysis, and post-improvement
capability analysis to identify, implement, and validate solutions through
F-test, t-test, and so on. (Create)
D. Control plan. Assist in developing a control plan to document and hold the VII.C.2
gains, and assist in implementing controls and monitoring systems. (Apply)
Further suggested readings from Quality Progress magazine in exam development

and preparation:
Black, Sam P. “Internal Certification: The Key to Continuous Quality Success.” Quality
Progress 26, no. 1 (January 1993): 67.
Brown, John O. “A Practical Approach to Service-Supplier Certification.” Quality Progress
31, no. 1 (January 1998): 35.
“Certified Quality Engineer Examination.” (Reprint from June 1981.) Quality Progress 17,
no. 7 (July 1984): 35.
Cochrane, Don. “ASQ’s Black Belt Certification—A Personal Experience.” Quality Progress
35, no. 5 (May 2002): 33.
Hartman, Melissa G. “Developing a New Kind of Certification.” Quality Progress 35, no. 5
(May 2002): 24.
Heinrich, George. “Use CMI Certification to Achieve Strategic Initiatives.” Quality
Progress 36, no. 5 (May 2003): 56.
Landon, Tammy. “13 Steps to Certification in Less Than a Year.” Quality Progress 36, no. 3
(March 2003): 32
Maass, Richard A. “Supplier Certification—A Positive Response to Just-in-Time.” Quality
Progress 21, no. 9 (September 1988): 75.
xxxvi Introduction: The ASQ Certification Process
Maness, Thomas C. “New Industry-Specific Quality Certification.” Quality Progress 35,

no. 6 (June 2002): 65.
Moran, John W. “ASQ Certification Program Gains Wider Recognition.” Quality Progress
33, no. 4 (April 2000): 29.
Rayman, Deborah A. “The Quest for CMI Certification.” Quality Progress 25, no. 8 (August
1992): 101.
Rooney, James J. “Certification Exam Tips, Trips, and Traps.” Quality Progress 37, no. 10
(October 2004): 41.
Spindler, Garold R. “Managing in Uncertainty: Lessons from the Underground.” Quality
Progress 34, no. 1 (January 2001): 83.
Vora, Manu K., Sally M. Harthun, and Ronald G. Kingen. “ASQC Certification Committee
Practices What It Preaches.” Quality Progress 26, no. 11 (November 1993): 99.
Ware, Paul A. “A Cooperative Approach to Vendor Certification.” Quality Progress 17, no.
11 (November 1984): 26.
Part I
Overview: Six Sigma and
Part I
the Organization
Chapter 1 A. Six Sigma and Organizational Goals
Chapter 2 B. Lean Principles in the Organization
Chapter 3 C. Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) in
the Organization
1
Chapter 1
A. Six Sigma and
Part I.A.1
Organizational Goals
1. VALUE OF SIX SIGMA
Recognize why organizations use six sigma,

how they apply its philosophy and goals,
and the origins of six sigma (Juran, Deming,
Shewhart, etc.). Describe how process
inputs, outputs, and feedback impact the
larger organization. (Understand)
Body of Knowledge I.A.1
Every company or organization (even so-called not-for-profits) must make money

in some form or another to stay in business. If an organization spends more than
it takes in, then it will be out of business. Thus, the challenge for every organi-
zation is to become profitable at whatever it does so that it can continue to do
what it does. Managers, employees, suppliers, and customers all have their wants
and needs that the business must satisfy in an efficient manner so profit can
be achieved. Thus the first formula that every Six Sigma Green Belt must learn is
the S-bar calculation: $!
History
Over the centuries, managers have tried to find ways to keep their organization in
business. Many different techniques have been employed over the years to keep
customers coming back time and time again. Unfortunately for many organiza-
tions, people’s wants and needs change over time, leaving the organization with the
challenge of finding new and better ways of satisfying those needs and wants.
The concept of setting standards of work goes back many centuries and was the
foundation of the guilds and crafts trades that developed over the years. Dur-
ing the mid-1800s to early 1900s, separation of work was developed to speed up
the process of development and production. Innovators like Frederick Taylor and
Henry Ford developed ideas and techniques that are still with us today.
2
Chapter 1: A. Six Sigma and Organizational Goals 3
Given these new methods of doing business, the quality control/quality assur-
ance (QC/QA) specialist was created to ensure that standards were established
and maintained so that customers would be satisfied. In many organizations,
Part I.A.1
however, this also created a separation of tasks, and many people in organizations
came to think of the responsibility for satisfying customers as only in the hands of
the people in the QC/QA groups/departments instead of in the hands of the
people who actually did the work of making the product or providing the service.
This was especially true in the United States during the decades of the 1950s, 1960s,
and 1970s as managers looked for better ways to try to manage all the resources of
the organization. Many organizations still struggle with customer satisfaction!
In the mid-1920s a young engineer named Walter Shewhart devised a tech-
nique of using graphs to monitor a process to identify whether that process was
acting in a predicable manner or if what he termed special causes were affecting the
process. These charts became known as quality control charts; however, today we
sometimes call them process behavior charts, as we want to look at what the process
is doing in relation to statistical probabilities. Many other tools and techniques
have been developed since then, known by a long list of names. Quality develop-
ments over the years are summarized in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years.
Quality Approximate
approach time frame Short description
Quality 1979–1981 Quality improvement or self-improvement study groups
circles composed of a small number of employees (10 or fewer) and
their supervisor. Quality circles originated in Japan, where
they are called “quality control circles.”
Statistical Mid-1980s The application of statistical techniques to control a process.
process control Also called “statistical quality control.”
(SPC)
ISO 9000 1987–present A set of international standards on quality management
and quality assurance developed to help companies
effectively document the quality system elements to be
implemented to maintain an efficient quality system. The
standards, initially published in 1987, are not specific to
any particular industry, product, or service. The standards
were developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), a specialized international agency
for standardization composed of the national standards
bodies of 91 countries. The standards underwent revisions in
2000 and 2008, and now include ISO 9000:2000 (definitions),
ISO 9001:2000 (requirements), and ISO 9004:2000
(continuous improvement).
Reengineering 1996–1997 A breakthrough approach involving the restructuring of an
entire organization and its processes.
Continued
4 Part I: Overview: Six Sigma and the Organization
Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years. (Continued)
Quality Approximate
Part I.A.1
approach time frame Short description

Benchmarking 1988–1996 An improvement process in which a company measures
its performance against that of best-in-class companies,
determines how those companies achieved their
performance levels, and uses the information to improve
its own performance. The subjects that can be benchmarked
include strategies, operations, processes, and procedures.
Balanced 1990s– A management concept that helps managers at all levels
scorecard present monitor their results in their key areas.
Baldrige 1987–present An award established by the U.S. Congress in 1987 to raise
Award criteria awareness of quality management and recognize U.S.
companies that have implemented successful quality
management systems. Two awards may be given annually
in each of five categories: manufacturing company, service
company, small business, education, and health care. The
award is named after the late Secretary of Commerce
Malcolm Baldrige, a proponent of quality management.
The U.S. Commerce Department’s National Institute of
Standards and Technology manages the award, and ASQ
administers it.
Six Sigma 1995–present As described in Chapter 1.
Lean 2000–present As described in Chapter 2.
manufacturing
Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a structured and disciplined process designed to deliver perfect prod-
ucts and services on a consistent basis. It aims at improving the bottom line by
finding and eliminating the causes of mistakes and defects in business processes.
Usually, Six Sigma is associated with process capabilities of Cpk > 1.5, which are
considered world-class performance. Sigma is a statistical term that refers to the
standard deviation of a process about its mean.
A wide range of companies have found that when the Six Sigma philosophy is
fully embraced, the enterprise thrives. What is this Six Sigma philosophy? Several
definitions have been proposed. The threads common to these definitions are:
• Use of teams that are assigned well-defined projects that have direct
impact on the organization’s bottom line.
• Training in “statistical thinking” at all levels and providing key people
with extensive training in advanced statistics and project management.
These key people are designated “Black Belts.”
• Emphasis on the DMAIC approach to problem solving: define, measure,
analyze, improve, and control.
• A management environment that supports these initiatives as a business

strategy.
Opinions on the definition of Six Sigma can differ:
Part I.A.1
• Philosophy. The philosophical perspective views all work as processes
that can be defined, measured, analyzed, improved, and controlled
(DMAIC). Processes require inputs and produce outputs. If you control
the inputs, you will control the outputs. This is generally expressed
as the y = f(x) concept.
• Set of tools. Six Sigma as a set of tools includes all the qualitative and
quantitative techniques used by the Six Sigma expert to drive process
improvement. A few such tools include SPC, control charts, failure
mode and effects analysis, and process mapping. There is probably
little agreement among Six Sigma professionals as to what constitutes
the tool set.
• Methodology. This view of Six Sigma recognizes the underlying and
rigorous approach known as DMAIC. DMAIC defines the steps a Six
Sigma practitioner is expected to follow, starting with identifying the
problem and ending with the implementation of long-lasting solutions.
While DMAIC is not the only Six Sigma methodology in use, it is
certainly the most widely adopted and recognized.
• Metrics. In simple terms, Six Sigma quality performance means 3.4
defects per million opportunities (accounting for a 1.5-sigma shift in
the mean).
At this point, Six Sigma purists will be quick to say, “You’re not just talking about
Six Sigma; you’re talking about lean too.” Today, the demarcation between Six
Sigma and lean has blurred. With greater frequency, we are hearing about terms
such as “sigma-lean,” because process improvement requires aspects of both
approaches to attain positive results.
Six Sigma focuses on reducing process variation and enhancing process con-
trol, while lean—also known as lean manufacturing—drives out waste (non-value-
added activites) and promotes work standardization and value stream mapping.
Six Sigma practitioners should be well versed in both.
Quality Pioneers
Most of the techniques found in the Six Sigma toolbox have been available for
some time thanks to the groundbreaking work of several professionals in the
quality sciences.
Walter Shewhart worked at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric where he
developed and used control charts. He is sometimes referred to as the father of
statistical quality control because he brought together the disciplines of statistics,
engineering, and economics. He described the basic principles of this new disci-
pline in his book Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product. He was ASQ’s
first honorary member.
W. Edwards Deming emphasized the need for changes in management structure

and attitudes. He developed a list of “Fourteen Points.” As stated in his book Out
of the Crisis1 they are:
Part I.A.1
1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.

2. Adopt a new philosophy.
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone;
instead, minimize total cost by working with a single supplier.
5. Improve constantly and forever every process for planning, production,
and service.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Adopt and institute leadership.
8. Drive out fear.
9. Break down barriers between staff areas.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the workforce.
11. Eliminate numerical quotas for the workforce and numerical goals for
management.
12. Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship. Eliminate
the annual rating or merit system.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement
for everyone.
14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.
Joseph M. Juran since 1924 has pursued a varied career in management as an
engineer, executive, government administrator, university professor, labor arbi-
trator, corporate director, and consultant. He developed the Juran trilogy, three
managerial processes for use in managing for quality: quality planning, quality
control, and quality improvement. Juran wrote hundreds of papers and 12 books,
including Juran’s Quality Control Handbook, Quality Planning and Analysis (with F. M.
Gryna), and Juran on Leadership for Quality. His approach to quality improvement
includes the following points:
1. Create awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement.
2. Mandate quality improvement; make it a part of every job description.
3. Create the infrastructure: establish a quality council, select projects for
improvement, appoint teams, provide facilitators.
4. Provide training in how to improve quality.
5. Review progress regularly.
6. Give recognition to the winning teams.
7. Propagandize the results.

8. Revise the reward system to enforce the rate of improvement.
Part I.A.1
9. Maintain momentum by enlarging the business plan to include goals
for quality improvement.
Deming and Juran worked in both the United States and Japan to help businesses
understand the importance of continuous process improvement.
Philip Crosby wrote many books including Quality Is Free, Quality without Tears,
Let’s Talk Quality, and Leading: The Art of Becoming an Executive. Crosby, who origi-
nated the zero defects concept, was an ASQ honorary member and past president.
Crosby’s fourteen steps to quality improvement as noted in the Certified Manager
of Quality/Organizational Excellence Handbook2 are:
1. Make it clear that management is committed to quality.
2. Form quality improvement teams with representatives from each
department.
3. Determine how to measure where current and potential quality
problems lie.
4. Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool.
5. Raise the quality awareness and personal concern of all employees.
6. Take formal actions to correct problems identified through
previous steps.
7. Establish a committee for the zero defects program.
8. Train all employees to actively carry out their part of the quality
improvement program.
9. Hold a “zero defects day” to let all employees realize that there has
been a change.
10. Encourage individuals to establish improvement goals for themselves
and their groups.
11. Encourage employees to communicate to management the obstacles
they face in attaining their improvement goals.
12. Recognize and appreciate those who participate.
13. Establish quality councils to communicate on a regular basis.
14. Do it all over again to emphasize that the quality improvement
program never ends.
Armand Feigenbaum originated the concept of total quality control in his book
Total Quality Control, published in 1951. The book has been translated into many
languages, including Japanese, Chinese, French, and Spanish. Feigenbaum is an
ASQ honorary member and served as ASQ president for two consecutive terms.
He lists three steps to quality:
1. Quality leadership
2. Modern quality technology
Part I.A.1
3. Organizational commitment
Kaoru Ishikawa developed the cause-and-effect diagram. He worked with
Deming through the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). The
Certified Manager of Quality/Organizational Excellence Handbook3 summarizes his
philosophy with the following points:
1. Quality first—not short-term profit first.
2. Consumer orientation—not producer orientation. Think from the
standpoint of the other party.
3. The next process is your customer—breaking down the barrier of
sectionalism.
4. Using facts and data to make presentations—utilization of statistical
methods.
5. Respect for humanity as a management philosophy—full participatory
management.
6. Cross-functional management.
Genichi Taguchi taught that any departure from the nominal or target value for a
characteristic represents a loss to society. He also popularized the use of fractional
factorial designed experiments and stressed the concept of robustness
Toyota Motor Company provided leadership in lean manufacturing systems.
This will be covered in Chapter 2.
Processes
A process is a series of steps designed to produce products and/or services. A pro-
cess is often diagrammed with a flowchart depicting inputs, a path that material
or information follows, and outputs. An example of a process flowchart is shown
in Figure 1.1. Understanding and improving processes is a key part of every Six
Sigma project.
The basic strategy of Six Sigma is contained in the acronym DMAIC, which
stands for define, measure, analyze, improve, and control. These steps constitute the
cycle used by Six Sigma practitioners to manage problem-solving projects. The
individual parts of the DMAIC cycle are explained in subsequent chapters.
Business Systems
A business system is designed to implement a process or, more commonly, a set
of processes. Business systems make certain that process inputs are in the right
place at the right time so that each step of the process has the resources it needs.
Perhaps most importantly, a business system must have as its goal the continual
improvement of its processes, products, and services. To this end the business
system is responsible for collecting and analyzing data from the processes and
other sources that will help in the continual improvement of process outputs.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the relationships between systems, processes, subprocesses,
Part I.A.1
and steps.
Calculate Over Yes

Number of hours $100?
gross pay
Deduct tax
No
Hourly rate
Deduct Social Security
Print check
Figure 1.1 Example of a process flowchart.
Systems
Processes
Subprocesses
Steps
Figure 1.2 Relationships between systems, processes, subprocesses, and steps. Each part
of a system can be broken into a series of processes, each of which may have
subprocesses. The subprocesses may be further broken into steps.
Process Inputs, Outputs, and Feedback

Figure 1.3 illustrates the application of a feedback loop to help in process control.
It is often useful to expand on a process flowchart with more elaborate diagrams.
Part I.A.1
Various versions of these diagrams are called process maps, value stream maps,
and so on. Their common feature is an emphasis on inputs and outputs for each
process step, the output from one step being the input to the next step. Each step
acts as the customer of the previous step and supplier to the next step. The value
to the parent enterprise system lies in the quality of these inputs and outputs
and the efficiency with which they are managed. There are two ways to look at
the method by which efficient use of inputs/resources is implemented to produce
quality outputs:
• Some would state that a function of process management is the collection
and analysis of data about inputs and outputs, using the information as
feedback to the process for adjustment and improvement.
• Another way of thinking about this is that the process should be designed
so that data collection, analysis, and feedback for adjustment and
improvement are a part of the process itself.
Either approach shows the importance of the design of an appropriate data collec-
tion, analysis, and feedback system. This begins with decisions about the points at
which data should be collected. The next decisions encompass the measurement
systems to be used. Details of measurement system analysis are discussed in later
chapters. The third set of decisions entails the analysis of the data. The fourth set
of decisions pertain to the use of the information gleaned from the data:
• Sometimes the information is used as real-time feedback to the process,
triggering adjustment of inputs. A typical example would involve the
use of a control chart. Data are collected and recorded on the chart. The
charting process acts as the data analysis tool. The proper use of the chart
sometimes suggests that a process input be adjusted.
• Another use for the information would be in the formation of plans for
process improvement. If a stable process is found to be incapable, for
instance, designed experiments may be required. Any enterprise system
must perform process improvement as part of its day-to-day operation.
Only in this way can the enterprise prosper.
Feedback loop
Input Process Output
Process steps
Figure 1.3 A feedback loop.

Inputs Outputs
Process step
Man Products
Machine Services
Part I.A.1
Methods
Mother nature
Management
Materials
Measurement system
Classify each input as:

C = controllable
NC = noncontrollable
N = noise
X = critical
Figure 1.4 Categories of inputs to a process step.
Figure 1.4 shows the categories of inputs to a process step. It is helpful to list inputs
in the various categories and then classify each input as indicated.
Significance of Six Sigma

Six Sigma is just the latest term for the more general concept of continual improve-
ment. Continual improvement can be defined as the use of problem-solving tech-
niques and quick deployment to implement improvements and then use process
behavioral studies (Wheeler) to maintain the gains. Six Sigma has been described
as a breakthrough system (Juran) and is being used in many organizations today
in a variety of applications. Basically, Six Sigma is about collecting data on a pro-
cess and using that data to analyze and interpret what is happening in that process
so that the process can be improved to satisfy the customer (Kano and Taguchi). A
basic process can be defined as an input, transformation, and output.
Six Sigma was first started at Motorola, Inc. and was then developed more into
what we know today at General Electric. By following a prescribed process, the
entire organization starts to look at everything that it does in the light of reducing
variation and reducing waste with the result of increasing customer satisfaction.
Customers could be anyone from the next person who uses the work we do (inter-
nal customer) to the ultimate customer who uses the products or services that our
organization produces (external customer). To assist in this process, sometimes the
supplier and customer will be added to the basic process definition listed above,
creating the SIPOC identification: supplier, input, process, output, customer. This
is used especially to help define the boundaries of what is to be studied.
For some, the idea of improving a process is a waste of time that should not
be bothered with (“we are already working the hardest that we can”). But as Juran
once said: “Changes creep up on us week by week, a little bit at a time. Over a year
or two, there are 50 or 100 of these bits, which amounts to quite a bit. The skills of
the men have not necessarily kept pace, and we wake up to the existence of a wide
gap.”4 This is one explanation for why accidents and product rejections happen
in our shops. If the root cause is actually found for any accident or rejection of
product or service, it will usually be traced back to many small changes that
occurred either within our own organization or at our supplier.
By using Six Sigma methodologies, we will be able to find those bits of changes
Part I.A.1
and decide which ones should be changed for process improvement and which
ones need to be corrected. This process is not meant to be a quick fix (magic bullet)
approach. The logical use of the tools over time will save us resources and effort
in doing our daily jobs.
A Green Belt’s Role

You will find in this process for solving problems a number of tools and methods
that you may already be familiar with and a few that may be new to you. You may
very well ask: “How is this any different from what we have been doing before?”
The direct answer will need to be answered by your organization depending on
the various programs that have already been tried. For many of us, this process
will be part of an ongoing evolution of how we do our work. One of the main
things that you should notice is that upper management will be more involved
with your problem-solving efforts and in the everyday problems that are found in
your work areas.
During the process, and while using this book, you will be able to reference the
Six Sigma model for improvement. It has been shown and demonstrated that by
using a model or road map, we can usually accomplish something much quicker
than without a guide. Some organizations today use something called the MAIC
model. They refer to this process as being able to do “magic” without the “garbage”
(G) that we find in most operations. Many organizations have added a define (D)
stage, identifying the process customers, thus making for the DMAIC model.
You may already have control plans, process sheets, standard operating pro-
cedures, or any number of other things that you use in your daily work. The use
of the Six Sigma model for improvement should not replace anything that you
are currently doing, but be used to review daily work to look for areas or meth-
ods of improving the process in light of what your customers want and need. Just
because we are doing the same things that we might have done before, do our cus-
tomers still want the same things from us?
We are entering a journey of continual improvement that can involve our work
and our lives. Some of us have been on this journey for some time while others
may be just starting. The process involves using what Deming refers to as pro-
found knowledge: appreciation for a system, knowledge about variation, theory of
knowledge, and psychology. Through the Six Sigma methodology and using the
Six Sigma model for improvement, we should see things around us work better
and satisfy our customers more.
Potential Tasks
Your organization may already be using something called Six Sigma or some other
method (for example, quality operating system [QOS], continuous improvement
[CI], total quality management [TQM], or some other name). As an operator of a
process, you will be asked by your supervisors or management to help implement
improvement of the process(es) that you work with. Your challenge will be to look
at the process for both the simple improvements that you may already know need
to be made (preventive maintenance, cleanliness, parts wearing out, and so on.) as
Part I.A.1
well as to assist in measuring certain factors about the process to investigate better
ways of performing the process.
You will be asked to use the tools in this book, and maybe others, to study
your work and process(es) to look for improvement ideas and to implement those
ideas. You may already be familiar with some of these tools, and the challenge
will be how to use them, possibly in new ways, to make the changes that will
help your company stay in business in today’s fiercely competitive world. We no
longer compete only against others within our own country, but against others
from countries around the world. How can they do a better job than us, ship the
parts that we make, and sell them to our customers faster, better, and cheaper than
us? This is the question that should be on your team’s mind.
Many of us have found that by using a model or framework we can do things
simpler—a picture is worth a thousand words. This is also true when trying to
improve processes. Dr. Ishikawa (yes, the guy who created the fishbone chart)
gave us a road map to follow when first looking at a process that needs to be
improved. The words may not make much sense right now, but as you work with
process improvement, you will come to understand the importance of what is
said here:
1. Determine the assurance unit (what is to be measured).
2. Determine the measuring method (how it will be measured).
3. Determine the relative importance of quality characteristics (is this key
to our process?).
4. Arrive at a consensus on defects and flaws (does everyone agree on
good and bad quality?).
5. Expose latent defects (look at the process over time).
6. Observe quality statistically (use process behavior charting).
7. Distinguish between “quality of design” and “quality of conformance.”
After we know what we can change (quality of conformance) versus what we can
not change right now (quality of design—this is left to design for Six Sigma [DFSS]),
we can start working on our processes. Many operators start out viewing this
effort as only more work, but many will find that doing these studies will actu-
ally save them a lot of time and grief in the future as things start to improve and
machines start to work better. One question to ask yourself now is, How often does
your process slow down or stop due to something not working the way it should?
Or, Is the output ever scrapped by someone down the line (including at your exter-
nal customers) because something did not happen right at your operation?
Be willing to experiment with the tools and look for ways of applying them to
the work and processes to learn as much as you can about how a process operates
so that you can modify it as appropriate to give the customers the best possible
output that is possible.
DMAIC Model
The DMAIC model stands for: define, measure, analyze, improve, and control and is
very similar to the PDSA or PDCA model that you may already be using.
Part I.A.1
A key factor in each step is for management to allow the time and resources
to accomplish each of the phases to strive for continual improvement. This is one
of the driving forces that makes Six Sigma different form other quality improve-
ment programs. The other driving forces include: getting everyone in the organi-
zation involved, getting the information technology group to assist in supplying
data more quickly for everyone, and getting financial data in the form of cost of
quality analysis.
Everyone will be asked to get involved with the Six Sigma model to look for
continual improvement opportunities in their work areas. Basically, you will do
the following in each step:
Define: identify the issue causing decreased customer satisfaction
Measure: collect data from the process
Analysis: study the process and data for clues to what is going on
Improve: act on the data to change the process for improvement
Control: monitor the system to sustain the gains
A number of tools and methods can be used in each of the steps of the DMAIC
model. This is only a quick overview of many of these items. More detailed infor-
mation can be found in the references, on the Internet, or probably in the quality
office of your organization. The DMAIC model uses the following:
Define
Management commitment—PDSA
SIPOC (supplier, input, process, output, customer)
Define the problem—five whys and how
Systems thinking
Process identification
Flowchart
Project management
Measure
Identify a data collection plan
Measurement systems analysis (MSA)
Collect data—check sheets, histograms, Pareto charts, run charts,
scatter diagrams
Identify variability—instability, variation, off-target
Benchmark—start by setting the current baseline for the process

Start cost of quality
Part I.A.1
Analyze
Continual improvement
Preventive maintenance
Cleanliness
Benchmark—continue process
Central limit theorem
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T)
Shop audit
Experiments
Improve
Process improvement
Organizational development
Variation reduction
Problem solving
Brainstorm alternatives
Create “should be” flowcharts
Conduct FMEA
Cost of quality
Control
Management commitment—PDCA
Control plan
Dynamic control plan (DCP)
Long-term MSA
Mistake-proofing
Process behavior charts
Update lessons learned
Many will find this process very exciting as they will have the tools and meth-
ods to demonstrate the improvements that they are helping the organization to
achieve. There have been times in the past when an employee tried to tell a super-
visor that something was wrong with a machine or process. Now we have the
means to not only tell but show and demonstrate what needs to be done. Follow-
Part I.A.1
ing this process creates a road map for continual improvement and once started,
is a never-ending journey. These tools and methods have proven themselves to be
useful everywhere: from shop floors to front offices, from schools to hospitals, and
even in churches or at home.
The Six Sigma Road Map

As we prepare for the Six Sigma journey, here is a quick view of the suggested map
that we can follow:
1. Recognize that variation exists in everything that we do; standardize
your work.
2. Identify what the customer wants and needs. Reduce variation.
3. Use a problem-solving methodology to plan improvements.
4. Follow the DMAIC model to deploy the improvement.
5. Monitor the process using process behavior charts.
6. Update standard operating procedures and lessons learned.
7. Celebrate successes.
8. Start over again for continual improvement—PDSA/SDCA.
Cost–Benefit Analysis (Cost of Quality–Quality Cost)

This is a financial tool that should be used to report how quality levels are being
sustained on the shop floor within an organization. Many things that are worked
on throughout the shop can be classified into one of four categories: prevention
costs, appraisal costs, internal failure costs, or external failure costs. However, not all
expenses of the company are used, only those that relate in some way to the prod-
ucts or services that are shipped to customers. The real power of this tool is not
so much that you use the exact or “right” measures for each expense, but that you
look at trends over time to see what you are doing. You want to find out what the
total cost is to provide your customers with products and services (see Figure 1.5).
Traditionally, when cost of quality is first calculated for an organization, a pic-
ture such as Figure 1.5 emerges. Part of the reason for this is that many accoun-
tants and managers have not been taught about this tool in their formal education
nor does any governmental or professional organization require the reporting of
financial data in this format.
On the other hand, organizations that have learned to use the cost–benefit
analysis of quality cost, as called for in Six Sigma, are typically very surprised
at the amount of waste that is being produced. By focusing on reducing preven-
tion and appraisal costs, failure costs will slowly start to come down. This will not
happen overnight and may take years, in stubborn cases, to show improvement as
old products work their way out of the customer system.
No one should be blamed for the poor results of the first measurement. It
is important to look at these numbers as a benchmark to measure improvement
from. The results of the numbers should be made available to everyone so that
Part I.A.1
ideas can be generated as to what can be done and how. Remember the old adage:
“What gets measured, gets done!” Thus, if everyone knows that management is
watching the numbers on cost of quality, things should start to improve.
The ultimate goal is to change the overall picture to look like Figure 1.6. As
an organization continually improves their products and services, they will see an
overall reduction in total cost to manufacture and produce products and services.
Total cost
of quality
Quality level that

minimizes total
quality costs
Costs
Cost of
nonconformance
Cost of
conformance
Zero percent quality level, percent good 100 percent
Figure 1.5 Traditional quality cost curves.
Total cost
of quality
Quality level that

minimizes total
Costs
quality costs
Cost of
nonconformance
Cost of
conformance
Zero percent quality level, percent good 100 percent
Figure 1.6 Modern quality cost curves.

2. ORGANIZATIONAL DRIVERS AND METRICS

Part I.A.2
Recognize key drivers for business (profit,

market share, customer satisfaction,
efficiency, product differentiation) and how
key metrics and scorecards are developed
and impact the entire organization.
(Understand)
Key Drivers
All organizations depend heavily on the measurement and analysis of perfor-
mance. Such measurements should not only derive from business needs and strat-
egy, but they should also provide critical data and information about key processes,
outputs, and results. Several types of data and information are needed for perfor-
mance management. A number of key drivers form the backbone of any business’s
effort to present performance information to executives and staff. These include
customer, product, service, operational, market, competitive, supplier, workforce,
cost, financial, governance, and compliance performance. A major consideration
in performance improvement and change management involves the selection and
use of performance measures or indicators. The measures or indicator that one
selects must best represent the factors that lead to improved customer, operational,
financial, and ethical performance. A comprehensive set of measures or indicators
tied to customer and organizational performance requirements provides a clear
basis for aligning all processes with one’s organizational goals.
Voice of the Customer (VOC)

One of the key organizational drivers is customer and market knowledge—the
ability of an organization to determine the requirements, needs, expectations, and
preferences of customers and markets. Also necessary are the relationships with
customers and the ability to determine the key factors that lead to customer acqui-
sition, satisfaction, loyalty, and retention, and to business expansion and sustain-
ability. The voice of the customer (VOC) is the process for capturing customer-related
information. This process is proactive and continuously innovative to capture
stated, unstated, and anticipated customer requirements, needs, and desires. The
goal is to achieve customer loyalty and to build customer relationships, as appro-
priate. The VOC might include gathering and integrating survey data, focus group
findings, Web-based data, warranty data, complaint logs and field reports, and
any other data and information that affect the customer’s purchasing and rela-
tionship decisions.
Balanced Scorecard
Many business professionals advocate the use of a balanced scorecard type of
Part I.A.3
approach for the selection of project metrics as a method for ensuring that the proj-
ect meets both customer and business needs. The balanced scorecard approach
includes both financial and nonfinancial metrics, as well as lagging and leading
measures across four areas or perspectives: financial, customer, internal pro-
cesses, and employee learning and growth. Lagging measures are those that are
measured at the end of an event, while leading measures are measures that help
achieve objectives and are measured upstream of the event.
This new approach to strategic management was developed in the early 1990s
to help managers monitor results in key areas. The concept was illustrated by Drs.
Robert Kaplan and David Norton, who named this system the balanced scorecard.
Recognizing some of the weaknesses and vagueness of previous management
approaches, the balanced scorecard approach provides a clear prescription as to
what companies should measure in order to “balance” financial results.
The balanced scorecard is not only a measurement system, but also a man-
agement system that enables organizations to focus on their vision and strategy
and translate them into actions. It provides feedback on both internal business
processes and external outcomes in order to continuously improve strategic
performance and results. When fully deployed, the balanced scorecard trans-
forms strategic planning from an academic exercise into the nerve center of the
enterprise.
Most balanced scorecard metrics are based on brainstorming; however, the
approach of brainstorming can have limited success in establishing sound metrics
that maintain a good balance between lagging and leading measures.
3. ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS AND SIX SIGMA PROJECTS
Describe the project selection process

including knowing when to use six sigma
improvement methodology (DMAIC) as
opposed to other problem-solving tools,
and confirm that the project supports and is
linked to organizational goals. (Understand)
Linking Projects to Organizational Goals

Organizational goals must be consistent with the long-term strategies of the enter-
prise. One technique for developing such strategies is called hoshin planning. This
is a planning process in which a company develops up to four vision statements
that indicate where the company should be in the next five years. Company goals
and work plans are developed based on the vision statements. Periodic audits are
then conducted to monitor progress.
Part I.A.3
Once Six Sigma projects have shown some successes there will usually be
more project ideas than it is possible to undertake at one time. Some sort of project
proposal format may be needed along with an associated process for project selec-
tion. It is common to require that project proposals include precise statements of
the problem definition and some preliminary measures of the seriousness of the
problem, including its impact on the goals of the enterprise.
A project selection group, including Master Black Belts, Black Belts, organi-
zational champions, and key executive supporters, establishes a set of criteria
for project selection and team assignments. In some companies the project selec-
tion group assigns some projects to Six Sigma teams and others to teams using
other methodologies. For example, problems involving extensive data analysis
and improvements using designed experiments would likely be assigned to a Six
Sigma team while a process improvement not involving these techniques might be
assigned to a lean manufacturing team. New-product design should follow DFSS
guidelines.
The project selection criteria is always a key element to furthering of orga-
nizational goals. One key to gauging both the performance and health of an
organization and its processes lies with its selection and use of metrics. These are
usually converted to financial terms such as return on investment, cost reduc-
tion, and increases in sales and/or profit. Other things being approximately equal,
the projects with the greatest contributions to the bottom line receive the highest
priority.
The formula for expected profit is
EP = Σ Profit × Probability
EXAMPLE
A gambler is considering whether to bet $1.00 on red at a roulette table. If the ball falls
into a red cell, the gambler will receive a $1.00 profit. Otherwise the gambler will lose
the $1.00 bet. The wheel has 38 cells, 18 being red.
Analysis: Assuming a fair wheel, the probability of winning is 18/38 ≈ 0.474 and the
probability of losing is 20/38 ≈ 0.526. In table form:
Outcome Profit Probability Profit × Probability

Win $1 .474 $0.474
Loss –$1 .526 –$0.526
Expected outcome = –$0.052
In this case the gambler can expect to lose an average of about a nickel (–$0.052) for
each $1.00 bet. Risk analysis for real-life problems tends to be less precise primarily
because the probabilities are usually not known and must be estimated.
EXAMPLE
A proposed Six Sigma project is aimed at improving quality enough to attract one or
Part I.A.3
two new customers. The project will cost $3M. Previous experience indicates that
the probability of getting customer A only is between 60 percent and 70 percent and the
probability of getting customer B only is between 10 percent and 20 percent. The prob-
ability of getting both A and B is between 5 percent and 10 percent.
One way to analyze this problem is to make two tables, one for the worst case and
the other for the best case, as shown in Table 1.2.
Assuming that the data are correct, the project will improve enterprise profits
between $1M and $2.5M.
When estimating the values for these tables, the project team should list the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) that the proposal implies. A
thorough study of this list will help provide the best estimates (see Figure 1.7).
Table 1.2 Risk analysis table.
Worst case profit Best case profit

Profit × Profit ×
Outcome Probability Probability Probability Probability
A only $2 M .60 $1.2 M $2 M .70 $1.4 M
B only $2 M .10 $0.2 M $2 M .20 $0.4 M
A&B $7 M .05 $0.35 M $7 M .10 $0.7 M
None –$3 M .25 –$0.75 M –$3 M 0 $0 M
Expected profit = $1 M Expected profit = $2.5 M
Strengths: Weaknesses:
High-quality product Pricing
Monthly quantity commitment Union plant
Tooling cost by customer High employee turnover
Just-in-time concepts Aging equipment—downtime
Online interface issues
Product mix
Opportunities: Threats:
Potential industry leadership Competition from startups
More growth Labor force
Long-term contract Union plant
Unstable market
Unstable labor force
Figure 1.7 A format for SWOT analysis.

A system may be thought of as the set of processes that make up an enterprise.

When improvements are proposed it is important to take a systems approach.
This means that consideration be given to the effect the proposed changes
Part I.A.3
will have on other processes within the system and therefore on the enterprise
as a whole. Operating a system at less than its best is called suboptimization.
Changes in a system may optimize individual process but suboptimize the system
as a whole.
Examples:
• The resources invested in improving process A might be more profitably
invested in process B.
• The throughput rate of a process increases far beyond the ability of the
subsequent process to handle it.
• A distribution center loads its trucks in a manner that minimizes its
work. However, this method requires the receiving organization to
expend more time, energy, resources, and dollars unloading the truck.
A different loading style/arrangement might be more expensive to the
distribution center but would result in significant cost reduction for
the entire system.
Index
A blocking, in design of experiments, 281

Bloom’s Taxonomy, of levels of cognition,
activity network diagram (AND), 91 xxvii–xxviii
advanced quality planning (AQP), 91–92 box plot, 163–66
affinity diagram, 92 box-and-whisker plot, 163–66
AIAG (Automotive Industry Action Group), brainstorming, 84–87, 95–97, 114, 135–36
216, 324 business results, for projects, 66–69
GR&R reference, 204–5 business systems, 8–9
SPC Manual, process change rules, 328–29
alternative hypothesis, 248–49
American National Standards Institute C
(ANSI), 216
American Society for Quality c control chart, 325
certification process, xxiii–xxxvi causation, versus correlation, 172, 233
examination process, xxvi–xxix cause-and-effect diagram, 97–98, 134–35
test development process, xxiii–xxv cause-and-effect diagram with addition of
test maintenance, xxv–xxvi cards (CEDAC), 134, 135–36
Code of Ethics (Appendix A), 358–59 causes, analyzing for, 327
analysis of variance (ANOVA) center, of sample, 159
in design of experiments, 297 central limit theorem, 143–46
single-factor (one-way), 264–69 Certified Six Sigma Green Belt Body of
using Excel to perform, 268–69 Knowledge, comparison to Certified
using Excel’s FINV function, 267–68 Six Sigma Black Belt Body of
analytical statistical studies, 142–43 Knowledge, xxx–xxxv
analyze, phase of DMAIC, 15, 223–74 check sheet, 99
assignable cause, 302 chi-square distribution, 184–85
attribute(s) data, 110 using Excel to perform, 272–73
process capability for, 219–22 chi square test, 270–74
attributes control charts, 110–11, 319 combinations, in probability, 151–52
auditing, 92–94 common cause variation, 166, 301
average main effects, 285 communication, flow, in organizations, 89–90
complementation rule, 148
compound events probability, 148
B conditional probability, 148–49
confidence interval
balanced design, in design of experiments, for the mean, 252–53
288 for proportion, 254–55
balanced scorecard, 19, 66 for regression line, 240–42
bell curve, 182 for variation, 254
benchmarking, 94–95 confounding, and effects, in design of
between-sample variation, 310 experiments, 288–89
bias, in measurement system analysis, 200 contingency coefficient, 273
binomial distribution, 176–79 contingency tables, 273
normal approximations of, 179 continual improvement (CI), 351–52
block, in design of experiments, 277 continuous data, 153–154
437
438 Index
control, phase of DMAIC, 15, 299–356 defects per million opportunities (DPMO),
control chart, 110–11 67
analysis of, 327–35 defects per unit (DPU), 67
interpretation, 327–28 define, phase of DMAIC, 14, 47–126
selection and application of, 311–26 tools, 91–126
setting up, 306–7 Deming, W. Edwards, 6, 56, 351
in statistical process control, 302–8 system of profound knowledge, 12, 352
for variables, 312 dependent variables, 278
control factors, in design of experiments, descriptive measures, summary, 159
278 descriptive statistical studies, 142–43, 157
control limits, 312–13 descriptive statistics, 157–60
control plan, 342–56 design failure mode and effects analysis
correlation, 232 (DFMEA), 41
versus causation, 172, 233 design for agility, 45
correlation, linear, 232–46 design for assembly, 44
correlation coefficient, 170, 233–38 design for compliance, 45–46
calculating, 234 design for cost, 44
with Excel, 237–38 design for efficiency, 45
testing significance of, 236–37 design for extended functionality, 45
cost of quality, 16–17 design for maintainability, 44
cost performance index (CPI), 66 design for manufacturing, 44
cost–benefit analysis, 16–17 design for performance, 45
Cp, 68, 213–15, 218 design for producibility, 44
Cpk, 68, 213–15, 218 design for robustness, 44–45
Cpm, 215–17 design for scalability, 45
Cr, 68, 213 design for security, 45
creativity, lost, as waste, 34 design for Six Sigma
critical path method (CPM), 116–18 in the organization, 37–46
Crosby, Philip, 7 road maps for, 42
cumulative frequency distribution, 160 design for test/testability, 44
current state, 61 design for usability, 45
customer data design of experiments (DOE), 276–97
analyzing, 57 basic terms, 276–78
collecting, 56 design principles, 280–81
customer feedback, 99–100 history of, 278
customer requirements, translating, 57 main effects, 287–97
customers, identifying, 55 objectives, 280, 283
cycle time analysis, 338 planning and organizing experiments,
cyclical variation, 224 278–84
design to cost, 44
discrete data, 153, 154
D dispersion, of sample, 158
distribution-free test, 273
data distributions
collecting, 153–75 binomial, 176–79
errors, 156 chi-square, 184–85
methods, 155 F, 186–87
summarizing, 153–75 normal, 182–84
types of, 153–54 Poisson, 179–81
data accuracy, techniques for assuring, t, 185–86
156–57 DMADV (define, measure, analyze, design,
data analysis, exploratory, 224–46 verify) methodology, 42, 43–46
data integrity, techniques for assuring, DMAIC model, 14–16, 336
156–57 documentation, project, 61
data matrix, in design of experiments, 279 dot plot, versus box plot, 164
defect correction, as waste, 33 drivers, organizational, 18–19
Index 439
drum–buffer–rope, 35–36 fractional factorial experiment, in design of

dynamic control plan (DCP), 346–48 experiments, 294
two-level, 294–97
full-factorial experiment, in design of
E experiments, 291–94
future state, 61
effects, and confounding, in design of
experiments, 288–89
eight discipline approach (8D), to problem G
solving, 115–16
error-proofing, 29, 353–55 gage control plan, 348
errors gage repeatability and reproducibility
in statistical process control, 301 (GR&R) study, 190–205, 348
types of, in hypothesis testing, 249 challenges in, 204
events common errors in, 198–99
mutually exclusive, in probability, Gantt chart, 109–10
149–50 graphical methods, statistics, 160–75
relations between, in probability, 149 Green Belt
examination process, ASQ, xxvi–xxix role in Six Sigma, 12
Excel Six Sigma certification Body of
FINV function, in one-way ANOVA, Knowledge (Appendix B), 360–67
267–68 tasks of, 12–13
using to perform chi-square distribution, group charts, 111
272–73
using to perform one-way ANOVA,
268–69 H
excess motion, as waste, 31
excess movement of material, as waste, 32 hoshin planning, 19–20
excess processing, as waste, 33–34 house of quality, 118
experimental design, 277 hypothesis testing, 248–74
classification of, 279–80 hypothesis tests, for means, 255–57
experimental error, in design of experiments,
277
exploratory data analysis, 224–46 I
IDOV (identify, design, optimize, verify)
F methodology, 42–43
improve, phase of DMAIC, 15, 276–97
F distribution, 186–87 independent variables, 278
F test, 263–64 individuals and moving range (ImR) control
factor, in design of experiments, 276, 278 chart, 316–18
failure mode and effects analysis, 40–42, 69, inferences in correlation, 236–37
100–105, 339 inferences in regression, 243–44
failure mode and effects criticality analysis inferential statistical studies, 157
(FMECA), 347 instability, in variability, 352
feather diagram, 97 interaction effects, in design of experiments,
feedback loop, 10 286–88
Feigenbaum, Armand, 7–8 International Organization for
fishbone diagram, 97–98 Standardization (ISO), 351
Fisher, Ronald A., 278 interrelationship digraph, 112–13
5S methodology, 26–27, 355 interviews, 113
flowchart, 105–7, 128–31, 338 inventory, as waste, 31
focus groups, 107 Ishikawa, Kaoru, 8
force-field analysis, 107–9 road map for process improvement, 13
Ford Motor Company, 100 Ishikawa diagram, 97–98
fourteen points, Deming’s, 6 ISO 9000 quality management system, 351
440 Index
ISO/TS 16949 standard, 100 confidence intervals for, 252–53

hypothesis tests for, 255–57
mean time between failures (MTBF), 174–75
J measles chart, 138
measure, phase of DMAIC, 14–15, 128–222
Juran, Joseph M., 6–7 measures, descriptive, summary, 159
just in time (JIT), 28 measurement correlation, 200
measurement scales, types of, 153–54
measurement system analysis, 188–205,
K 339
measurement variation, sources of, 197
kaikakku, 28, 355 median control charts, 318–19
kaizen, 28, 355 methodology, definition of Six Sigma, 5
versus kaizen event, 28 methods
kaizen blitz, 28, 355 control, 337–38
kaizen event, 28, 355 improve, 337
kanban, 28–29, 355–56 metrics
Kaplan, Robert, 66 definition of Six Sigma, 5
organizational, 18–19
project, 60
L MIL-STD-1629A, military standard, 69, 100
Minitab, process change rules, 328
Latin square experiment, 280 mistake-proofing, 29, 353–55
leadership, team, 73–74 motion, excess, as waste, 31
lean movement of material, excess, as waste, 32
concepts and tools, 23–29 muda, eight categories of, 30–34
principles, 23–36 multiple linear regression, 242–46
tools, 23–29 multiplicative law, 150
for control, 352–56 multi-vari chart, 224
lean enterprise organization, 24–26 multi-vari studies, 224–32, 340–41
least squares method, of simple regression, procedure, 226
239–40 multivoting, 87–88, 114
lessons learned (SLACK), 339
level, in design of experiments, 276
levels of cognition, Bloom’s Taxonomy, N
xxvii–xxviii
linear correlation, 232–46 natural process limits, 210–11
linear regression, 232–46 natural variation, 302
multiple, 242–46 negative team dynamics, 74–75
linearity, in measurement system analysis, noise factors, in design of experiments, 278
200 nominal group technique (NGT), 87, 114, 136
locational data, 153 nonparamatric test, 273–74
lost creativity, as waste, 34 non-value-added activities, 30–34
lot-to-lot variation, 224 normal distribution, 182–84
normal probability plots, 172–74
Norton, David, 66
M np control chart, 321–23
null hypothesis, 248–49
MAIC methodology, 12, 42
main effects, in design of experiments, 284–
97, 340 O
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award,
351 off-target, in variability, 352
management tools, 65 one population proportion, 258–59
matrix diagram, 113–14 one-factor experiment, in design of
mean experiments, 289–90
Index 441
one-tail test, 249–50 process capability, 206–21, 214–15

one-way ANOVA, 264–69 for attributes data, 219–22
operating characteristic (OC) curve, 305 short-term versus long-term, 217–18
organization in statistical process control, 301–2
design for Six Sigma in, 37–46 process capability (Cp) assessment, 198
lean principles in, 23–36 process capability indices, 68, 213–15
and Six Sigma, 2–46 process capability studies, 206–9
organizational drivers and metrics, 18–19 process change, indicators of, 328–29
organizational goals process control, 328–35
linking to Six Sigma projects, 19–22 process decision program chart (PDPC), 116
and Six Sigma, 2–22 process documentation, 128–41
overall equipment effectiveness (OEE), 29 process elements, 50–53
overproduction, as waste, 31 process failure mode and effects analysis, 41
process identification, 51–53
process improvement, 339, 352
P process inputs, 10–11, 133–41
examples, 133
p control chart, 319–21 process management, for projects, 50–57
p test, 258–59 process maps, 128–31
paired-comparison tests, 260–64 process modeling, 128–33
parametric test, 273 process outputs, 10, 133–41
Pareto chart, 136–39 examples, 133–34
part-to-part variation, 224 process owners, 54
Paynter charts, 111 process performance, 67–68, 206–22
Pearson correlation, 170 versus specification, 209–13
percent agreement, in GR&R, 200–202 process performance indices, 215–17
perfection, as goal, 34 process Z, 221
permutations, in probability, 150–51 processing, excess, as waste, 33–34
philosophy, definition of Six Sigma, 5 profound knowledge, Deming’s, 12
planned grouping, in design of experiments, project charter, 58
277 project closure, 64
planning project documentation, 61
project, 59 project evaluation and review technique
tools, 65 (PERT), 116–18
Poisson distribution, 179–81 project management, basics, 58–64
poka-yoke, 29, 353–55 project metrics, 60
population mean, 143 project performance measures, 66–67
population parameters, 142–43 project planning, 59
population standard deviation, 143 tools, 60
Pp, 215–17, 218 project risk analysis, 62–64
Ppk, 215–17, 218 project scope, 59
pre-control, 300 proportion
prioritization matrix, 114–15 confidence intervals for, 254–55
probability one population, 258–59
basic concepts, 146–52 pull system, 28
conditional, 148–49
key rules, summary, 147
and statistics, 142–52 Q
probability distributions, 176–87
problem solving, 115–16 QS-9000 standard, 100
problem statement, 58 quality, history of, 2–3
procedures, written, 132–33 quality cost, 16–17
process, definition, 8 quality function deployment (QFD), 37–40,
process analysis, 128–41 118–22
process behavior chart, 302–8. See also control quality pioneers, 5–8
chart quantitative data, 153
442 Index
R Six Sigma
concepts, 336–38
random sampling, 157 definitions, 4–5, 11
and statistical process control, 208 Green Belt certification Body of
randomization, in design of experiments, Knowledge (Appendix B), 360–67
277, 280–81 implementation concepts, 338–40
randomized block design, 281 and the organization, 2–46
ranking test, 273–74 and organizational goals, 2–22
rational subgrouping, in statistical process road map, 16
control, 309–11 checklist, 338
recognition, of teams, 73 significance of, 11–12
regression, linear, 232–46 and team roles and responsibilities, 78–79
regression, multiple linear, 242–46 validation of outcomes, 341
regression, simple, 238–40 value of, 2–17
procedure for testing, 244–45 Six Sigma projects
using Excel for, 245–46 business results for, 66–69
regression line, confidence interval for, linking to organizational goals, 19–22
240–42 process management for, 50–57
relationship diagram, 139–41 SLACK, lessons learned, 339
repeatability, in measurement, 189–92 solutions, implementing and validating,
repetition, in design of experiments, 277 336–41
replication, in design of experiments, 277, 281 special cause variation, 301–2
reproducibility, in measurement, 189, 192 specification, versus process performance,
response variables, 278 209–13
risk analysis, project, 62–64 spread, of sample, 157–59
risk priority matrix, 122 stakeholders, 54
risk priority number (RPN), 122 standard error of the mean, 144
rolled throughput yield (RTY), 68 standard operating procedures (SOPs),
run chart, 166–67 348–51
standard work, 29, 356
standardization, 340
S statistical conclusions, drawing valid,
142–43
sample size, in hypothesis testing, 251–52 statistical process control (SPC), 299–335
sampling control charts, analysis of, 327–35
and statistical process control, 208–9 control charts, selection and application
types of, 157 of, 311–26
sampling distribution of the mean, 143–46 definitions, 299
sampling plan, 122–23 objectives and benefits, 299–309
scatter diagram, 167–72 rational subgrouping, 309–11
correlation in, 233 and sampling, 208–9
schedule performance index (SPI), 67 theory, 299–300
scope, project, 59 statistics
sequential sampling, 157 descriptive, 157–60
set of tools, definition of Six Sigma, 5 graphical methods, 160–75
shape, of sample, 159 and probability, 142–52
Shewhart, Walter, 3, 5, 299–300, 351 stem-and-leaf plot, 162–63
shift-to-shift variation, 224 storyboards, for project documentation, 61
short-run charts, 111 stratified sampling, 157
sigma levels, 68 Student’s t test, 257–58
signal factors, in design of experiments, 278 suboptimization, 22
simple events probability, 148 surveys, written, 125
simple regression, 238–39 swim-lane process map, 129
procedure for testing, 244–45 SWOT analysis, 21
using Excel for, 245–46 system, definition, 22
single-factor ANOVA, 264–69 systematic sampling, 208–9
SIPOC diagram, 51–53, 123, 134, 336 systems thinking, 53
Index 443
T value, 23
value stream, 24–26
t distribution, 185-86 value stream analysis, 24
t test value stream map, 24
paired, 262–63 value-added activities, versus non-value-
Student’s, 257–58 added activities, 30–34
two-mean, equal variance, 260–61 variability, 352
two-mean, unequal variance, 261 sources of, 334
Taylor, Frederick, 351 variable data, 110, 153
teams variables
basics, 70 control charts for, 312
dynamics and performance, 70–90 in design of experiments, 278
formation, 70–71 selection of, in statistical process control,
leadership, 73–74 308–9
negative dynamics, 74–75 variables charts, 110, 311–12
roles and responsibilities, 78–79 variation
stages and dynamics, 71–75 confidence intervals for, 254
tools, 84–88 in measurement, sources, 197
virtual, 71 of sample, 158
temporal variation, 224 in variability, 352
test development process, ASQ, virtual teams, 71
xxiii–xxv visual factory, 27–28, 355
test maintenance, ASQ, xxv–xxvi voice of the customer (VOC), 18
theory of constraints, 34–36 in QFD, 37, 118
tools
control phase, 337–38
define phase, 91–126 W
improve phase, 337
lean, for control, 352–56 waiting, as waste, 31
management and planning, 65 waste, eight categories of, 30–34
team, 84–88 Weibull plot, 174–75
total productive maintenance (TPM), 29, within-part variation, 224
356 within-sample variation, 310
treatment, in design of experiments, 276 work instructions, 132–33
treatment combination, 276 written procedures, 132–33
tree diagram, 123–25
two-level fractional factorial experiment, in
design of experiments, 294–97 X
two-tail test, 250–51
–
type I error, in hypothesis testing, 249 X and R control chart, 313–14
–
type II error, in hypothesis testing, 249 X and s control chart, 315–16
U Y
u control chart, 323–25 Youden square experiment, 280
V Z
validation, of Six Sigma outcomes, 341 Z-score, 183, 221

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The Certified Six Sigma

Green Belt Handbook

The Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook, Second Edition

Applied Statistics for the Six Sigma Green Belt

Statistical Quality Control for the Six Sigma Green Belt

Six Sigma for the Office: A Pocket Guide

5S for Service Organizations and Offices: A Lean Look at Improvements

Defining and Analyzing a Business Process: A Six Sigma Pocket Guide

Lean Kaizen: A Simplified Approach to Process Improvements

The Certified Manager of Quality/Organizational Excellence Handbook, Third Edition

Enabling Excellence: The Seven Elements Essential to Achieving Competitive Advantage

To request a complimentary catalog of ASQ Quality Press publications,

Roderick A. Munro, Matthew J. Maio,

ASQ Quality Press

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The certified six sigma green belt handbook / Roderick A. Munro.

Publisher: William A. Tony

Printed in the United States of America

Printed on acid-free paper

CD-ROM Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Part I Overview: Six Sigma and the Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Part II Six Sigma—Define . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Written Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Part III Six Sigma—Measure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Part IV Six Sigma—Analyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Part V Six Sigma—Improve and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Chapter 19 B. Statistical Process Control (SPC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Part VI Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

How to Use This CD

Figure 9.5 Example FMEA reporting and RPN chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Figure 15.2 Control limit versus specification limit grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Figure 17.6 Final results of one-way ANOVA in Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

THE TEST DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

several years before working on The Certified Quality Engineer Handbook

THE EXAMINATION PROCESS

Analyze (Analysis Level)

Six Sigma Green Belt BoK SSBB BoK

Six Sigma Green Belt BoK SSBB BoK

Six Sigma Green Belt BoK SSBB BoK

Six Sigma Green Belt BoK SSBB BoK

Six Sigma Green Belt BoK SSBB BoK

Six Sigma Green Belt BoK SSBB BoK

Further suggested readings from Quality Progress magazine in exam development

Maness, Thomas C. “New Industry-Specific Quality Certification.” Quality Progress 35,

1. VALUE OF SIX SIGMA

Recognize why organizations use six sigma,

Body of Knowledge I.A.1

Every company or organization (even so-called not-for-profits) must make money

Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years.

Table 1.1 Some approaches to quality over the years. (Continued)

approach time frame Short description

• A management environment that supports these initiatives as a business

W. Edwards Deming emphasized the need for changes in management structure

1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.

7. Propagandize the results.

Calculate Over Yes

Deduct Social Security

Figure 1.1 Example of a process flowchart.

Process Inputs, Outputs, and Feedback

Input Process Output

Figure 1.3 A feedback loop.

Classify each input as:

Figure 1.4 Categories of inputs to a process step.