Geothermics, Vol. 18, No. 1/2, pp. 49-56, 1989. 0375-6505/89 $3.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain. Pergamon Press plc

A REVIEW ON SOLUBILITY AND POLYMERIZATIONOF SILICA

S.H. Chan

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Wisconsin--Milwaukee
P.O. Box 784
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201 U.S.A.

Abstract--A review of advances on s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a in aqueous solu-

tions has been made. Relevant l i t e r a t u r e on effects of temperature, pH, pressure
and dissolved salt content on s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y has been discussed. Also reviewed
is the research work on polymerization of amorphous s i l i c a over a range of pH,
temperature, supersaturation and s a l i n i t y conditions. The existing models for
the polymerization rate are summarized and compared. The reports on reaction
order and maximumpolymerization rate have been contradictory. Lack of s o l u b i l i t y
and polymerization data at elevated temperature, pH and, especially, in solutions
containing multi-component dissolved salts are found to l i m i t advances in current
understanding of s i l i c a behavior.

INTRODUCTION

Geothermal energy has received increasing attention as an a t t r a c t i v e alternate energy

source both from economic and environmental points of view. The applications vary from
power generation, d i s t r i c t heating, hot water supplies to greenhouse heating. While
exploitation of geothermal energy appears desirable, there remain technical problems with
the use of geothermal brines, including emission of H2S, H2 and CO2 gases, and scaling
due to calcium carbonate and s i l i c a depositions. The scaling, in particular, has been a
major concern in geothermal power plants and is a primary deterrent to greater u t i l i z a t i o n
in power generation.
S i l i c a , being one of the two major scale found in geothermal systems, is abundant in
nature and exists in large amounts in underground geothermal reservoirs. On the basis of
geologic evidence, s i l i c a concentration is determined by the equilibrium s o l u b i l i t y of
quartz in hot reservoirs (Fournier and Rowe, 1966). Nearly a l l dissolved s i l i c a is in
monomeric form (White et a l . , Ig56). The precipitation of s i l i c a is, however, dominated by
the s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a (Krauskopf, 1956). When the hot brine is brought to the
surface i t is either flashed or cooled while passing through a power plant system to release
i t s available thermal energy. The dissolved s i l i c a in brine may then become supersaturated.
Depending on the degree of supersaturation the dissolved monomeric s i l i c a may nucleate, form
polymers, and ultimately deposit as amorphous s i l i c a scale on, say, heat exchanger surfaces.
To model s i l i c a scale deposition, most needed are s o l u b i l i t y and polymerization rate of
dissolved s i l i c a (Chart et a l . , 1983, IgB/b, 1988). Recent advances in s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y and
polymerization are reviewed below. Since the subject is quite complicated and covers many
disciplines, the relevant publications are scattered widely in the science and engineering
l i t e r a t u r e . The present review is by no means comprehensive. An excellent e a r l i e r summary
was given by l l e r (1979).

SOLUBILITY OF AMORPHOUS SILICA IN AQUEOUS SOLUIION

When solid phases of s i l i c a are in contact with water, small amounts of s i l i c a w i l l

dissolve and enter the aqueous phase. The dissolution of s i l i c a is governed by two
chemical reactions--hydration and dehydration, which are catalyzed by OH- ions:

49
50 S. H. C;han

OH-
x(Si02) + 2H20 ~ (x - l)(SiO 2) + Si(OH)4 {i)

Hydration yields a soluble monomeric s i l i c a , Si(OH)4, which is also termed dissolved

monomeric s i l i c i c acid. The s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a in aqueous solutions is affected
by temperature, pH, pressure and s a l t content.

Temperature Effect on S o l u b i l i t y of S i l i c a

Fournier and Rowe (197/) c r i t i c a l l y evaluated many e a r l i e r reported s o l u b i l i t y and

measured amorphous s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t i e s along the liquid-vapor curve from 180° to 382° C and
200 to 1379 bars (20 Mpa to 157.9 Mpa). The s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a , in ppm (mg/kg),
in s a l t - f r e e neutral water solution at vapor pressure of the solution from 0° to 250° C,
was expressed by
log Ce = - 731/T + 4.52, T in K (2)

At a constant high pressure of I000 atm, from 0 to 3BO° C

log Ce = - 810/T ÷ 4.B2, T in K (3)

Marshall (IgBO) reported that the molar s o l u b i l i t i e s , M, of s i l i c a in water between

298 and 573 K as

log M = - 0.I185 - 1.1260 x I03/T + 2.3305 x I05/T 2 - 3.6784 x 107/I 3, T in K (4)

Figure I summarizes the s o l u b i l i t i e s of s i l i c a in neutral pure water at elevated

temperatures and at the corresponding saturation pressures taken from Marshall (1980),
who also incorporated the data of Fournier and Rowe (197/) and Kitahara (1960).

Pressure Effect on S o l u b i l i t y of S i l i c a

Willey (1974) measured the pressure e f f e c t on the s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a in

seawater at 0° C. He reported that s o l u b i l i t y increased from 65 to l ] ppm when pressure
was increased from I to 150 atm and then increased l i n e a r l y to 94 ppm at 1200 atm. Among
others, Fournier and Rowe (197/) investigated the high pressure e f f e c t from 200 to 1379
bars and found that the amorphous s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y to be approximately a l i n e a r function
of pressure in the range from 200 to 265° C (Fig. 2). Generally the pressure e f f e c t is
less s i g n i f i c a n t than the temperature e f f e c t .

pH Effect on Amorphous S i l i c a S o l u b i l i t y

Early measurements of the s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a at various pH values were

carried out by Goto et a l . (1953) and others (Alexander et a l . , 1954). Figure 3 presents
the data of Goto et a l . , which shows increasing s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a with
increasing temperature and pH.

S a l i n i t y Effect on Amorphous S i l i c a S o l u b i l i t y

Krauskopf (1956), Greenberg and Price (195/) and Siever (]962) found that there were no
appreciable effects on the s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a by dissolved salts of moderately
low concentration. Jorgensen (1968), however, showed that s o l u b i l i t y is highly affected by
the presence of s a l t . He reported I f . ? ppm at 25° C in l.O m NaClO4 solution, much smaller
than I00-120 ppm in neutral water without s a l t . Jephcott and Johnston (1950) showed that
s o l u b i l i t y was reduced s i g n i f i c a n t l y when aluminum was added or presented. The effects of
aluminum and calcium ions on s o l u b i l i t y were also studied by I l e r (19/5, 1976).
The s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a in aqueous sodium n i t r a t e solutions up to six molal,
from 25° to 300° C, was reported by Marshal] (lgBO). Marshall and Warakomski (lgBO)
measured s o l u b i l i t y at 25° C in aqueous s a l t solutions, each containing one of the salts:
LiCl, NaCl, KCI, MgCl, CaCl, LiNO, LiN03, NAN03, MgS04, and Na2SO4. Chanet a l . (lgB/a)
investigated the s a l i n i t y effects of eleven s a l t s : NaCl, NaBr, NaI, LiCl, KC}, NaNO3, NaAc,
Na2S04, MgCl2, CaCl2 and SrCI2 between 25 to 70° C. A t y p i c a l set of s o l u b i l i t y curves at
25° C are shown in Fig. 4. The amorphous s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y can be well correlated by
hydration number of salts (Fig. 5). At a given dissolved s a l t concentration and 25° C,
 Solubility and Polymerization of Silica 51

Ces/Ce = I - 3.46 n i (5)

seems to correlate well the e f f e c t of a l l eight cations on s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y (Chan et a l . ,

1987a). In the above Ces and Ce are the molal s o l u b i l i t y in s a l t and s a l t - f r e e water,
respectively, and ni is the hydration number of cation i . On the basis of Figs. 4 and 5,
the decreasing e f f e c t of cation on amorphous s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y is (Chart et a t . , 1987b;
Marshall and Warakomski, 19BO),

Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Li ÷ > Na+ > K+.

To investigate the effects of anions, the presence of sodium halide salts (NaCI, NaI
and NaBr) in brine solutions have been investigated (Chanet a l . , IgBTa). The order of
anionic e f f e c t was found as
_ _ - -

I > Br > Cl .

Chen and Marshall (1982) determined amorphous s i l i c a in separate aqueous solutions of

NaCI, Na2SO4, MgCl and MgSO4 over the range of I00-300 ° C at various s a l t m o l a l i t i e s .
Subsequently, they (Marshall and Chen, 1982b) showed that the amorphous s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y
data in NaCl, Na2S04, MgC12, MgS04, NAN03, KCI, KN03, LiCl and LiNO3 from 25 to 300° C
could be f i t t e d to the Setchenow equation (with a maximumaverage deviation of 17%),
log (Ce/Ces) = D m,

where m is the m o l a l i t y of added s a l t and D is the Setchenow parameter given in Table I.

As shown, for example, by Long and McDevit (1952), f o r other nonelectrolyte substances
dissolved in e l e c t r o l y t e solutions, the parameter D is approximately a d d i t i v e with respect
to the individual ions. Consequently, Chen and Marshall (19B2) proposed that the s o l u b i l i t y
in multicomponent e l e c t r o l y t e solutions be estimated from the s o l u b i l i t i e s in single s a l t
solutions,
log (Ce/Cemix) = ~ mi Di (6)

where Cemix is the molal s o l u b i l i t y in a mixed e l e c t r o l y t e solution, and Di and mi are the
D parameter (given in Table l ) and m o l a l i t y , respectively, of an individual e l e c t r o l y t e i .
F i n a l l y , a d i f f e r e n t method to calculate s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y at elevated temperature and pH
has been described by Fleming and Crerar (1982).

KINEIICS OF SILICA POLYMERIZATION

S i l i c a p o l y m e r i z a t i o n can occur when the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of m o n o s i l i c i c acid in aqueous

s o l u t i o n exceeds the s o l u b i l i t y l i m i t of amorphous s i l i c a . Excess monomers in the s o l u t i o n
g r a d u a l l y disappear t o form polymers. The r a t e equation w i d e l y used by previous workers to
describe the r a t e of monomeric s i l i c a disappearance in s o l u t i o n takes the form
dC
- d-~ = k (C - Ce)n (7)

where C and Ce a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , the a c t u a l monomer c o n c e n t r a t i o n present and the e q u i -

l i b r i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t the r e a c t i o n temperature, k and n are the r e a c t i o n constant and
r e a c t i o n o r d e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Many have studied the p o l y m e r i z a t i o n r e a c t i o n k i n e t i c s in
supersaturated s o l u t i o n s near ambient temperature ( e . g . , Alexander, 1954; Baumann, 1959;
Goto, 1956; K i t a h a r a , 1960; Rothbaum and Wilson, 1977; Bohlmann e t a l . , 1976; I l e r , 1979;
etc.). However, c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e s u l t s have been r e p o r t e d on k i n e t i c o r d e r and on maximum
p o l y m e r i z a t i o n r a t e w i t h temperature and s o l u t i o n pH. The maximum r a t e between 6 < pH < 9
and r e a c t i o n o r d e r of 1 t o 8 have been r e p o r t e d . P o l y m e r i z a t i o n of s i l i c i c acid t o
polymeric molecules are a f f e c t e d by pH, t e m p e r a t u r e , s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n , and s a l i n i t y due t o
the presence of o t h e r substances.

pH E f f e c t on P o l y m e r i z a t i o n of S i l i c i c Acid

The k i n e t i c s of condensation of s i l i c i c acid have been s t u d i e d by many workers as

mentioned above. The r e a c t i o n r a t e depends s t r o n g l y on pH (pH = 6 t o 10). In s l i g h t l y
a l k a l i n e or n e u t r a l s o l u t i o n s , the p o l y m e r i z a t i o n is c a t a l y z e d by a h y d r o x y l i o n . In v e r y
a l k a l i n e s o l u t i o n s , above pH 9, the r e a c t i o n r a t e decreases. In h i g h l y a c i d i c s o l u t i o n ,
52 S. H. Chart

below pH 3, the reaction at room temperature appears to be catalyzed by H+. l l e r (1953)

reported the behavior of the s i l i c i c acid condensation below pH 3.
Baumann (1959) provided the f i r s t systematic study of the polymerization and depoly
merization at 30° C, 5.8 S pH ~ 9, and several i n i t i a l dissolved s i l i c a concentrations. He
observed that the polymerization rate increased with increasing pH (above 3), dissolved
s i l i c a and salt concentrations. Alexander (1954) reported that the polymerization might
follow a second order reaction over pH 4.36, and Goto (1956) interpreted that a t h i r d order
would be applicable to the polymerization in alkaline solutions. Kitahara (1960) obtained
n = 2 in acidic solution and n = 3 for alkaline solutions while those by Rothbaum and Wilson
(197/) varied from 5 to 8. Harvey et a l . (19/6) observed that the rate constant is roughly
a factor of ten greater at pH 5.l than at pH 4.2 for polymerization runs in which the salt
concentration and monomer supersaturation are the same. Rothbaumand Wilson (1977) studied
the reaction in natural hydrothermal f l u i d s at 50-120° C for 7 S pH ~ B.7. They reported
that reaction orders from 2 to 8 were tested with none being satisfactory. Rothbaumand
Rohde (1979) made s i m i l a r studies on synthetic solutions at 5-180° C and 7 S pH S 8 with
various i n i t i a l supersaturations. They proposed a two-step mechanism for the polymerization
process: the formation of dimer f i r s t and then rapid polymer growth of fourth kinetic order
l a t e r . Bohlmann et a l . (1980) studied polymerization at 60 and lO0° C, pH 5.2 to 6.8 and
l . l m (molality) of NaCl and summarized t h e i r rate data by a single equation where the
kinetic order for hydroxide ion is 0.7 and that for dissolved s i l i c a is 2, while the rate
constant is independent of temperature from 60 to lO0° C.
Weres et a l . (198]) conducted polymerization experiments at 50-100° C and pH 6.2 to 1.8
in roughly 0.07 m o l a l i t y buffered systems and Fleming (]986) at 25-50° C and pH 4 to 8 in 0
to l m NaCl solution. Both explained the pH and ionic strength effects by a polymerization
rate d i r e c t l y proportional to s i l i c a surface charge (SiO- ion in Table 2).

Supersaturation Effect on S i l i c i c Acid Polymerization

Rothbaum and Rohde (1979) investigated the polymerization of s i l i c i c acid starting at

various i n i t i a l s i l i c i c acid concentrations above the equilibrium values at 5 to 180° C,
and reported that the length of the induction period increases with temperature and
decreases with supersaturation. They obtained a fourth order reaction expression based on
the maximum rate of the disappearance of monomers of each polymerization curve. Rothbaum
and Wilson (197/) reported that induction times were greatly decreased with higher s i l i c a
supersaturation. Baumann (1959) showed that induction times were longer at lower super
saturated s i l i c i c acid concentration. Harveyet a l . (1976) obtained a f i r s t ordered
reaction for s i l i c a polymerization at 95° C, pH 5.2 and indicated that the k value varied
with supersaturation. Makrides et a l . (1980) presented t h e i r work on the condensation of
s i l i c a from supersaturated s i l i c i c acid solution at 75-105° C, 4.5 ~ pH ~ 6.5 and 700-1200
ppm of s a l i n i t y and s i l i c i c acid concentration. They found that the induction time varied
as the reciprocal of the hydroxide ion concentration. A small amount of fluoride greatly
increased the polymerization rate at pH value of 4.5. They were the f i r s t to distinguish
the roles of homogeneous nucleation and molecular deposition in the process.
Most polymerization studies (Alexander, 1954; Weres et a t . , 1979; I1er, 1953; etc.)
prepared s i l i c a supersaturation solutions by dissolving sodium s i l i c a t e . Io avoid possible
interference from sodium and other impurities in the sodium s i l i c a t e solution, Chanet al.
(1987a) employed pure saturated s i l i c a solutions at 150° C and then quenched to 60° C to
induce supersaturation. Polymerization was investigated at 3 ~ pH ~ 8.19 in s a l t free
solutions. The reaction constant was reported to be a linear function of pH.

Temperature Effect on the Polymerization of S i l i c i c Acid

When a solution i n i t i a l l y saturated with s i l i c a is suddenly quenched to a lower

temperature, s i l i c a becomes supersaturated. The lower the f i n a l temperature, the higher
the supersaturation. Thus, the f i n a l temperature (often simply termed the temperature)
can have great bearing on the reaction rate.
Kitahara (1960) observed the temperature effect from 0 to 100° C, and reported that
the rate of the polymerization increased with temperature. Bishop and Bear (1971), however,
found that between 25 and 35° C at pH B.5 the reaction rate f i r s t decreased with increasing
temperatures, and then increased above 35° C. A rate enhancement factor of 1.6 for a 17° C
rise in temperature was reported by Harvey et at. (1976). Rothbaumand Rohde (1979)
observed that between 5 and 90° C the maximum rate of s i l i c a polymerization increased
s l i g h t l y with temperature in d i l u t e neutral solution at constant supersaturation, and from
90 to 180° C the maximum rate decreased to below the rate at 5° C.
 Solubility and Polymer&ation of Silica 53

S a l i n i t y Effect on the Polymerization of S i l i c i c Acid

lhe e f f e c t of s a l i n i t y on condensation rate is expected because of the decrease in

equilibrium concentration of s i l i c i c acid with the increase in the s a l t concentration.
Kinetics of condensation at fixed i n i t i a l concentration of s i l i c i c acid and at varying
s a l i n i t i e s (chloride ion concentration 0.15 to 1.55 m) were investigated by Makrides et a l .
(19B0). The induction time decreases r e g u l a r l y with increasing s a l t concentration. They
found no specific effects on condensation rate by NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2, but addition
of NaF did show a substantial e f f e c t . A l a t e r study by Chanet a l . (19BTa) showed a
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t due to NaCl and sodium acetate s a l t s .

S i l i c i c Acid Polymerization Models

The d i f f e r e n t mechanisms of s i l i c i c acid polymerization proposed have led to d i f f e r e n t

polymerization rate equations. Someof them are summarized and compared here. Bohlmann
(19B0) demonstrated that monomeric s i l i c a deposited d i r e c t l y without p r i o r polymerization.
A rate equation to account f o r dependence on supersaturation concentration, hydroxide ion
concentration and temperature is shown in Table 2 which is taken from Fleming (19B6). Peck
and Axtmann (1979), Makrides et a l . (19BO) and Were et a l . (19BI) have proposed t h a t s i l i c a
p r e c i p i t a t i o n involves, c o l l o i d a l growth by nucleation that is i n i t i a l l y f i r s t order in
monomer, followed by ultimate deposition of aggregated p a r t i c l e s . The model by Were et a l .
(19B1) is l i s t e d in the Table as is the model by Wirth and Gieske (1979), who assumed
polymerization to be f i r s t order in s i l i c i c acid.
More recent works by Fleming (19BI, 1986), who performed polymerization experiments at
25-50° C, 0-I m NaCl and 4 ~ pH ~ 8, suggested that reaction f a l l s into two k i n e t i c regions.
In region I where the i n i t i a l s i l i c i c acid concentration C exceeds a t r a n s i t i o n concentra-
t i o n , Cx, polymerization is f i r s t - o r d e r in both s i l i c i c acid concentration, C, and in the
surface concentration of ionized hydroxyl groups (the surface change concentration, CSiO-)
on amorphous s i l i c a ,
dC
d-~ = - k As (C - Cx) Csio_ (8)
where As is the specific surface area. The s i l i c a surface charge is influenced by the
solution pH and s a l t concentration. The experimental rate constant is affected by s a l t
concentration and e x h i b i t s an Arrhenius temperature dependence

ADH vr~ 13,000 + 2.0 (9)

k = ko exp I ÷ ~ - ; In ko = 22.1 - Rl -

where ko, the s a l t - f r e e polymerization constant, is in units of m-IS -.

Fleming (198l) stated that the pseudoequilibrium concentration Cx and the real equi-
librium concentration Ces should respond i d e n t i c a l l y to temperature, pH and ionic strength.
Since there is no influence of pH or ionic strength for 4 ~ pH ~ B or I < 1.0 m on s i l i c a
equilibrium s o l u b i l i t y , he suggested that
1320
]n Cx = 9.75 - ~ - - - , Cx in ppm, T in K (lO)

In region I f , where C < CX, Fleming (19B6) proposed an empirical rate equation of
t h i r d order surface rearrangement reaction,
dC = 6798
d-~ = - ksr As Ce (C/Ce - I)3 ; ksr 13.? - ~ I in K (If)

with the quantity ksr As in units of 5- l .

Subsequently, Ontiveros (1983) formulated an a n a l y t i c a l model to include continuous
nucleation of c r i t i c a l l y sized p a r t i c l e s . Thus in region I both nucleation and f i r s t order
growth at the surface are considered while the same t h i r d order surface rearrangement model
is used in region I I .

CONCLUSION

Advances made in s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y and polymerization have been reviewed. While the

number of studies of s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y appears to be numerous, data at elevated temperature,
pH and in solutions containing multi-component salts are scarce. As to polymerization,
c o n f l i c t i n g results have been reported, although some inconsistence can be explained by
54 S. H. Chart

recent models. Data are sparse at elevated i n i t i a l temperature, pH, supersaturation and in
p a r t i c u l a r , for conditions when multiple salts are presented in bulk solutions.

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 Solubility and Polymerization of Silica 55

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1ABLE 1. Values of the D parameter of amor- 1ABLE ~. Su~lary of extst|ng ~ork and range of data (FImlng, 198~)
phous $111ca tn several salt solu-
t|on$ at various temperatures
(Narsha|l and Chert, 1982b) M~rth and
Fleming (1986) Meres et al, Bohll~annet al, Gteskes
(1981) (1900) (1979)
Added 2 5 " C 100"C 150°C 200°C 750°C 300"C
Salt
~dc * C-¢e
Rate law, ~ ~ k(C-Cx) k(c-c ) ~ k(coce)2 k(c-¢a)
MaC1 .0803 .06}9 .0515 .0427 .0353 .0295
NaSO4 .0394 .0113 -,0129 -,0413 -.0742 -.1113 Rate constant: k~ [$t0-] [StO-] [OH-] 0"7 [$10-] 2
• JC1Z .2540 .2160 .1970 .1540 .1190 .0196 Reaction Polymerization Polymerizat|on Po]ymer|zat~on Dissolution
99504 .1590 .0940 .0690 .0270 =.0250 -.0910 and Nucleation
NaNO3 .0722 .O574 ,O479 .O387 .2980 .0212 NaC](N) O-1 0.07 1,1 0-3,5
KC1 .0280 PH 4,10-8.OI 6.20-7,80 5.25-6.77 5-11
KNO3 ,0250 1('C) 25-50 504100 60 25
LIC1 .1430
L|NO3 .1320
56 S. H. Chart

.... ;, ]2O 214

q
/ ,.
Ii 2~ 312// i/'3~8 -"
.Ol~O~
L
/AMC~IPI,,IO~S
/SILICA
// / , 31~.'"~
// i~//i
i / i / ClllSTOBALITI ~ 40 _,
- - - --//./"/'"

./
/ ~
0 ,i,~, ,,,~l,,, ,, ,, ,,I ,,,,~, ,,,~
10 O0 2000 3000
SILICA SOLUBILITY, ppm
OI ~:2~ ~ ~ , ~ , ,
o I00 200 300 400
Fig. 2 Solubility of amorphous s i l i c a at
;e~RlaTU~ ('C) various temperatures and pressures.
(Fournier and Rowe, 1977
Fig. I Solubility of amorphous silica and
quartz in water at saturation vapor
pressure. (Marshall, 1980)
0"F 1400
o..
LL 1200
0 C
:~ ~ ~ooo
~ ~
u_ ~ 800
0
>_ 600
S
-- ,_
nn CO
Fig. 3 Solubility of amorphous s i l i c a at ~ 200
different pH and temperature. ._1
(Goto, 1953) 0
u) 0 ~ z ~ I ~ ~ I z ~ z z

5 6 7 8 9 I0

PH
~o ~
SOLUBILITY OF SILICA IN SALT 120
110 ~ V SOLUTIONAT 25 C
X '~
lO0 0 o ~ ~ x 110

~ oo & ~ ~ x
* ~00
~, + I ~ x ~ ~ +
80 o + ~ ~,
5 ~ ~ + v o
90 ~
7O
~
o o
*
~
80
×
~
" ~
~_ ~0 A ~ +
+ KC~ "--~
~ ~ o 70 • ~:~ ~
i 4O

3~
+
0
x
0
A
LICI
N~CI
KCI
WgCI
CoCI
~ A

+
SO

50
x
~
~
LICI
~
~I
~
~ -~
~
v ~1
o S~CI
• C~IZ
211 • NoNO3
40 o ~12
~ No2S03
IO • No~£ ~ LI~AR ~G, C~VE

0 ~ ~ I I I I ~ I I
/ SO

I ----- I
,S .6 .9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 9
S IO
S^LT CONCENTR^TI~ (M) HY~^TION NLI4~ER OF SALTS

Fig. 4 The s o l u b i l i t y of amorphous s i l i c a Fig. 5 Solubility of silica in different

in aqueous solution with salt, at salt solutions vs. hydration number
2~ C. (Cnan et al, 1987a) n. Salt concentration 0.98 m at
2~ C. (Chan, 1987~)