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SEA001 Lecture Notes 2019 20 Bello

Governance and Administration of Public sector (Obafemi Awolowo University)

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TOPIC 2: THE ARMS OF GOVERNMENT AND FUNCTIONS

The structure and organization of government vary from one country to the other.
However, three arms of government have evolved in order that the goals and business of
government may be achieved and carried out effectively. These arms are the legislature, the
executive and the Judiciary.
THE LEGISLATURE
The legislature is the law-making body of government. It is known as the parliament. It
comprises the representatives of the people elected through the party or parties or through other
agencies. It debates policies of the executive or can initiate its own policy proposals tabled
before the legislature. Such proposals are called bills and when approved and signed they
become laws.
TYPES OF LEGISLATURE
There are two types of legislature unicameral or bicameral legislature. It is unicameral
when there is only one legislative body. It is bicameral when there are two e.g. The house of
Lords is upper house while the House of commons is the lower house in Britain. The House of
senate and House of Representatives known as the Congress in U.S.A. House of Representatives
and senate called National Assembly. i.e. The senate which is made up of the Upper House, and
the House of Representatives, which is made up of the Lower House (1979 - 1983) in Nigeria.
UNICAMERAL LEGISLATURE
Unicameralism refers to a situation in a country where there is only one legislative house
or body that makes laws. Once a bill has been passed by the assembly, it goes to the president for
harassment since no second house exists. e.g. Kenya, Gambia, Sierra- Leone, Ghana etc have
once adopted Unicameral legislature.
BICAMERAL LEGISLATURE
Bicarneralism refers to a legislature with two legislative houses. Before a bill is presented
to the president for his assent, it must pass through the two houses. The idea of having two
Houses is to ensure that bills are not hastily passed. e.g. Britain. U.S.A., India, Nigeria, Canada,
Australia etc have adopted this type of legislature.
STRUCTURE OF THE LEGISLATURE
The Chairman is called the Speaker in the Lower House and President in the Upper
House in the legislature. Each party has certain officials. There the leader of the party, and the
party whip who maintains discipline among his party members, The secretary of the legislature is
civil servant who is generally known as the Clerk of the House. Proceedings of the legislature are
published and are called Hansards.
1. The primary function of the legislature is lawmaking.
2. It supervises the executive.
3. It approves government budget.
4. It amends the constitution of a country whenever it is deemed necessary.
5. It can remove any member of the executive.
6. It performs electoral functions
7. It controls public expenditure and the imposition of taxation.
8. It provides forum for settling political grievances.
9. It educates the public through debates o policies and issues.
10. It serves as a recruitment and training ground for the future leaders of the society.
11. Legislators represent opinions and interest of their constituents

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12. It ratifies judicial appointments of the executive

13. It has power to dissolve parliament
14. It has power to set up probes
15. It approves treaties
BILLS
A bill is a proposed law to be discussed in the parliament in order to become law. A bill
therefore metamorphoses into a law. For a bill to be turned into law, the head of state or
President must sign or assent to the bill.
1. Appropriation Bill: An appropriation bill deals with the total estimated revenue and
expenditure of government in a financial year. Appropriation bill originates from the
executive arm of government.
2. Public Bill: This is a bill that deals with the matter or problems that affect the whole or a
section of the country. This type of bill comes from the executive arm to the legislature.
3. Money Bill: This is a bill that deals with how Government raises and spends money. A.
money bill can therefore be in form of budget that deals with total estimated revenue and
expenditure of Government in a financial year. It has to do with specific projects
involving expenditure, originating from the executive.
4. Private Member’s Bill: This is a bill brought to the parliament by a member of the
legislature or parliament.
STAGES OF PASSING A BILL INTO LAW IN THE PARLIAMENT
1. First Reading: This is the stage at which the draft of a bill is presented to the clerk of the
house by a minister or a member of the parliament depending on the type of the bill, The
clerk of the house normally notifies members of the parliament about the presence of the
bill, and the title is read out before them. It will be printed out in leaflets and circulated to
all members for them to study before the second reading which the date will be fixed.
2. Second Reading: At this stage, the purpose of the bill is explained to the house by the
person who brought it. Members of the house will then debate or argue for or against the
bill whether it should be read a second time. It will be put into vote and if more members
vote for the bill, it will move to the next stage and if not, that will be the end of the bill.
3. Committee Stage: The bill at this stage is referred to a committee which can be a
committee of the whole house or a standing committee, depending on the importance of
the bill. A committee of the whole house comprises all members, preside over by the
speaker of the house or president of the senate. The bill is considered section by section,
and amendment proposed and voted for. Less important bills are referred to standing
committee where members are constituted into groups of four or five for purposes of
considering bills.
4. Report stage: At this stage, all the findings of the various standing committees are
reported to the house or the bill place before the house, after all necessary amendments
have been made. The Chairman or the speaker of the standing committee then reads the
bill in its amended form to the house.
5. Third Reading: At this final stage, a thorough look is taken at the bill to correct certain
errors connected with the drafting or amendment. A final vote is also taken on the bill at
this stage, before it is taken to the President for his assent or signature. After the bill has
passed all the five stages in both the house of senate and representatives and the President
has signed, the bill automatically becomes a law.

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THE EXECUTIVE
It is one of the three organs of government that is responsible for policy making. It
implements and enforces laws that are made by the legislature. Members of the executive include
the Prime Minister the president, Head of State, Governments, Ministers, Commissioners etc. It
is the embodiment of government.
TYPES OF EXECUTIVE
There are two types of Executives:
Parliamentary and Presidential executive. In a parliamentary system the Chief Executive
is the Prime Minister. The President acts as the constitutional Head of state while the Prime
Minister is the real Head of government with political powers. There is no distinctive separation
of powers between the executive and legislature. This is so because the Prime Minister and other
Ministers are members of the parliament. e.g Britain.
In the presidential system, the president is so powerful that he combines the power and
functions of Head of State and head of Government together. The president is not a member of
the parliament like that of the Prime Minister. The Principle of separation of powers is strictly
followed. The president does not take part in the legislative debates. He chooses his cabinet
outside the members of the House of parliament e.g. Nigeria, Cote d ‘Ivoire, Tanzania, Liberia,
Brazil, Chile and Mexico.
1. It is charged with the task of maintaining law and order.
2. It intimates and defends bill before the legislature.
3. It recommends measures for the consideration of the legislature.
4. It formulates polices on both foreign and domestic matters,
5. It executes or implements the laws made by legislature.
6. It provides welfare services to the citizens.
7. It maintains external relations, sign treaties, etc with other countries.
8. It prepares the total proposed financial expenditure and revenue of the government.
9. It has the power to pardon convicted offenders in a country.
10. It keeps the public informed about the activities and policies of the government
11. It has the power to dissolve the parliament.
12. It has the power to control what is to be imported and exported in a country
13. It appoints the Chief Justice of the Federation and other high ranking officials of the
judiciary.
14. It has delegated power to make minor laws like statutory orders, edicts, etc
15. It carries out general administrative functions like recruitment of civil servants, creation
of employment opportunities for the citizens, provision of food; shelter, etc to the people
of the country.
CONTROL OF THE EXECUTIVE
The executive can be controlled in the following ways:
1. The opposition party controls the executive through force and constructive criticisms
2. The legislature in a presidential system can impeach and remove the executive.
3. A free and independent press also controls the executive through fearless criticisms.
4. The Judiciary controls the executive through judicial review.
5. The party in power controls the executive by requesting for the removal of a particular
commissioner or minister.
6. The legislature controls the executive through the power to approve the budget and probe
the executive.

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THE JUDICIARY:- The judiciary is the third arm of government responsible for the
interpretation of laws. It is also responsible for the punishment of offenders. It is independent of
the other two arms of government and thus can adjudicate without fear or favour. It adjudicates
in disputes between the executive and the legislature and between government and the citizens. It
is the watchdog of democracy and the real safeguard of civil liberties. The Judiciary is made up
of different courts like the Supreme Court, Appeal Courts, High Courts, Administrative Courts
and Tribunals.
Judges are appointed by the executive on the advice of the judicial service commission,
but once appointed can only be removed on the grounds of proven misconduct and after due
process of enquiry. This is to guarantee judges independence and impartiality. But in a military
regime military leaders remove judges without the normal process.
FUNCTIONS OF THE JUDICIARY
I. It interprets the law,
2. It punishes the offenders.
3. It safe-guards rights and liberties of the citizens.
4. It protects the constitution.
5. It gives advice to the execution prerogative of mercy.
6. They participate as members of Tribunals.
7. It determines election petitions.
8. It adjudicates in disputes between the executive and the legislature and between
government and citizens or organizations.
INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY
Independence of the judiciary means that the judiciary must be impartial and free from
control and interference by the government, powerful groups and individuals who might wish to
influence the course of justice. The judiciary is said to be independent when its officials are free
to take decision without any fear of favour. It gives the judiciary the power and courage to check
the executive and the legislature in the performance of their functions. It enables judges to
preserve individual liberties and check tyranny and dictatorship.
IMPORTANCE OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY
1. It enab1es the judiciary to discharge its duties without any fear or favour.
2. It ensures the principle of natural justice.
3. It prevents it from being controlled by other organs of government.
4. It ensures the freedom of the judges in handling cases and interpreting law’s and statutes.
5. It checks the abuse of power and the excesses of government functionaries.
6. It ensures and protects the rights and civil liberties of the citizens,
FACTORS THAT ENSURE AND AID INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY
I. If the judiciary is separated from the other arms of government.
2. If its officials are not appointed by the executive arm of the government.
3. If there is secured tenure of office.
4. The judiciary should be freed from financial control by the executive or legislature.
5. There should be better conditions of work e.g salaries, allowances etc.
6. Judges and Magistrates should not be promoted by the executive but a central body.
7. Judges should not be dismissed by the executive.
8. Judges and magistrates should enjoy some elements of immunity if the independence of
the judiciary is to be ensured.

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Topic 4: The Military and Political Leadership in Nigeria

Nigeria's first military junta began following the 1966 Nigerian coup d'état which overthrew the
First Nigerian Republic. Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi was made the Head of the Federal
Military Government of Nigeria, serving for six months before being overthrown and
assassinated in the 1966 Nigerian counter-coup.

First Junta (1966–1979)

Aguiyi-Ironsi was succeeded by General Yakubu Gowon, who established a Supreme Military
Council. Gowon held power until July 1975, when he was overthrown in a bloodless coup.
Brigadier (later General) Murtala Mohammed succeeded Gowon. Months later, in February
1976, Mohammed was assassinated by Buka Suka Dimka and others in a violent coup attempt,
but the plotters failed to kill Olusẹgun Ọbasanjọ, who then succeeded Mohammed as head of
state. The Supreme Military Council was formally dissolved when Ọbasanjọ handed power to the
elected Shehu Shagari, ending the military regime and establishing a Nigerian Second Republic.

Second Junta (1983–1985)

Shagari was overthrown in the 1983 Nigerian coup d'état and succeeded by Muhammadu Buhari,
who was appointed Chairman of a new Supreme Military Council of Nigeria and Commander-
in-Chief of the Armed Forces by the junta. Buhari ruled for two years, until the 1985 Nigerian
coup d'état, when he was overthrown by General Ibrahim Babangida.

Third Junta (1985–1993)

General Ibrahim Babangida promulgated himself as the President of the Armed Forces Ruling
Council and the first military President of Nigeria. His rule was the longest serving in peacetime
and his administration typified the military dictatorships of the 20th century. Babangida
promised a return of democracy when he seized power, but he ruled Nigeria for eight years,
when he temporarily handed power to the interim head of state Ernest Shonekan in 1993 in a
move towards democratization. Two months later, however, Shonekan was overthrown by
General Sani Abacha while Babangida was visiting Egypt.

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Fourth Junta (1993–1999)

In 1993, General Sani Abacha overthrew Interim National Government and appointed himself
Chairman of the Provisional Ruling Council of Nigeria. After Abacha's death in 1998, General
Abdulsalami Abubakar took over and ruled until Olusẹgun Ọbasanjọ again became head of state
(via the 1999 presidential election), ending the junta and establishing the Fourth Nigerian
Republic.

Characteristics of a Military Regime

According Awofeso, O. (2006), he identified the following characteristics of a military regime

which includes:

i. Rule by force/Non-democratic: Since the military always come to power through force
otherwise known as coup d'etat. It has been argued that their government is undemocratic. This is
because an important feature of democracy is elective principle.

ii. No fixed term of office: Unlike the civilian regime, the military regime does not have a fixed
term of office. The military government relinquishes power when whenever it feels to do so.

iii. Suspension of the constitution: The first thing the does after seizing power is to suspend the
constitution and legitimize their regime as the ruling government.

iv. Rule by Decrees and Edicts: After suspending the constitution, the military make laws by
decrees and edicts at the federal and state levels respectively.

v. Autocracy: The military government is always autocratic and dictatorial. This is because they
do not owe their existence in government to the electorate; hence they should not be accountable
to them.

vi. Curtailment of Fundamental Human Rights: Freedom of association and assembly as in

the case of formation of political parties and pressure groups, the freedom of the press are most
often curtailed under the military regime.

vii. Non-separation of the executive from the legislature: The military under normal
condition is a part of the executive. But under a military regime, the same body makes laws
through decrees and edicts and implements them.

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SEA 001 Material Abioro and Adeyemi 2019 20

Governance and Administration of Public sector (Obafemi Awolowo University)

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Course code: SEA 001

Course Title: Government and Administration of Public Sector
Topic 5-8

Topic 5: Introduction to Local Government Administration in Nigeria

Local government administration in Nigeria is as old as history and its dated back pre-
colonial era. It had been part of system of government among ethnic groups in Nigeria
particularly the Yoruba in the West, Hausa/Fulani in the North and the Igbo in the East. Each
ethnic group operating it as it suits their cultural value. Under colonial administration, it was
known as indirect rule system. It was an attempt to govern the people through their chief. At
independence and thereafter it has passed through different levels of restructuring from
Native Authority System to Divisional, District and Council Manager-ship, as well as a
system of local government, which was introduced by the 1976 reform. However, since the
introduction of 1976 reform, local g overnments in Nigeria have become a uniform
administrative structure.
It is important at this juncture to examine some definitions of local government so as to have
a clear understanding of the concept. Appadorai defines it as a government by the popular
elected bodies charges with administrative and executives’ duties in matters concerning the
inhabitants of a particular district or place.
The United Nations Office for Public Administration defines local government as a political
sub-division of a nation or (in a federal system) state, which is constituted by law and has
substantial control of local affairs, including the powers to impose taxes or to exert labour for
prescribed purpose. The governing body of such an entity is elected or otherwise locally
selected.

Functions of Local Government

The Nigerian 1999 Constitution outlined the mandatory functions of Local
Government as follows:
1. Recommending to the state commission on economic planning or any similar body.
2. Collection of rates and licenses (radio, television, bicycles, canoes, wheel barrows and
carts).
3. Creation and maintenance of cemeteries and home for destitute.
4. Creation, maintenance and regulations of slaughter houses, slaughter slabs, markets,
motor parks and public conveniences.
5. Construction and maintenance of roads, street lighting, drainages, parks, gardens,
open spaces, or such public facilities as may be prescribed from time to time by the
House of Assembly of a State.
6. Naming of roads, streets and numbering of houses.
7. Provision and maintenance of public conveniences, sewages and refuse disposal;
registration of births, deaths and marriages.
8. Control and regulation of out-door advertising and hoarding, movement and keeping,
shops and kiosks, restaurants, bakeries and other places for sale of food to the public,
laundries, and sale of liquor.
9. The provision and maintenance of primary, adult and vocational education.
10. Development of agriculture and natural resources excluding exploitation of minerals.
11. Provision and maintenance of health services.

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Topic 6: Survey of Theories of Local Government

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases,
to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions.
Scholars of local governments have advanced various theories aimed at making local
government highly understandable. These theoretical perspectives have either ventured into
the theoretical area of what functional responsibilities local governments are supposed to
perform or have tried to justify the existence of local government or discussed the nature of
local politics. Some of these theories are as follow:
Decentralization Theory
The word "décentralisation" came into usage in the 1820s the major proponents of this
theory are Tocqueville and Maurice Block. The theory of decentralization expounds the
transfer of authority and responsibility from the central government to the subordinate
government to function at the levels where the central government might not be able to reach
on time. Decentralization is therefore, conceived as a strategy for mobilizing local resources
(human and materials) for sustainable national development. In Nigeria, local government is
generally recognized as a tool for rural development and political integration because of its
closeness to the rural populace.
Democratic Participatory School of Thought
A major theoretical exposition on which the existences of local government have been
justified was its ability to enhance grassroots democracy through popular participation,
effective accountability and political representation. This implies that participation in local
government affords political education, and by extension, in the views of Bentham,
Mackenzie and Laski, constitutes a training ground for national politicians. Thus, it is
believed that career politicians can use the local government as a platform for acquiring
political training and leadership qualities by first contesting as a councillor at the local
government area.
The Efficient-Service School of Thought
The main argument of the efficient-service school of thought is that the basic role of the local
government system is to provide social services. William Mackenzie one of the main
proponents of the efficient-service school of thought opined that service delivery to the local
individuals is required to pre-occupy the resources, energy and time of the local government.
Thus, to this school of thought, the main functional role of local government is to perform
effectively and efficiently, the local responsibilities allocated to it at highest efficient. As a
structure very close to the grassroots, local councils should serve as essential instrument for
the performance of basic services, which could be best administer locally based on the
intimate knowledge of needs, conditions, and peculiarities of the areas concerned.
Developmental School of Thought
This school sees local government as a system that can bring about political integration in
developing societies that are ethnically plural and diffuse. Where local sentiment and local
attachment are very strong, local government can be used positively to advance national
growth at the expense of over-stressing it local peculiarities, local government then becomes
an instrument for national awareness and national consciousness. It is able to stimulate
initiative encourage drive and experimentation, identity available local skills, interest and
abilities and sees or get them developed in the general interest.

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Topic 7: Intergovernmental Relations

The term intergovernmental relations is commonly used to refer to relations between central,
regional and local governments as well as governments between any one sphere (level), that
facilitate the attainment of common goals through co-operation. Intergovernmental relations
is an interacting network of institutions at national, provincial and local levels, created and
refined to enable the various parts of government to cooperate in a manner which is
appropriate to its institutional arrangements. According to Adamolekun (1986),
intergovernmental relations are the interactions that take place among the levels of
government within a state.
Types of Intergovernmental Relations
There are nine types of intergovernmental relations: Federal-state, federal-local, federal- civic
groups, state-state, state-local, state-civic groups, local-local, local-civic groups and inter-
civic groups.
Characteristics of Intergovernmental Relations
The following are the characteristics of Intergovernmental Relations:
1. Intergovernmental relations have a bearing on all governmental units in operation in a
given system.
2. Intergovernmental relations aim at purposeful behaviour of the governmental
officials involved in the process.
3. Intergovernmental relations aim at regular interactions among officials.
4. Public officials include all governmental officials and actors.
5. The financial aspects, viz., loans, grants-in-aid, revenue sharing, auditing, etc., also
strengthens or weakens the intergovernmental relations.
Models of Intergovernmental Relations
At the global level, three models of intergovernmental relations exist. These are:
1. Partnership or Overlapping-Authority Model
2. Principal/Agent or Inclusive-Authority Model
3. Dual or Coordinate- Authority Model
Institutions/Areas of Intergovernmental Relations
1. The National Assembly
2. The Supreme Court
3. The council of States
4. The Federal Character Commission
5. The Independent Electoral Commission
6. The National Economic Council (NEC)
7. The National Judicial Council (NJC)
8. The National Population Commission (NPC)
9. The Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal Commission
Areas of Conflict in Intergovernmental Relation
A. Resource Control
B. The Electoral Act of 2001
C. Removal and suspension of Chairmen from office
D. Newly created Local Governments in some states of the Federation.

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E. Federal/ State planning dispute

F. Internal Security
G. Minimum Wage
H. Federal Character
I. Revenue Allocation

Topic 8: Power and Control over Public Funds

Funds, in the public sector, refer to the sum of money or other resources segregated for the
purpose of carrying out specific activities in accordance with special regulations, restrictions
and limitations. Public funds means money, funds, and accounts, regardless of the source
from which the money, funds, and accounts are derived, that are owned, held, or administered
by the state or any of its boards, commissions, institutions, departments, divisions, agencies,
bureaus, laboratories, or other similar instrumentalities, or any county, city, school district,
political subdivision, or other public body.
The power and control of funds in the public sector revolves around responsibility and
accountability. This has to do with the honest application of funds and in compliance with
proper procedures, ensuring that these funds are spent on properly approved items and within
the budgeted level.
Chapter 5 of Nigerian Constitution sub section 80 is explicit on power and control over
public funds which are:
1. Power to approve spending limit
2. Power to appropriate bills
3. Revenue mobilization (imposition of taxes and borrowing)
4. Power to allocate resources.
5. Power to investigate public fund
6. Power to approve budget.

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SEA001 Lecture Note A Onwutuebe 2019 20

Governance and Administration of Public sector (Obafemi Awolowo University)

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SEA 001 Government and Administration of the Public Sector

Dr. Chidiebere J. Onwutuebe (Department of International Relations)
Lecture note on: State, Society, Nation, Civil Society and Democratization
STATE A state is an organized independent political community exercising governmental
control over a given territory and people. The essential features of a state are population,
government, sovereignty, definite territory, etc.
The main purpose of the state has largely been formulated in terms of moral values. Aristotle,
for example, said that while the state comes into existence for the sake of life, it continues to
exist for the sake of good life. Laws of the state are obeyed with greater zeal if they are in
tune with the moral values of the people. The state exists to promote social good on the
largest possible scale. However, citizens may withdraw their obedience under certain
circumstances. They are justified to resort to disobedience and revolution when the
government has become corrupt, inefficient and insensitive to the legitimate aspirations of the
people. A state that fails its people is bound to face stiff opposition.

Why Obey the State

According to the Divine Right Theory, the state is instituted by God’s ordinance. It is
generally part of man’s duty to obey the state. Any disobedience to the king is considered as
disobedience to God. Again, fear of sanctions and punishments could make people obey the
state since the state has the apparatuses of coercion and could employ physical force to make
citizens comply with state laws and policies. Furthermore, obedience to the state is a duty
which every citizen must perform largely as a moral consideration. Without obedience
anarchy will reign. In the Social Contract Theory, John Locke and Thomas Hobbes explain
how men invented or instituted government. According to them, prior to the establishment of
government, men lived in a state of nature and life was brutish, nasty and very short.

SOCIETY is the whole complex of relations of man and others which consists of a network
of groups and institutions expressing human association. State is one of the groups in Society.
It is the most important group, but still not identical with Society. There are many groups in
Society like the family, the caste, the church and trade unions, all of which influence social
life, but which owe neither their origin nor inspiration to the state.

The main difference between society and state is that society is a wider term than state.
Society suggests many social relationships which cannot be expressed through the state,
example, education, religion, agriculture and industrialization activities, domestic institutions.
The state is concerned only with those social relationships that express themselves through
government. Furthermore, the term ‘society’ applies to all human communities whether
organized or unorganized. While the state is not identical with society, state provides the
framework for social order. State holds society together and binds individuals to certain
uniform rules of behaviour. However, we must not assume that an individual in society will
obey no rules unless they are backed by the coercive powers of the state. Social tolerance and
intolerance can support some habits and customs which are relevant to the well-being of the
society. Example, there are generally acceptable modes of behaviour in private and public life
which are not suitable subjects for legislation. Indeed, what sustains society is voluntary
cooperation and goodwill but what drives that state is mechanical action which is sustained
through force and rigidity.

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NATION The important ingredient in the concept of nation is the consciousness or sense of
belonging shared among members of a group who feel they are united by common factors
such historical origin, common culture, territorial affinity, language and other bonds that link
them together as one. By extension therefore, people may not necessarily occupy any given
territory or geographical space to be called a nation. A nation can also be described as a
nationality which has organized itself into a political entity either independent or desiring to
become independent.
There is a major difference between state and nation. A state exists where there is a territory, a
people, a government and sovereignty. It may lack the feeling of nationality or oneness and
yet remain a state. The word ‘nation’ emphasizes the consciousness of unity among a people.
A nation need not be a state. Ideally, the evolution of a nation is organic and follows a natural
process. Examples of nations include Yoruba nation, Ibo nation, Hausa nation, Ashanti nation,
Zulu nation, Buganda nation, Bornu nation, Jukun nation, Nupe nation.

CIVIL SOCIETY is regarded as an all-encompassing term often used to refer to social

structures and interests beyond the household and outside state institutions, where people
from both private and public spheres come together to advance their collective interests and
those of other associated groups. Civil society could also refer to an arena of spontaneous
collective action around shared interests, purposes and values. We can also view it as an arena
independent from the state (political influence) and market (economic influence) where
individuals pursue their common interests. The setting up of a civil society organization could
be an individual or group initiative and reflect the universal rights to association. It includes
social movements and community-based-organizations and often populated by groups such as
registered charities, development non-governmental organizations, professional associations,
trade unions, self-help groups, business associations, coalition and advocacy groups.
In terms of its characteristic, a civil society is non-profit-making, operate in the public
interest of members, adhere to democratic values, is voluntary in terms of participation,
operate independent of the state and donors, provide essential services, hold the government
and market accountable through popular mobilization and advocacy for citizens, help to build
the capacity of citizens to participate in governance. Civil Society may be development or
advocacy oriented and thus varies in its activities, nature and focus areas.

DEMOCRATIZATION is the transitioning to a more democratic political regime. It is about

a more substantive political change moving in a democratic direction. It could be a
transitioning from an authoritarian regime to full democracy. Democratization processes may
be influenced and driven by factors such as economic development, history and civil society
actions. To a large extent, the goal would be to ensure higher levels of political participation.
Some of the important factors that impact on democratization processes include increased
wealth via higher GDP. Economic development can increase the chances for a transition to
democratic rule, although the reverse could also be the case as economic development also
depends on political stability. Nevertheless, social equality is an important factor that can
impact of democratization process. People have less incentive to revolt in an egalitarian
society. Culture is another crucial factor. It is said that some cultures, example Western
culture, are more conducive to democratic values than others. Sometimes, undemocratic
regimes justify their failure to adhere to democratic values and reforms on the premise of
culture relativism.

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SEA001 Lecture Note Nsan 2019 20

Governance and Administration of Public sector (Obafemi Awolowo University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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SEA 001 Lecture Note

State, Nations, and society
In this short lesson note, we’ll attempt to distinguish between the above concepts in their basic
forms, in order to illuminate the understanding of the students and readers. We’ll look at the
concept of state, nation, and society by identifying their characteristic features and definitions of
terms.

A state is a political community which has four core elements or characteristic - population,
territory, government and sovereignty; while a nation is a traditionally constituted stable
community of people formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life and
physiological make up manifested in a common culture. A nation is a union of masses of men
bound together especially by language and customs into common civilization which gives them a
sense of belonging and unity; while a society is both an organization as well as a system of social
relationships or relations. It is an organization, a social organization encompassing a web of
social relationships.

In common usage, the terms “State” and “Nation” are often used interchangeably or
synonymously. For example, when we say ‘Western nations’ or ‘Asian nations’ or ‘African
nations’, we do not mean nations but, we mean states. Similarly, the ‘United Nations’ is in reality
an organization of nation-states, not a state or nation. Meanwhile, each modern state is a nation-
state.
Let’s now look further at some important distinctions or points of difference between a state and
a nation.
1. The State has four elements - population, territory, government, and sovereignty:
In the absence of even one of these elements, a state cannot be really a state. A state is always
characterized by all these four elements as these are the basic features of any state. A state must
have a population, this population must not be homogenous or people of the same race but must
either agree to live together or wielded together as a state. A state must also have a defined
territory or boundary. This is where the concept of territorial integrity or inviolability of borders
is derived from, which simply means that state borders are sacrosanct and must not be violated
by another state. A state must also have a functional government that oversees the affairs of the
state and allocates values to her citizens. A state must also be a sovereign entity; this is where the
idea of sovereign equality of states is derived from, which means that all states are equal in
principle.
On the other hand, a nation is a group of people who have a strong sense of unity and common
consciousness; common territory, common race, common religion, common language, common
history, common culture and common political aspirations. These are the elements or common
features of a nation, and are not an absolutely essential element or common features of a state.
2. A state is a political organization while a nation is a social, cultural, psychological, emotional
and political unit: The State is a political organization which fulfills the security and welfare
needs of its people. It is concerned with external human actions. It is a legal entity. On the other

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hand, a nation is a united unit of population which is full of emotional, spiritual and
psychological bonds. A nation has little to do with the physical needs of the people, while states
are traditionally expected to fulfill or provide the needs of the people; where this is not done, the
state will be seen to be failing in its responsibility, hence, the notions of failed states.
3. Possession of a definite and/or defined territory is essential for the state but not for a nation
It is essential for each state to possess a fixed territory. It is the physical element of the state that
makes it a state. States are a territorial entity and possess defined boundaries, but a nation does
not have to possess a territory as an essential requirement for its existence. A nation can survive
even without a fixed territory. The love of a common motherland acts as a source of unity and
solidarity for nations. For example, before 1948 when the state of Israel was created, the Jews
were a nation even though they had no fixed territory of their own. When, in 1948, they secured
a definite and defined territory, they established the State of Israel.
4. Sovereignty is essential for a state but not for a nation
Sovereignty is an essential element of the state. It is the soul of the state. In the absence of
sovereignty, the state loses its existence. It is the element of sovereignty which makes the state
different from all other associations of the people. It is not essential for a nation to possess
sovereignty. The basic requirement of a nation is the strong bonds of emotional unity among its
people which develop due to several common social cultural elements. Before 1947, India was a
nation but not a state because it did not have sovereignty. (a state = nation + sovereignty). After
her independence in 1947, India became a state because after the end of British imperial rule it
became a sovereign entity. However, each nation always aspires to be sovereign and independent
of the control of every other nation.
5. There can be two or more nationalities living in one state
There can be two or more than two nations within a single state; a simple example is Nigeria,
where we have Yoruba nation, Igbo nation, Ijaw nation, etc. Also, before the First World War,
Austria and Hungary were one state called Austria-Hungary, but two different nations. Most of
the modern states are multinational states like former Yugoslavia.
6. Nations are more stable than States
A nation is more stable than the state. When sovereignty ends, the state dies, but not the nation. A
nation can survive even without sovereignty. For example, after their defeat in the World War II,
both Germany and Japan lost their sovereign statuses and outside powers began to control them.
They ceased to exist as states, but continued to live as nations, which after some months regained
their sovereign statuses and became sovereign independent states again.
7. A State can be created while a Nation is always the result of evolution
A State can be created with the conscious endeavours of the people like the state of Israel was
created in 1948. Physical elements play an important role in the birth of a State. For example,
after the Second World War, Germany got divided into two separate states West Germany and
East Germany. But Germans remained emotionally inseparable as one nation. Ultimately in Oct.,
1990 the Germans again got united into a single state. In 1947 Pakistan was created out of India
as a separate State because the state of India had more than one nation within it. A nation is

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symbolized by the unity of the people which emerges slowly and steadily. No special efforts go
into the making of a nation.
Having touched on the state and nation, it is only natural that we look at the last part of this
section which is the distinction between the state and society;
1. The state is a political organization like we’ve established previously; it is society
politically organized. Society, on the other hand, is a social organization and has within it,
all types of associations (social, economic, religious, political, and cultural). Society is
both broader as well as narrower than the state. It is broader when it is used to describe
the whole community of mankind; it is narrower when it is used to describe a small group
of a village.
2. In terms of origin, society is prior to the state. Society may be said to have been born the
day the human life must have begun. But the state did not begin with the society; it
started at a later stage of social development. Human beings are social being first and
then political beings.
3. Being prior to the state, society is clearly a natural and therefore, an instinctive
institution. The state, on the other hand, is artificial, a created institution; its was made
when it was needed. That is one reason that we see the state as a formal and legal
organization with its body, its structure. The society, too, is a body, an organization; it is
not as formal an organization as the state is.
4. While the state is sovereign, meaning no sovereignty no state, the society is not
sovereign, it exists without being sovereign. As sovereign, the state is supreme over all
other organizations, institutions and individuals within its boundaries; as sovereign, the
state is independent of all other organizations within it; sovereignty gives the state a
separate and independent existence.
5. The state has general rules of conduct called laws; the society, too, has general rules of
conduct but they are called rituals, norms, habits and the likes. Laws of the state are
written, definite and clear; those of the society, are unwritten, indefinite and vague.

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Civil Society, Democracy and Democratization

Civil Society (CS) is defined as an intermediate associational realm between the state and
individuals, populated by organizations and groups that are separate from the state, enjoy
autonomy in relation to the state, and are formed voluntarily by members of society to protect or
advance their interests or values (White 1996).

Also, civil society is a sphere of associational life that, intentionally or unintentionally, promotes
democratic values and increases social capital. This argument was strengthened by the fact that
democracy is strengthened, not weakened, when it faces a vigorous civil society. This point
emphasizes the importance of civil society organizations in a democracy.

Let it be said, that successful transitions to democracy are possible only if civil societies either
predates the transition or is established in the course of a transition from authoritarian rule. This
is typical with Nigeria’s democratic transition from military to civil rule. Good as that may
sound, some other scholars argue, however, that civil society not necessarily promotes
democratic values but sometime promote internal conflicts and cleavages. Nevertheless, civil
society organizations’ are a driving force towards liberal democracy and positive elements in the
consolidation of transitional democracies throughout the world.

Of course, democracy is a system of government which includes the people in its governing
mechanism; the people play a vital role in democratic transition and survival through deepening
their participation in civil society engagements. Democracy is opposed to dictatorship where
people’s participation in the political decision making process is heavily restricted or at worst
absent. Therefore, the idea of civil society or civilian participation in decision-making process
has been central to any discussion of democratization. Civil society and democracy are so closely
linked and inseparably intertwined, thus one alone without the other cannot function properly.
Civil society is seen as a sociological counterpart of democracy in political sphere or even a
subset of democracy.

While the role of civil society as a conducive, compensatory and supplementary to democracy is
virtually entirely focused, the dysfunctional roles civil society can play seem less taken into
account. Civil society is either seen as force that could bring about democracy where it is absent
and strengthening it where it is already in place or a negative force that might also dysfunction
democracy. Therefore, it is imperative that one is to give equal consideration to the virtues and
vices of the role of civil society in a democracy.

In engaging in a conversation about democratization, it is important to state that democratization

is an element of good governance for development and economic growth. The concept of
"governance" is not new. It is as old as human civilization. It is being increasingly used in
development and democratization literature. A simple definition of governance is; the process of
decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented).
While good governance is regarded as the main driving force behind healthy development and
prosperity, bad governance in the contrary is seen as the root causes of all evil in a nation-state’s
prosperity.

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As the world has become more complex and connected and thereby interdependent in many
levels as the telecommunication (IT) revolution is an increasingly revolving process, governance
has never been so challenging as today. Good governance is no longer seen as the sole
responsibility of the government but every citizen of the world including civil society
organizations whose role in improvement of democracy and democratization, and by extension
good governance, has proved invaluable.

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Topic 11: Political Ideas and Ideologies

From a social-scientific viewpoint, an ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that
provides a basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or
overthrow the existing system of power relationships. All ideologies therefore (1) offer an
account of the existing order, usually in the form of a ‘worldview’ (2) provide a model of a
desired future, a vision of the ‘good society’, and (3) outline how political change can and should
be brought about. Ideologies are not, however, sealed systems of thought; rather, they are fluid
sets of ideas that overlap with one another at a number of points.
A simple definition would be that ideologies are those political ideas which are used by social or
political groups to define their purposes, set criteria for membership, and to differentiate
themselves from other groups. The “Thoughts” of Chairman Mao Zedong, as printed on the
pages of the famous little red book, are simply political ideas; but when the book is waved in the
hands of millions of demonstrators, its contents become ideological - they become part of a
process of group definition and exclusion. An idea, even if its author wants it to be taken up as a
political cause, does not become an ideology unless or until it is taken up as a political cause, and
functions in a process of political differentiation.

Can politics exist without ideology?

There are arguments in support and against that; arguments against ideology are as follows;
1. Overcoming falsehood and delusion.
Most critiques of ideology associate it with falsehood and manipulation, implying that reason
and critical understanding can, and will, emancipate us from ideological politics. In this view,
ideologies are, in effect, political religions, sets of values, theories and doctrines that demand
faith and commitment from ‘believers’, who are then unable to think outside or beyond their
chosen world-view. If ideologies are intellectual prisons, the solution is to see the world ‘as it is’,
something that can be achieved through the application of value-free scientific method. The
purpose of political science is thus to disengage politics from ideology.

2. Rise of technocratic politics.

Political ideology arose in the form of contrasting attempts to shape emergent industrial society.
The left/right divide and the struggle between socialism and capitalism has always been at the
heart of ideological debate. However, the collapse of communism and the near worldwide
acceptance of market capitalism means that this rivalry has become irrelevant to modern politics.
Politics has therefore come to revolve not around ideological questions to do with ownership and
the distribution of wealth, but around ‘smaller’ questions to do with the effective management of
the capitalist system. Ideological politics has given way to technocratic politics.

3. Rise of consumerist politics.

Ideology has little place in modern democratic systems due to the logic of electoral competition.
Elections force political parties to behave like businesses in the marketplace, formulating
‘products’ (policies) in the hope of attracting the largest number of ‘consumers’ (voters). Parties
thus increasingly respond to consumer/voter demands, rather than trying to reshape these
demands in the light of a pre-existing ideological vision. Whether parties have historically been
left-wing, right-wing or centrist in orientation, they recognize the electoral value of ‘travelling

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light’ in ideological terms. Electoral politics therefore contributes to a process of party de-
ideologization.

Arguments in support of ideology states as follows;

1. Ideology as an intellectual framework.
Political ideology will always survive because it provides politicians, parties and other political
actors with an intellectual framework which helps them to make sense of the world in which they
live. Ideologies are not systematic delusions but, rather, rival visions of the political world, each
illuminating particular aspects of a complex and multifaceted reality. Ideologies are therefore
neither, in a simplistic sense, true nor false. Perhaps the most dangerous delusion is the notion of
a clear distinction between science and ideology. Science itself is constructed on the basis of
paradigms that are destined to be displaced over time

2. Ideological renewal.
The secret of ideology’s survival and continued relevance is its flexibility, the fact that
ideological traditions go through a seemingly endless process of redefinition and renewal. As old
ideologies fade, new ones emerge, helping to preserve the relevance of political ideology. The
world of ideologies does not stand still, but changes in response to changing social and historical
circumstances. The declining relevance of the left/right divide has not led to the ‘end of
ideology’ or the ‘end of history’; it has merely opened up new ideological spaces that have been
filled by the likes of feminism, green politics, multiculturalism and cosmopolitanism, which are
examples of ideology.

3. The ‘vision thing’.

As the principal source of meaning and idealism in politics, ideology touches those aspects of
politics that no other political form can reach. Ideology gives people a reason to believe in
something larger than themselves, because people’s personal narratives only make sense when
they are situated within a broader historical narrative. A post-ideological age would therefore be
an age without hope, without vision. If politicians cannot cloak their pursuit of power in
ideological purpose, they risk being seen simply as power-seeking pragmatists, and their policy
programmes will appear to lack coherence and direction.

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Topic 12: International Institutions/Organizations

International institutions, otherwise known as international organizations (IOs) are created and
expected to provide solutions whenever governments face transnational challenges, such as
international and civil wars, humanitarian emergencies, flows of refugees, outbreaks of infectious
diseases, climate change, financial market instability, sovereign debt crises, trade protectionism, and
the development of poorer countries.

Much as they provide solutions, international institution/organizations play a controversial role in

world politics:
 Some perceive them as effective and legitimate alternatives to unilateral state policies.
 Others regard them as fig leaves for the exercise of power by dominant states.
 Others yet are regularly disappointed by the gap between the lofty aspirations of the IOs and
their actual performance in addressing global problems, and want to know the causes of that
gap.
However, the major aim of the IOs is to tackle transnational problem; challenges that cannot be
solved by a single state, but, requires coming together to fix the solutions. For example, climate
change crisis, migration, transnational crimes and criminal networks, Covid-19, etc.

Categories of International Organizations/Institutions and some examples

 Global/Universal International Organizations like the United Nations, the World Trade
Organization, the World Bank, the World Health Organization, the International Criminal Court,
International Court of Justice (ICJ), Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), etc
 Regional and Sub-Regional International Organizations include the African Union, the European
Union, Association of South East Asian Nations, Organization of American States, Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS), etc.
 Pluralized International Organizations include the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC), Federal of International Football (FIFA), etc. This category can be joined by countries
from different regions. For example, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela; are both in OPEC, same as
FIFA.

There’s a lot that we could have put out in this lesson notes for your reading pleasure, but we’re
limited by space/time and also do not want to encumber you with too much details, but if you’re
interested in broadening your scope in any of the subject area or section, please search for
materials that specifically speak to the subject matter.

Best of luck!

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